Mathematics in the Modern World Learning Objectives
Chapter 4: Problem Solving and Reasoning
Introduction
Most occupations require good problem-
solving skills. For instance, architects and
engineers must solve may complicated problems
as they design and construct modern buildings
that are aesthetically pleasing, functional, and
that meet stringent safety requirements. Two
goals of his chapter are to help you become a
better solver and to demonstrate that problem
solving can be an enjoyable experience. One
example of this is the movie Die Hard: with a
Vengeance (1995) starring Bruce Willis and
Samuel Jackson. In one of the action scenes,
McClane and Carver (portrayed by Willis and
Jackson, respectively) were caught in a
breathtaking scenario where they needed to
keep a bomb from exploding, and the only way
to prevent the explosion is to put exactly four
gallons of water on a scale. How would they do it
if they only have a five-gallon and a three-gallon
jug?
In this movie, the bomb did not explode,
thanks to McClane’s quick reasoning ability and
mathematical strategy.
A good problem solver is the one who can
find a resolution of which the path to the answer
is not immediately known. McClane epitomizes a
good problem solver by using a strategy which
cannot be learned through school drills.
In the real world, decision-making and
problem-solving are two key areas that one
should be good at in order to survive. In this
chapter, you will learn to organize your own
methods and approaches to solve mathematical
problems.
At the end of this chapter, the student is
expected to:
• apply inductive and deductive reasoning to
solve problems;
• solve problems involving patterns and
recreational problems following Polya’s Problem
Solving Strategy; and
• organize one’s methods and approaches for
proving and solving problems
Duration
Topic 1: Inductive and Deductive Reasoning = 2
hours
Topic 2: Problem Solving with Patterns = 1.5 hours
Topic 3: Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy = 2
hours
Lesson Proper
4.1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
The type of reasoning that forms a
conclusion based on the examination of specific
examples to reach a general conclusion of
something is called inductive reasoning. The
conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is
called a conjecture. A conjecture is an idea that
may or may not be correct.
When you examine a list of numbers and
predict the next number in the list according
some pattern you have observed, you are using
inductive reasoning.
Example 1: Use inductive reasoning to predict the
next number in each of the following
lists.
a. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ?
b. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ?
Solution:
a. Each successive number is 5 units larger than
the preceding number. Thus, it
can be predicted that the next number in the list
is 5 units larger than 25, which
is 30.
b. Observe that all numbers are perfect squares.
1 = 12 , 4 = 22 , 9 = 32 , 16 = 42 , 25 = 52 . Thus, it
can be predicted that the next number is 36,
since 36 = 62 .
Inductive reasoning is not just used only to
predict number in a list. In Example 2, we use
inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about
an arithmetic procedure.
We started with 3 and the procedure
produces 15. Starting with 2 as our original
number and the procedure produces 10. Starting
with 5 as our original number and the
procedure produces 25. Starting with 10 as our
original number and the procedure
produces 50. In each of these cases the procedure
produces a number that is five times
larger than the original number. Thus, it is
conjectured that the given procedure
produces a number that is five times larger than
the original number.
Example 3: Use the data in the table and by
inductive reasoning, answer the following
questions below.

Example 2: Use Inductive Reasoning to make a Earthquake Max. Tsunami

conjecture. (in Magnitude) Height (in meters)
Consider the following procedure: 7.5 5
1. Pick a number. 7.6 9
2. Multiply the number by 10. 7.7 13
3. Add 8 to the product. 7.8 17
4. Divide the sum by 2. 7.9 21
5. And subtract 4. 8.0 25
8.1 29
Repeat the procedure for several different 8.2 33
numbers. Make a conjecture between the 8.3 37
relationship of the size of the resulting number
and the size of the original number using
a. If the earthquake magnitude is 8.5, how high (in
inductive reasoning.
meters) can the tsunami be?
b. Can a tsunami occur when the earthquake
Solution:
magnitude is less than 7? Explain
Suppose we pick 3 as our original number. Then your answer.
the procedure would produce
the following results: Solution:
Original number: 3 a. In the table, for every 0.1 increase in
Multiply 3 by 10: 3 x 10 = 30
earthquake magnitude, the maximum
Add 8 to the product: 8 + 30 = 38
tsunami height increases by 4 meters. Thus, it is
Divide the sum by 2: 38 ÷ 2 = 19
conjectured that the maximum
Subtract the quotient by 4: 19 – 4 = 15 tsunami height for the earthquake magnitude of
8.5 is 45 meters.
b. No, because when the earthquake
magnitude is 7.4, the maximum tsunami
height is only 1 meter. Hence, a tsunami does not
occur when the earthquake
magnitude is less than 7.
 Conclusions based on inductive reasoning
may not always be true. In other words, a
conjecture formed by using inductive reasoning
may be incorrect. To illustrate this, consider the
circles on the next page. For each circle, all
possible line segments have been drawn to
connect each dot on the circle with all the other
dots on the circle.
Take Note: To produce the maximum number of
regions, the dots on a circle must be
placed so that no three line segments that
connect the dots intersect at a single point.
For each circle, count the number of
regions formed by the line segments that
connect the dots on the circle. Your results
should agree with the results on the table
below.
Number
1 2 3 4 5 6
of Dots
Maximum
Number
1 2 4 8 19 ? Example 4: Find a Counterexample Verify that
of
Regions
There appears to be a pattern. Each
additional dot seems to double the number of
regions. Guess the maximum number of regions
you expect for a circle with six dots. Check your
guess by counting the maximum number of
regions formed by the line segments that
connect six dots on a large circle.
The line segments connecting six dots on a
circle yield a maximum of 31
regions.
Your drawing will show that for six dots, the
maximum number of regions is 31
(see the figure above), not 32 as you may have
guessed. With seven dots the maximum
number of regions is 57. This is good example to
keep in mind. Just because a pattern
holds true for a few cases, it does not mean the
pattern will continue. When you use
inductive reasoning, you have no guarantee that
your conclusion is correct.
Counterexamples
A statement is a true statement provided that it is
true in all cases. If you can
find one case for which a statement is not true,
called counterexamples, then the
statement is a false statement. In Example 4, we
verify that each statement is a false
statement by finding a counterexample for each.
each of the following statements is a false
statement by finding a counterexample. For all
numbers x:
a. |𝑥| > 0
b. 𝑥 2 > 𝑥
c. √𝑥 2 =𝑥
Solution:
a. Let 𝑥 = 0. Then |0| = 0. Because 0 is not greater
than 0, we have found a
counterexample. Thus, “For all numbers 𝑥, |𝑥| >
0” is a false statement.
b. For 𝑥 = 1, we have 1 2 = 1. Since 1 is not
greater than 1, we have found a
counterexample. Thus, “For all numbers 𝑥, 𝑥 2 >
𝑥” is a false statement.
c. Consider 𝑥 = −3. Then √(−3) 2 = √9 = 3. Since 3
is not equal to −3, we have found a
counterexample. Thus, “For all numbers 𝑥, √𝑥 2 =
𝑥” is a false statement.
Take Note: A statement may have many
counterexamples, but we need only one
counterexample to verify that the statement is
false.
Deductive Reasoning
Another type of reasoning is called inductive
reasoning. Deductive reasoning is
distinguished from the inductive reasoning that
uses general procedures and principles
to reach a conclusion.
Example 6: Solve a Logic Puzzle
Each of the four friends Donna, Sarah, Nikkie,
and Xhanelle, has a different pet
(fish, cat, dog, and snake). From the following
clues, determine the pet of each
individual.
1. Sarah is older than her friend who owns the cat
and younger than her friend who
owns the dog.
2. Nikkie and her friend who owns the snake are
both of the same age and are the
youngest members of their group.
3. Donna is older than her friend who owns the
fish.
Solution:
From Clue 1, Sarah does not own a cat nor a dog.
In the following chart, write
X1 (which stands for “ruled out by clue 1”) in the
cat and dog column for Sarah.

Fish Cat Dog Snake

Donna
Sarah X1 X1
Nikkie
Example 5: Use Deductive Reasoning to Establish Xhanelle
a Conjecture
Consider the following procedure: Pick a From Clue 2, Nikkie does not own a snake
number. Multiply the number by 10, and a dog and being the youngest.
add 8 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and And since Sarah is not the youngest from Clue 1,
subtract 4. then Sarah does not own a snake as
well. Write X2 (ruled out by clue 2) in snake
Solution: column for Nikkie and X1 in snake column
Let n represent the original number. for Sarah. There are now Xs in t he 3 pets in
Multiply n by 10: 10n Sarah’s row, therefore Sarah owns the fish.
Add 8 to the product: 8 + 10n Put a check ( ) which means Sarah’s pet is a fish.
Divide the sum by two: (8 + 10n) ÷ 2 = 4 + So, Donna, Nikkie, and Xhanelle do
5n ot own the fish.
Subtract the quotient by 4: 4 + 5n – 4 = 5n
We started with n and ended with 5n after Fish Cat Dog Snake
the following given procedure. This Donna X2
means that the given procedure produces a Sarah ✓ X1 X1 X1
number that is five times larger than the Nikkie X2 X2 X2
original number. Xhanelle X2
 From the Clue 3, Donna is older than Sarah,
hence, Donna owns the dog. Write
X3 (ruled out by clue 3) in cat and snake column
for Donna. There are now Xs in snake
column for Donna, Sarah, and Nikkie; therefore,
Xhanelle owns the snake. Put a check
in the box. Write X3 in the cat column for
Xhanelle; hence, Nikkie owns the cat. Put a
check in the box.
In the sequence 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, …, 𝑛
2 + 𝑛,…
a1 = 2, a2 = 6, a3 = 12, a4 = 20, a5 = 30, and an =
𝑛2 + n
When we examine a sequence, it is natural to ask:
• What is the next term?
• What formula or rule can be used to generate
the terms?

Fish Cat Dog Snake To answer these questions, we often

Donna X2 X3 ✓ X3 construct a difference table, which shows
Sarah ✓ X1 X1 X1 the differences between successive terms of the
Nikkie X2 ✓ X2 X2 sequence. The following table is a difference table
Xhanelle X2 X3 X3 ✓ for the sequence. The following table is difference
table for the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, …
Thus, Sarah owns the fish, Donna owns the dog,
Xhanelle owns the snake, and Nikkie owns the
cat.

4.2 Problem Solving with Patterns

Terms of a Sequence Each of the numbers in row (1) of the table is

An ordered list of numbers such as 5, 14, 27,
44, 65, … is called a sequence.
The numbers in a sequence that are separated
by commas are the terms of the sequence.
In the above sequence, 5 is the first term, 14 is
the second term, 27 is the third term, 44
is the fourth term, and 65 is the fifth term. The
three dots “…” indicate that the sequence
continues beyond 65, which is the last written
term. It is customary to use the subscript
notation an to designate the nth term of a
sequence. That is,
the difference between the two closest numbers
just above it (upper right number minus upper left
number). The differences in row (1) are called the
first differences of the sequence. In this case, the
first differences are all the same. Thus, if we use
the above difference table to predict the next
number in the sequence, we predict that the next
term is 17 since 14 + 3 = 17. This prediction might
be wrong; however, the pattern shown by the
first differences seems to indicate that each
successive term is 3 larger than the preceding
term.

a1 represents the first term of a sequence.

a2 represents the second term of a sequence.
a3 represents the third term of a sequence.
.
.
.
an represents the nth term of a sequence.
 In this table, the first differences are not all the
same. In such a situation it is often helpful to
compute the successive differences of the first
differences. These are known in row (2). These
differences of the first differences are called the
second differences. The differences of the
second differences are called the third
differences.
To predict the next term of a sequence, we
often look for a pattern in a row of differences.
For instance, in the following table, the second
differences shown below are all the same
constant, namely 4. If the pattern continues,
then a 4 would also be the next second
difference, and we can extend he table to the
right as shown.
Now we work upward. That is, we add 4
to the first difference 21 to produce the next first
difference, 25. We then add this difference to
the fifth term, 65, to predict that 90 is the next
term in the sequence. This process can be
repeated to predict additional terms of the
sequence.
Example 1: Predict the Next Term of a Sequence
Use a difference table to predict the next term in
the sequence. 2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207, …
Solution: Construct a difference table as shown
below.
The third differences, shown in row (3), are
all the same constant, 6. Extending row (3) so that
it is includes an additional 6 enables us to predict
that the next second difference will be 36. Adding
36 to the first difference, 89, gives us the next first
difference, 125. Adding 125 to the sixth term, 207,
yields 332. Using the method of extending the
difference table, we predict that 332 is the next
term in the sequence.
Fibonacci Sequence
Fibonacci’s rabbit problem
in chapter 1 is not a realistic
model of population growth of
rabbits but is a very good
example of a mathematical
problem solved using patterns.
It is interesting to note that this
famous rabbit problem paved
the way to the discovery of a
phenomenal sequence of
numbers known as the
Fibonacci sequence.
A sequence is an ordered list of numbers,
separated by commas, are called the terms of the
sequence. From our discussion in section 1.2, we
knew that the first six terms of the Fibonacci
sequence are 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8. If we use the
mathematician notation Fn to denote the nth
term of the Fibonacci sequence, then,
For the first month, n =1, F1 = 1. For the second
month, n = 2, F2 = 1.
For the third month, n =3, F3 = 2. For the fourth
month, n = 4, F4 = 3.
For the fifth month, n =5, F3 = 2. For the fourth
month, n = 4, F4 = 3.
The Fibonacci sequence then is the ordered
list of numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, …,
Fn, …where the three dots indicate that the
sequence continues beyond 8 and Fn.
How do we determine Fn, the nth term? Observe
that,
 F2 = F1 It is easy to find
F3 = F2 + F1 the nth Fibonacci
F4 = F3 + F2 number Fn if the two
F5 = F4 + F3 previous numbers,
F6 = F5 + F4 Fn-1 and Fn-2 are
known. Suppose we
From these patterns, we conjecture that Fn = Fn want to find F20.
– 1 + Fn – 2, for n ≥ 3. Fibonacci discovered that a Using the definition,
Fibonacci number can be found by adding its it is tedious and time
previous two Fibonacci numbers. consuming to
compute F19 and F18
to determine F20.
Fortunately, Jacques
Binet in 1543 was
Example 2: Finding a Fibonacci Number. able to find a formula
Use the definition of Fibonacci numbers to find for the nth Fibonacci
the eight and tenth Fibonacci number:
numbers.
Solution:
The eight Fibonacci number is the sum of the
two previous Fibonacci numbers. Example 3: Use Binet’s formula and a calculator to
Thus, find the 20th and 50th Fibonacci
F8 = F7 + F6 number.
F8 = (F6 + F5) + F6 Solution:
F8 = (8 + 5) + 8
F8 = 13 + 8
F8 = 21
The tenth Fibonacci number is the sum of the Pascal’s Triangle
two previous Fibonacci numbers in an ordered Another famous mathematician who loves
sequence. Thus, patterns is Blaise Pascal (1623 – 1662). For
hundreds of years, many mathematicians were
F10 = F9 + F8 intrigued with the Pascal’s triangle. The figure
= (F8 + F7) + F8 below illustrates the first seven rows of the
= (21 + 13) + 21 Pascal’s triangle. As you can see, each row starts
= 34 + 21 and ends with the number 1. Any other number x
= 55 is the sum of the two numbers in the previous
row closest to that number x. For instance, the
number 15 in row 6 is the sum of numbers 5 and
10 closest to it in the previous row,
 In algebra, expanding (𝑥 + 𝑦) 3 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2𝑦 Website Application
+ 3𝑥𝑦2 + 𝑦 3 is just a simple special product Another equally famous problem involving
process. But expanding (𝑥 + 𝑦) 6 can be tedious. patterns is the Tower of Hanoi, invented by
Amazingly, note that the numerical coefficients Edouard Lucas in 1883. The Tower of Hanoi is a
of the expansion of (𝑥 + 𝑦) 3 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦2 puzzle consisting of three pegs and a number of
+ 𝑦 3 are the entries of row 3 of the Pascal’s disks of distinct diameters piled as shown in the
triangle, i.e., 1, 3, 3, 1. Moreover, take note that figure below.
the exponents of x in the expansion starts with 3
and decreasing in the succeeding terms while the
exponents of y starts with 0 and increasing in the
remaining terms. Now, we expand (𝑥 + 𝑦) 6 using
the entries in row 6 (1, 6, 15, 20, 15, 6, 1) of the
Pascal’s triangle. The result is given below.

(𝑥 + 𝑦) 6 = 𝑥 6 + 6𝑥 5𝑦 + 15𝑥 4𝑦 2 + 20𝑥 3𝑦 3 +
15𝑥 2𝑦 4 + 6𝑥𝑦5 + 𝑦 6
Can you try expanding (𝑥 − 𝑦) 7 ?
Suppose you add the horizontal entries in
the rows of the Pascal’s triangle except row 0.
What pattern do you observe in these sums? Can
you predict the sum of the sum of the entries in
row 10?
The puzzle requires that all the disks be moved
from the first peg to the third peg such that the
largest disk is on the bottom, the next largest disk
is placed on top of the largest disk and so on and
that only one disk be moved at a time. All pegs
may be used.

Row Sum
1 2
2 4
3 8
4 16 4.3 Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
5 32
6 64
10 ?
Another amazing discovery in Pascal’s
triangle is that when you get the sum of the
numbers using lines as shown in the next figure,
the Fibonacci sequence appears. The first seven
Fibonacci numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13 show up.

One of the recent mathematician who

outlined a strategy for solving problems form
virtually any discipline is George Polya (1887-
1985). In his book, How to Solve It, he writes, “A
great discovery solves a great problem but there
is a grain of discovery in the solution of any
problem. Your problem may be modest;
but if it challenges your curiosity and brings into
play your incentive faculties, and if you solve it
by your own means, you may experience the
tension and enjoy the triumph of discovery.”
Because of his ideas, he is considered the father
of problem-solving among mathematicians. The
following four-step strategy is named after him:
Understand the Problem
This part of problem-solving is sometimes,
if not always, neglected. In order to solve a
problem, one must first know what is being
asked, and what information or data can be
extracted from what is given. Furthermore, one
must see to it that he or she can state the
problem in his or her own words.
Devise a Plan
For this step, one must think of strategies
to solve the problem. Some of these strategies
include organizing the given information using a
list, table or chart; drawing a diagram; working
out the problem backwards; looking for a
pattern; trying to solve a similar but simpler
problem; writing an equation; or simply guessing
at a possible solution and then later checking if
the result is valid.
Carry Out the Plan
Carrying out a plan to solve the problem is
basically implementing the strategy chosen in
the second step until the problem is solved or
until a new course of action is suggested. One
may get ideas from others in deciding the best
strategy to make sure that the best solution is
employed.
Review the Solution
Questions like “Is your answer reasonable?”
is important in checking the veracity of the
answer to the problem.
For example, if one is looking for the dimensions
of a rectangular box of least cost and his or her
answer yields a negative length, he or she can
automatically say that there must be something
wrong with the solution because there is no such
box with negative dimensions.
Example 1: Apply Polya’s strategy in solving the
following problem.
The GSW basketball team won three out of
their last six games. In how many different orders
could they have attained three wins and three
losses in six games?
Solution:
Understand the Problem. There are many
different ways. GSW may have won three straight
wins and three losses (WWWLLL), or maybe they
lost in the first three games and won in the last
three games (LLLWWW). Likewise, there are other
several orders.
Devise a Plan. One can organize a list of all
possibilities making sure that no entry will be
duplicated.
Carry Out the Plan. Three Ws must be presented
in every entry without duplication The strategy is
to start the list with three consecutive wins. Next
in the list are all the entries starting with two
consecutive wins, then next in the list are all the
entries starting with a single win. Following this
pattern, consider starting with three consecutive
losses and so on. Here are the different orders:
Review the Solution. The list is organized and has
no duplicates, so there are sixteen (16) different
orders in which a basketball team can win exactly
three out of six games.
Example 2: Solving a tour problem.
 An agency charged Php 15,000.00 for a 3-
day and 2-night tour in Macau and Php
20,000.00 for the same tour with a side trip in
Hong Kong. Ten persons joined the trip, which
enable them to collect Php 170,000.00. How
many tourists made a side trip to Hong Kong?
Solution:
Understand the Problem. There are two types of
tourists in the situation given. Some purely
stayed in Macau while others made a side trip to
Hong Kong. From the total collection, how much
was the amount collected from those who made
side trips to Hing Kong. It is needed to know how
many were bound in Macau and who made a
side trip to Hong Kong.
Devise a Plan. Use x and y to represent the two
types of tourists. Define these variables.
Let x = number of tourists bound in Macau alone
y = number of tourists bound in Macau but
who made a side trip to Hong Kong.
Hence, we have the following algebraic
equations:
15,000x = amount collected from the tourists
bound in Macau alone
20,000y = amount collected from the tourists
bound in Macau but who made a side
trip to Hong Kong.
Carry Our the Plan. Write the equations and
solve using the elimination method to the
system of equations.
Equations:
x + y = 10 (1)
15,000x + 20,000y = 170,000 (2)
To find the number of tourists bound in
Macau but who made a side trip in Hong Kong,
we solve for y.
To do this, we use elimination by
substitution.
Review the Solution. Since there are a total of 10
tourists, six of them only stayed in Macau while
four made a side trip to Hong Kong. Now,
15,000(6,000) + 20,000(4) = 170,000. This satisfies
the condition that the total amount collected for
the whole trip is Php 170,000.00.
Example 3
In consecutive turns of a Monopoly game,
Stacy first paid £800 for a hotel. She then lost half
her money when she landed on Boardwalk. Next,
she collected £200 for passing GO. She then lost
half for remaining money when she landed on
Illinois Avenue. Stacy now has £2,500. How much
did she have just before she purchased the hotel?
Solution:
Understand the Problem. We need to determine
the number of euro that Stacy had just prior to
her £800 hotel purchase.
Devise a Plan. We could guess and check, but we
might need to make several guesses before we
found the correct solution. An algebraic method
might work, but setting up the necessary equation
could be a challenge. Since we know the result,
let’s try the method of working backwards.
Carry Out the Plan. Stacy must have had £5,000
just before she landed on Illinois Avenue; £4,800
just before she passed GO; and £9,600 prior to
landing on Boardwalk. This means she had
£10,400 just before she purchased the hotel.
Review the Solution. To check our solution, we
start with £10,400 and proceed through each of
the transactions. £10,400 less £800 is £9,600.
Half of £9,600 is £4,800. £4,800 increased by
£200 is £5,000. Half of £5,000 is £2,500.