Seminar on

ELECTROMAGNETIC METHODS

Group 3 Members

TYOH, Andrew Aondofa

EMMANUEL, Asaba Ajegana
IDEMUDIA, Lucky
MUHAMMAD, Maryam Iliyasu
MSc Physics (Applied Geophysics)

Course Lecturer: PROF. MALLAM, Abu

Course Title: Electrical and Electromagnetic Methods
Course Code: PHY 816

Institute of Geosciences and Earth Resources

Department of Physics
Nasarawa State University, Keffi.

April, 2021

0
1.1 Theory
For the electromagnetic method it is necessary to understand the main ideas and principles of
electromagnetic wave theory in homogeneous or piecewise homogeneous media. For this purpose,
a short introduction on the fundamental equations as well as on electromagnetic wave propagation
will be given.
Electromagnetic (EM) methods makes use of the response of the ground to the propagation of
electromagnetic fields, which are composed of an alternating electric intensity and magnetic force.
An electromagnetic field may be defined in terms of four (4) vector functions 𝐸̅ , 𝐷 ̅, 𝐻
̅ and 𝐵̅,
where;
𝐸̅ = the electrical field in Volts per meter (V/m)
̅ = the dielectric displacement in Coulombs per meter square (C/m2)
𝐷
̅ =the magnetic field intensity in Ampere per meter (A/m)
𝐻
𝐵̅= the magnetic induction in Tesla (T)
1.1.1 Maxwell’s Equations

Experimental evidence shows that all electromagnetic phenomena obey the following four (4)
Maxwell’s equations;

𝜕𝐵̅
∇ × 𝐸̅ = − 1.1
𝜕𝑡

̅
𝜕𝐷
̅=𝐽+
∇×𝐻 1.2
𝜕𝑡

∇ × 𝐵̅ = 0 1.3

̅=𝑄
∇×𝐷 1.4

Equation 1.1, which is also Faraday’s law shows us how a time varying magnetic field produces
an electrical voltage.
Equation 1.2, which is also Ampere’s law shows us how an electric current and/or a time varying
electric field generates a magnetic field.
Equation 1.3 infers that lines of magnetic induction are continuous and there are no single magnetic
poles.
Equation 1.4 infers that the electrical fields can begin and end on electrical charges.

1
1.1.2 Biot-Savart Law

The law was originally stated for static magnetic fields, this law is valid also for low frequency
alternating current (AC), provided the linear distances involved are much less than the wavelength.
The law is stated mathematically as

𝐼𝑑𝐿̅ × 𝑅̅
̅=
𝑑𝐻 𝐴/𝑚 1.5
4𝜋𝑅 3

Where I= Current, 𝑑𝐿̅= magnitude of differential length, 𝑅=distance between a point from the
differential length 𝑑𝐿̅, 𝑅̅ = unit vector in the direction from 𝑑𝐿̅.
The fields produced by straight, current-carrying wires can be calculated by repeated applications
of the Biot–Savart law.

1.1.3 Propagation of Electromagnetic waves

By using the following subsidiary equations

𝐷̅ = 𝜀𝐸̅ 𝐵̅ = μ𝐻
̅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸̅
Where

𝐽= electrical current density in A/m2, 𝜀= electrical permittivity, μ= magnetic permeability, 𝜎=

electrical conductivity mhos per metre or Siemens per metre (Sm−1)
And the four Maxwell’s equations, the electromagnetic wave equation can be derived

∇2 × 𝐸̅ = 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜎𝐸̅ − 𝜔2 𝜇𝜀𝐸̅ 1.6

̅ = 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜎𝐻
∇2 × 𝐻 ̅ − 𝜔2 𝜇𝜀𝐻
̅ 1.7

1.1.4 Primary and Secondary Fields

i. The source or primary fields used in electromagnetic prospecting are normally generated
by passing AC current through long wires or coils.
ii. The secondary fields are produced due to the current induced in the subsurface (primary
fields).
iii. The electromagnetic survey uses electromagnetic induction to measure the electrical
conductivity of the materials underground.
iv. This involves creating an electromagnetic field (primary field), and measuring to see if
materials underground produce any secondary EM-fields back.

2
1.1.5 The Depth of Penetration of EM Field
Penetration depth is given by
503.8
𝑑= 1.8
√𝜎𝑓

1.1.6 Diagnostics

i. In-phase (abbreviation IP) and Quadrature (abbreviation Quad) are the two most important
field measurements of the EM method and can be expressed as the normalized real and
quadrature components of the vertical magnetic field.

ii. Another two quantities which are surface impedance and tilt angle yield useful information
about the properties of the ground and can easily be calculated.

iii. Tilt angle is defined as the angle of the real part of the vertical magnetic field to the
horizontal magnetic field (Reynolds, 1997). Referring to the in-phase definition, tilt can also be
defined as arc-tan (in-phase).

iv. The surface impedance is defined as the ratio of the horizontal electric to perpendicular
horizontal magnetic fields at the surface.

v. Electromagnetic methods measure the conductivity of materials, which is the inverse of

resistivity. The apparent conductivity is given by

4 𝐻𝑠
𝜎𝑎 = ( ) 1.9
𝜔𝜇𝑜 𝑆 2 𝐻𝑝

Where 𝜎𝑎 is the apparent conductivity (𝑆/𝑚)

𝐻𝑠 = Secondary magnetic field at the receiver coil
𝐻𝑝 = primary magnetic field at the receiver coil
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 where is the frequency of the EM wave (𝑓 𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑧)
𝜇𝑜 = permeability of free space
𝑆 = distance between the transmitter and receiver coils (metres)

3
2.1 Field Methods

2.1.1 General Principle of Electromagnetic Surveying

i. AC current is produced in a source coil.

ii. Generates a magnetic primary field (Ampere’s Law)
iii. This generates a corresponding electric field (Faraday’s Law)
iv. Ohm’s law changes this current due to encountered resistance.
v. These Eddy current produce a secondary magnetic field (Ampere’s Law) which are
recorded together with the primary field in a receiver coil.
vi. The measurements separates primary and secondary fields.
vii. If a significant secondary field is picked up, this means there is a body underground with
very different conductivity to the rocks surrounding it.
viii. This is exciting for the geophysicists as this sort of anomaly could be created by a metallic
ore deposit. However, it could also be due to things like graphite or bodies of water, which
are of little economic importance.
ix. Consequently, there is no need for physical contact of either transmitter or receiver with
the ground.

4
Figure 2.1: General principle of EM Method

5
 2.1.1 AFMAG Method

i. The initials denote audio-frequency magnetic fields.

ii. The AFMAG method can be used on land or in the air.
iii. The source in this case is the natural electromagnetic fields generated by thunderstorms
and known as sferics.
iv. Because the sferic sources are random, the signal is effectively noise with seasonal, diurnal
and short period variations in intensity.
v. Sferics propagate around the Earth between the ground surface and the ionosphere.
vi. This space constitutes an efficient electromagnetic waveguide and the low attenuation
means that thunderstorms anywhere in the world make an effective contribution to the field
at any given point.
vii. The field also penetrates the subsurface where, in the absence of electrically-conducting
bodies, it is practically horizontal.
viii. The sferic sources are random so that the signal is generally quite broad-band between 1
and 1000Hz.
ix. The AFMAG receiver differs from conventional tilt angle coils since random variations in
the direction and intensity of the primary field make the identification of minima
impossible with a single coil.
x. The receiver consists of two orthogonal coils each inclined at 45° to the horizontal.
xi. In the absence of a secondary field the components of the horizontal primary field
perpendicular to the coils are equal and their subtracted output is zero.
xii. The presence of a conductor gives rise to a secondary field which causes deflection of the
resultant field from the horizontal.
xiii. The field components orthogonal to the two coils are then unequal, so that the combined
output is no longer zero and the presence of a conductor is indicated.
xiv. The output provides a measure of the tilt.
xv. On land both the azimuths and tilts of the resultant electromagnetic field can be determined
by rotating the coils about a vertical axis until a maximum signal is obtained.
xvi. These are conventionally plotted as dip vectors. In the air, azimuths cannot be determined
as the coils are attached to the aircraft so that their orientation is controlled by the flight
direction. Consequently, only perturbations from the horizontal are monitored along the
flight lines.
xvii. The output signal is normally fed into an amplifier tuned to two frequencies of about 140
and 500Hz.
xviii. Comparison of the amplitudes of the signals at the two frequencies provides an indication
of the conductivity of the anomalous structure as it can be shown that the ratio of low-
frequency response to high frequency response is greater than unity for a good conductor
and less than unity for a poor conductor.
xix. The AFMAG method has the advantage that the frequency range of the natural
electromagnetic fields used extends to an order of magnitude lower than can be produced
artificially so that depths of investigation of several hundred meters are feasible.

6
2.1.2 VLF Method

i. The initials denote very low frequency.

ii. The source utilized by the VLF method is electromagnetic radiation generated in the low-
frequency band of 15–25 kHz by the powerful radio transmitters used in long-range
communications and navigational systems.
iii. Several stations using this frequency range are available around the world and transmit
continuously either an unmodulated carrier wave or a wave with superimposed Morse code.
iv. Such signals may be used for surveying up to distances of several thousand kilometers
from the transmitter.
v. At large distances from the source the electromagnetic field is essentially planar and
horizontal
vi. The electric component E lies in a vertical plane and the magnetic component H lies at
right angles to the direction of propagation in a horizontal plane.
vii. A conductor that strikes in the direction of the transmitter is cut by the magnetic vector and
the induced eddy currents produce a secondary electromagnetic field.
viii. Conductors striking at right angles to the direction of propagation are not cut effectively
by the magnetic vector.
ix. The basic VLF receiver is a small hand-held device in-corporating two orthogonal aerials
which can be tuned to the particular frequencies of the transmitters.
x. The direction of a transmitter is found by rotating the horizontal coil around a vertical axis
until a null position is found.
xi. Traverses are then performed over the survey area at right angles to this direction.
xii. The instrument is rotated about a horizontal axis orthogonal to the traverse and the tilt
recorded at the null position.), with the conductor lying beneath locations of zero tilt.

7
Figure 2.2: Principle of VLF Method

8
2.1.3 Slingram Method

i. Slingram is a pair of moving transmitter and receiver coils connected by a cable at a fixed
distance, normally 40 m or 60 m, with penetration depths corresponding to half the coil
space
ii. The oscillating primary field from the transmitter coil induces electrical currents in the
subsurface that in turn, generates a secondary magnetic field which is picked up by the
receiver coil.
iii. This secondary magnetic field is further divided into in-phase (real) and quadrature
(imaginary) components, which is dependent on the subsurface electrical conductivity
distribution and can be related to e.g. mineralization and fracture zones.
iv. The coil separation in a Slingram survey is adjusted to the desired depth of penetration.
v. The greater the separation, the greater the effective penetration.
vi. In all EM work, care must be taken to record any environmental variations that might affect
the results. These include obvious actual conductors and also features such as roads,
alongside which artificial conductors are often buried. Power and telephone lines cause
special problems since they broadcast noise which, although different in frequency, is often
strong enough to pass through the rejection (notch) filters.
vii. It is important to check that these filters are appropriate to the area of use (60 Hz in most
of the Americas and 50 Hz nearly everywhere else).

9
Figure 3: Principle of Slingram Method

10
2.1.4 Airborne Method

i. Airborne EM techniques are widely used because of their speed and cost-effectiveness, and
a large number of systems are available.
ii. There is a broad division into passive systems, where only the receiver is airborne, and
active systems, where both transmitter and receiver are mobile.
iii. Passive systems include airborne versions of the VLF and AFMAG methods.
iv. Independent transmitter methods can also be used with an airborne receiver, but are not
very attractive as prior ground access to the survey area is required.
v. Active systems are more commonly used, as surveys can be performed in areas where
ground access is difficult and provide more information than the passive tilt angle methods.
vi. They are, basically, ground mobile transmitter–receiver systems lifted into the air and
interfaced with a continuous recording device.
vii. Certain specialized methods have been adopted to overcome the specific difficulties
encountered in airborne work.

11
Figure 4: Principle of the Airborne Method

12
3.1 Data Collection

3.1.1 Equipment used for data collection

i. Power Sources
The power source used for EM transmitters (Slingram and airborne) is a small light battery-
powered oscillator with a power amplifier having a low impedance output. Actual output from
the semi-portable power supplies varies between 1 to 10 Watts.
ii. Transmitter Loop
In order to generate the desired EM field, the output of the power source must energize the
ground by passing a current through some wire system. In the slingram system, this is done by
coupling power into a long straight wire grounded at each end, a large (usually a single turn)
rectangle or square laid out on the ground or hung on a tree.
iii. Receiver Coil
Theses coils are small enough to be entirely portable for VLF and AFMAG surveys. Receiver
and transmitter loops are electrostatically shielded to eliminate capacitive coupling between
coil and ground and also coil and the operator. Generally the receiver coil must be oriented in
a certain direction relative to the detected field. In AFMAG and VLF surveys; It is necessary
to measure inclination and/or azimuth at each station. In airborne EM survey, it is often a
difficult problem to maintain a fixed orientation between transmitter and receiver coils.
iv. Receiver Amplifiers
One or more band pass filters, tuned to the source frequency or frequencies are incorporated
in the EM amplifier. For VLF and AFMAG the bandwidth is as high as 30 to 40Hz.
v. Indicator
The indicator is normally a set of sensitive headphones on the output of the amplifier.
Occasionally a suitable meter may be used, but in audio range there is no particular advantage
in the visual indicator. These indicators are used to regulate the receiver signal. Some
parameters measured are the dip or azimuth angle of the receiver loop in degrees.
vi. Compensating Network
In EM-surveys, the secondary field are usually swapped by the primary field. It is necessary to
cancel the primary signal by some other means. This is accomplished by introducing at the
receiver input an artificial signal of the same frequency and amplitude but opposite in phase.
vii. Helicopter.
It is used for airborne survey.

13
3.1.2 Procedure for collecting data

 The field equipment used for VLF and AFMAG (Receiver coil) is small and light
conventionally operated by one person. There is no need for a transmitter. Examples of the
instruments are EM 16, EM 16R, ABEM WADI which can be used to measure horizontal
electric and magnetic fields.
 Slingram and active airborne survey use a pair of moving transmitter and receiver coils
connected by a cable at a fixed distance, normally 40 m or 60 m, with penetration depths
corresponding to half the coil space
 The transmitting coil induces currents in the ground which generate a magnetic field
detected by the receiving coil.
 Measurements are made by finding orientations of this coil that produce nulls (minima).
 These measurement are taken from several stations (or at different points).
 Before reading, the direction of the minimum horizontal component (the direction of the
power vector) must be determined.
 At the null, with the instrument held in the tilted position, the quadrature reading gives the
ratio of the ellipse axes and the tangent of the tilt angle defines the in-phase anomaly.
 Several EM instruments are available to carry out good quality investigations. But a
significant problem with many of the EM survey methods is that a small secondary field
must be measured in the presence of a much larger primary field. This problem may be
overcome by using a primary field which is not continuous but consists of a series of pulses
between which no primary field is generated. The secondary field induced by the primary
is then measured only when the primary is inactive. The better the conductivity of the body,
the longer do eddy currents flow in it and the longer is the duration of the secondary field.
 The EM instrument detects the primary and secondary fields, and separates the secondary
field into in-phase and quadrature components based on the phase lag of the secondary
field. These two components of the secondary field are sometimes referred to as the tilt (in-
phase) and ellipticity (quadrature). When the EM method is used for geophysical survey,
the in-phase response is sensitive to metal or good conductive bodies. The quadrature
response, on the other hand, is sensitive to the variation of the earth electrical properties.

14
4.1 Interpretation

4.1.1 Data processing

i. Fraser and Karous & Hjelt (K-H) Filtering

Raw real (in-phase) and raw imaginary (quadrature) components contain valuable diagnostic
information of the subsurface geology but in a complex pattern that cannot directly and easily be
related to the causative body. Raw data have high noise content and are usually wrongly located
on the anomalous zone along the profile. Fraser and Karous & Hjelt (K-H) filtering operators are
used to correct the above effects.
The Fraser filter is a linear high frequency band-pass filter, yields a semi-quantitative interpretation
of the data and transforms the in-phase components into contourable data with noise reduced to
the best possible minimum. The Fraser operator also helps to properly position the peak of the in-
phase plot over the top of the conductor for easy interpretation. This is achieved by turning
crossovers into peaks or troughs for conspicuous and easy recognition.
The Karous & Hjelt Filter operator is derived from the concept of the magnetic field associated
with current flow in the earth, since very low frequency EM anomalies are caused by a galvanic
current response from conductive targets within the earth. It is therefore possible to transform the
magnetic field measured as an in-phase component into current densities at a constant depth that
caused the magnetic field and thus transform EM data to conductivity models.
∆𝑍
𝐼 (0) = 0.205𝐻−3 − 0.323𝐻−2 + 1.446𝐻−1 − 1.446𝐻1 + 0.323𝐻2 − 0.205𝐻3
2𝜋𝑎 𝑎
∆𝑥 −∆𝑥
Where 𝐼𝑎 (0) = 0.5 {𝐼 ( 2 ) + 1 ( )} 4.1
2

And 𝐻−3 , 𝐻−2 , e.t.c are the measured data at various stations. ∆𝑥 is the measurement interval and
𝐼𝑎 (0) is the apparent current density.

ii. MATLAB
MATLAB code can be used for processing EM data. Sundarajan et.al. (2006) developed a
MATLAB code to carry out both the Fraser and K-H filtering operations.

iii. Hilbert Transform

The field data obtained can be processed by applying the Hilbert transform to interpret in-phase
and quadrature EM data for possible depth estimation.
1 ∞
𝐻(𝑥) = ∫ [𝐼𝐹(𝜔)𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑥) − 𝑅𝐹(𝜔𝑥)𝑑𝜔] 4.2
𝜋 0

15
Where 𝑅𝐹(𝜔𝑥) and 𝐼𝐹(𝜔) are the real and imaginary parts of the Fourier transform of 𝑓(𝑥)
expressed as
∞
𝐹(𝜔) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑒 −𝜔𝑥𝑡 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑅𝐹(𝜔) − 𝑖𝐼𝐹(𝜔) 4.3
−∞

iv. Amplitude of Analytical Signal

The amplitude of analytical signal is key factor that is extensively used for locating the precise
origin of subsurface features besides its role in estimating the depth to the top of the feature in EM
data interpretation. For EM anomaly, if 𝑓(𝑥) is the in-phase component and H(x) its Hilbert
transform, then the analytical signal can be expressed as
𝐴(𝑥) = 𝑓 − 𝑖𝐻(𝑥) 4.4
And the amplitude of the analytical signal as

𝐴𝐴(𝑥) = √𝑓(𝑥)2 + 𝐻(𝑥)2 4.5

The depth to top of the conductor (h) can be estimated by using intersection points x1 and x2 from
the in-phase components and its Hilbert transform with certain characteristics points of the
amplitude of the analytical signal.
𝑥1 − 𝑥2
ℎ= 4.6
2

Figure 4.1 shows a simplified flow diagram; illustrating the various processing and data
enhancement stages that the EM data are usually subjected to.

4.1.2 Interpretation

i. After EM data has been processed with the above mentioned methods, a pseudo-section
and isovalues map is generated. The generated pseudo-section of current density and
isovlues map of EM data along the surveyed portion can be used to determine the variation
of conductivity/resistivity along the profiles and this will give first-hand information about
the size, depth, dip, and relative position of the conductors in the sub-surface. The filtered
real part which enables the distribution of the current density responsible for the secondary
magnetic field to be displayed as isovalues maps, provides information on the spartial
subsurface geological features such as mineral veins, faults, stratigraphic conductors.
Information on the nature of the overburden can be deduced from the filtered imaginary
part.
Figure 4.2 presents an example of a plot of the in-phase quadrature, Fraser-filled and amplitude
analytical signal of in-phase component of a single transverse.

16
 ii. We can also interpret EM data by obtaining the conductivity for each station using equation
1.9. The data will be gridded and contoured to produce a map of the subsurface
conductivity. This can also be done by using MATLAB or any other EM Method software.

Figure 4.2 presents an example of a plot of the in-phase quadrature, Fraser-filled and amplitude
analytical signal of in-phase component of a single transverse.

Figure 4.1: Simplified flow diagram of EM-data processing

17
Figure 4.2: Plot of the in-phase, quadrature, Fraser-filtered and amplitude analytical signal of the in-
phase component at different locations of a survey area

18
Table 4.1: lithologic log from a large-diameter well-constructed at Iwesi, Ijebu-aa ode.

19
Figure 4.3: Current density distribution across VLF-EM Profiles around Ijebo-ode.

20
Figure 4.4: Isovalues maps of EM data in a study area; (a) Fraser filtered VLF in-phase map, (b)
Karous-Hjelt

21
Reference
Akintola, O., Ajibola S. O. (2006). Lecture note on geophysics (course title: Geophysics III,
Course Code: PHY 461). School of Science and Technology, National Open University of
Nigeria (NOUN).
Bhattacharya, B.B. and Sen, M.K. (1981). Depth of Investigation of Collinear Electrode Arrays
over a Homogeneous Anisotropic Half-space in the Direct Current Method. Geophysics,
46, 766–80.
Electromagnetic Method (2020). Seminar on electromagnetic methods at IGM Geophysics and
Geology.
Kearey, P., Brooks, M. and Hill, I. (2002). An Introduction to Geophysical Exploration (3rd edn.)
Blackwell Science, Oxford. United Kigdom, U.K.
Lowrie, W. (2007). Fundamentals of Geophysics (2nd Edn.). Cambridge University Press, New
0York. United States of America.
Ndatuwong, L. G. and Yadav, G. S. (2013). Analysis and Interpretation of In-Phase Component
of VLF-EM Data using Hilbert Transform and the Amplitude of Analytical Signal. Journal
of Environment and Earth Science, 3(11), 11-24.
Osinowo, O. O. & Olayinka, A.I. (2012). Very Low Frequency Electromagnetic (VLF-EM) and
Electrical Resistivity (ER) Investigation for Ground Water Potential Evaluation in a
Complex Geological Terrain around the Ijebu-Ode Transition Zone, Southwestern Nigeria.
J. Geophys. Eng., 9(1), 374-396.
Oskooi, B. (2004). A Broad View on the Interpretation of Electromagnetic Data (VLF, RMT, MT,
CSTMT). Comprehensive Summaries of Uppsala Dissertations from the Faculty of Science
and Technology.
Sundararajan, N., Rameshbabu, V., Prasad, N. S. & Srinivas, Y. (2006). VLFPROS-A MATLAB
code for processing of VLF-EM data. Comput. Geosci. 32(18), 06-13.
Telford, W. M., Gildert, L. P. & Sheriff, R. E. (1990). Applied Geophysics (2nd Edn.). Cambridge
University Press, New York. United States of America, U.S.A.
Zhdanov, M. S. (2018). Foundations of Geophysical Electromagnetic Theory and Methods (2nd
Edn.). Elsevier (Candice Janco), Oxford. United Kingdom, U.K.

22