Chapter Two

2. QUANTITY OF SANITARY SEWAGE

(DESIGN FLOW RATES)

1
 2.1. Estimating Dry-weather flow

The sewage discharge which has to pass through a

sewer must be estimated as correctly as possible;
otherwise the sewers may either prove to be
inadequate, resulting in their overflow, or
may prove to be of too much of size, resulting in
unnecessary wasteful investments.

2
QUANTITY OF SANITARY SEWAGE CONTD…
 The quantity of sewage affected by the following
factors:
1. Rate of water supply
2. Population growth
3. Types of area to be served (industrial, commercial,
residential,…)
4. Infiltration/exfiltration of ground water to sewers

3
QUANTITY OF SANITARY SEWAGE CONTD…
 Generally,
𝑸𝑫𝑾𝑭 = 𝟕𝟓% - 𝟖𝟎% 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚
The remaining 20%-25% is quantity of water which do
not join the sewer system. They includes:
o The water used for drinking
o Water used for clothe washing-evaporated during drying
o Water used for sprinkling and gardening of roads, parks
gardens and others.

4
QUANTITY OF SANITARY SEWAGE CONTD…
the theoretical quantity of sewage (i.e., domestic sewage
+ industrial sewage) that is likely to enter the municipal
sewers under design should be equal to the quantity of
water supplied to the contributing area, from the water-
works.
But in actual practice, this is not the precise
quantity which appears as sewage, but certain additions
and subtractions do take place from it.

5
(I) Additions due to unaccounted private water
Supplies
 water supplied to the public through the public distribution
system is not necessarily the only water consumed by the
public
 Some private wells and tube wells may sometimes be used
by the public for their domestic needs; and similarly, certain
industries may utilize their own sources of water.
 This quantity can, however, be estimated by actual field
observations.
(II) Additions due to infiltration.
 the sewer pipes are laid below the ground water-table,
certain amount of ground water generally seeps into
them, through their faulty leaky joints or cracks formed in
the pipes due to bad materials or poor construction
6
the quantity of the ground water entering these sewer pipes
Depends mainly upon the height of the water-table above the
sewer invert level and the nature and extent of faults and
fissures present in the sewer pipes
if the ground water table is well below the sewer, the infiltration
can occur only after rain, when water is moving down through
the soil
 Sometimes, the storm water drainage may also infiltrate into the
sewers.
 This inflow cannot be computed easily and generally left
unaccounted without making any extra provision for it
This additional water, if happens to enter the sewers, can
be accommodated in the extra empty space left at the top in the
7
sewers, which are generally designed as running 3/4th full at
maximum designed discharge.
(iii) Subtractions due to water losses
 The water lost, due to leakage in the distribution system and
house connections of the water supply scheme, does not reach
the consumers, and hence, never appears as sewage.
(iv) Subtraction due to water not entering the
sewerage 'system.
 Certain amount of water may be used by the public and
industries for such uses which may not produce any sewage at
all
 For example, the water used in boilers for steam generation;
the del' sprinkled over the roads, streets, lawns and gardens; the
water used for automobile washings; the water consumed in
industrial products, such as beverages,
8
 The net quantity of sewage produced will be
= the accounted quantity of water supplied + the
additions due to factors (i) and (ii) - the subtractions
due to factors (iii) and (iv),
2.2. Design Periods for Different Components of
Sewerage Scheme
 design period: it is necessary time to design the various
components of the scheme larger than their present day
requirements and of such sizes, as to serve the community,
satisfactorily, for a reasonable number of years to come.
This future period for which the provision is made in designing the
capacities of the various components of the sewerage scheme is
known as the design period.
9
 The design period is generally guided by:
(i) Useful life of component structures, and the chances of their
becoming old and obsolete, Design period should not exceed those
values.
(ii) Ease and difficulty, that is likely to be faced in expansion, if
undertaken at future dates, . For example, more difficult
expansions mean choosing a higher value of the design period.
(iii) Amount and availability of additional investment, likely to be
incurred for additional provisions. For example if funds are not easily
available, then one has to keep a smaller design period.
(iv) The rate of interest on the borrowings and the additional money
invested.
(v) Anticipated rate of population growth including possible shifts in
communities, industries and commercial investments
10
S.No Type and Special characteristic and Design
name of the reasons for the selected period in
component design period years
structure
1 Lateral Sewers Requirements may change Full development
less than 15cm in faster in limited area
diameter
2 Branches, mains, Difficult and costly to enlarge 40 - 50
and trunk sewers
3 Treatment Units Growth and interest rates being 15 - 20
high to moderate
4 Pumping plant The additional pumps can be 5-10
installed in future, very easy an
11
also within short notice
 2.3. Future Forecasts and Estimating Design Sewage
Discharge
 The quantity of sewage that is likely to pass through a sewer (Q') at the end of
the design period, , can be easily computed by multiplying the per capita
production of sewage (q') by the expected population at the end of the design
period.
 These methods for forecasting future populations are: (water supply)
a) Arithmetical increase method;
b) Geometrical increase method;
c) Incremental increase method;
d) Decreasing rate method;
e) Simple graphical method;
f) Comparative graphical method;
g) Master plan method;
h) The apportionment method;
12 i) The logistic curve method.
2.4. Variations in Sewage Flow and their Effects on
the Components of a Sewerage Scheme
 The per capita demand of water supply production (q') and the
corresponding per capita sewage production so far discussed, are
based upon annual flow and are, therefore defined as annual
average value is not sufficient,
 The flows in these sanitary sewers though fluctuate seasonally,
monthly, daily, as well as hourly, with the water consumption, yet
they are sometimes delayed and less pronounced,
 if the sewage is gauged near its origin, the peak flow will be
quite pronounced; whereas, if the sewage must travel a long
distance before being gauged, the peak will be deferred.
 the peak flows (expressed as number of times of their average
values) will be much greater for smaller lateral sewers, as
13 compared to these for larger trunk sewers.
 Hourly variation of sewage flow compared to that of water supply
14
 the maximum daily or hourly sewage flows, can be expressed as:
Maximum daily flow = 2 times the average daily flow
Maximum hourly flow = 1.5 times the maximum daily
= 3 times the average daily
 the peak hourly flows will decrease, as the tributary area
increases
 the sewers can then be easily designed for carrying the
computed maximum hourly flows, with sewers running 3/4th
full.

Where:
P = Population in thousands.
15
the following minimum flows may be assumed:
Minimum daily flow = 2/3 * Average daily flow…………2.2
Minimum hourly flow = 1/2 * minimum daily flow
=1/3 * Average daily flow……….…2.3
2.5. Estimating the Peak Drainage Discharge
 The sewers and the drains of a separate sewerage system
should be designed to carry the maximum sewage discharge
and the maximum rain runoff,
 the sewers of a combined sewerage system should be
designed to carry the sewage discharge plus the rain
runoff.
 The partially separate sewers may be designed for carrying
the sewage discharge plus part of the storm drainage, particularly
that coming from the roofs and courtyards or paved yards.
16
 methods of estimating the maximum rate of storm run-off
2.6. The Run-off Process and Peak Run-off Rate
 The frequency of rainfall to be adopted in design should neither be so
large, as to cause too heavy investments, nor should it be so small, as
to cause very frequent overflowing of the drains.
2.7. Estimating Peak Run-off
 The peak rate of run-off that is produced from a particular catchment
depends upon numerous factors
 This method can be applied most precisely to smaller areas
(preferably less than 50 hectares or so).
 the type of precipitation, the intensity and duration of rainfall, the
rainfall distribution, the soil moisture deficiency, the direction of the
prevailing storm, the climatic conditions, the shape, size and type of
catchment basin.
 The rational formula and other empirical formulas for determining
17
peak drainage discharge
2.7.1. Computing the Peak Drainage Discharge by
the Use of Rational Formula.
 If a rainfall is applied to an impervious surface at a constant rate,
the resultant runoff from the surface would finally reach a rate
equal to the rainfall. In the beginning, only a certain amount of
water will reach the outlet, but after some time, the water will
start reaching the outlet from the, entire area; and in this case,
the run-off rate would become equal to the rate of rain.
The period after which the entire area will start contributing to
runoff is called the time of concentration.
 Based upon these basic principles, the rational formula evolved,
due to the efforts of Fruhling of Germany, Kuichling
America, and later Lloyd Davis of England.
18 This formula states that:

Where:
QP = Peak rate of runoff in m3/sec
K = Coefficient of runoff
A = the catchment area contributing to run off at the considered point
in hectares
Pc = Critical Rainfall intensity of the design frequency i.e. the rainfall
intensity during the critical rainfall duration equal to time of
concentration in cm/hr.
 Coefficient of Runoff (K)
 The coefficient of runoff (K) is in fact, the impervious factor of
runoff, representing, and the ratio of precipitation to runoff.
 The value of K increases as the imperviousness of the
area increases, thus tending to make K = 1 for perfectly
impervious areas. It is generally taken as equal to 0.9 for paved areas
19
and 0.15 for lawns and gardens.
 Table 2.3 Values of Run-off coefficient (K) for various Surfaces
S.No Average approximate population Value of K
density in persons/hectare
1 Water tight roof surface 0.7 - 0.95
2 Asphalt pavement in good order 0.85- 0.90
3 Stone, brick, wood-block pavement with 0.75 -0.85
cemented joints
4 same as above with un cemented joints 0.5 -0.7
5 Water bond macadam roads 0.25 -0.6
6 Gravel roads and walks 0.15 - 0.3
7 unpaved streets and vacant lands 0.1 - 0.3
8 Parks, Lawns, gardens, meadows, 0.05 - 0.25
920 Wooden lands 0.01 - 0.20
 Intensity of Rainfall
 A rainfall at a place can be completely described if its intensity,
duration and frequency are known. The intensity of a rain is the
rate at which it is falling, the duration is the time for which it
falls with that given intensity, and frequency is the number-of
times it falls.
 The intensity of rain is expressed in cm/hr but this rate at which the
rain falls, changes continuously throughout the storm period.
 The time of concentration
 (i). The inlet time or overland flow time or time of equilibrium,
(Ti)
 The time taken by the water to flow overland from the critical point
up to the point where it enters the drain mouth
21
Where;
Ti= inlet time in hours
L = Length of overland flow in kilometers from the critical point to the
mouse of the drain.
H = total fall of level from the critical point to the mouse of the drain in
meters
L and H can be found from the survey plan of the area, and Ti can be
easily calculated.
(ii). The channel flow time or gutter flow time (Tr),
 Is the time taken by the water to flow in the drain channel from the
mouth to the considered point this may be obtained by dividing the
length of the drain by the flow velocity in the drain.

22
Where:
L=length of the drain
V= flow of velocity in the drain
From the above two parts the total time of concentration
at a given point in the drain, for working out the
discharge at that point, can be easily obtained as:

 The value of intensity so obtained is still the rainfall

intensity at the rain gauge station, and is called the
point rainfall intensity.
 the areal distribution factor, also called, the dispersion factor, is
always applied to the point rainfall for working out the design
rainfall intensity.
23
 a given frequency at a given place can be found from the charts,
this value of “one hour rainfall" is multiplied by the areal
distribution factor, so as to obtain Po.
 The value of Po is further multiplied by factor so as to obtain Pc,

Where:
Tc = Time of concentration in hours.
(ii) Since the intensity of a rain is inversely proportional to the duration
of the rain, an intensity duration curve can be represented a
generalized equation of the form

Where: P is Rain intensity in cm/hr.

 T: Time in minutes a and b constants
24
 The values of a and b have been found out by the Health Ministry of
Britain as 75 and 10 respectively for T varying between 5 to 20
minutes; and as 100 and 20 respectively for T varying between 20
to 100 minutes respectively. For T varying between 5 to 20 minutes:

 For T varying between 20 to 100 minutes:

 certain other empirical equations have been suggested for

determining rainfall intensity,
(a) For localities where rainfall is frequent.

 This formula is applicable for places where heavy and

frequent rains occur, and gives an intensity for 5 years frequency.
25
(b) For rains having frequency of 10 years, the equation
suggested is

c) For rains having frequency of 1 year, the equation

suggested is

(d) Kuichling's formula

26
 The equations from (2.7) to (2.14) can, though be used for
finding the value of Pc, yet they are very empirical equations,
and are not very reliable. They are, therefore, generally
avoided in designing storm water drains in modern
days.
2.7.2. Computing the Peak Drainage Discharge by the Use
of Empirical Formulas
 thismethod gives reliable results only for smaller areas,
and hence used only for the design of drains having
catchments less than 400 hectares
 Various empirical formulas for calculating storm
water run-off have been suggested by various
investigators
27
i) Burkli-Ziegler formula
 This formula is the oldest empirical formula used for
determining the peak run off rate.

Where:
Qp = the peak runoff in m3 /sec
K’ = the runoff coefficient depending up on the permeability of
the surface and having an average value of 0.7 in m3 /sec.
P = the maximum rain fall intensity over the entire area and is usually
taken as 2.5 to 7.5cm/hr
A = the drainage area in hectares
So = the slope of the ground surface in meters per thousand meters
28
ii. Dickens’s formula.
 This formula is generally useful for Indian catchments and
particularly for northern India and states that,

Where:
Qp = Peak discharge in cumecs
M = Catchment area in sq. Km
C = a constant depending upon all those fifteen to twenty factors
which affect the runoff.
 The value of C must be ascertained for each catchment, and
depends upon the nature of the catchment and the intensity
of rain fall.
iii. Ryve’s formula.
 This formula is almost similar to that of Dicken’s; the only difference
is in the value of the constants. It is generally applicable to south
29 Indian catchments and states that
Where:
QP, M and C1 have the same meaning as in Dicken’s formula. The
average value of C1 to be used is 6.8, with less value for flat
catchments and more value for hilly catchments.
Table 2.6 value of C1 in Ryve’s formula
Location of the catchment Values of C1 in Ryve’s
formula
Areas with 24 km from the cost 6.8
Areas within 24-16 km from the 8.8
coast
Limited areas near hills 10.1

30
Iv. Inglis Formula
 This formula is applicable to the fan shaped catchments in old
Bombay state of India. It states that

 Where QP, and M have the same meaning as in Dicken’s formula

v) Nawab Jung Bahadur formula.
 This formula has been derived from Hyderabad Deccan
catchments. It states

 The value of the constant varies C2 varies between 48 to 60 M’ is

the catchment area in acres.
Vi. Dredge or Burge’s formula.
 This formula is based upon Indian records
31
 Where QP and M have the same meaning as earlier, L
is the length of the drainage basin in kilometers.

32
Example 2.1
Assuming that the surface on which the rainfalls in a district is classified as
follows 20% of the area consists of roof for which the run-off ratio is 0.9,
20% of the area consists of pavements for which the run-off ratio is
0.85, 5% percent of the area consists of paved yards of houses
for which run off ratio 0.80, 15% of area consists of macadam roads for
which run off ratio is 0.40, 35% of the area consists of lawns, gardens and
vegetable plants for which the runoff ratio is 0.10, and the remaining
5% of the area is wooded for which the runoff ratio is 0.05;
determine the coefficient of runoff for the area. If the total area of the
district is 36 hectares and the maximum rain intensity is taken as 5 cm /
hr; what is the total runoff for the district?

33
 Example 2.2

If in the above example, the density of population is 250 per

hectare, and the quota of water supply per' day is 225 liters;
calculate the quantity of:
 (a) Sewage for which the sewers of a separate system, should be
designed.
 (b) Storm water for which the sewers of a partially separate
system should be designed.

34
 Example 2.3
A city has a projected population of 60,000 spread over area
of 50 hectare. Find the design
discharge for the separate sewer line by assuming rate of
water supply of 250 LPCD and out of
this total supply only 75 % reaches in sewer as wastewater.
Assume peak factor = 2. Make necessary assumption
whenever necessary.

35
 Example 2.4
Determine designed discharge for a combined system
serving population of 50000 with
rate of water supply of 135 LPCD. The catchment area is
100 hectares and the average
coefficient of runoff is 0.60. The time of concentration for
the design rainfall is 30 min
and the relation between intensity of rainfall and duration is
I = 1000/(t + 20).

36
Assignment I
1. A combined sewer was designed to serve an area of 60 sq. km
with an average population density of 185 persons/hectare. The
average rate of sewage flow is 350 L/Capita/day. The maximum
flow is 50% in excess of the average sewage flow. The rainfall
equivalent of 12 mm in 24 hr can be considered for design, all of
which is contributing to surface runoff. What will be the discharge in
the sewer in m3/Sec? Find the diameter of the sewer if running full
at maximum discharge. Use permissible flow velocity V=0.9m/sec.

37
2. Thecatchment area is of 300 hectares. The surface cover in the
catchment can be classified as given below:

Calculate the runoff coefficient and quantity of storm water runoff,

if intensity of rainfall is 30 mm/h for rain with duration equal to
time of concentration. If population density in the area is 350
persons per hectare and rate of water supply is 200 LPCD, calculate
design discharge for separate system, partially separate system, and
combined system.

38
3. A 900 m long storm sewer collects water from a catchment area
of 40 hectares, where 35% area is covered by roof (C=0.9), 20%
area by pavements (C=0.8) and 45% area is covered by open plots
(C=0.15). Determine the average intensity of rainfall and
diameter of storm water drain. Assume the time of entry = 3 min;
velocity at full flow = 1.45 m/sec; gradient of sewer = 0.001, and
roughness coefficient = 0.013. The intensity of rainfall in cm/h =
75/(t + 5).

39