Flight Mechanics a n d Variational Problems of
a Linear Type f
ANGELO MIELE*
Douglas Aircraft Company, Inc.
SUMMARY
A general analysis is presented of variational problems of
linear type. T h e characteristic of these problems is that the
functional forms to be extremized, the differential equations of
constraint, and/or the eventual isoperimetric conditions only in-
volve the first power of the derivatives of the unknown functions.
For the above problems the Legendre-Clebsch condition fails to
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yield any information on the minimal or maximal nature of the
extremal arc; moreover, the Weierstrassian function is zero along
a major portion of the Eulerian solution. By the use of a new
technique, based on Green's theorem, the afore-mentioned
difficulties can be overcome. Rigorous sufficiency proofs are
developed for linear problems of both the simplest type and the
isoperimetric type. Several physical problems, associated with
the mechanics of flight of either a constant mass or a variable mass
vehicle, are treated within the general frame of problems of
linear type.
(1) INTRODUCTION
S EVERAL N E W PROBLEMS of applied mathematics
have arisen in t h e analysis of trajectories of high-
speed aircraft a n d missiles which cannot be handled b y
the use of conventional methods of performance anal-
ysis. These problems, which fall under t h e domain
of t h e calculus of variations, are generally concerned
with t h e determination of t h e maneuver of t h e em-
pennage control a n d / o r t h e engine control which opti-
mize a given performance.
A category of variational questions of rather fre-
quent occurrence in aeronautical engineering is repre-
sented b y problems of t h e so-called linear type. T h e
dominant characteristic of such problems lies in t h e
fact t h a t t h e functional forms to be extremized, t h e
differential equations of constraint, a n d / o r t h e eventual
isoperimetric conditions only involve t h e first power of
the derivatives of t h e unknown functions. This a p -
parently simplifying circumstance is actually t h e source
of i m p o r t a n t analytical difficulties. I n connection with
the study of t h e minimal or maximal properties of
the solutions, t h e Legendre-Clebsch condition fails to
yield a n y information on t h e n a t u r e of t h e extremal arc.
An analogous difficulty is found, along a major portion
of t h e extremal arc, when applying t h e more stringent
Weierstrass condition.
B y t h e use of a new a n d hitherto unexploited tech-
nique, based on Green's theorem, this difficulty can be
Received February 13, 1958. Revised and received April
18, 1958.
| This article is a condensed version of the investigation de-
scribed in reference 11.
* Engineering Consultant, Missiles Engineering Department.
Also, Professor of Aeronautical Engineering, Purdue University.
581
overcome. Rigorous sufficiency proofs can b e devel-
oped for linear problems of b o t h t h e simplest type a n d
the isoperimetric type, as is shown below.
(2) L I N E A R P R O B L E M S OF T H E S I M P L E S T T Y P E
Consider a functional form of t h e t y p e |
J *X2
Xl
[$(x, y) + yfSfr(x, y)]dx (1)
where $ a n d SP are given functions of t h e arguments x
and y a n d where yf = dy/dx. Assume t h a t , among all
arcs y{x) consistent with certain prescribed end condi-
tions, t h e special a r c which extremizes—-i.e., maximizes
or minimizes—the integral (1) is t o be found. As is
known from t h e theory of t h e first variation, t h e ex-
tremal arc associated with t h e problem under consider-
ation is t o be a solution of t h e Euler's differential equa-
tion
(d/dx) (bF/dy') - (bF/dy) = 0 (2)
where the so-called fundamental function F is defined as
F = $ + ^ryf (3)
T h e development of E q s . (2) a n d (3) leads t o t h e fol-
lowing result:
(dV/dx) - (p$/by) = 0 (4)
T h e above equation points o u t t h a t there is, asso-
ciated with t h e functional form (1), a degenerate vari-
ational problem. I n fact, while t h e Euler's differential
equation is, ordinarily, a second-order differential
equation (as such, its general integral depends on two
integration constants), E q . (4), on t h e contrary, is an
equation infinite terms.
I t is, therefore, concluded t h a t if t h e coordinates of
the end points 1 a n d 2 are consistent with E q . (4), then
Eq. (4) represents t h e extremal arc associated with t h e
variational problem under consideration. If, on t h e
contrary, t h e end points 1 a n d 2 do n o t lie on t h e curve
defined b y E q . (4), then t h e variational problem has no
solution.
I t is t o be noted that, even when t h e b o u n d a r y con-
ditions of t h e problem are consistent with E q . (4), a
further difficulty arises. F o r a linear integrand t h e
Legendre function b2F/by'2 is zero a t all points of t h e
extremal arc. Moreover, t h e Weierstrassian E func-
tion 1 is also E = 0 along the extremal arc. I t is, there-
t The subscripts 1 and 2 are employed here to denote, respec-
tively, initial point and final point.
 582 J O U R N A L OF THE A E R O / S P A C E S C I E N C E S — S E P T E M B E R , 1958

the integral (1) under the new constraint

y'+f[x,y, z(p)] = 0 (7)

%*o T h e dependent variables being two in number, two

/--—7 ,. Euler equations are needed to define the extremal arc
dz_n (d/dx) (dF/dy') - (bF/by) = 0 (8)
] 2 f
9
(d/dx) (dF/dp ) - (dF/dp) = 0 (9)
f1 F being the so-called fundamental function

i
p,
i
pz
: p
^ F = $ + * / + \(y> + /) (10)
and \(x) a variable Lagrange multiplier. Eqs. (8) to
(10) lead to the following results:
FIG. 1. Parametric representation of a variable subject to
inequality. (d/dx) ( * + X) - (d$/dy) -
(d*/dy)y> - \(df/i>y) = 0 (11)
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fore, inferred t h a t b o t h the Legendre condition and the (df/dz) \{dz/dp) = 0 (12)
Weierstrass condition yield no information on the T h e Euler equation (12) associated with the p variable
minimal or maximal n a t u r e of the extremal path. is interesting, because it shows t h a t the extremal arc is
discontinuous, being generally composed, for df/dz ^ 0,
(3) L I N E A R P R O B L E M S INVOLVING A NONHOLONOMIC of subarcs
CONSTRAINT
X= 0 (13)
W i t h regard to engineering applications, a more im-
p o r t a n t t y p e of linear problem occurs in the case where and subarcs dz/dp = 0 (14)
the arc y(x) extremizing the integral (1) is to be con- For t h e subarc X = 0, t h e relationship between x and
sistent with a constraint of the form y is obtained from Eq. (11)
y' +f{x,y,z) = 0 (5) (d¥/ds) - (d$/dy) = 0 (15)

where z is a new variable such t h a t * For the subarcs dz/dp = 0 the z variable has a con-
s t a n t value^—-i.e., either z = %\ or z = z2 according to
Zi < z < z2 (6) the parametric representation devised in Fig. 1. T h e
relationship between x and y is obtained b y integrating
To account for t h e relation (6), the idea of para-
Eq. (5) subject to either the constraint z = Zi or z = z2.
metric representation of the variable subject to in-
Clearly, t h e present problem differs from t h e one of
equality is introduced. T h e variable z is represented
Section (2), insofar as subarcs z = const, m u s t be con-
(see Fig. 1) as a function z(p) of a parameter p having
sidered in the composition of the extremal arc in addi-
the following properties: (a) for — oo < p < ph
tion to the special subarc represented b y Eq. (15). T h e
z = zh dz/dp = 0, d2z/dp2 = 0; (b) for p2 < p <
role of these subarcs z = const, is fundamental in the
+ oo; z = z2, dz/dp = 0, d2z/dp2 = 0; and (c) for pi <
solution of the b o u n d a r y value problem: in fact, it is
p < p2, a one-to-one correspondence is assumed between
now entirely possible to satisfy a set of prescribed end
z and p—i.e., dz/dp ^ 0 everywhere.
conditions in the (x, y) plane—a, circumstance which,
With the above artifice, t h e independent parameter
on the contrary, is generally impossible for the problem
p is allowed to v a r y between — <» and + °°. T h e
formulated in Section 2.
variable z becomes a dependent quantity, variable be-
T h e analysis of t h e Legendre-Clebsch condition and
tween Zy and z2 according to t h e scheme of Fig. 1.
of the Weierstrass condition (omitted for the sake of
Notice t h a t the condition dz/dp = 0 represents either
brevity) leads to the following results: 1 1 (a) the
a line z = zv or a line z = z2\ on the other hand, the con-
Legendre- Clebsch condition yields no information on the
dition dz/dp ^ 0 is representative of any other value
minimal or maximal character of the solution for the
of z intermediate between Z\ and z2. Notice also t h a t
three subarcs X = 0, z = zh and z = z2; and (b) the
p is only a parameter and t h a t there is no necessity of
Weierstrassian function is E = 0 a t points of the sub-
attributing to it any geometrical or physical meaning.
arc X = 0. T h e analogy between the present conclusions
The main effect of the parametric representation is
and those of Section (2) should be emphasized.
to reduce a variational problem involving inequalities
to the same mathematical model useful in solving t h e
(4) L I N E A R P R O B L E M S INVOLVING B O T H A
case where all constraints involve equalities. Thus,
NONHOLONOMIC CONSTRAINT AND AN ISOPERIMETRIC
for the present problem, the two unknown functions
CONSTRAINT
y(x) and p(x) must be determined so as to extremize
* The subscripts 1 and 2 are employed here to denote, respec- As a further step, the problem of extremizing the
tively, lower bound and upper bound for the z variable. functional (1) is considered in connection with a
 F L I G H T M E C H A N I C S AND V A R I A T I O N A L P R O B L E M S 583

nonholonomic constraint obeying E q . (7) plus a n iso- T h e horizontal distance (X) flown b y the aircraft is
perimetric constraint of linear t y p e : given b y 2 ' 1 2

mV VeV
[3>(x, y) + ty(x, y)y'\dx = given (16)

-a-
X dV (23)
Xl D(m, V) D(m, V) m
For t h e problem represented b y E q s . (1), (7), and (16) where mr = dm/dV. T h e m a x i m u m range problem
the two unknown functions y(x) a n d p(x) m u s t be con- consists of extremizing t h e integral (23), subject to t h e
sistent with t h e Euler equations (8) and (9) where t h e constraint
F function is now defined as follows:
*' + {mft/[Veft ~ D(m, V)]} 0 (24)
F= $ + Vy' + \(y' +f) + X($ + * / ) (17)
where 0 < 8 < 3max (25)
X(x) being a variable Lagrange multiplier and X a con-
s t a n t Lagrange multiplier. T h e development of E q s . I t is to be noted t h a t t h e problem represented b y t h e
(8), (9), and (17) leads to t h e following result: relations (23), (24), a n d (25) is mathematically identical
with the problem represented b y Eqs. (1), (5), and (6).
(d/dx) [tf + X* + X] - ( d $ / d y ) - ( d ^ / d y ) / - This fact is evident if t h e following substitutions are
X(5//by) - X[(5$/dy) + ( d t f / d y ) / ] = 0 (18) made:
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(bf/dz) \(dz/dp) = 0 (19) x = V, y m, z = (3, zi = 0, z2 = pn

Once more t h e extremal arc is discontinuous, being $ = -(mV/D), ^ = -(VeV/D),
composed, for df/dz ^ 0, of subarcs dz/dp = 0 (z = Zi or f = M(3/(Vep - D)
z = z2) and subarcs X = 0—-i.e., subarcs such t h a t
T h e solution, therefore, involves (a) subarcs /5 = 0, (b)
(d^*/dx) - (d$*/dy) = 0 (20) subarcs /5 = f3maX} and (c) subarcs flown with variable
where ^ * = V + X^ (21) thrust, along which the mass-velocity relationship is
represented b y
$* = $ + X$ (22)
(d/dV) [VeV/D] - (5/dm) [mV/D] = 0 (26)
Notice t h a t E q . (20) is representative of a family of
curves in the (x, y) plane, one for each value of t h e con- For t h e particular case of a drag polar of t h e form
s t a n t multiplier X. T h e particular value of X asso- D = AV2 + B(m2/V2) (27)
ciated with t h e problem under consideration m u s t be
computed on t h e basis of t h e given isoperimetric condi- (where A and B are appropriate constants), E q . (26)
tion and of t h e prescribed b o u n d a r y conditions. reduces to 1 2
T h e study of t h e Legendre-Clebsch condition and of
m = VJ/B V2 V ( F + Ve)/(V + SVe) (28)
the Weierstrass condition is omitted here, as it leads 1 1
to conclusions similar to those of Sections (2) and (3). W i t h regard to t h e b o u n d a r y value problem, t h e
subarcs (3 = 0 and /5 = (3max m u s t be combined with
(5) T Y P I C A L P R O B L E M S INVOLVING A NONHOLONOMIC those obeying E q . (26), so as to satisfy a set of pre-
CONSTRAINT scribed end conditions. I n this connection, t h e further
inequality
I n t h e present section several physical problems are
introduced; their mathematical model falls within t h e dm < 0 (29)
frame of t h e problem considered in Section (3).
m u s t be accounted for. I t s effect is to limit t h e number
(5.1) Burning Program for the Maximum Range of a of physically possible combinations of subarcs. This
Rocket Powered Aircraft in Level Flight circumstance is described in Section (7).
A rocket-powered aircraft moving along a rectilinear
horizontal p a t h is considered in connection with the (5.2) Burning Program for the Maximum 3Endurance of
a Rocket-Powered Aircraft in Level Flight
following hypotheses: (a) t h e t h r u s t is tangent to the
flight path, (b) the equivalent exit velocity of t h e Under t h e same hypotheses of Section (5.1), t h e
rocket engine (Ve) is a constant, a n d (c) t h e engine is problem of maximum endurance consists in extremizing
capable of delivering all mass flows (ft) bounded be- the integral
tween a lower value (ft = 0) and an upper value Ve,
m

n-
dV (30)
(ft^ftmax)- D(m, V) D(m, V) m J
I n flight a t constant altitude, t h e drag D can be con-
ceived as a function D(V, L) of velocity (V) and lift subject to t h e constraints (24) and (25). T h e solution
(L) only. After accounting for t h e equation of motion involves subarcs /3 = 0, subarcs ft = ftmax, and variable-
on t h e normal to t h e flight p a t h (L — m g = 0, where t h r u s t subarcs satisfying t h e relationship
m is t h e mass and g t h e acceleration of gravity), t h e
(d/dV) (Ve/D) - (d/dm) (m/D) = 0 (31)
drag D is reduced to a function D(V, m) of velocity
and instantaneous mass of the vehicle. For t h e particular case of a drag polar obeying E q . (27),
 584 JOURNAL OF T H E A E R O / S P A C E S C I E N C E S —SEPTEMBER, 1958

the variable-thrust subarc reduces to p a t h is approximated as L — W = 0, where L is t h e

2 lift; (c) t h e t h r u s t (T) is tangent t o the flight p a t h ; (d)
m = VX/B V (32) the power plant is operated in such a way t h a t t h r u s t
(5.3) Burning Program for the Maximum Increase in (T) a n d fuel consumed per unit time (q) are known
Altitude of a Rocket in Vertical Flight {Zero Drag) functions T(V, h) a n d q(V, h) of altitude (h) a n d ve-
locity (V).
A rocket-powered vehicle moving along a rectilinear
For flight in a vertical plane t h e drag D can be con-
vertical p a t h is considered in connection with flight
ceived as a function D(h, V, L) of altitude, velocity,
in a vacuum. Hypotheses (a), (b), a n d (c) of Section
and lift. After considering hypotheses (a) a n d (b), t h e
(5.1) a r e maintained. Assuming t h a t t h e initial alti-
drag D is reduced t o a function D(h, V) of altitude and
tude is zero, the problem of maximum altitude increase
velocity only. As a consequence, t h e time (t) neces-
consists in extremizing t h e integral 4
sary t o transfer t h e aircraft from an initial condition
2 1 to a final condition 2 is given by 5 , 6
h= f [-(V/g) - (VeV/mg)m']dV (33)

subject to the constraint {(l/g) [W/(T-D)] +

Vi

m' + [p?n/(Ve(3 - mg)] = 0 (34) ( 1 / F ) [W/(T - D)]hf) dV (42)

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where 0 < f3 < /3max (35) where h' = dh/dV.

T h e brachistocronic problem consists in finding t h e
T h e solution involves only subarcs /5 = 0 a n d subarcs
altitude-velocity relationship which minimizes t h e in-
0 = Pmax- Variable-thrust subarcs do not participate
tegral (42) subject to the constraint
in the composition of the extremal arc insofar as

(d/dV) [VeV/mg] - (d/dm) [V/g] = h' + (V/g) [Ws'm 6/(Wsm 6 + D - T)] = 0 (43)
Ve/mg ^ 0 (36)
where 6 is t h e p a t h inclination with respect to a hori-
(5.4) Burning Program for the Maximum Increase in zontal plane and
Altitude of a Rocket in Vertical Flight (Quadratic Drag
Law) - 1 < sin-0 < + 1 (44)
T h e problem of m a x i m u m altitude increase is here This problem can be reduced t o the mathematical mode
investigated once more. All the hypotheses of Section treated in Section (3), b y using the substitutions
(5.3) are maintained, t h e only exception being t h a t a
quadratic drag law (D = KV2, w i t h X = const.) is now x = V, y = h, z = sin 6, zx = — 1, z2 = + 1
assumed.
$ = W/g(T - D), V = W/V(T - D)
The analytical question consists in extremizing t h e
integral 4 f = (V/g) [W sin 6/(W sin 6 + D - T)]

\-[mV/(mg + KV2)] - T h e solution, consequently, involves (a) subarcs sin

Vx
6 = — 1 (vertical dive), (b) subarcs sin 6 = + 1 (vertical
[VeV/(mg + KV2)]m'} dV (37) zoom), a n d (c) subarcs flown with variable p a t h incli-
subject to the constraint nation, along which the altitude-velocity relationship is
represented by*
m' + [pm/(Vcp - mg - KV2)] = 0 (38)
(d/dV) [W/V(T - D)] -
where 0 < (3 < /3max (39) (d/dh) [W/g(T - D)] = 0 (45)

T h e solution involves subarcs /3 = 0, subarcs /3 = (3max, W i t h regard t o t h e boundary value problem, t h e

and subarcs flown with variable mass flow. Along t h e subarcs sin 6 = — 1 and sin 6 = + 1 m u s t be combined
latter, t h e mass-velocity relationship is represented b y with those obeying Eq. (45) so as to satisfy a set of pre-
scribed end conditions. I n this connection, t h e case
(d/dV) [VeV/(mg + KV2)] -
where the further inequality 6
(d/dm) [mV/(mg + KV2)] = 0 (40)
T - D > 0 (46)
T h e development of Eq. (40) leads t o
m u s t be accounted for is of engineering importance.
m = (KV2/g) [1 + (V/Ve)] (41)
Its effects are t o limit the number of physically possible
(5.5) Brachistocronic Climbing Technique for a Turbojet combinations of subarcs.
Powered Aircraft
* The analysis of the climbing technique of minimum fuel
T h e climbing flight of a turbojet-powered aircraft
consumption 5 - 6 leads to a mathematical model similar to the
is now considered in connection with t h e following hy- one of Section (5.5). An analogous remark refers to the so-called
potheses: (a) t h e weight (W) is ideally a constant; steepest climb, if the simplifying assumption sin 6 = t a n 6 is
(b) t h e equation of motion on t h e normal t o t h e flight accepted.
 FLIGHT MECHANICS A N DD V
V A R I A T I O N A L P R O B L E M S 585

(5.6) A Degenerate Case: Burning Program Extremizing obeying Eq. (27), Eq. (50) reduces to
the Time of Flight for a Rocket in Vertical Flight (Zero
Drag)
With the same hypotheses of Section (5.3) the prob- m= Jl W JW±H±M±^l (5i)
lem of extremizing IB 1V(V+ 3 7.) + X(F + 2 TO
(6.2) Brachistocronic Burning Program of a Rocket in
[-(Vg) - (Ve/mg)m']dV (47) Vertical Flight for Given Altitude Increase (Quadratic
Vi Drag Law)
is considered, subject to the constraints (34) and (35). Under the same hypotheses of Section (5.4), the prob-
The solution formally involves subarcs (3 = 0, sub- lem of minimizing the integral 4
arcs 13 = /3max, and subarcs such t h a t
F
(d/dV) [VJmg] - (d/dm) [1/g] = 0 (48) t= p r - - ^ L — - - -m^[dV (52)
JVl L mg + KV* rng + KV* J
Notice t h a t Eq. (48) degenerates into an identity* this
is considered. T h e nonholonomic constraint repre-
is a clear indication of the fact t h a t an infinite number
sented b y the relations (38) and (39) is accounted for,
of extremals exist, 4 all leading from the initial point
together with the isoperimetric constraint represented
(Vi, Wi) to the final point (V2, m2) in equal times.
b y Eq. (37), where h is now a prescribed q u a n t i t y .
The latter circumstance is logical, insofar as Eq. (47)
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T h e solution involves subarcs f3 = 0, subarcs /5 = f3maXi

can be integrated in a closed form yielding
t = (1/g) [V,- V2 + Velog (mjm2)\
(6) T Y P I C A L P R O B L E M S INVOLVING B O T H A
NONHOLONOMIC CONSTRAINT AND AN ISOPERIMETRIC
CONSTRAINT
In the present section several physical problems are
considered: they all fall under the mathematical scheme
of the problems formulated in Section (4).
(6.1) Burning Program Maximizing the Range of a
Rocket-Powered Aircraft for Given Time (Level Flight)
Under the same hypotheses of Sections (5.1) and
(5.2), the problem of maximizing the integral (23) is
considered, in connection with the nonholonomic con-
straint represented by the relations (24) and (25) and
with a further isoperimetric constraint, represented b y
Eq. (30), where t is a given quantity.
This problem is mathematically identical with the
one represented b y Eqs. (1), (7), and (16), as is evident
from the substitutions
x = V, y = m, z = /3, zx = 0, z2 = /3max
p = -mV/D, ¥ = - VeV/D, f = m/3/(Ve/3 -
$ = -m/D, ¥ = -VJD
T h e solution arc, therefore, involves subarcs 0 = 0,
subarcs f3 = /3max, and variable-thrust subarcs. T h e
latter are ruled b y the following relationship:
(d/dV) [(VJD) (V+X))-
(d/dtn) [(m/D) (V + X)] = 0
Notice t h a t Eq. (50) represents a one-parameter family
of curves in the (m, V) plane; each member of the
family corresponds to a different value for the constant
multiplier X. Once the isoperimetric condition and the
boundary conditions are prescribed, the particular
value of X associated with a given problem can be de-
termined. For the particular case of a drag polar
* Therefore, any arbitrary function m( V) can be regarded as
a solution to Eq. (48).
and variable-thrust subarcs. Concerning the latter,
(49) the mass-velocity relationship is represented by
(d/dV) {[VJ(mg + KV>)] (1 + XV)} -
(d/dm) { [m/(mg + KV2)] (1 + XV)} (53)
i.e., b y
m = (KV/gVe) {V(V+ Ve) + [(V+2Ve)/\]} (54)
(6.3) Brachistocronic Climbing Maneuver of a Turbojet
Powered Aircraft for Given Horizontal Distance
Under the simplifying assumption sin 6 ~ tan 6, and
conserving all other hypotheses of Section (5.5), the
horizontal distance (X) traveled b y a turbojet powered
aircraft while climbing is given by 5
T h e problem of minimizing the integral (42) is now con-
sidered, subject to the constraints (43) and (44) and to
the further isoperimetric constraint represented b y
Eq. (55), where X is a prescribed quantit}^. 7
T h e solution arc includes subarcs sin 6 = — 1, sub-
D) arcs sin 6 = + 1 , and subarcs along which the altitude-
velocity relationship is expressed byf
( d / d U ) {(W/V) [(1 + \V)/(T - D))} -
(d/dh) {(W/g) [(1 + \V)/(T - D)]} = 0 (56)
(7) APPLICATION OF G R E E N ' S T H E O R E M TO T H E
P R O B L E M S OF SECTIONS (3) AND (5)
(50) In the previous sections a general t r e a t m e n t has been
developed, valid for linear problems. Several physical
problems have been formulated. All of t h e m involve
discontinuous solutions. For each of them, the an-
alytical relations governing the different subarcs form-
ing one extremal arc have been indicated. For all of
them the Legendre-Clebsch condition fails everywhere
f The problem of the climbing technique of minimum fuel
consumption for given horizontal distance 7 leads to a similar
mathematical model and, therefore, to a solution analogous to
the one described here.
 586 JOURNAL OF THE A E R O / S P A C E S C I E N C E S — SEPTEMBER, 1958

and the Weierstrass condition fails along a major por-
tion of the extremal arc.
In the present section, Green's theorem is employed
to overcome the difficulties associated with the indirect
methods of the calculus of variations in the analysis of
linear problems. A method of attack is outlined b y
means of particular examples having physical interest.
The technique here introduced is general. In fact, with
minor variants, it applies to all questions formulated
in Sections (3) and (5), and to other problems, also. 8, 10
(7.1) Maximum Increase in Altitude for a Rocket
Vertical Flight (Zero Drag)
T h e problem of Section (5.3) is now considered.
After introducing the definitions
* = ~(V/g), ¥ = -(VeV/mg)
Eq. (33) is rewritten as
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step, the two limiting lines (3 = 0 and (3 = fimax starting
from 1 are calculated. Their respective equations are
(see Fig. 3)
m = const. (61)
V + Ve log m - (gm//3max) = const. (62)
As a second step the two other limiting lines /3 = 0
and (3 = f3max arriving at 2 are computed (see Fig. 3).
T h e broken line 13241 of Fig. 3 is drawn; it surrounds
a closed region to which all admissible p a t h s belong.
in Now focus attention on the Eulerian arc 132 which
is formed b y one subarc 13 flown with maximum en-
gine o u t p u t followed b y one subarc 32 flown b y coast-
ing. T h e arbitrary, though admissible, comparison
p a t h 152 is considered and the difference in final alti-
(57)
tude between the paths 132 and 152 calculated:

h {$ + Vm')dV (58)
Ah = hU2 — hlb2 = = f (* + * m ' ) dV
J 132
Vi
I ( $ + Vm')dV = 0 ($dV + Vdm) (63)
(7.1.1) The co Function—The following function of J 152 ./13251
the variables V and m is defined:
B y means of Green's theorem, the above cyclic integral
co = (d^/dV) - (d<f>/dm) (59) can be transformed into a surface integral associated
with the area a (see Fig. 3) bounded b y the clockwise
After accounting for Eqs. (57) and (59), one obtains
circuit 13251:
co = ~{VJmg) (60)

T h e co function, therefore, has the property of being

negative at all points of the semiplane m > 0.
"--//.(£- dm
dVdm

(7.1.2) Class of Admissible

Mass-Velocity Plane—Consider
Displacements in the
a rocket having the
-If. ojdVdm (64)

state of flight (V, m) at time instant / and let P be its Since the co function, defined b y Eq. (59), is negative
representative point in the mass-velocity plane (see Fig. everywhere, it follows t h a t
2). After a time interval dt = t' — t, the new mass
Ah > 0 (65)
of the rocket is m' = m + dm, the new velocity is V =
V + dV, and the new vector position of the rocket in In view of the arbitrariness of the comparison p a t h 152
the (V, m) plane is OP 7 = OP + ¥F. it is concluded t h a t the Eulerian arc 132 maximizes
As is evident from Eq. (34) and from the inequality the altitude rise, under the limitation 0 < (3 < f3max.
dm < 0, there is one elementary displacement PP' for B y the use of the same technique, it can be proved
each value of the mass flow (3. Since 0 < (3 < f3max, one t h a t the other Eulerian p a t h 142 (see Fig. 3), formed
infers t h a t the class of admissible displacements b y a coasting subarc 14 followed by a subarc 42 flown
PP' is bound b y two limiting conditions—a displace- with maximum thrust, has the property of minimizing
m e n t PR(f3 — 0), corresponding to coasting flight; and the altitude rise h.
a displacement PT ((3 = /3max), corresponding to flight
with maximum engine output. (7.2) Maximum Range of a Rocket-Powered Aircraft in
Level Flight
While a displacement like PS is physically possible, a
displacement like PQ is physically impossible, because T h e problem of Section (5.1) is now considered.
the mass of the rocket cannot increase; analogously, a After introducing the definitions
displacement like PZ is also physically impossible, be-
$ = -(rnV/D), * = -(VeV/D) (66)
cause the constancy of the mass implies zero thrust and,
therefore, a negative acceleration. In conclusion, the Eq. (23) is rewritten as
two lines fi = 0 and f3 = /3max split the (V, m) plane into *V2
two regions associated with point P: a region (H), ($ + Vm')dV (67)
/ Vx
whose points are accessible to the rocket in vertical
flight; and a region (K), which is forbidden to the (7.2.1) The co Function—-The following function of
rocket, because of the physics of the motion. the variables V and m is defined:
(7.1.3) Analytical Proof—Consider a rocket which
= (d^/dV) - (d$/dm) (68)
m u s t be transferred from the initial state of flight
(Vi, mi) to the final state of flight (F 2 , m 2 ). As a first i.e.,
 F L I G H T M E C H A N I C S AND V A R I A T I O N A L P R O B L E M S 587
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FIG. 2. Class of admissible displacements of a rocket in the mass- FIG. 5.W Comparison between the Eulerian arc 1562 and thp
velocity plane (vertical flight, zero drag). control path 172 (maximum range, level flight).

1i
m
p-o / v \ a ; # = C)

®
/ KV [ V+2Vel
>*•&» "*>°

®
(3-0
H <
| A< o

FIG. 6. Properties of the co* function for X < 0 (vertical flight,

FIG. 3. Comparison between the Eulerian arc 132 and the quadratic drag law).
control path 152 (maximum altitude rise, vertical flight, zero
drag).

FIG. 7. Comparison between the Eulerian arc 1562 and the

FIG. 4. Properties of the co function (level flight, parabolic polar control path 172 (minimum time, given altitude rise, vertical
with constant coefficients). flight, quadratic drag law).
 588 J O U R N A L OF THE A E R O / S P A C E S C I E N C E S — S E P T E M B E R , 1958

Ve[V(dD/dV) - D] + V[D - m(dD/dm)] TABLE 1

co =
D"- Region Region
where where Extremal Arc •
(69) Point 2 Subarc Subarc Subarc
Case of Point 1
Flight belongs belongs 15 56 62
For a drag polar having t h e form represented b y Eq.
I A B 0 = pmax ea = 0 (3 = /3 W
(27), the co function becomes II A A (3 = (3max a, = 0 (3 = 0
III B A |8 = 0 co = 0 0 = 0
A V B
= °<V + V ]
« ~ B(m*/V*) ( 7 + 3 7,) IV B (3 = 0 co = 0 (3 = (37n
W
[AV2 + B(m2/V--)}2

and, therefore, embodies t h e following properties (see AX = I j oodVdm + I I co dVdm (72)

Fig. 4 ) : (a) co = 0, a t points of the variable-thrust
subarc, defined b y Eq. (28); (b) co < 0, in the region A
bounded b y the m axis and b y the subarc governed b y
Eq. (28); and (c) co > 0, in the region B bounded b y
the V axis and b y the subarc governed b y Eq. (28).
All of the subsequent line of reasoning refers to the
simplified case represented b y Eq. (27)—i.e., the case
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J J SA J J SB
of which one is associated with the area SA internal to
the clockwise contour 1571, the other one with the area
SB internal to the counterclockwise contour 7627. In
view of the fact t h a t co < 0 a t points of the area SA and
co > 0 at points of the area SB, it follows t h a t

of a drag polar with constant coefficients. T h e analy- AX > 0 (73)

sis of a drag polar with coefficients depending on the
M a c h N u m b e r has been carried out b y the writer in
reference 2.
(7.2.2) Class of Admissible Displacements in the
Mass- Velocity Plane—The class of admissible displace-
ments for the rocket-powered aircraft in the mass-
velocity plane is entirely defined b y Eq. (24) and b y the
inequalities (25) and (29) and is determined b y con-
siderations analogous to those of Section (7.1.2).
In particular, it is of interest to trace the two limiting
lines (3 = 0 and (3 = (3max starting a t 1 and the other
two limiting lines (3 = 0 and /3 = (3max arriving at 2;
the associated broken line 1532641 surrounds a closed
region to which all admissible p a t h s belong (see Fig. 5).
(7.2.3) Combination of Subarcs—Four main types of
boundary conditions m a y exist, depending upon the
relative position of points 1 and 2 with respect to the
curve co = 0. Four cases of flight must be, accordingly,
analyzed. Generally speaking, the optimum p a t h
1562 includes three subarcs: 15, 56, and 62. T h e
subarc 56 is always flown with variable t h r u s t accord-
ing to Eq. (28); the subarc 15 is flown with maximum
engine o u t p u t if point 1 belongs to the region A or b y
coasting if point 1 belongs to the region B ; the sub-
arc 62 is flown with maximum engine o u t p u t if point 2
belongs to the region B or b y coasting if point 2 be-
longs to the region A.
(7.2.4) Analytical Proof—An analytical proof is here
offered for one of the four cases of flight listed in Table
Since the comparison path 172 is arbitrary, the in-
equality (73) proves t h a t the extremal arc 1562 maxi-
mizes the range for given end velocity and given pro-
pellant mass.
(8) APPLICATION OF G R E E N ' S T H E O R E M TO T H E
PROBLEMS OF SECTIONS (4) AND (6)
By means of minor modifications of the consider-
ations developed in Section (7), Green's theorem can
also be employed to establish sufficiency proofs in
connection with problems involving constraints of the
isoperimetric type. As an example, the problem of
Section (6.2) is investigated. I t should be noticed
t h a t the present theory is general and applies to all
problems of Section (6), as well as to other problems. 9
(8.1) Brachistocronic Burning Program of a Rocket in
Vertical Flight for Given Altitude Rise (Quadratic Drag
Law)
T h e problem of Section (6.2) is now investigated.
T h e following definitions are introduced:
$ = - [m/(mg + KV2)], * =
~[Ve/{mg + KV2)] (74)
$ = _ [mV/(mg + KV2)], ^ =
-[VeV/(mg + KV2)] (75)
and the integrals (52) and (37) are rewritten as
•F2

1—-namely, the case of flight designated as Case I. ($ + Vm')dV (76)

/ Vi
For all the other cases, the demonstration is analogous.
»y2 _
T h e optimum p a t h 1562 is compared with an arbi-
(77)
trary, though admissible, control p a t h 172 and the /
($ + Vm')dV
following difference is formed: Vi
After introducing the further definition
AX — Ai562 ~~ AT 172 —
r = t + \h (78)
(b ($>dV + Vdm) + (f> ($dV + Vdm) (71)
one obtains

By the use of Green's theorem, the above two cyclic

+ V*m')dV (79)
integrals are transformed into surface integrals Vi
 F L I G H T M E C H A N I C S
where
<£* = $ + X<£
^* = ^ + X^
(8.1.1) The co* Function—The following function of
the variables V and m is introduced:
a,* = ( d ¥ * / d F ) - (d$*/dm)
Simple manipulations yield the following results:
KV(V + 2Ve) + \KV\V + Ve) ~ XmgVe
\mg + KV2)2
Notice that, for a given negative value of X, the co*
function embodies the following properties (see Fig.
6): (a) co* = 0, at points of the variable-thrust sub-
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arc, defined b y Eq. (54); (b) co* > 0, in the region A
bounded between the m axis and the subarc defined
b y Eq. (54); and (c) co* < 0, in the region B bounded
between the F axis and the subarc defined b y Eq. (54).
On the other hand, for a given positive value of X,
the signs which the co* function takes into the two
regions A and B are reversed with respect to those
indicated in Fig. 6.
(8.1.2) Analytical Proof—-The first step for carrying
out the sufficiency proof is to analyze t h e class of ad-
missible displacements [Eq. (38) and inequalities (29)
and (39)] of the rocket in the mass-velocity plane.
Considerations analogous to those of Section (7.1.2)
must be carried out. By drawing t h e four limiting
lines /5 = 0 and (3 = f3max starting at 1 and arriving a t
2, the broken line 1362451 is determined: it surrounds
a closed region to which all admissible paths belong (see
Fig. 7).
T h e second step is to analyze all possible combina-
tions of subarcs. In this connection, the analysis shows
t h a t the optimum p a t h 1562 includes a subarc 15, a
subarc 56, and subarc 62. T h e equations of these
subarcs are the same as in Table 1, the only difference
being t h a t co is replaced b y co*.
Assume now t h a t the five quantities mh Vh m2, F 2 , h
are prescribed and t h a t the particular extremal path
satisfying the above conditions has been found. As-
sume also t h a t the value of X associated with this par-
ticular extremal p a t h is negative and t h a t the boundary
conditions are such t h a t the Eulerian arc is of the type
I I I of Table 1.
Consider now the arbitrary, though admissible, com-
parison p a t h 172, and form the difference:
Ar = rises — rn2 =
dV + V*drn)
«/l571 .7 7627
By means of Green's theorem, the above cyclic integrals
are transformed as follows:
Ar
IL ** dVdm —
JJSA
a)*dVdm
AND V A R I A T I O N A L P R O B L E M S 589
I n view of the fact t h a t co* < 0 in the region SB and co*
> 0 in t h e region SA, it is concluded t h a t
(80)
Ar = At + \Ah < 0 (86)
(81)
T h e isoperimetric condition concerning the altitude rise
requires t h a t the control p a t h 172 be chosen in such a
way t h a t
(82)
Ah = AiB62 - hm = 0 (87)
As a consequence, the inequality (86) leads to
At < 0 (88)
(83)
T h e following theorem is, therefore, proved: "All
Eulerian arcs 1562 such t h a t the variable-thrust subarc
56 is associated with a negative value for X minimize the
time of flight for given altitude rise."
By means of similar techniques it can be proved
t h a t : "All Eulerian arcs 1562 such t h a t t h e variable-
t h r u s t subarc 56 is associated with a positive value for
X maximize the time of flight for given altitude rise."
CONCLUSIONS
T h e indirect methods of the calculus of variations
are employed in the study of linear problems of b o t h
the simplest type and the isoperimetric type, subject
to additional constraints involving inequalities. Dis-
continuous solutions are found. T h e Legendre-Clebsch
condition fails to supply any information for all sub-
arcs forming one extremal arc. Moreover, the Weier-
strassian function is zero along a major portion of the
Eulerian arc.
By the use of a new and hitherto unexploited tech-
nique, based on Green's theorem, the afore-mentioned
difficulties are overcome. Rigorous sufficiency proofs
are developed.
I t is to be observed t h a t this new technique is of
limited interest as far as the calculus of variations is
concerned, because it only applies to linear problems.
Nevertheless, as far as the mechanics of flight is con-
cerned, t h e use of Green's theorem is rather important,
in view of the frequent occurrence of linear problems
in t h e p a t h analysis of turbojet and rocket-powered
vehicles.
REMARKS
13
In a recent paper a special transformation of co-
ordinates has been indicated such t h a t the Legendre
condition yields a result other t h a n zero along one of
the subarcs forming the extremal arc.
In a further paper 1 4 this writer has stressed that, in
connection with the level flight of a rocket-powered
aircraft, Green's theorem supplies a complete proof of
the necessary and sufficient conditions for the ex-
(84) t r e m u m ; while the Legendre condition alone is only
indicative of the local behavior of the solution with
respect to weak variations. This writer has also shown
that, for level flight, t h e results of reference 13 can be
obtained as a by-product of the approach based on
(85)
Green's theorem
 590 J O U R N A L OF THE A E R O / S P A C E
REFERENCES
1 Purdue University, School of Aeronautical Engineering, Report
Bliss, G. A., Lectures on the Calculus of Variations; The Uni-
versity of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1946.
2 Fraeijs de Veubeke, B., Trajectoires Optimales des Fusees,
Cicala, P., and Miele, A., Generalized Theory of the Optimum
Thrust Programming for the Level Flight of a Rocket-Powered Air-
craft, Jet Propulsion, Vol. 26, No. 6, pp. 443-455, June, 1956.
3 Miele, A., On the Brachistocronic Thrust Program for a
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Program for the Level Flight of a Rocket-Powered Aircraft, Journal
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December, 1957.
4
Miele, A., and Cavoti, C. R., Generalized Variational Ap-
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of a Rocket, Part II, Application of Green's Theorem to the Devel-
opment of Sufficiency Proofs for Particular Classes of Solutions,
ZFW, Vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 102-109, April, 1958.
5
Miele, A., Soluzioni Generali di Problemi di Ottimo in Volo
Non-Stazionario, L'Aerotecnica, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 135-142,
1952 (Translated as NACA T M 1388, 1955).
6 13
Miele, A., Problemi di Minimo Tempo net Volo Non-Stazion-
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7
Miele, A., and Cappellari, J. O., Jr., Approximate Solutions
T h e r m a l B u c k l i n g of Solid W i n g s . . .
(Continued from page 580)
distribution differs materially for some of the cases
considered. Also, the shape of the cross section is not
very significant, as long as the wing is thin. T h e
curves of Fig. 8 are t h u s a good indication of the end
effect in general. I t should be pointed out t h a t for
wings of parabolic or wedge shaped section the curves
are not applicable to aspect ratios below 2.5, since then
the torsional analysis ceases to be valid.
T h e results obtained indicate t h a t t h e effect is three
to five times as large as t h a t mentioned b y Budiansky
and Mayers. 1 T h e error in neglecting the end effect
can therefore be significant even for larger aspect ratios,
and the end effect factor should therefore be included
also in rough calculations. However, since X can be
taken from Fig. 8 in most cases, no additional work re-
sults.
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1 12
Budiansky, Bernard, and Mayers, J., Influence of Aerody-
namic Heating on the Effective Torsional Stiffness of Thin Wings,
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December, 1956.
2
Vosteen, Louis F., and Fuller, Kenneth E., Behavior of a
Cantilever Plate Under Rapid Heating Conditions, NACA R M
L55E20C, July, 1955.
3
Hoff, N. J., Approximate Analysis of the Reduction in Tor-
S C I E N C E S — SEPTEMBER, 1958
to Optimum Flight Trajectories for a Turbo-Jet Powered Aircraft,
No. A-57-7, December, 1957.
8
Revue Generate des Sciences Appliquees, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 33-46,
1956.
9
Rocket-Powered Missile Travelling in an Isothermal Medium,
Jet Propulsion (in publication).
10
Miele, A., Optimum Climbing Technique for a Rocket-Powered
Aircraft, Jet Propulsion, Vol. 25, No. 8, pp. 385-391, August,
1955.
11
Miele, A., The Application of Green's Theorem to Variational
Problems of Linear Type, Douglas Aircraft Company, Inc., SM-
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12
Hibbs, A. R., Optimum Burning Program for Horizontal
Flight, Journal of the American Rocket Society, Vol. 22, No. 4,
pp. 206-212, July-August, 1952.
Ross, S., Minimality for Problems in Vertical and Horizontal
Rocket Flight, Jet Propulsion, Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 55, 56, January,
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14
Miele, A., Minimality for Arbitrarily Inclined Rocket Tra-
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sional Stresses, Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 23,
No. 6, p. 603, June, 1956.
4
Bisplinghoff, R. L., Some Structural and Aeroelastic Consider-
ations of High Speed Flight (Nineteenth Wright Brothers Lecture),
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5
Singer, Josef, Thermal Buckling of Solid Wings, PIBAL Report
408, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, October, 1957.
6
Singer, Josef, Anliker, M., and Lederman, S., Thermal
Stresses and Thermal Buckling, Chapter 1, WADC T R 57-69, 1957.
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Timoshenko, S., Theory of Plates and Shells, pp. 303-307,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1940.
8
Tricomi, F. A., Vorlesungen tiber Orthogonalreihen, pp. 34,
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9
Klosner, J., and Forray, M., Buckling of Simply Supported
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10
Heldenfels, R. R., and Roberts, W. M., Experimental and
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11
Horvay, G., The End Problem of Rectangular Strips, Journal
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13
Mendelson, Alexander, and Hirschberg, Marvin, Analysis of
Thermal Stresses in Thin Plate with Spanwise and Chordwise
Variations of Temperature and Thickness, NACA T N 3778, 1956,
14
Timoshenko, S., and Goodier, J. N., Theory of Elasticity,
(2nd Ed.), pp. 401 and 425, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1951.