Thermal Energy

T. Hanan A.Majeed Mousa Physics Kinetic theory & Thermal Energy 0560822192 Page 7
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It is the large expansion of liquid for the small rise in temperature .

Design features for thermometers to be more sensitive :

-Larger bulb - thinner capillary tube - liquid with a greater expansion

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 Range is the difference between the highest and the lowest
temperature

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Advantages and disadvantages of mercury and alcohol:
Mercury
- It doesn’t cling to sides of the
tube. (adv.) (The tube doesn’t get
wet)
- It couldn’t heat well so, it responds
quickly to temp. changes (adv.)
- Mercury thread is easily seen
(adv.)
- Mercury is poisonous so, it is
dangerous if thermometer is
broken (dis.)
- Mercury is expensive (dis.)
- It freezes at (-39), so it can’t be
used to measure arctic temp. (dis.)
- It has high boiling point (365◦C)
[Range (-39 to + 365◦C)]
Wider range
Alcohol
- It cling to sides of tube so, thread has
tendency to break (dis.) (tube gets
wet) break (dis.)
- It expands more than mercury so, it
has greater expansion and sensitivity
even with wide capillaries (adv.)
- Alcohol is colorless so it should be
colored to be seen easily (dis.)
- Alcohol is cheap
- It freezes at -115◦C, so it can be used
for measuring temperature of arctic
places (adv)
- It can’t measure high temperatures
since it boils at 70◦C
Range (-115 to +70◦C)

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 The clinical thermometer: (liquid-in-glass)

Constriction

- It is a special type of mercury thermometer used to measure body’s temp.

- It’s scale range between 35◦C to 42◦C.
- It has a narrow constriction above the bulb, to prevent mercury thread from
falling back into the bulb when the thermometer cools down.
- It is more sensitive than the alcohol thermometer as it measure (decimals)

Thermocouple:

1) It consists of two junction with different metals (copper, iron) –

(constantan, copper)
- Place 1 junction in cold medium (0◦C)
- Place the other junction in the medium whose temp. to be measured →
This produces voltage (current).

2) The more diff. in temp. → more diff in voltage. (The v. produced is

proportional to the diff in temp.)
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The Galvanometer.
Is used to measure the voltage and is calibrated to read the temp directly.

Adv. of thermocouple:
1) It has wider range of temp (-200 to +1500).
2) It can measure very high and very low temp.
3) Short (fast) response time to rapid temp change.
4) It measure temp of very small objects.
Precaution when reading the thermometers:
1) Mercury thread should be kept as close as possible to the scale.
2) The eye should be perpendicular to the scale point where thread ends.
3) Reading should be taken at the top of the meniscus.

Thermal expansion:
1) Expansion in solids (explain in terms of K. Theory)
If temp of solid material increased, the speed, k.E. of its molecules
increased, molecules will be further apart and the spacing between
them increased, material expands slightly in all direction. (By cooling →
opposite takes place).

Solid→ smallest expansivity (molecules have strong bonds)

Liquid → slightly more expansivity (molecules have weaker bonds)

Gas → much more expansivity (molecules have no bonds)

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The expansion in length of a rod is increased by:

1) Increasing the original length L.

2) Increasing the amount of tap rise ∆T
3) The type of the material.
 Gaps should be left between
sections of the railway lines to
avoid damage of the rails, as
they expand in hot weather.

 Telephone wires are hung loose between poles, to allow contraction in

cold water.
 Roads which are made of slabs of concrete must have gaps between
them to allow for expansion.

 One end of a bridge is fixed while the other end rests on roller which
permit movement.

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2-Expansion in liquids
- When liquids is heated its levels initially drops, due to the expansion of the flask.
- When heat reaches the liquid, it compensate for the expansion of the flask and rise
much more than the original level.
-

- The expansivity of liquid is much greater than the expansivity of solids.

- Different liquids expand by different amounts although the volumes are
equal and they are heated at the same bath so that they have same rise in
temperature.

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Expansion of gases:

The volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly

prop. to its absolute temp provided that the

pressure is constant .

Cooling objects :
The hot object loses its heat energy gradually to the
surroundings.

The temp. decreases gradually until the body

reaches the room temp.

The rate of cooling depends on:

1. The difference in temp. between the body and surroundings, hotter object cools
down faster than cold one

2. The exposed surface area, → the greater surface area ,the greater the chance of
the body to lose heat.

3. The best radiator is black (emitter)

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 5
Heating curve : 4

Stages 1 , 3 , 5
3
Relate to S.H.C (specific heat capacity)
2
Q = m. C. Δ T. 1

Stages 2 , 4

relate to L.H. (latent heat)

Q=m.L

Cooling curve:
By cooling of octa-decanoic acid at B → is the melting
point

Between B → C mix of liquid + solid

At C → the acid is completely solid and the temp. Starts to fall

Energy calculations

Thermal capacity:
It is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temp of a whole body by
1◦C . Thermal capacity unit:
High Thermal capacity :
If it heats up slowly, cools down slowly (water, glass, wood, brick)
OR it has the least rise in temp.
Low thermal capacity: If it heats up fast, cools down fast (Iron, copper,
aluminium, ……)
OR It has the greatest rise in temp.

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Same substance : all blocks are made of iron with different masses.

Less mass More mass

Less Thermal capacity More thermal capacity
Different substance : they have same masses.

∆T=3◦C ∆T=8◦C ∆T=10◦C

the least rise in temp the most rise in temp
High Thermal capacity Low Thermal capacity

Specific heat capacity

The amount of heat energy needed to raise the temp of 1kg/ 1g of a
substance by 1◦C its unit = J/ kg◦C
Energy = mass X specific heat Capacity X Change in temp ∆T

Energy = Power X time

Voltage X Current X time

Q = VxIxt
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 Factors affect s.h.c
1) power 2) time 3) mass

4) initial temp 5) final temp

Experiment to determine SHC:

1. Determine the mass (m) of Al. block

2. Insert the heater inside the block

3. Determine the initial temp (θ)

4. Switch on the heater start stop watch

5. After a certain time , stop the heater stop the
stopwatch → find time (t)

6. Measure the final temp. (θ2)

find Δ θ = (θ2 – θ1)

7. Find the power of electric heater (P = V . I)

Pt
8. Find the S.h.c = m  

Notes :

1. Heat is lost to the surroundings, so the rise in temp. Δθ is smaller than it

should be. So, the value of C is greater than the actual value

2. The block should be covered with insulator or lagging or covering with

lid. To reduce the lass of heat to the surroundings, reduce errors in
measurements .

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 Define specific latent (hidden) heat

It is the amount of heat needed to change the state of 1 kg / g of a

substance at constant temp.

= latent heat of fusion → from solid to liquid

Lat heat = vaporization → from liquid to gas

Q P.t
L 
m m Q=m× Q

Q = mass . Latent heat m=Q/ m

Exp calculation of K. theory

Of latent heat of fusion (vaporization)

-As the molecules gain thermal energy, molecules move farther apart,
and their potential energy increased

-There is no change in the average kinetic energy so the temperature

stays the same, as the energy is consumed to break down the bonds
between molecules to change the state of fusion or vaporization

-This absorbed heat energy during freezing point is called latent heat of
fusion

Latent = hidden (no change in temperature)

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 Exp. To determine S.L.H. of fusion

1. Immerse the electric heater inside the ice

2. Switch on the heater until the ice start to melt with regular
dripping (at constant rate) , record the mass (m1)

3. Then start stop watch stop then record time.

4. Record mass of melted ice (m2)

Q Pt

5. Find S.L.H = m2  m1 m2  m1

Notes

* Lf is smaller than the actual value → why?

As heat is absorbed by the ice from the surroundings therefore mass

(m2) becomes greater than it should be.

* Cover the funnel with insulator as cotton or wool (lagging) to reduce

heat gained from the surroundings and thus reduce errors during
measurements

* Measuring Time must start when the ice reaches is dripping at

constant rate (regular dripping) to ensure that ice is at its melting point

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 Exp. To determine the S.L.H of vaporization

1. Insert the electric heater into the water

2. Record the mass of water beaker (m1)

3. Switch on the cheater timer of the temp. reaches

boiling balance point

4. After certain timw, record time mass (m2)

5. Find the mass of the vapourized liquid m = m1 – m2

P.t
Lv 
Q Lv 
m m1  m2
6. Find

Notes

Lv is greater than the actual value ,as some heat is transferred from
liquid to the surroundings therefore m becomes less than it should be
so, the beaker must be wrapped (Add insulator) or cover with lid. To
reduce heat loss to the surroundings

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 Principle of conservation of heat energy Ice 0◦C

(Lf) heat gained by ice = heat lost by cooling water

↓ ↓

(Lf) (S.h.C)

mLf = m.c.Δθ - Ice gains heat

- Water loses heat
mLf = m . C (θwater – 0)

Heat gained by cold water = heat lost by hot water

↓ ↓

(S.H.C) (S.H.C)

m1 Cw (θf – θ1) = m2 Cw (θ2 – θf) Water m1 , θ1

by adding some water

hotter m2 , θ2

θ1 < θ2

w1 gains heat , w2 loses

heat

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