SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria (Wi) When the interatomic spacing r becomes equal to 2 Cra) then the band of 4N filled energy Awels is separetedl from the bandl of 4N unfilled energy levels by an e1 ea entrgy band > which as Thenated of by & can The Aower Compl filled bomd is colledt Volonee band omel He upper unfilled barol is Alled ConclucHon bend. Tae mmimum en utred for req shifting electrons from volanc. ecw to ConduecHon band "8 equal to enngy band gap (Eg). Difference between Metals (Conductors), Insulotors amd semiconductors on the baila af Energy Bomds {- Conductors (Metals) — In Conductors the Conduchon amd vatence cand portly Overlap each otwr and there 4B No enngy gab In between - CONDUCTION ‘BAND. EMPTY ————,) _conouction OVERLAPPED y BAND I | 35 cowucron ef 28 3F I Ot a8 aie tes! a ae i FILLED VALENCE VALENCE | ae ‘BAND BAND BAND Conoluctors Insutetors Semiconductors Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Semiconductors — Tn semicenduyuctrs the valence’ band Ad totally Filled omd He Conduchon band is empty but the energy gap betwen CorcucHen band and valance band id quite small. It is Les tan 3 ev. Ey for germomium Js oz ev ond for Silicon it is Itev. Umesh Rajoria At zero kelvin temperature semiconoluctor behoves or ts : Insulotors — Tr inaulotors the energy as quite lange CEg > ev). Dus to Large ce no blechen 44 able to from the valance bon Fo the Conduchon band. Hence electrical cerducton im these materials 45 impossible omd trey behave. ak insulodors. INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS - A Pure Semtonducty which us free of every impurity 14 called intrinsic semiconductor. Examples- Silicon CSi) ancl Germanium Cae) - ceo: vi ; } a ee ENERGY +--4} te GAP . EMPTY CONDUCTION BAND cae Boke \ QV Silicon (tu) 1s? 28% 2 PS ae ap? Germanium (32) 18° 2s*2pS actzptag!yc? up > Both the atoms (Si and Ge) have four valance electrons. ‘Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 ouSCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria TAe four valance electors of A geamanium otom form four Covalent bands by sharimg tre electrons of Neightoouring four geemanium atoms. The minimum required to break a Covalent bomd iA 0-72 ev for Ge omd Lew for sj. At room temperoture when an electro breaks awoy from a Covalent bond , tre empty place or vacancy Aipt in the bore is catleoll a hole. when an extemal electric field is applied, e free electrons omd holes meave in opposite oUrectons and Cmsttute AQ Curent. The number of free electrons ond holes are exactly equal in an “intrinsic Semiconcluctoy. Also the Conductivity of intrinsic semiconcluctor is vers Low. The hole is Consiclurscl at an ache parHele in the votance bemol , having a positive charge equal to thot of an electron. Doping :- ema Dopin Ud a process ef adodlition of @ olesivable Impurity atims 4o a pure semicencluctor +o moolify tts properties in a Controlled mannex. The impurity atoms added are catlol olepants. pa of a SemicorcluctoY Increases Lts electrical comoluctivity a great extent. Methods of oping : - (1) Adol the impurity afoms in the melt of Semiconolucio. Gi) Implant olopant “atoms by bombaning the Semitorduchy with they tons. Gil) Heatythe semicerductyr in atmosphere 6$ clopant atoms. Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 (CSSCIENCE CAREER COACHING EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS ~ Umesh Rajoria F olopec) semiconductor or a semicenductor esi th Suitable impurity atom addecl to it is Called extrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic: SemiCenoluctors one of two types - id n- type Semiconductor Gi) P-type Semiconoluctor (i) N-type Semiconductor — when A pure Semicenoluctor of silicon (si) or Germenium (Ge) 14 cloped with pentavalent atoms which have’ five valance electrons (Phosphorous, Arsenic, antimmy oy Bismuth D ten tt ts coltecd n-type Semiconductor: The four of the five valance electrons of the Impurity atoms wlll form Covalent band with He acljoining four atvms of the silfeon , vohile the Fifth electron id free fo move- Tus each tmpurdty atom added corotes one gree electron to the erystal, hese impurity atoms are Called cloner odoms. Since the Conduction op electricity a4 otis. to the motion of electrons (te negotve charges), so thot the veaulting semiconocluctor® is c n-tye. or olonoy Aype Semiconductor. Tr n-type Semiconductors electrons are majority Canniers and holes ake minority carriers. Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 © [OGSCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria Cit) P- type Semiconductor — When a Pure semitonduchr of silicon Csi) or Germanium (Ge) 13 oped with @ Controlled amount ob trivalent atoms ,which have three valance electrons (Boren, Aluminium, “Gallium, Inclium) then sd is Cabbed P-Aype semiconcluctor- The three valance electons of the impurt otom will form Covalent bonds with the adjoining three atoms of geemanium Cae), while there ull be one incomplete Covalent bond witha nelghbourin, Ge atom, this oleficiency of an electron creates @ ‘hole’. The trivalent atoms are calteol acceptor atoms and He Conduction of electricity occurs clue to motion of holes (be Positive charges) 5so the veaubting Aen} condachr JA Collect p- ae or acceptor Lype sem) conductor. “ACCEPTOR ENERGY STATE E= .01 to .045eV ; In p-type Semitmoluetor elechons One minor ty Corsiers and holes Oke majority Comics. Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Distincton behven Intrinsic and extrensic sem)coiductors- INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR |. It is pure semiconducting material and no impurity atoms are added to it. Examples are crystalline forms of pure silicon and germanium. }. The number of free electrons in conduction band and the number of holes in valence band is exactly equal and very small indeed. Its electrical conductivity is low. . Its electrical conductivity is a function of temperature alone. n-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR |. Itisanextrinsic semiconductor which is obtained by doping the impurity atoms of Vth group of periodic table to the pure germanium or silicon semiconductor. The impurity atoms added, provide extra electrons in the structure, and are called donor atoms, The electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carriers. The electron density (n,) is much greater than the hole density (n,), i.e. n, >> My. }. The donor energy level is close to the conduction band and far away from valence band. Umesh Rajoria eae lee . aera eee ean atoms to the pure semiconducting material. Examples are silicon and germanium crystals with impurity atoms of arsenic, antimony, phos- phorous etc. or indium, boron, aluminium etc, |. The number of free electrons and holes is never equal. There is excess of electrons in n-type semiconductors and excess of holes in p-type semiconductors. Its electrical conductivity is high. . Its electrical conductivity depends upon the temperature as well as on the quantity of impurity atoms doped in the structure. P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR |. Itis an extrinsic semicondugtor which is obtained by doping the impurity atoms of II group of periodic table to the pure germanium or silicon semiconductor. ‘The impurity atoms added, create vacancies of electrons (i.e. holes) in the structure and are called acceptor atoms. ‘The holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers. The hole density (n,) is much greater than the electron density (n,), i¢.,n, >> 2, |. The acceptor energy level is close to valence band and is far away from conduction band. Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 (08 )SCIENCE CAREER COACHING P-N TUNCTION — when a p-type semicencluctor crypt 4s Joines| with an n-type Aemiconcluctor crystal , tren the resulting arxangement 4s Called a p-n junction er junchon clicde. Formation of PN~Tunction — To make a Pen junction , the n type ome P-type silicon crystals are cut Into thin wafers. Tf on @ wafer of n-type Silican ,an aluminium film is placed and heated to Qa hit temperature 580%, aluminium Arffuses indd siliden and a p-type Aemicenductor 4s formed on an n-type Aemitoncuctor. Such a formation of P-tegion on n-region 44 Calledl P-n junction, Umesh Rajoria Diffusion and Drift - When P-n juncHon Ud formed) due to olf ference. in Concentration of Corriens in two regions of Pn Junction, the electrons from n-region oliffuse thro’ the junction into p-region and holes from p- region diffuse Into n-rveglon. The motion of Charge Carievs gives rise to diffusion curment aeross the junction. Electron —— Electron Depletion Layer Hole _ Due to diffusion of electrons and holes a Layer of positively chargeol dlenoy atoms in n-region and a Layer of Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 (09 ]SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria negatively charged acceptor atoms In p-region are created. This positive anol negative space charge regions on both sides of pon junction vill form a region whieh has immobile tons and is caltecl olzpletion yégion. Due te positive anol negative Space ch fon at p-n junction, an electric. fielol is ee a jumetion- Due do this electric field olwvelopedl at the junction ,an electron on p-sicle of the junction moves to n-side and a holes on n-sicle of junction moves to P- Stole of function. The motion of these Charge carriers lure 4p electric field is Called obift. As a result of it,a drift Currerd starts, which is opposite in ctivection to the atiffusion cument - In the begining the diffusion Current is but chift Cument is small. As the oliffusion process Cont- nues the strength of electric field across Hre junction incyeases and tHuruby drift cwount Increases. This Process Continues until the oliffusion cwoent becomes equal to the olrift current. Now the p-n junction is sald to be be in equili- brium Atate ane thre 48 no Current across the pon function. At this stage, the Potential barrier across the juncton has maximum valut Ve. Now the movement of majority charge Carries across the junction stops amd the potential ac as a barrievy hence Known as Potentia) barriev. At room Aumpernctire (300k) Va Js about oaVv for Ge omd OT for Si. The value of Va increases with rise in temperature for Ge ard si. Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 (10 ]SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria BIASING OF THE PN JUNCTION - There at two methods of biasing the p-n junction- G) Forware biasing Gi) Reverse biasing (1) Forward. Biasing I A pon junction is Said 4o be forward biased if the positive terminal of the extemal battery is Connected to p-siole and the negative terminal to the n-side of P-n junction. Depletion Layer In forward biasing the -forwarel Voltage. opposes the potential barrier Ve. As a result of it potential barrier and wiolth of depletion layer clecveases. The effechve value of potentiod barriey in forward biasing Is (Ve-V). (2) Rewerse_Blasing :- A pn junction (s said to be veverse biased if the positive terminal of te external battery is Connected do n-side and the negative terminal do p-sicle of the P-n junction. Tn reverse biasing the reverse bior voltage supports the potentential barwer Va. As a result of it “barrier potenti). amd ovidth of olipletion region increases. Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 (11.SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria The effective value of barriey potenthal under yeyerse biat ib (Va+V). Depletion Layer ahi HH 8 In reveese biasing, there 18 no Conduction across the junction clue to majority carriers + Howey a feo minokity Cowiers of pon junction cliede cyoss the junction after bemg accelerated by high reverse bias voltage. They Consitute “a cunrenf which ts Callecl reverse Cunent or leakage cwdent CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE ~ Ci) Forward Chanactenistcs - On plotting a graph between forward bias voltage and forword Current we get the following graph. Forward Current Voltage Voltage (for silicon diodes vm ~ 0.7V) 8 Tt 4s found that beyond forward voltage V = VK, Called Knee voltage (ov for Ge and o-7v-for Si)the current Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 42SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria throw the junction starts increasin: Yopidly with voltage and Showing the Linear variation. But belaw the Knee voltage the variation m Current is negligible omd the curve da non- Linear. (ii) Reverse Characteristics - On plotting a gmph behoen reverse bias voltage and reverse Curent, we get the sevease characterisHes as Shewn in fig. From the cwwe we note that in verse bioemg of Pon junction, the cuwunt is very small (a HA) and Js indepenolent on voltage upto certain reverse blas Vo ltege. » Known ab breakoloun voltage * REVERSE BIAS (V) 8-6 4 -2 (wel) aNgwuNO 3SUAATY Th the reverse bras Veltoge exceeds the breakaloan voltage the reverse curscant thro the pon junction usil] increase abwiptly. Ih tis cuvunt exceeds the vated value. of p-n junction (specified by manufacturer), the p-n junchion wail get damaged. Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria PN-DIODE AS A RECTIFIER- Rectifier is a dwjce which is used for Conver ting altemating current / Voltage into olivect cwrent|Vorrage, Thre ane two types of rectifier — GD Half wave rechfier Gi) Full Wave Rechifter (1) HALF WAVE RECTIFIER - AC. Voltage +0 be rectified i connected to the pélmary winding P,P. of @ Stepelown transformer: S;S2 42 the seconel Coil of the transformer, S, Js Connected to the Portion P of the p-n junction. Sa is comec-ted to the portion n through Load resistance R. Output is taken across the Lead resistance R, INPUT VOLTAGE —s OUTPUT VOLTAGE => WORKING - Dung, positive. hal eycle ob AC. Suppose Sy becomes positive, Sa becomes neg ive and the pn junction 44 forward biased. The veslstance of pnjuncton becomes Low. The maximum forward current flows in the circuit ond we Gt output across - Load. Duin negative has cycle of Ac: Si becomes negative. and a ds positive » Tha pn Junetion is veverse Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9308068859 (144)SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria biased. Tt offers high vesistance and hence there no flow of current and thus no output across Load, Hence in the output, we have current Correapon— ling 40 one half cycle of the wave and the other half ds missing. That is why the process Jd CaLleol hodf wave rechHcation - (2) FULL WAVE RECTIFIER — Fer full wave rectfication , we have to use two P-n junction odes Dd, and Da-+ The Ciyewit is Shown in the given ig: ORR ING unin the positive half cucle of AC the Moot Dy us forward biased and the olde Da ts reverse biased. The forward current flows through cliode D, in the olirection as Shown in Aig: Bung the negative h cle of AL. the code D; ws ne erg been a is forward biased. The forward Current flows trough ok Da+ We Observe thot curing both the half cycles of A.c., Curent trough R flows in the same direction. Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 45SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria ‘ TIME 1 Due to | Due to + Due to Dz {TIME Hence the output signal Voltage is uniolivectonaf having nprle contents Ci-e. cle. Components and ae. Components of voltage). It can be Converted into alc, voltage by Filtering through a filter circuit - FILTER- A single capacitor of high value of Capacitance Commected across the. output of rectifier Can wark ab the filter. ; The Capacitor offers Low impedance to a.c. Component (Xe = de tuber) ond offers infinite impedance fo abc. Due to ot, the ae. Component is byparsed or filterrel out. Tt produces a voltege clrdp across Lead yerjstonce Re as a filtered ob. output, which i almost Ac. voltage» Such filtey is wlclly used din power supplies, INPUT AC. YSISILOSe Time ‘Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar . Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 (16SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Gi) PHotoprope - Photodiode <8 an optoelectronic cleviee in which Cw unt Cavers (electrons ond holes) ane genrated by photons through photo excitation « In photocliode a transparent window Is made to allow the Light of Auitoble greguency to folh om Jt. Tt Gk operated) under reverse bias. The Conductivity of P-n junction photocliccle neveases usith the increase in intensity of LUght falling on st. UGHT mA REVERSE VOLTAGE | uGHT DARK CURRENT, ie Sele | fin hi hh Hl Working - when a Li ener’ reater than forbidden entngy gap Thy as 17 a itcent on a reverse biased ~p-n junction photodiodes an additional electvon hole pairs are created in the olepletion layer. These charge Carkiers flow across the junction andl generate Q reverse curvert across the junction. Umesh Rajoria LNSexeND asuanay & It us found that the reverse satwrahion current through the. photoeliode varies almost Ainsorly ustth the Aight intensity: When the photodiode is reverse biased , Hun & certain current exists Mn the circult even whin no Light is ineiclent on the p-n junction of photoclioele. This cwvunt ts called dark cwourh Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 (19)SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Uses of Photvolioces ~ Gi) In photoditettion for optical ‘signals. Gi) In clemodulation for optical Signals . Gil) In switching tre Light on amd off- (iv) In reading of Computers, puncheol cards ane} tapes. Umesh Rajoria Ci) LIGHT EMITTING Diope €LED) - LED UA aq Photoeleetronic clewice which Converts decthicol energy into Light enngy. Tt u aheavily clopeel p-n juncHon code which emits spordantous yadiation C4igdt) under foumrd bias. ao pila: “PS: In an LED +e upper Layer of p-type Aemitond— uetor is asitecl by oli ffusim on n- type ev of PS ae metals Contacts are Ali for opphyin the forwarol bias voltoge fo the p-n junction oliodé m battery through a yeristance (R) which Controls tue brightness of Aight emitted. WeRrkINa - . oo When pon junction 44 forwotro! biased, the movement of majority charge Comkiers take place across Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria the jJuncHon. The electrons move from n-siole 40 P-Siole. through the junction and holes move from p- Sicle fo N-side thro the junction. As a resutt of ats the ConcentraHon of mimority carsies Increases vapidly at the junction bounolaruy « These minority Carsers recombine with major Corriexs near the Junction. On vecombmratio of electron and hole the energy Ja given out in the form of heat and ight. In pm Junction Uodis mace of materials Avke gettium arsenic (GaAs), gallium phosphice (aap) and gallium -arseniole - phosphide (GahsP) a greater per centage of energy released during the recombination is in the form of visible Aight « Al vantages of LED over Bulb :- » CL) LED has Lers power and low operational voltage, @) LED has fast action and requires no warm up dime, (s) LED 4a cheab amd easy to hance, (4) LED can be used for veuuteby of use eg, In burglar csi 4yatem, in optical Communication, in oligital wodches etc. ail Explain giving reason, Why the semiconductor Bis used for fabrication of visible Aght Leps must have a band gap of at Least (ready) 1g ev. Sob Semiconductors with bend BPP (Eg) Close to reev One pAsfersed to make Leps because the emilted Light fouls in the visible vegion of Em wave spetdrum. The other veason to select these moateridh ane high optical absorption amd dew cost- Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 (2.1SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria (iv) SOLAR CELL - Pr solax cell Converts solar e: indo electrical enagy, Tt 4s also a pn-junetion olicde, METAL CONTACT A solar cell Consists of @ Silleon or gallium— Arsenio p-n junction cliode packed In a can with AAS winolow on top: The upper layer Ws of p-type Aemi- Conoluctor. It is wery thin 40 that the Mcictent Aight photons may easily reach the p-n junction. On the top face of p-dayer, the metal finger electrooles are prrpartd in order 40 have enough spacing between the fingers for the Lat to reach the p-n JuneHon through P-layer. Working !- when phobns of Light (of enray hy > Eq) fu at the junction , electron-hole pairs ase generetter in the depletion layey. The electrons and holes move in opposite alivection due to junction field. The photo qenuratee! electrons move towards n-side and holes move fowards p-side of P-n junction, They wsill be Callected at the- two sides of the junction, giving vise 40-4 photo voltage befween the top and bettom Near Nawalgath Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 (22)SCIENCE CAREER COACHING eeegere metal electrodes. when a external bead is connected aus meta} electrodes a phots current flows. The V-L chanacteristics f a solar coll Lying in fourth quecwant of the Coordinate axes. FH is so because Solar cell olaes not craw current but supplied to the hood. In graph point A represents open circuit voltage cmd point B vepresents short circuit. Uses !- CL Solan cells ane used for charging storage botferles mM clay dime, which Com supply the power ing right Gi) Solan cells are usecl in saiellites 40 operte the varies electrical Instrument Kapt insicle the 4sadellife . Gil) Solan cetls ake used in colewators, watches etc. GN) Solan cells cre used to Power traffic signals « @D state the reason), why Gafs is most Commonly used BS in making Asclar Cells. eseh The ob the maximum intensity of the Selar yaoliaHion La nearty 1S ev. In ovcler to have Photo excitation the energy of YacliaHion (hy) must be greater then entrgy banal gop (E3)- Therefore the Aemiconductoy with energy band gop about sev or Lower and with higher absorption coefficient ts Likely to give better olan Conversion efficiency. The enngy bancel gap for Si is 1-4 ew and for Gahs Jd is about 1-53 ev Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 (23SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Disoclvantages of Semicerclucty levies — Ci) Semicorcluctor clevices cue more senriHve to changes of Lempercdw wherwar the vaccum tubes are Lun Sensitive. « (2) Tt Ga olifficult Jo produce Aemiconcluctoy clink with exactly jdlenticol chanachrtatics - (2) The noise Level is higher in semiconductor olevices OA Compere 40 the. vaccum tuber - (4) Semiconductor olknces cannot handle as much power. OA’ vaccum tubes. Umesh Rajoria Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Sine Blo. Describe briefly woth the -helb of a circuit Aiagram, how the flo bere Comers in a p-1i-p cel af Ee Dac with emitfer- bose juncton forward mel bose - Collector junction ‘reverse Biased. Cc Bse 2012) Qi. Draw the output caveform at x, _waing the given inputs A ancl B® for the Josie Circuit Shown below. Also ickendify the pe operation perpormect by tris civeuit. (Dethi 20n ) Sty) te ast Ae ts! te! ty Qld. Draw the tronsfer Chonactenistic. curwe of a bate biosec! tamistor in Ce confi ion. cpt, are how the achive region of the’ Vo versus Vi im a trysistoy i - used as an arnplih tA. Cdelhi 20) Qn. Waite the truth cteble for the degie cirewit Shown below and lountify the Logie opercdion pertprmed by tia iret} c Cdelhi 20) a ps {| > {>i Qty. ane ‘the terms & Input resistence Ri) (> nt amplific okt o™m stor B B of a tremsisbr user dts ¢ in E Congiguy Cease 2007, 11) Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.- 8003024131, 9309068859 [OU