drones
Article
Minimal Surfaces as an Innovative Solution for the Design of
an Additive Manufactured Solar-Powered Unmanned Aerial
Vehicle (UAV)
César García-Gascón 1 , Pablo Castelló-Pedrero 2
Citation: García-Gascón, C.;
Castelló-Pedrero, P.; García-
Manrique, J.A. Minimal Surfaces as
an Innovative Solution for the Design
of an Additive Manufactured
Solar-Powered Unmanned Aerial
Vehicle (UAV). Drones 2022, 6, 285.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
drones6100285
Academic Editor: Andrey V. Savkin
Received: 26 August 2022
Accepted: 25 September 2022
Published: 2 October 2022
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
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This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Drones 2022, 6, 285. https://doi.org/10.3390/drones6100285
and Juan Antonio García-Manrique 1, ∗
1 Institute of Design and Manufacture (IDF), Universitat Politècnica de Valencia (UPV), Camino de Vera s/n,
46022 Valencia, Spain
2 Department of Mechanics of Structures and Materials (DMSM), Institut Supérieur de l’Aéronautique et de l’Espace,
(ISAE-SUPAERO), 31400 Toulouse, France
* Correspondence: jugarcia@mcm.upv.es
Abstract: This paper aims to describe the methodology used in the design and manufacture of a
fixed-wing aircraft manufactured using additive techniques together with the implementation of
technology based on solar panels. The main objective is increasing the autonomy and range of the
UAV’s autonomous missions. Moreover, one of the main targets is to improve the capabilities of the
aeronautical industry towards sustainable aircrafts and to acquire better mechanical properties owing
to the use of additive technologies and new printing materials. Further, a lower environmental impact
could be achieved through the use of renewable energies. Material extrusion (MEX) technology may
be able to be used for the manufacture of stronger and lighter parts by using gyroids as the filling of
the printed material. The paper proposes the use of minimal surfaces for the reinforcement of the UAV
aircraft wings. This type of surface was never used because it is not possible to manufacture it using
conventional techniques. The rapid growth of additive technologies led to many expectations for
new design methodologies in the aeronautical industry. In this study, mechanical tests were carried
out on specimens manufactured with different geometries to address the design and manufacture of
a UAV as a demonstrator. In addition, to carry out the manufacture of the prototype, a 3D printer
with a movable bench similar to a belt, that allows for the manufacture of parts without limitations
in the Z axis, was tested. The parts manufactured with this technique can be structurally improved,
and it is possible to avoid manufacturing multiple prints of small parts of the aircraft that will
have to be glued later, decreasing the mechanical properties of the UAV. The conceptual design and
manufacturing of a solar aircraft, SolarÍO, using additive technologies, is presented. A study of the
most innovative 3D printers was carried out that allowed for the manufacture of parts with an infinite
Z-axis and, in addition, a filler based on minimal surfaces (gyroids) was applied, which considerably
increased the mechanical properties of the printed parts. Finally, it can be stated that in this article,
the potential of the additive manufacturing as a new manufacturing process for small aircrafts and for
the aeronautical sector in the future when new materials and more efficient additive manufacturing
processes are already developed is demonstrated.
Keywords: additive manufacturing (AM); material extrusion (MEX); polylactic acid (PLA); solar UAV
1. Introduction
Throughout the last decade, a diverse range of investigations was performed regarding
additive manufacturing (AM) in the aerospace sector. AM is the process of creating an
object by building it one layer at a time, it is the opposite of conventional subtractive
manufacturing. Industry implementation of AM technologies increased continuously in
recent years. This is due to the great design freedom and the continuous cost reduction [1,2].
The parts are fabricated directly from CAD files. Recently, AM expanded nearly to all
the industrial activities, including aerospace, automotive, medical, pharmaceutical, and
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/drones
 recent years. This is due to the great design freedom and the continuous cost
recent years. This is[1,2].
due to Thethe great
parts aredesign freedom
fabricated andfrom
directly the CAD
continuous cost reduction
files. Recently, AM expanded
[1,2]. The parts are fabricated directlyactivities,
all the industrial from CAD files. Recently,
including aerospace,AMautomotive,
expanded nearly medical,to pharm
Drones 2022, 6, 285 and civil including
all the industrial activities, engineering sectors [3–5].
aerospace, With the emergence
automotive, of AM came the
medical, pharmaceutical, 2 of 27 idea o

and civil engineeringUAVs enabling

sectors the production
[3–5]. With the emergenceof a wide
of AMrangecameof designs
the ideaand geometries. Cur
of printable
manufacturing
UAVs enabling the production technique
of asectors
wide[3–5].
rangeis being used and
of designs in aerospace
geometries. to produce engine thisand tur
civil engineering With the emergence of AM came theCurrently,
idea of printable
as
manufacturing technique well
UAVs is as parts
being
enabling for cabin
used
the interiors
in aerospace
production of to[6].
a wide range ofAdesigns
timeline
produce and of
engine the
andinventions,
turbine
geometries. developm
parts,
Currently, this
techniques,
manufacturing and first
technique applications
is being used intowards
aerospace engineering
to produce
as well as parts for cabin interiors [6]. A timeline of the inventions, development of AM are
engine shown
and in
turbine Figure
parts, 1.
as well as parts for cabin interiors [6]. A timeline of the inventions, development of AM
techniques, and first techniques,
applications towards
and first engineering
applications are shown
towards engineering in Figure
are shown 1. 1.
in Figure

Figure 1. Timeline invention of different 3D printing technologies.

FigureAM
Figure 1. Timeline invention techniques
1.ofTimeline
different eliminate
3D printing
invention the needtechnologies.
of differenttechnologies.
3D printing for tooling, then the manufacturing co
for AM UAVs becomes relatively constant, as shown in Figure 2. On the other
AM techniques eliminate the need for tooling, then the manufacturing cost per unit
AM techniquescost per unit forneed
for AM UAVsthe
eliminate AM increases
for tooling,
becomes relatively
with thethe
then
constant,
complexity, but the cost
as shownmanufacturing
rate of increment
in Figure 2. On the otherper unit
hand, the
is
for AM UAVs becomes the
cost traditional
relatively
per unit for AMmanufacturing.
constant,
increases as theThen,
withshown inclearly
Figure
complexity, the AM
2. rate
but the On is
ofthe aother
very iscompetitive
increment hand, the man
lower than
cost per unit for AM process forwith
the traditional
increases amanufacturing.
reduced number of units
Then, clearly
the complexity, but the
theAMto beaofvery
is
rate manufactured
competitive
increment when thanthe comple
ismanufacturing
lower
process for a reduced
part is highThen, number of units to be manufactured when the
[7]. clearly the AM is a very competitive manufacturing complexity of the part
the traditional manufacturing.
is high [7].
process for a reduced number of units to be manufactured when the complexity of the
part is high [7].

Figure 2. Cost per unit vs quantity and complexity for traditional and additive manufacturing techniques.
Figure 2. Cost per unit vs quantity and complexity for traditional and additive manufac
niques.

This paper
Figure 2. Cost per unit vs quantity is structured
and complexity as follows;
for traditional anda additive
comprehensive review
manufacturing of literatu
tech-
niques. formed to identify advancements of AM for UAV manufacturing and the
Drones 2022, 6, 285 3 of 27

This paper is structured as follows; a comprehensive review of literature is performed

to identify advancements of AM for UAV manufacturing and the main advantages over
conventional manufacturing methods. A proposal of materials and methods is described
in Section 3. The minimal surfaces are used as an alternative to the wings infill and a
mechanical study is performed in order to characterize its behavior. In Section 4, the design
of the 3D printed UAV is proposed, and finally in Section 5, the main conclusions and
future work are described. The material extrusion (MEX) manufacturing process is used in
this work due to its ability to incorporate a wide range of materials. MEX is considered to
be the most applicable AM technology. Table 1 lists the acronyms and abbreviations used
in this paper.

Table 1. Abbreviations/acronyms used.

Acronym Description
MEX Material extrusion
UAV Unmanned aerial vehicle
AM Additive manufacturing
PLA Polylactic acid
UK United Kingdom
LALE Low altitudes and long distances
HALE High altitudes and long distances
TPMS Triply periodic minimal surface
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
CFRP Carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic
ISO International Organization for Standardization
FE Finite element
NACA National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
CAD Computer aided design
CAM Computer aided manufacturing
CAE Computer aided engineering
FEA Finite element analysis
MPPT Maximum power point tracker
PV Solar photovoltaic
FGF Fused granulate fabrication
ABS Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
UBEC Universal battery eliminator circuit

2. Related Works
Although there are some size restrictions in AM due to its dependence on the size
of 3D printers, printable parts are increasing as the size of print bays and the range of 3D
printable material increases. In the UAV production segment, Aurora Flight Sciences [8],
which develops and manufactures advanced unmanned systems and aerospace vehicles,
were able to produce and fly a 62-inch wingspan aircraft whose components in the wings
were manufactured entirely by AM. In addition, a project called Wing Design Methodology
Validation—known as WINDY—which started in 2016, features an Airbus UK government
partnership. The project is carrying out research into innovative approaches for the design
of wings and the manufacturing processes used to produce them, as well as undertaking
validation testing to demonstrate the effectiveness of a future application of load control on
aircrafts to improve efficiency in flight [8]. The AM was also used for rotary wing configu-
ration of the unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) [9,10]. In this case of study, solar-powered
planes that take advantage of solar radiation to partially or completely power aircraft
systems are involved. Solar panels can generate energy that recharges the battery during
the day enough to keep the aircraft in the air throughout the night (perpetual flight) [11].
This continuous discharge–recharge cycle enables multi-day solar-powered flight and, from
an energy perspective, leads to perpetual flight capability. Additionally, robotic technolo-
gies can provide the aircraft with an automatic and precise flight in terms of control and
orientation, which means the flight time of the aircraft can be highly increased [12].
Drones 2022, 6, 285 4 of 27

On the other hand, the development of new additive manufacturing technologies

opens the door to new manufacturing processes previously unimaginable. Usually, aircraft
wings are made of ribs that are placed in parallel, oriented in the direction of flight, and
joined by stringers that are placed perpendicular to them. This method of arranging the
internal structural elements of the aircraft wing was standard almost since the beginning of
the aerospace sector; however, there are better techniques that would reduce the weight of
the aircraft structure without compromising its structural strength [13]. This paper presents
a proposal based on material extrusion (MEX) technology for manufacturing a small,
unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) with the aim of achieving perpetual solar flight [14,15].
Solar UAVs can use either solar energy exclusively as a power source or they can also be
aided by a chemical battery [16]. Most solar UAVs require the use of a battery as a backup
power source in order to fly. UAVs also can be classified according to the mission they are
developed for:
• High flight/low flight: Solar UAVs can be designed for either low altitudes and long
distances (LALE) or high altitudes and long distances (HALE). Since the density of
the air is different depending on the height, at high altitudes’ energy consumption
will be higher since the wings will generate less lift. HALE UAVs are much larger in
size since they require a larger wing area and a greater number of solar panels; on
the other hand, HALE UAVs are capable of storing large amounts of energy collected
during the day, which can later be used to fly at night.
• Perpetual flight capacity: Depending on the energy consumption, the size of the
battery, and the size of the solar panels, an aircraft may be able to perform perpetual
flight. Aircrafts that do not have perpetual flight capabilities tend to be smaller, less
complex, cheaper, and structurally more robust [17].
The quasi-static energy models used in solar UAVs, for example, those that can be seen
in [6], usually ignore the kinetic energy of the actual aircraft and only model the electric
energy of the batteries (Ebat ); further, the height has a function of potential energy (E pot ).
The two resulting equations of state are integrated to evaluate the energy fluxes and energy
safety margins that a solar-powered UAV provides with respect to perpetual flight. These
two equations combined model the evolution of the energy on the battery, which changes
depending on the flight time because of the solar power that is received by the solar cells with
the evolution of the flight altitude. The combined equation of state can be written as [18,19]:

dEbat
= µbat · Pbat ≈ µbat ·( Psolar − Pout ) (1)
dt
dh 1

= · η prop · Pprop − Plevel (2)
dt mtot · g
where Ebat is the total energy of the battery, µbat represents the energy losses during the
charging process, Pbat describes the power delivered by the battery, Psolar is the total power
delivered by the solar cells, Pout represents the power consumed by the UAV systems, h is
the height, mtot denotes the total weight of the aircraft, g is the gravitational acceleration,
η prop the propeller efficiency, Pprop denotes the power consumed by the engine with a
specific propeller, and finally, the Plevel represents the minimum power required to have a
leveled flight.
The simulation of a UAV (which was performed taking into account that the battery
mass is equal to 2.9 kg), in which the input power, the output power, and the energy in the
battery are shown during a flight of approximately 2 days, is represented in Figure 3.
In this paper, a design of a solar UAV is proposed with the use of minimal surfaces
in the manufacturing of the wings to improve its mechanical behavior and minimize its
weight as much as possible [20].
Drones 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Drones 2022, 6, 285 5 of 27

Figure 3. Energy balance of solar UAV.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Minimal Surfaces
Mathematically, a minimal surface is a surface t
Figure 3. Energy balance of solar UAV.
Figure 3. Energy balance of solar UAV.
hence has zero mean curvature. Minimal surfaces are
3. Materials and Methods
mum
3. Minimalpotential
Materials
3.1. and Methods
Surfaces energy and are the most stable [21]. A
Mathematically, a minimal surface is a surface that locally minimizes its area, and
of Minimal
3.1.
hence ahasminimal
Surfacessurface
zero mean curvature. Minimalcan bearemade
surfaces by dipping
those considered a wire fr
to contain minimum
soap
potential
film, whichminimal
Mathematically, isstable
energy and are theamost
a helicoid
surface
[21]. is minimal
A physicala model
surface that
to see
surface,
the formation
the bo
locally minimizes
of a
minimal surface can be made by dipping a wire frame into a soap solution, forming a soap
hence has zero mean curvature. Minimal surfaces are those considered to
as
film,
mum
can
which isbe
potential
seen
a helicoid
be seen in Figure 4.
in Figure
minimal
energy and
surface, the4.
are the
boundary of which is the wire frame, as can
most stable [21]. A physical model to see
of a minimal surface can be made by dipping a wire frame into a soap soluti
soap film, which is a helicoid minimal surface, the boundary of which is th
as can be seen in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Soap films and minimal surfaces.

Figure
Figure 4. Soap
4. Soap films
films and andsurfaces.
minimal minimal surfaces.
The gyroid is a triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS), which is one of the most stud-
ied surfaces, and is used
The gyroid is atotriply
create structures
periodicshowing
minimal a characteristic robust mechanical
surface (TPMS), which is on
studied The gyroid is a triply periodic minimal surface
performance. This minimal surface was first described by a NASA scientist. This surface
surfaces, and is used to create structures showing a characteristic ro
seems to be the only known example of an intersection-free infinite periodic minimal sur-
ical performance. Thisstraight
minimal surface wasoffirst
studied surfaces, and is used to create structures show
face which contains neither lines nor plane lines described
curvature. by a NASA
The geometry of the scien
gyroid
face surfaceto
seems unit
becell
theand lattice
only is shown
known in Figure 5.
example ofTrigonometrically, the gyroid
an intersection-free sur-
infinite per
ical performance. This minimal surface was first descr
face can be approximated by the equation: sin(x)cos(y) + sin(y)cos(z) + sin(z)cos(x) = 0. It
surface which contains neither straight lines nor plane lines of curvature. T
was demonstrated that with sandwich panel structures with minimal surfaces, particularly
offace seems to be the only known example of an interse
the cores
gyroid, gyroid surfacelower
considerably unit material
cell and lattice iswhile
consumption shown in Figuremaintaining
simultaneously 5. Trigonometr
mechanical properties [22]. Gyroids make MEX parts stronger and lighter.
roid surface can be approximated by the equation: sin(x)cos(y) + sin(y)cos(z)
surface which contains neither straight lines nor plan
= 0. It was demonstrated that with sandwich panel structures with minimal
of the gyroid,
ticularly gyroid surface
cores unit lower
considerably cell and lattice
material is shown
consumption insiF
while
roid surface
maintaining can be
mechanical approximated
properties [22]. Gyroidsby theMEX
make equation: sin(
parts stronger

= 0. It was demonstrated that with sandwich panel str

 roid surface can be approximated by the equation: sin(x)cos(y) + sin
= 0. It was demonstrated that with sandwich panel structures with
ticularly gyroid, cores considerably lower material consumption
Drones 2022, 6, 285 maintaining mechanical properties [22]. Gyroids make MEX 6 of 27parts

(a) (b)
Figure 5. Gyroid surface. (a) Repeated unit cell. (b) Unit cell.
Figure 5. Gyroid surface. (a) Repeated unit cell. (b) Unit cell.
Due to the complexity of this structure, it was designed by computational means, but
was not able to be manufactured until the arrival of additive manufacturing. This method
allows for accurate replication of the most sophisticated bio-inspired surfaces and structures,
allowing them to reach their best mechanical properties. Some studies were performed to
understand the mechanical properties of gyroid structures under bending forces, varying
some of their principal parameters to analyze how their mechanical behavior is modified.
One of the most influential parameters is the gyroid thickness, which results in an obvious
stiffness increase with a deformation decrease due to a decrease in the porosity of the
structure [23]. Further, the von Mises and shear stresses decrease when the gyroid thickness
increases. Although a greater thickness usually implies better mechanical properties, the
weight of the structure is increased. Therefore, when considering applications where light-
weight structures are desired, a balance between mechanical behavior improvement and
the weight should be found.
Furthermore, other studies were performed to analyze the behavior of gyroid cells
under compressive loads, wherein the infill density was varied to study how this parameter
affects the mechanical properties of the structure. Independently of the infill density,
gyroid structures deform uniformly within the elastic region, but higher relative densities
lead to a more uniform deformation. In addition, when the infill density is increased, the
performance of structures under compressive forces is obviously improved. The advantages
of using gyroid-like structures include their high stiffness and low maximum von Mises
stress compared to other cell types, making them particularly suitable for use in lightweight
components. Gyroid structures have two regions of localized deformation per unit cell,
while other TPMS structures possess only one region per unit cell. In addition, unlike
other TPMS lattices, gyroid-like structures possess axisymmetric stiffness, meaning that
these structures will be able to withstand forces acting on the structure in many directions,
and are therefore very suitable for applications where there are uncertainties about the
magnitude and direction of the forces acting on the body.

3.2. Test Specimens Design and Manufacturing

To investigate the orthotropic properties of the extrusion-based AM, various mechani-
cal tests, such as flexural and compressive tests, were conducted. Polylactic acid (PLA) was
chosen to be used as the AM material; its characteristics are shown in Table 2.
 Drones 2022, 6, 285 7 of 27

Table 2. Specifications of PLA material [24].

Property Value
Elastic Limit (MPa) 2.9
Melting temperature (◦ C) 145–160
Specific gravity (g·cm− 3 ) 1.24
Drones 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW Young modulus (GPa) 2.2

A gyroid lattice was generated using Matlab (The Math Works, R2020b) and imported
separately into Ultimaker Cura 4.8.0, the program used to set up the test sample to be 3D
Table 3. Print settings.
printed, where Prusa i3 Mk3s (Prusa Research, Prague, Czech Republic) (Figure 6) was
selected as the 3D printer. The test samples were set to contain a gyroid infill, and the
Parameter
density (λinfill ) was varied to study how this affects the mechanical behavior of the structure. V
Hence λinfill depends on the caseWall study. line count
As the cuboid and the plates were imported as
two separate models, the cuboid infill density was set to the specific percentage being
Top layer
studied, whilst the plates always had an infill density of 100%. In addition, the shell setting
was used to modify the model wall Bottom layer
thickness, by treating both models separately. The
cuboid model was set to have no wall count for
Infill density both the bottom and top layers. On the
other hand, the plate model was set to have a wall count of 1 with a wall thickness of
0.8 mm. The printing settings used Infill
with thepattern
Prusa i3 Mk3 are shown in Table 3. G

(a) (b)
Figure 6. Specimens
Figure set to be printed
6. Specimens set to(a)be
and printed (b).
printed (a) and printed (b).
Table 3. Print settings.
Another variable that was studied along with the infill density was
Parameter Value
ment angle. To study this, the Blackbelt 3D printer (Blackbelt 3D B.V., B
Wall line count 0
erlands) (Figure
Top layer7) was used, as it allows for printing 0 under various noz
Bottom layer 0
a continuous turning belt base printer that is able to produce series by pr
Infill density λinfill
models continuously
Infill pattern or by producing very long parts. As this printer has
Gyroid
of infinite Z print, BlackBelt Cura 3.6.2 was used to slice the samples for
software is a that
Another variable version of Cura
was studied along specially
with the infillprogrammed for the
density was the printing Blackbelt p
filament
angle. To study this, the Blackbelt 3D printer (Blackbelt 3D B.V., Belfeld, The Netherlands)
difference in the setup process is the explicit specification of the printing
(Figure 7) was used, as it allows for printing under various nozzle angles. This is a continuous
turning belt base printer that is able to produce series by printing individual models continu-
ously or by producing very long parts. As this printer has the characteristic of infinite Z print,
BlackBelt Cura 3.6.2 was used to slice the samples for this printer. This software is a version of
Cura specially programmed for the Blackbelt printer. The main difference in the setup process
is the explicit specification of the printing angle.
 a continuous turning belt base printer that is able to produce series by printing
models continuously or by producing very long parts. As this printer has the ch
of infinite Z print, BlackBelt Cura 3.6.2 was used to slice the samples for this pr
software is a version of Cura specially programmed for the Blackbelt printer
Drones 2022, 6, 285 8 of 27
difference in the setup process is the explicit specification of the printing angle

Figure 7. The Blackbelt 3D printer and the specimens printed.

Figure 7. The Blackbelt 3D printer and the specimens printed.
A parametric study was performed by changing different parameters in the setup
to analyze the mechanical behavior of the structure with a gyroid pattern infill. The
parameters chosen to study were the infill density (λinfill ), the printing angle (θ p ), and the
specimen thickness (th). Carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP) inserts were considered
in some cases. Carbon fiber is used in this study due to its excellent specific strength
compared to that of the other continuous fibers. Mechanical characterization of the coupons
was performed to obtain the mechanical properties required by the simulation [7,25].
The infill density and printing angle were modified by changing the printing settings
for the two different 3D printers. The sample geometry had a length (l) of 140 mm, a
width (b) of 30 mm, and a height (or thickness) (th) of 15 mm. These dimensions were
kept constant along the whole experiment to ensure fair tests. Tests were performed under
ISO 178:2019 standards [26] using an Instron 5967 (Illinois Tool Works Inc., Glenview, IL,
USA) 30 kN load cell with a loading rate of 0.5 mm/s. The first test was performed by
adjusting the printing settings in Ultimaker Cura with a gyroid infill pattern using an
infill density of λinfill = 9.5%. Depending on the orientation the specimens had on the
build plate, the gyroid was printed in one direction or another; therefore this was studied
by printing 3 specimens in each direction, called X and Y, as shown in Figure 8. The
second test involved the same principles as the first one, but this time with λinfill = 13%.
Additionally at this stage, CFRP rods with a diameter of 1.5 mm were inserted into the
structure through four different points of the specimen to investigate how the reinforcement
of the external elements would affect the results. The CFRP rods were connected to the
gyroid structure with epoxy glue and inserted through the longitudinal wholes generated
by the gyroid infill pattern. The resulting test samples for the second test can be seen in
Figure 9. Four specimens were printed in each direction, X and Y, and were tested with
and without CFRP rods, with a total of sixteen specimens printed in this case.
 with
withaadiameter
diameterof of1.5
1.5mm
mmwere
wereinserted
insertedintointothe
thestructure
structurethrough
throughfour
fourdifferent
differentpoints
points
of
of the specimen to investigate how the reinforcement of the external elementswould
the specimen to investigate how the reinforcement of the external elements wouldaffect
affect
the
theresults.
results.The
TheCFRP
CFRProdsrodswere
wereconnected
connectedto tothe
thegyroid
gyroidstructure
structurewith
withepoxy
epoxyglue
glueand
and
inserted
insertedthrough
throughthethelongitudinal
longitudinalwholes
wholesgenerated
generatedby bythe
thegyroid
gyroidinfill
infillpattern.
pattern.The
There-
re-
sulting test samples for the second test can be seen in Figure 9. Four specimens
sulting test samples for the second test can be seen in Figure 9. Four specimens 9were were
Drones 2022, 6, 285 of 27
printed
printedinineach
eachdirection,
direction,XXand
andY,
Y,andandwere
weretested
testedwith
withand
andwithout
withoutCFRP
CFRProds,
rods,with
withaa
total
totalof
ofsixteen
sixteenspecimens
specimensprinted
printedininthis
thiscase.
case.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure8.8.
Figure
Figure Specimenwith
8.Specimen
Specimen withgyroid
with gyroidinin
gyroid inXX direction(a).
Xdirection
direction (a). Specimenwith
(a).Specimen
Specimen with gyroid
withgyroid in
inYY
gyroidin direction
Ydirection (b).
direction(b).
(b).

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Drones 2022, 6, x Figure
FOR
Figure9.9.3D
PEER 3Dprinted
printedspecimens
REVIEW
printed with
specimenswith
specimens gyroid
withgyroid inin
gyroidin both
both
both directions- X- -X
directions
directions Xdirection
(a)(a)
direction
direction (a)and
and and YYdirection
direction
Y direction (b)
(b)
(b) and
and
and inserted
insertedCFRP rods with aadiameter of 1.5
1.5mm and
andlength of 150
150mm.
mm.Dimensions (mm) ofofthe
inserted CFRPCFRP
rods rods
with with diameter
a diameter of 1.5of
mm mmlength
and length
of 150of
mm. Dimensions
Dimensions (mm) (mm) the
of the CFRP
CFRP
CFRP rods
rodslocations
locationsare
areshown.
shown.
rods locations are shown.
To perform the third test, the procedure was exactly the same as that for the
To perform the third test, the procedure was exactly the same as that for the second test.
test. However, in this case, λinfill = 15%. Four specimens were printed in each direc
However, in this case, λinfill = 15%. Four specimens were printed in each direction, X and Y,
and Y, and were tested with and without CFRP rods, with a total of 16 specimens th
and were tested with and without CFRP rods, with a total of 16 specimens therefore
printed. The fourth test studied the variation in the printing angle, θp. In this ca
printed. The fourth test studied the variation in the printing angle, θ p . In this case, the
software BlackBelt Cura was used to specify the printing settings. Throughout th
software BlackBelt Cura was used to specify the printing settings. Throughout the test, the
the parameters of all the specimens were kept constant, except for the printing
parameters of all the specimens were kept constant, except for the printing angle, which
which was studied for θp = 15°, 25°, and 45°, as shown in Figure 10. The infill den
was studied for θ p = 15◦ , 25◦ , and 45◦ , as shown in Figure 10. The infill density of these
these specimens was 15%. The addition of CFRP rods supposed an increase in m
specimens was 15%. The addition of CFRP rods supposed an increase in mass of 10.8%,
10.8%, high enough to be considered as a design factor.
high enough to be considered as a design factor.

Figure 10. Specimens with

Figure 10.different
Specimens printing angles (θp):
with different 15◦ , 25
printing
◦ , and 45◦ .
angles (θp): 15°, 25°, and 45°.

3.3. Flexural Test Analysis

3.3. Flexural Test Analysis
A three-point bending flexural test was performed to simulate the main forces present
A three-point bending flexural test was performed to simulate the main forc
during flight on an aircraft wing. The test method involved the use of a specified test fixture
sent during flight on an aircraft wing. The test method involved the use of a specif
fixture on a universal testing machine; the sample was placed on two supportin
with a span distance (L) of separation between them (ISO 178:2019) (Figure 11). T
load descended that applied a desired force (F), deforming the specimen until a def
settled. A span distance between both supports of L= 100 mm was set on the mach
 3.3. Flexural Test Analysis
A three-point bending flexural test was performed to simulate the main forces
Drones 2022, 6, 285 sent during flight on an aircraft wing. The test method involved the use of10 aof specified 27
fixture on a universal testing machine; the sample was placed on two supporting
with a span distance (L) of separation between them (ISO 178:2019) (Figure 11). The
on a universalthat
load descended testing machine;
applied the sample
a desired was placed
force on two supporting
(F), deforming pins with until
the specimen a spana deflec
distance (L) of separation between them (ISO 178:2019) (Figure 11). Then, a load descended
settled. A span distance between both supports of L= 100 mm was set on the machine
that applied a desired force (F), deforming the specimen until a deflection settled. A span
makedistance
it fair, all the tests
between bothwere performed
supports under
of L= 100 mm wasthe same
set on conditions.
the machine. In addition,
To make it fair, all 4 sam
were the
examined
tests werefor each configuration
performed of test probe.
under the same conditions. These
In addition, data will
4 samples werebe used through
examined
for each configuration of test probe. These data will be used throughout this
this section to calculate the flexural stress and strain for each of the cases, allowing section to ac
calculate the flexural stress and strain for each of the cases, allowing a comparison of these
parison of these experimental results with those obtained by FE methods in the futur
experimental results with those obtained by FE methods in the future.

11. Experiment setup with specimen in position, ready to be tested.

FigureFigure
11. Experiment setup with specimen in position, ready to be tested.
The total deformation includes the bending component δb and shear component δs .,
the deformation, δ, can be obtained as:

pl 3 pl
δ = δb + δs = + (3)
B1 ( EI )eq B2 ( AG )eq

where: p is the applied load, l is the total length of the beam, ( EI )eq is the equivalent
flexural rigidity, ( AG )eq is the equivalent shear rigidity, and B1 and B2 are constants of
proportionality. The equivalent flexural and shear rigidity can be calculated as:

E f bt3 E∗ bc3 E f btd2

( EI )eq = + c + (4)
6 12 2

bd2 Gc∗
( AG )eq = (5)
6
where Ec∗ is the Young´s modulus of the core, Ef is the Young´s modulus of the face sheets,
Gc∗ is the shear modulus of the core [22].
The first test performed was for the samples with λinfill = 9.5% and θ p = 0◦ . Average
values were calculated from the results obtained for both directions of the gyroid infill,
which are shown in Figure 12.
Those specimens printed in the X direction reached their yield limit at a greater force,
which means these specimens had a greater yield strength. Further, the deformation of
the specimen at the elastic limit was approximately the same for both cases; it occurred
at about 3.8 mm. From that point onwards, the specimens continued deforming without
reaching the breaking point. This occurred due to the 0◦ printing direction, as the strength
contribution from the filaments did not depend on the quality of the joint between the
filaments. This printing angle represented the deposition of filaments along the principal
 𝑏𝑑2 𝐺𝑐∗
(𝐴𝐺)𝑒𝑞 =
6
where 𝐸𝑐∗ is the Young´s modulus of the core, Ef is the Young´s modulus of the face
Drones 2022, 6, 285 𝐺𝑐∗ is the shear modulus of the core [22]. 11 of 27
The first test performed was for the samples with λinfill = 9.5% and θp = 0°. A
values were calculated from the results obtained for both directions of the gyroid
stress lines
which are which,
shown asin
will be seen12.
Figure in this section, improved the anisotropic limitation of the
conventional layer-based MEX.

300
Y
250
X
200
Force (N)

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Extension (mm)

12.Evolution
Figure 12.
Figure Evolutionof the
of bend extension
the bend of the specimen
extension printed with
of the specimen printed of 0◦an
an anglewith andangle
infill of 0°an
density of 9.5% with an applied load.
density of 9.5% with an applied load.
In addition, flexural stress and strain were calculated, confirming their behavior.
Those
Further, specimens
the maximum printed
flexural stressinvalue
the X direction
(σf,max ), whichreached their
is the point yield
where the limit at a greate
specimen
bears the maximum stress, and the maximum flexural
which means these specimens had a greater yield strength.f,max strain value ( Further, thethedeforma
), which is
maximum strain the specimen can bear before breaking, were calculated and are shown in
the specimen at the elastic limit was approximately the same for both cases; it occu
Table 4. Therefore, these results suggest that this printing method could be quite appropriate
about 3.8 wings
for aircraft mm. developed
From that point
from onwards,
additive the specimens continued deforming w
manufacturing.
reaching the breaking point. This occurred due to the 0° printing direction, as the s
contribution from
Table 4. Results for λinfillthe filaments did not depend on the quality of the joint betwe
= 9.5%.
filaments. This
Gyroid printing angle represented
Direction the deposition of
σf. max, mean (MPa) ∈f.filaments
max, mean
along the pr
stress lines which,
Y
as will be seen in7.130 this section, improved 0.233 the anisotropic limita
the conventional X layer-based MEX. 5.476 0.233
In addition, flexural stress and strain were calculated, confirming their behavio
ther, Inthe maximum
order to extrapolate flexural stress
the results value experimentally
obtained (σf,max), whichin is
thethe
casepoint where
of a real UAV the sp
wing manufactured by an additive manufacturing processes,
bears the maximum stress, and the maximum flexural strain value (ϵf,max the test samples had to be), which
◦
printed with an angle of θ p = 90 . Therefore, the second test was performed over four
maximum strain the specimen can bear before breaking, were calculated and are
samples printed with an infill density of 13% and a printing direction of 90◦ , tested for
in
theTable
gyroid4.inTherefore, these results
the X and Y direction. The meansuggest that this
and standard printing
deviation method
of the results could
were be qu
propriate forgraph
plotted in the aircraft
shown wings developed
in Figure 13. from additive manufacturing.
It can be seen that the mechanical behavior of the specimens with the gyroid pattern
printed in both directions was quite similar to that of the specimens that exhibited elastic
behavior, until they suddenly broke with no plastic deformation. The average maximum
load was approximately the same for X and Y cases, 261.3 N and 295.2 N, respectively.
The samples exhibited high brittleness behavior, which is not the behavior desired for an
aircraft wing, as wings should be flexible and show some elastic behavior—enough to allow
for some wing buckling. Therefore, four CRFP rods were inserted per sample, keeping
all parameters the same, to test their effect on the structure. The evolution of the bend
extension of the specimen reinforced with CFRP rods and printed with an angle of 90◦ and
infill density of 13% with an applied load is presented in Figure 14 and Table 5.
 100
wing 100 manufactured by an additive manufacturing processes, the test samples had to be
printed 0with an angle of θp = 90°. Therefore, the second
0 test was performed over four sam-
ples printed 0 with1 an infill
2 density
3 4of 13%
5 and a printing
0 direction
1 2 of 90°,
3 tested
4 for 5the
gyroid in the X and Extension Extension (mm)
(mm) The mean and standard deviation of the results were 12 of 27
Y direction.
Drones 2022, 6, 285
plotted in theGyroid
graph in
shown in Figure 13.
X direction Gyroid in Y direction
Figure 13. Evolution of the bend extension of the specimen printed with an angle of 90◦ and infill
400 400
density of 13% with an applied load.
300 300
Force (N)

It can be seen that the mechanical behavior of the specimens with the gyroid pattern

Force (N)
200 in both directions was quite similar to that
printed 200 of the specimens that exhibited elastic
behavior, until they suddenly broke with no plastic deformation. The average maximum
100 100
load was approximately the same for X and Y cases, 261.3 N and 295.2 N, respectively.
The samples
0 exhibited high brittleness behavior, 0which is not the behavior desired for an
aircraft wing,
0 as
1 wings 2 should3 be
4 flexible
5 and show 0 some 1 elastic
2 behavior—enough
3 4 5 to
Extension (mm) Extension
allow for some wing buckling. Therefore, four CRFP rods were inserted per sample, keep- (mm)
Gyroid in
ing all parameters theXsame,
direction Gyroid in
to test their effect on the structure. TheY direction
evolution of the bend
extension of the specimen
Figure 13. Evolution of the bend
Figure
reinforced
extension
13. Evolution
with
of theofbend
CFRP rods
the extension
specimen
and printed
of printed
with
withprinted
the specimen an angle
an
with of
angle
90◦ and
an angle
ofinfill
of 90 ◦90°
and infill
and infill
density density
of 13% ofdensity
with an 13%
appliedwith an
load.
of 13% withapplied
an appliedload
load.is presented in Figure 14 and Table 5.

It400
can be seen that the mechanical behavior of the specimens with the gyroid pattern
printed X with rod elastic
350in both directions was quite similar to that of the specimens that exhibited
Y with rod
behavior,
300 until they suddenly broke with no plastic deformation. The average maximum
load was approximately the same for X and Y cases, 261.3 N and 295.2 N, respectively.
250
Force (N)

The samples exhibited high brittleness behavior, which is not the behavior desired for an
200wing, as wings should be flexible and show some elastic behavior—enough to
aircraft
allow 150
for some wing buckling. Therefore, four CRFP rods were inserted per sample, keep-
ing all100
parameters the same, to test their effect on the structure. The evolution of the bend
extension
50
of the specimen reinforced with CFRP rods and printed with an angle of 90°
and infill density of 13% with an applied load is presented in Figure 14 and Table 5.
0
400 0 5 10 15 20 25
Extension (mm) X with rod
350
◦ Y with
Figure 14. Specimen reinforced with CFRP, angle of 90 , and infill density rod
of 13%.
Figure
30014. Specimen reinforced with CFRP, angle of 90°, and infill density of 13%.
250 Table 5. Results for λinfill = 13%.
Force (N)

200 Gyroid Direction σf. max, mean (MPa) σf. max, Std Dev. (MPa) ∈f. max, mean
150 X without rods 6.362 0.769 0.021
X with rods 5.216 0.589 0.027
100 Y without rods 6.183 1.493 0.020
Y with rods 7.811 0.389 0.028
50
0 The results show that there were differences on the maximum flexural stress, but these were
0 5
not significant, and that 10
the maximum flexural15 strain increased20 25introduced.
when the rods were
This suggests that the addition of these
Extension rods slightly improved the mechanical behavior of the
(mm)
structure; however, this small improvement did not compensate for the addition of extra weight
Figure 14. Specimen reinforced with so
to the structure, CFRP, angle
the use of inserted
of rods 90°, andininfill density
this way of be
should 13%.
discarded.
In addition, as four samples were tested for each case, the standard deviation of the
maximum flexural stress was calculated, as shown in Table 4. Except for the case of the
Y gyroid direction without rods, these values show that the variability of the data set
is relatively low, as the standard deviation is relatively low. This means that the results
obtained are quite precise and do not vary much from the mean value, making this quite
representative. For the case of the Y gyroid direction without rods, more tests could be
performed to obtained more reliable results.
 tained are quite precise and do not vary much from the mean value, making this quite
representative. For the case of the Y gyroid direction without rods, more tests could be
performed to obtained more reliable results.
The same test as before was performed for an infill density of 15% instead of 13%,
Drones 2022, 6, 285 13 of 27
without implementing the CRFP rods. This test allowed for a comparison of the results
obtained for different infill densities. The mean and standard deviation of the results ob-
tained for the fourth test Thewere
same plotted in the
test as before graph shown
was performed in Figure
for an infill density 15. Asinstead
of 15% seen of in13%,
the
results, the mechanical behavior
without of thethespecimens
implementing wastest
CRFP rods. This very similar
allowed for ato that shown
comparison of theprevi-
results
obtained for different infill densities. The mean and standard
ously in the second test with an infill density of 13%, therefore reaching the same conclu- deviation of the results
obtained for the fourth test were plotted in the graph shown in Figure 15. As seen in the
sions. Surprisingly, comparing both results,
results, the mechanical behavior ofthe
theaverage yield
specimens was verystress
similarof theshown
to that structure de-
previously
creased as the infill density increased,
in the second test with but thedensity
an infill average maximum
of 13%, strain increased.
therefore reaching Never-
the same conclusions.
Surprisingly, comparing both results, the average yield stress
theless, again, this high brittleness behavior shown by the specimens printed in these con- of the structure decreased
as the infill density increased, but the average maximum strain increased. Nevertheless,
ditions is not the desired behavior
again, this for anbehavior
high brittleness aircraftshown
wing. by the specimens printed in these conditions is
not the desired behavior for an aircraft wing.

400 400
350 350
300 300

Force (N)
Force (N)

250 250
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Extension (mm) Extension (mm)
Gyroid in X direction Gyroid in Y direction
◦ and infill
Figure 15. Evolution ofFigure
the bend extension
15. Evolution of the
of the bend specimen
extension of theprinted
specimen with
printedan angle
with of 90°
an angle of 90and infill
density of 15% with andensity
appliedof 15% withdepending
load, an applied load,
ondepending
the gyroid on the gyroid direction.
direction.
A parametric study was performed that varied the printing angles, leaving three cases
A parametric study was
for study, angles of 15◦ , 25
for performed ◦ , and 45◦ , and the average results for each printing angle
that varied the printing angles, leaving three
were plotted, as shown in Figure
cases for study, for angles of 15°, 25°, and 45°, and 16. For the
thespecimens
averageprinted with
results foraneach
angle of 15◦ , the
printing
results show a high yield strength. Nevertheless, the specimen did not break as the gyroid
angle were plotted, as shown
structure in Figure
in the 16. For
inside, together withthethespecimens
angle adoptedprinted with
by the PLA an angle
filaments in the of 15°,
printed
the results show a high
piece, yield
absorbedstrength. Nevertheless,
the load applied by deformingthe specimen
themselves, did
which not break
resulted as the
in an increasing
in the extension.
gyroid structure in the inside, together with the angle adopted by the PLA filaments in
◦
When the printing angle of the specimens was increased to 25 , the average yield
strength increased. However, in this case, from this point, the specimen started to deform
plastically until it reached the breaking point around an extension of 25 mm, showing a
high ductility, as it was able to absorb a lot of energy in the plastic region.
The last bending test performed was with samples of specimens printed with an angle
of 45◦ . From the results, it can be said that there was an increase in the yield strength with
respect to the previous cases. This means that an increase in the printing angle led to an
increase in the yield strength of the structure. The breaking point was rapidly reached, at
an extension of approximately 10 mm.
From Figure 16, it can be observed that initially the three cases showed very similar
behavior; however, the greater the printing angle, the greater the load the structure was able
to withstand before it started to deform and show plastic behavior; therefore, after this, it
did not return to its original shape. This means that the maximum yield strength increased
with increases in the printing angle. As an average, for the samples printed at an angle
of 15◦ , the elastic limit was reached at approximately a force of 275 N and an extension of
3.7 mm, whilst for those printed at an angle of 25◦ , the elastic point appeared at 282 N and
3.9 mm, and for the samples printed at 45◦ , these values were 304 N and 3.8 mm.
 increased with increases in the printing angle. As an average, for the samples
an angle of 15°, the elastic limit was reached at approximately a force of 275
extension of 3.7 mm, whilst for those printed at an angle of 25°, the elastic point
at 282 N and 3.9 mm, and for the samples printed at 45°, these values were 304
Drones 2022, 6, 285 14 of 27
mm.

350
θp = 15º
300
θp = 25º
250
θp = 45º
Force (N)
200

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Extension (mm)
Figure 16. Evolution of the bend deformation of the specimen, printed at different degrees, with an
Figure 16. Evolution of the bend deformation of the specimen, printed at different degre
applied load.
applied load.
On the other hand, analyzing Figure 16, it can be seen how those samples printed at
lowerOn angles
thewere ablehand,
other to withstand forces for
analyzing a longer
Figure 16,period before
it can be breaking
seen how by deforming
those samples
themselves, or even without breaking, as was the case for the samples printed at 15◦ . In
lower angles were able to withstand forces for a longer period before breaking b
these cases, the structure was able to absorb greater quantities of energy in the elastic region.
ing
Thisthemselves,
suggests that foror greater
even without breaking,
printing angles, as waspoint
the breaking the of
casethe for the samples
structure will be prin
In these cases, the structure was able to absorb
reached earlier, and therefore will deform less before breaking. greater quantities of energy in
region. The This
resultssuggests
in Table 5 that
showfora clear trend:printing
greater σf,max increased
angles,when increased, whilst
theθ p breaking point of the
ef,max decreased when θ p increased. The differences in ef,max with variations in θ p were
will be reached earlier, and therefore will deform less before breaking.
much more significant than those for σf,max . This shows that the optimal printing angle is
the oneThe results
which in Table0◦5, because
approximates show athe clear trend:ofσfilaments
deposition f,max increased
along the when θp increas
principal
ϵstress
f,max decreased
lines improveswhen θp increased.
the anisotropic The differences
limitation in ϵf,max
of the conventional with variations
layer-based MEX, but in θp w
this may require more forming material. Therefore, the smaller
more significant than those for σf,max. This shows that the optimal printing the angle, the greater the angle
deformation of the structure before it collapsed, withstanding very similar maximum loads
which approximates 0°, because the deposition of filaments along the principal s
in each case.
improves thetheanisotropic
Moreover, limitation
calculation of the of the for
standard deviation conventional
each case shownlayer-based MEX, but
in Table 6 suggests
require
results aremore forming
relatively material.
precise and the actualTherefore,
mean could bethe usedsmaller the angle,
as a representative the greater t
value.
mation of the structure before it collapsed, withstanding very similar maximum
Table 6. Results for variations in θp.
each case.
θp σf. max, mean (MPa) σf. max, Std Dev. (MPa) ∈f. max, mean
15◦ 6.168 0.717 0.269
25◦ 6.310 0.468 0.192
45◦ 6.811 1.038 0.059

After the analysis performed from the results obtained for the bending tests, some
conclusions can be made regarding the optimization of the mechanical properties of a wing
with a gyroid infill. Firstly, it is preferable to print the gyroid pattern in the Y direction
when a conventional printer is used. When considering a Z-infinite printer applied to a
wing structure, the best mechanical properties are obtained with smaller printing angles.
Finally, the infill density should be as high as possible, and the weight of the structure
should not be compromised, as with greater infill densities, the best mechanical properties,
applicable to wings, are obtained.
 Drones 2022, 6, 285 15 of 27

3.4. Compression Test Analysis

Compression tests are used to determine the behavior of a material under applied
crushing loads and are typically conducted by applying compressive pressure to a test
specimen (usually of either a cuboid or cylindrical geometry) using plates or specialized
fixtures on a universal testing machine. To proceed with the test, the sample is placed in
between the two plates that distribute the applied load across the entire surface area of two
opposite faces of the test sample, and then the plates are pushed together by a universal
test machine, causing the sample to flatten.
The purpose of performing this test is to understand the mechanical behavior of the
sample under compressive forces by measuring fundamental variables, such as strain,
stress, and deformation. An analysis of the results obtained for these parameters, together
with the values of a specific material, will allow for determining the suitability of the
material test for specific applications. These materials tested often need to have a great load-
bearing capacity under compressive forces, for which it is crucial their integrity and ability
to maintain their shape without plastically deforming are sustained. There are different
types of compression tests, including the top load test, which was performed in this case.
In the following subsections, the experiment setup, as well as the results obtained, will be
further explained. To evaluate the mechanical compressive behavior of the specimens, the
tests were performed, as stated before, with a universal material electromechanical testing
machine, at standard conditions (atmospheric pressure of 1 atm and temperature of 20 ◦ C).
The machine was set with the compression plates available in the laboratory, which were
specific to the testing machine being used, and was mounted as shown in Figure 17. All the
tests were performed under the same conditions, with a maximum compression of 20 mm.
In addition, to ensure a reliable test, four samples were tested for each configuration of the
test probe.
In this case, the specimens designed for the experiment used the same principles as
those used to design the specimens for the bending test. First, a cuboid was designed, and
then two plates were placed on the top and bottom of the structure, and a gyroid infill was
developed on the inside of the structure. However, in this case, the lengths of the specimens
were different, leaving the following dimensions: l= 70 mm, b= 30 mm, and d= 15 mm. After
2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEWperforming the compression tests, the universal material electromechanical testing machine
stored all the relevant data measured from the tests in raw Excel documents, which were
used to plot the specific graphs for each case study. Then, these plotted graphs were used
to analyze the results obtained.

Figure 17. Compression test setup with specimen between plates.

Figure 17. Compression test setup with specimen between plates.

The first test performed was for those samples where

sity were studied under compressive forces for λinfill = 9.5%
 Figure 17. Compression test setup with specimen between plates.

Drones 2022, 6, 285 The first test performed was for those samples where the variations in the 16 ofinfill
27 den-
sity were studied under compressive forces for λinfill = 9.5%, λinfill = 13%, and λinfill = 15%. It
can be seen that the specimens underwent a deformation with a similar pattern for differ-
ent infill
The densities, reachingwas
first test performed a small
for thosepeak at the where
samples start where the elastic
the variations region
in the ended. Then,
infill density
were
the studied under
specimens started compressive
to deformforces for λinfill
plastically, = 9.5%, a
reaching point
λinfill = 13%,
where andthe = 15%.
infill
λinfill gyroidIt struc-
can be seen that the specimens underwent a deformation with
ture was fully collapsed at about 9 mm of deformation, and the load applied tended to a similar pattern for different
infill densities,
infinity reaching
with nearly no adeformation.
small peak at However,
the start where thisthelastelastic
part region
was cut ended.
fromThen, the
the graph, as it
specimens started to deform plastically, reaching a point where the infill gyroid structure
is not valuable to the purpose of the research; the plot was kept between the range of
was fully collapsed at about 9 mm of deformation, and the load applied tended to infinity
values that could be reached during a real situation [27].
with nearly no deformation. However, this last part was cut from the graph, as it is not
Comparing
valuable the average
to the purpose results the
of the research; obtained
plot was forkept
each infill density
between the range(Figure
of values18), thatsurpris-
ingly, it can be seen that the specimens
could be reached during a real situation [27]. with the highest yield strength were those with
λinfill =Comparing
13%, whilst those specimens
the average results obtained withforλeach
infill =infill
9.5% were(Figure
density the least strong. This
18), surprisingly, it graph
can be that
shows seen the
that specimens
the specimens withwith the=highest
λinfill 13% had yield thestrength
highest were those with
maximum λinfill = 13%, stress,
compressive
whilst
but those
those specimenswith
specimens withλλinfill
infill== 15%
9.5% hadwerethe
the highest
least strong.
strain This graphthe
before shows that theshowed
structure
specimens with
plastic deformation. λ infill = 13% had the highest maximum compressive stress, but those specimens
with λinfill = 15% had the highest strain before the structure showed plastic deformation.

7000
λinfill = 9.5%
6000
λinfill = 13%
5000
λinfill = 15%
Force (N)

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Deformation (mm)
Figure 18.
Figure Comparison ofofthe
18. Comparison theevolution
evolutionof the displacement
of the of theofspecimen
displacement with a with
the specimen force aapplied for
force applied for
different infill
different infill densities.
densities.
As was demonstrated, the infill density plays an important role in the mechanical
As was demonstrated, the infill density plays an important role in the mechanical
behavior of the structure under compressive forces, as with an increase in the infill density,
behavior of the
the structure structure
becomes underand
stronger compressive forces,
stiffer, but it as withits
will increase anweight
increase in the infill den-
considerably.
sity, the structure becomes stronger and stiffer, but it will increase its
Therefore, as this will be applied to the case of an aircraft wing where weight must weight considerably.
be
Therefore,
minimized,as this will be between
a commitment applied theto the case required
strength of an aircraft
under wing whereforces
compressive weight
andmust be
the weight ofa the
minimized, structure should
commitment be obtained.
between the strength required under compressive forces and
Next, how
the weight thestructure
of the thickness should
of the structure affects its compressive behavior was studied.
be obtained.
For this, the test was carried out using a specimen of the following dimensions: l = 15 mm,
b = 20 mm and h = 25 mm. The specimens used in this case were manufactured with
a Blackbelt 3D printer and were therefore printed with the filaments placed in a non-
horizontal plane. This means that this test also enabled us to study how the printing angle
affects the mechanical behavior of the structure. For each thickness, four samples were
tested, and average values were calculated, as shown in Figure 19. The deformation was
12 mm for each coupon.
The specimens underwent a deformation with a similar pattern for different thick-
nesses, reaching a small peak at the start where the elastic region ended. Then, the speci-
mens started to deform plastically, reaching a point where the infill gyroid structure was
fully collapsed and the load applied tended to infinity with nearly no deformation. For the
case of h = 25 mm, after a deformation of nearly 15 mm, the structure did not reach this
 the case of h = 25 mm, after a deformation of nearly 15 mm, the structure did
this irreversible point, and it was observed during the test that the structure p
covered its shape once the load was removed.
Analyzing Figure 19, it can be observed where the elastic limit occurred in
Drones 2022, 6, 285 17 of 27
For the specimens with h = 15 mm, this point occurred at a deformation of a
mm and with a force applied of F= 890 N. For the case of h = 20 mm, the elasti
reached around
irreversible point,e= and0.8 mm
it was and F=
observed 720the
during N.test
Forthatthe
the case of partially
structure h =25 mm, the elastic
recovered
its shape once the load was removed.
reached around e= 0.75 mm and F= 530 N. Interestingly, comparing in Figure 1
Analyzing Figure 19, it can be observed where the elastic limit occurred in each case.
ageForresults obtained for each thickness, it can be seen that the initial deforma
the specimens with h = 15 mm, this point occurred at a deformation of about e = 0.9 mm
wasandpractically identical;
with a force applied of F =however,
890 N. For thethe
caseyield
of h = point
20 mm, peak was
the elastic reached
limit was reachedat a lowe
around e = 0.8 mm and F = 720 N. For the case of h = 25 mm, the
ment and a lower force applied for the thicker specimens. This means that, when elastic limit was reached
around e = 0.75 mm and F = 530 N. Interestingly, comparing in Figure 19 the average results
nessobtained
of theforstructure is increased, the structure will start to deform plasticall
each thickness, it can be seen that the initial deformation slope was practically
loads and with
identical; however,a smaller
the yielddeformation. Even though
point peak was reached at a lower from this point
displacement and a onwards
lower th
force applied for the thicker specimens. This means that, when the thickness
deforms plastically, it will still be able to return partially to its original shape a of the structure
is increased, the structure will start to deform plastically at lower loads and with a smaller
Applying this to the case of an aircraft wing, these results suggest that t
deformation. Even though from this point onwards the structure deforms plastically, it will
parts
stillof
bethe
ablewings
to returnwill deform
partially to its more
originaleasily,
shape andi.e., they will deform with a lower co
size.
Applying but
force applied, this to the case
will of an aircraft
be able wing, these
to partially resultstheir
recover suggest that the
shape thickest
once these for
parts of the wings will deform more easily, i.e., they will deform with a lower compressive
moved. Additionally, the thinner parts of the wing will be able to withstand gr
force applied, but will be able to partially recover their shape once these forces are removed.
pressive forces,
Additionally, thedeforming
thinner parts elastically in be
of the wing will theable
process.
to withstand greater compressive
forces, deforming elastically in the process.

2500

2000 h = 15 mm
Force (N)

1500 h = 20 mm

h = 25 mm
1000

500

0
0 2 4 6 8
Deformation (mm)
Figure 19. Comparison of the evolution of the displacement of the specimen with a force applied for
different thicknesses.
Figure 19. Comparison of the evolution of the displacement of the specimen with a force
differentFurthermore,
thicknesses.the last factor that was analyzed under compressive forces was the
election of the additive manufacturing system. By comparing the results obtained for
specimens with the same thickness (h = 15 mm) in Figures 18 and 19 it can be clearly
Furthermore, the last factor that was analyzed under compressive forces w
seen that specimens printed with a conventional printer have a greater deformation before
tiontheofyield
the point,
additive
whichmanufacturing
is reached with the system.
applicationByof comparing
a greater load. the results
Therefore, obtained
these
mensstructures
with theseemsame
to be stronger
thickness under
(h compressive
= 15 mm) in forces. In addition,
Figure 18 andstructures
Figure printed
19 it can be c
with the conventional 3D printer collapse entirely after a greater deformation. This means
thatthat,
specimens printed with a conventional printer have a greater deformation
generally, it is preferable to manufacture structures with a conventional 3D printer,
yield point,
rather thanwhich
with an is reached
infinite with
Z printer, the places
which application
filamentsofonaagreater load.asTherefore,
certain angle, those t
structures should be able to withstand great compressive forces, as
tures seem to be stronger under compressive forces. In addition, structures prwas demonstrated.

4. Results
The design proposal aims to develop a solar fixed-wing aircraft manufactured using
additive techniques. It seeks to improve the sustainability of small UAVs. The main solar
parameters used in this work are shown in the table (Table 7).
 Drones 2022, 6, 285 18 of 27

Table 7. SolarÍO main solar parameters [14].

Variable Value Description

STC
ηsm 0.2249 Solar panel efficiency
µmppt 0.95 MPPT efficiency
µ prop 0.62 Motor, propeller, and UBEC efficiency
ebat 251 Wh/kg Specific battery power
k sm 590 g/m2 Solar equipment density
m av 0.7 kg Aircraft subsystems mass
m pld 0 kg Pay load
Pav 6W Aircraft systems consumption

The wings, with a wingspan of 3,096 mm, will be subdivided into two half wings so
that they come together to facilitate the transport and assembly of the internal components
of the wing. The main parameters of the plane proposal are shown in Table 8. The design
of the SolarÍO UAV is shown in Figures 20 and 21.
For the initial design of the SolarÍO, some points were taken into account in order
to establish the best model for the mission. Initially, a design with a huge fuselage was
proposed, nevertheless, although it is true that a big cavity could make the task of packing
all the components inside the aircraft in a simple way easier, this would lead the design
to one with more weight, creating the necessity of having to further reinforce the wings,
leading to even more weight. Moreover, a bigger fuselage will be less aerodynamic,
generating more drag. A glider with a NACA 4412 airfoil design with a V-tail in order to
OR PEER REVIEW reduce parasitic drag was the one chosen, not only because its reduced weight will make it 18 o
easier to deal with the structural weight hold by the wings, but also because it will reduce
power needed to keep the aircraft in flight.

Figure 20. UAVFigure UAV solar

solar20.plane, plane, SolarÍO
SolarÍO (1/2). (1/2).
The wings will be reinforced by a circular carbon fiber rod that runs along the span
The wings will
of the be providing
wing, reinforced bystructural
greater a circular carbon
strength to thefiber rod
aircraft. thatway,
In this runs along
bending of the sp
of the wing, providing greater structural strength to the aircraft. In this way, bending
the wings, which could result in damage to the solar panels on the wing surface, will
avoided as much as possible. Regarding the tail, a V design was chosen. As can be seen
 Figure 20. UAV solar plane, SolarÍO (1/2).

Drones 2022, 6, 285 19 of 27

The wings will be reinforced by a circular carbon fiber rod that runs along the span
of the wing, providing greater structural strength to the aircraft. In this way, bending o
the wings, which could result in damage to the solar panels on the wing surface, will b
the wings,as
avoided which
much could result in Regarding
as possible. damage to the
thesolar
tail, panels on the
a V design wing
was surface,
chosen. Aswill
canbe be seen in
avoided as much as possible. Regarding the tail, a V design was chosen. As can be seen in
Figure 20, the design closely resembles a glider plane. These types of non-powered aircraf
Figure 20, the design closely resembles a glider plane. These types of non-powered aircraft
generatevery
generate very little
little dragdrag since
since theythey
mustmust be to
be able able to glide,
glide, maximizing
maximizing thetime
the flight flight
and, time and
consequently, the flight distance.
consequently, the flight distance.

Figure21.
Figure 21.UAV
UAV solar
solar plane,
plane, SolarÍO
SolarÍO (2/2).(2/2).

Table8.8.SolarÍO
Table main
SolarÍO specifications.
main specifications.
Parameter
Parameter Value
Value
Wingspan
Wingspan (m) (m) 3.096
3.096
Chord (m) 0.305
Chord (m)
Total mass (kg) 0.305
3
TotalBattery
mass (kg)
weight (kg) 3
0.415
Flight speed (m·s−1 ) 8.6 (cruise)

The conclusion drawn by the study performed on the wings of the SolarÍO was that
the filling of the printed pieces with a minimal surface was the most optimal. Specifically,
the gyroid surfaces were selected as fillers for both the wings of the aircraft and for certain
parts of the fuselage. This surface maximizes the ratio of mechanical strength to surface
(and, therefore, to weight). As already indicated above, its use is very limited due to the
technical difficulty of its manufacture. With the introduction of additive manufacturing,
the great potential of these surfaces can be appreciated for all types of parts, especially in
the metalworking, aerospace, and automotive sectors [28,29].
Although it is possible to model the gyroid structure inside the wing with CAD/CAM/CAE
software, the finite element study of the entire wing is not possible without simplifying its
geometry. An attempt was made to carry out the study in smaller pieces, such as test tubes,
but the calculation time and the number of nodes necessary to carry out a complete study is
not feasible. A mechanical model was adjusted that simulates the behavior of parts manu-
factured with gyroid infill structures. To obtain this model, the results presented in previous
sections on the study of specimens with different thicknesses were used. The material model for
mechanical simulation was incorporated into finite element mechanical simulation software
(Siemens NX v1988). The NACA 4412 airfoil was chosen since its drag and lift coefficients are
relatively low.
 carry out a complete study is not feasible. A mechanical model was adjusted that simu-
lates the behavior of parts manufactured with gyroid infill structures. To obtain this
model, the results presented in previous sections on the study of specimens with different
thicknesses were used. The material model for mechanical simulation was incorporated
into finite element mechanical simulation software (Siemens NX v1988). The NACA 4412
Drones 2022, 6, 285 20 of 27
airfoil was chosen since its drag and lift coefficients are relatively low.
The wings are reinforced with two tubular rods with an external diameter of 8 mm
and a thickness of 1 mm. The other rod is a tube with a diameter of 15 mm and a thickness
of 1 The
mm.wings arecases
In both reinforced with
they are two of
made tubular rods withcarbon
high modulus an external
fiber diameter of 8 mm
whose mechanical
and a thickness of 1 mm. The other rod is a tube with a diameter of 15 mm and a thickness
characteristics are described in [14]. The numerical simulation of the mechanical behavior
of 1 mm. in
is shown In Figure
both cases they
22. The are element
finite made ofanalysis
high modulus carbonhas
(FEA) model fiber
fivewhose mechanical
meshes, one tetra-
characteristics are described in [14]. The numerical simulation of the mechanical behavior
hedral (four nodes) of size 15 mm and four one-dimensional meshes that model each of
is shown in Figure 22. The finite element analysis (FEA) model has five meshes, one
the tubes that reinforce the wing. The tetrahedron mesh is formed by a total of 135,381
tetrahedral (four nodes) of size 15 mm and four one-dimensional meshes that model
nodes and 81,426 elements. The results do not change significantly with lower element
each of the tubes that reinforce the wing. The tetrahedron mesh is formed by a total of
size. It is considered that the wing works with a fixation in its central end and that it has
135,381 nodes and 81,426 elements. The results do not change significantly with lower
a uniformly distributed load on the wing surface of 5 kg in each wing. This load is consid-
element size. It is considered that the wing works with a fixation in its central end and that
ered to be much higher compared to the one that will withdraw the wing under normal
it has a uniformly distributed load on the wing surface of 5 kg in each wing. This load
conditions. It is calculated with a safety index of 2.5, considering that the most critical
is considered to be much higher compared to the one that will withdraw the wing under
moment of the flight is the impact with the ground at the time of landing.
normal conditions. It is calculated with a safety index of 2.5, considering that the most
critical moment of the flight is the impact with the ground at the time of landing.

Drones 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 27

(a)

(b)
Figure 22.22.Wing
Figure Wingfinite
finiteelement meshand
element mesh andapplied
applied loads
loads (a).(a).
WingWing displacement
displacement andMises
and von von Mises
stress; stress;
mmmmand
andMPaMPa(b).
(b).

Nowadays,UAV
Nowadays, UAV industries
industriesmoved
movedtowards
towardscomposite materials.
composite As demonstrated
materials. As demonstrated
in this section, it is possible to use additive manufacturing in the UAV industry. Ther-
in this section, it is possible to use additive manufacturing in the UAV industry. Thermo-
moplastics, such as PLA, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), and nylon are the most
plastics, such as PLA, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), and nylon are the most com-
commonly used materials in the production of 3D printed UAVs. However, to date, AM
monly
cannotused materials
completely in thetraditional
replace production of 3D printed
composite UAVs.
materials. TheseHowever, to date, AM
materials combine nu- can-
notmerous
completely replace
advantages traditional
(high strength,composite
low weight, materials. These materials
easy processing, etc.) for combine
most of thenumer-
ous advantages
parts. Composite(high strength,
materials havelow weight,advantages
significant easy processing, etc.)
over AM, for most
however, of the
thanks to parts.
Composite materials
the evolution haveprocesses
of forming significant advantages
and over
the excellent AM, however,
properties of AM to thanks to the
optimize theevolu-
component
tion of forminggeometry,
processes it isand
foreseeable that these
the excellent two technologies
properties of AM tocould converge
optimize in the
the component
geometry, it is foreseeable that these two technologies could converge in the future. The
contributions made by the company Markforged (Watertown, Massachusetts, USA) in the
manufacture of long fiber carbon components with a thermoplastic matrix should be high-
lighted [25,30]. Extrusion-based techniques were modified to enable the extrusion of con-
 Drones 2022, 6, 285 21 of 27

future. The contributions made by the company Markforged (Watertown, MA, USA) in
the manufacture of long fiber carbon components with a thermoplastic matrix should be
highlighted [25,30]. Extrusion-based techniques were modified to enable the extrusion of
continuous fiber-reinforced thermoplastics. The wing design and manufacturing in this
work have an excellent mechanical behavior in terms of the maximum stress levels for both
flexural and compression tests. This primary structure was reinforced with two tubular
rods with an external diameter of 8 mm and a thickness of 1 mm and a tube with diameter
of 15 mm and a thickness of 1 mm. In both cases they are made of high modulus carbon
fiber. The manufacture of this primary structure only with PLA and MEX technology is not
possible at this moment due to the limitation in flexural stress of the PLA.

4.1. Solar Equipment

Regarding solar equipment, it should be noted that this is a very expensive part of
the UAV. However, these components ensure that perpetual flight can be carried out. It is
necessary to buy high-performance equipment, such as solar panels with high efficiency
values that allow for achieving a sufficient voltage and intensity to save weight and energy.
In this respect, the choice of solar panels is limited, especially by the dimensions they can
Drones 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEWhave (above all, it is limited by the wing chord of the SolarÍO). Therefore, the solar panels
must measure a maximum of 0.4 m high. The 3-cell Maxeon model [8] was chosen, whose
Drones 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEWcharacteristics are seen in Figure 23. 21 of 27

Figure 23. Solar panel specifications.

Figure 23.Solar
Figure 23. panel
Solar specifications.
panel specifications.
Since the
Since the half
half wingspan
wingspan of
of the
the SolarÍO
SolarÍO is
is 1547
1547 mm,
mm, itit will
will be
be possible
possible to
to place
place aa total
total
of 16 solar
of 16 Since panels in
the half
solar panels each wing
wingspan
in each and,
wing and, therefore,
of therefore, a
the SolarÍO total of
is of
a total 32
1547 solar panels
mm,panels
32 solar throughout
it willthroughout
be possible the to place
the
aircraft, which adds up to a total of 212 grams in solar panels, as can be seen in Figure
aircraft, which adds up to a total of 212 grams in solar panels, as can be seen in Figure 24. 24.
of 16 solar panels in each wing and, therefore, a total of 32 solar panels through
aircraft, which adds up to a total of 212 grams in solar panels, as can be seen in Fig

Figure 24.
Figure 24. Distribution of the
Distribution of the solar
solar panels
panels along
along the
the wing
wing of
of the
the SolarÍO.
SolarÍO.

During the plane mission, the point where the maximum power is achieved is varia-
ble. For this reason, it is important to use a device that monitors these data and defines
the percentage of energy that is used to generate voltage and how much energy is used to
Figure
generate24. Distribution
current. of theofsolar
The product bothpanels along thethe
(VxI) generates wing of the SolarÍO.
maximum possible power and
 Drones 2022, 6, 285 22 of 27

During the plane mission, the point where the maximum power is achieved is variable.
For this reason, it is important to use a device that monitors these data and defines the
percentage of energy that is used to generate voltage and how much energy is used to
generate current. The product of both (VxI) generates the maximum possible power and
supplies the maximum amount of power to the aircraft’s propulsion system or battery. The
maximum power point tracker (MPPT) regulator is commonly used with wind turbines and
solar photovoltaic (PV) systems to maximize energy extraction in all conditions. Although
it is applied mainly to solar energy, the principle is generally applied to sources with
variable power: for example, optical and thermo-photovoltaic power transmission. The
main problem addressed by the MPPT is that the efficiency of the transfer of energy from
the solar cell depends on the amount of sunlight that falls on the solar panels, the angle of
incidence of the solar light, the temperature of the solar panel and the characteristic electrical
loads. The solar panels provided work at maximum efficiency at the maximum power point
(MPP). MPPT devices are typically integrated into an electrical power converter system
that provides voltage or current conversion, filtering, and regulation to drive various loads,
including electrical networks, batteries, and motors. For this purpose, the commercial
Drones 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEWGenasun GV-10 Lithium 12.5 Volt MPPT regulator was selected. The scheme of the MPPT
connections is described in Figure 25. Then, it is possible to obtain a performance even 60%
greater than if the solar panels were connected directly to the electrical circuit of the UAV.

Figure 25. Connecting the MPPT to the SolarÍO circuit.

Figure 25. Connecting the MPPT to the SolarÍO circuit.
4.2. Additive Manufacturing
4.2. Additive Manufacturing
The Blackbelt printer with a nozzle angle of 45 degrees was chosen. Blackbelt Cura is
programmed and developed by Blackbelt 3D and provides a new environment to work
The Blackbelt printer with a nozzle angle of 45 degrees was chosen. Blackbelt
with different deposition planes. There are many open problems associated with the non-
programmed
planar deposition and developed
nozzles by Blackbelt
or 45-degree 3D andCura
nozzles. Blackbelt provides
can set athenew
gap environment
between t
with
layers,different deposition
but this distance planes. There
will correspond only toare
the many open of
side surfaces problems
the pieces associated
printed (ds ); with th
however, due to the printing angle,
planar deposition nozzles or 45-degree θ p , at the top layer, the distance between filaments,
nozzles. Blackbelt Cura can set the dt , gap b
will be much greater. A simplification of this situation is illustrated in Figure 26 where it
layers, but this distance will correspond only to the side surfaces of the pieces print
can be clearly seen how dt is greater than ds . This difference in distances will mean that
however,
the filamentsdue to layer
in the the printing
at the topangle,
surfaceθwill p, at the top layer, the distance between filame
be too separated to fuse together and will
will be much
therefore not be greater. A simplification
able to create a compact robust ofstructure.
this situation is illustrated
The phenomenon in Figure
in Figure 26 26 w
can be be
should clearly seen how
considered, dt isaffect
as it will greater thanresults
the final ds. This difference
of the wings and in fuselage
distances will mean t
printed
with the Blackbelt printer.
filaments in the layer at the top surface will be too separated to fuse together an
therefore not be able to create a compact robust structure. The phenomenon in Fig
should be considered, as it will affect the final results of the wings and fuselage p
with the Blackbelt printer.
 filaments in the layer at the top surface will be too separated to fus
therefore not be able to create a compact robust structure. The pheno
should be considered, as it will affect the final results of the wings a
Drones 2022, 6, 285 23 of 27
with the Blackbelt printer.

Figure 26. Side view of the simplified situation of the error that occurred. Red lines represent the filaments.
ones 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEWFigure 26. Side view of the simplified situation of the error that occurred. R
A few trial-and-error tests were performed in Blackbelt Cura to understand this
filaments.
phenomenon better, and the conclusion reached was that there are three parameters mainly
affecting dt : the printing angle (θ p ), the minimum distance between layers and the thickness
of the layer.
A few It was noticed that when
trial-and-error the printing
tests were angle increased,
performed indue to Pythagoras’
Blackbelt Cura to u
theorem, df decreased. Additionally, when ds was decreased by decreasing the minimum behav
an increase in the printing angle will result in worse mechanical
nomenon
as wasbetween
distance better,
explained layers, and
din the conclusion
previous
t decreased sections.
as well. reached
In addition, when was
However, that
this there
the thickness effect are
on three
of the layer the m
affecting
was increased,ddt:t decreased.
willEvennotthough the
be critical, printing angle (θ p), the minimum distance between la
as the wings will still be able to perform properly u
these fixtures will allow for a better printing result, where the structure
ness
isload
of the
bearded.
more robust,
layer.
there are
It
Onsome was noticed
thedisadvantages
other that
hand, when the printing
a decrease
that should in the
be considered.
angle
minimum
On the
increased
one hand, dista
theorem,
an
means in dthe
increasethat f decreased.
printing
the angle Additionally,
printer will in worse when
result should
nozzle makedsmore
mechanical was
behavior decreased
from theand
passes, bytherefo
wings, decre
as was explained in previous sections. However, this effect on the mechanical behavior
distance
thenotprinting between layers, thedstill
t decreased as well. In addition, when the th
will be critical, time and will
as the wings amount
be able toof material
perform properlyused.
underThis will make th
the distributed
was
load
pensive,increased,
bearded.asOn well d t decreased.
the other hand, a decrease
as increase in the minimum
the weight distance between layers
of the wings.
means that the printer
Even though these nozzle should make
fixtures more passes, and therefore
will allow presented, this willprinting
for a better increase theresult,
printingConsidering
time and the amount theof few disadvantages
material used. This will make the process more theexpensive,
part was p
is more
above.
as robust,
Its visualization
well as increase there are
the weight of the some
inwings. disadvantages that
Blackbelt Cura can be seen in Figure should be considere
27 and
Considering the few disadvantages presented, the part was printed as described above.
the wing in Figure 28, which allows for a clear visualization of the gy
Its visualization in Blackbelt Cura can be seen in Figure 27 and the cross-section of the wing
lage
in Figureto28,
bewhich
printedallowsand the visualization
for a clear partially printed fuselage
of the gyroid infill. Thecan be to
fuselage seen
be in Fi
printed and the partially printed fuselage can be seen in Figure 29. The results look much
look much better than those obtained previously using a convention
better than those obtained previously using a conventional 3D printing with the injection
the injection
nozzle at 90º degrees. nozzle at 90º degrees.

Figure
Figure 27. Visualization
27. Visualization of the wingof
in the wing
Blackbelt in
Cura. Blackbelt Cura.
Drones 2022, 6, 285 24 of 27
FigureFigure
27. Visualization of the wing
27. Visualization of theinwing
Blackbelt Cura. Cura.
in Blackbelt

Figure 28. Cross-section of the wing in Blackbelt Cura.

Figure
Figure Cross-section
28.28. of the wing
Cross-section in Blackbelt
of the wing inCura.
Blackbelt Cura.

Figure 29. Fuselage set to be printed (left) and printed (right) with the Blackbelt printer.
Figure 29. Fuselage set to be printed (left) and printed (right) with the Blackbelt printer.
Finally,
Figure to be able to
29. Fuselage setcompare the structure
to be printed obtained
(left) and from(right)
printed conventional
with the printing to a printe
Blackbelt
Drones 2022, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 27
Finally,consisting
method to be able to compare
of 3D printing that the structure
uses an angle obtained
with infinitefrom
Z, the conventional
same wings printing t
were
also printed
method consisting with a conventional
of be3Dableprinting 3D printer.
that uses This wing was
anstructure printed
angle with in different
infinite from parts, which
Z, the same wings wp
Finally, to wing, as to compare the obtainedupwards, andconventional
also composed
printed
method
the whole
with a conventional conventional
3D 3D
printer.printers
Thisprint pieces
wing was printed intherefore
different pa
they
therefore aconsisting
have theyheight
havelimit of 3D
that
a height printing
islimit
established that
by the uses
that is established byan
proper angle
printer.
the properInwith
this infinite
case,
printer. Inasthis
eachZ, the
wing
case, as same
whichhadcomposed of a1the
m, whole wing, as conventional 3D printers print pieces upwards,
31.in diffa
alsoawing
each height
printed
had with anda
height the
of wing was
conventional
1 m, and theprinted
wing3D in printer.
was four parts,
printed as
inThisshown
four wing
parts, inasFigures
was 30
inand
shownprinted Figure
These
30 andparts
Figurewere 31.joined
These together
parts withjoined
were an adhesive.
together Therefore, these joints
with an adhesive. will be critical
Therefore,
which composed the whole wing, as conventional 3D printers printthese
pieces up
bending stress
joints will points,bending
be critical which could stressfail morewhich
points, easilycould
than afail
continuous
more easily structure, such as the
than a continuous
wing manufactured
structure, such as the with
wingthemanufactured
Z-infinite printer,
withwhere the wingprinter,
the Z-infinite is printedwhereas a the
whole part
wing is
and thereasare
printed no joints.
a whole part and there are no joints.

Figure30.
Figure 30.Wing
Wingprinted
printedonon Blackbelt
Blackbelt 3D printer.
3D printer.
Drones 2022, 6, 285 25 of 27

Figure 30. Wing printed on Blackbelt 3D printer.

Figure31.31.
Figure Four
Four parts
parts ofwing
of the the on
wing on the conventional
the conventional 3D printer. 3D printer.

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
In this paper, the conceptual design and manufacturing of a solar aircraft, SolarÍO,
using In this paper,
additive the conceptual
technologies, was presented. design and flight
Perpetual manufacturing
is possible inof a solar aircraft, S
a lightweight
aircraft and requires an aircraft with a wingspan of 5.6 m,
using additive technologies, was presented. Perpetual flight is possible an aspect ratio of 18.5, and ina a ligh
battery mass of 2.9 kg. A study of the most innovative 3D printers was carried out that
aircraft and requires an aircraft with a wingspan of 5.6 m, an aspect ratio of 18.
allows for the manufacture of parts with an infinite Z-axis; in addition, a filler based on
battery surfaces
minimal mass of(gyroids)
2.9 kg. was A study of the
applied, whichmost innovative
considerably 3D printers
increases was carried
the mechanical
allows for
properties of the manufacture
the printed parts. of parts with an infinite Z-axis; in addition, a filler b
minimal surfaces (gyroids)(gyroid)
A minimal surface structure is used to maximize
was applied, the mechanical properties
which considerably increasesandthe mec
thus improve the stiffness/weight ratio of conventional structures. On the other hand, a 3D
properties of the printed parts.
printing with a 45-degree nozzle was used to obtain more complex parts without support
A minimal
structures. surface
Both, minimal structure
surfaces (gyroid)
and 45-degree 3D is used have
printing to maximize the mechanical
obvious advantages, but pr
andhave
also thusdrawbacks
improvetothe stiffness/weight
be solved. With minimalratio of conventional
structures, it is complex to structures. On the othe
integrate elements
a 3Dusprinting
such with aor45-degree
spars, actuators, nozzle was
electrical connections. used to
To optimize theobtain more
mechanical complex
properties, it parts
is necessary to ensure that the core and the skin of the component
support structures. Both, minimal surfaces and 45-degree 3D printing have obvi are correctly bonded, for
which pressure and temperature between the deposited material and the previous layer must
vantages, but also have drawbacks to be solved. With minimal structures, it is com
be controlled. To improve this adhesion in hollow geometries, such as those of the aircraft
integrate
wing, elements
the use suchatus
of the nozzle 45 spars,
degreesactuators,
is proposed.orTheelectrical connections.
main disadvantage To optimize
of printing
chanical
at 45 degreesproperties, it isstresses
is the internal necessary
inducedtoinensure that
the parts. the iscore
There and
a great theof skin
lack of the com
scientific
knowledge
are correctly about the behavior
bonded, of thesepressure
for which stresses, which in the case of large
and temperature components
between can
the deposited m
create nonconformities in the component. In the case of the parts manufactured in this work,
and the previous layer must be controlled. To improve this adhesion in hollow
the nozzles used are 0.4 mm in diameter and no shrinkage was observed. The proposal of this
tries,achieves
work such as those
better of the
results thanaircraft wing,MEX
the traditional thetechniques,
use of the nozzleit at
however, was45 degrees is pr
necessary
to design the work to avoid the problems previously described. Fused granulate fabrication
(FGF) pellet deposition equipment is proposed to manufacture larger components. FGF allows
higher printing speeds and better interlayer adhesion.
After the analysis performed on the results obtained by the bending tests, it can be
concluded that to optimize the mechanical properties of a wing with a gyroid infill, the
following settings should be adjusted. Firstly, it is preferable to set up the greatest infill density
possible without compromising the weight of the structure. Secondly, when manufacturing
the wings with the conventional 3D printer, printing the gyroid infill in the Y direction will
offer better mechanical properties, as demonstrated in the bending tests. When manufacturing
the wings with a Z-infinite 3D printer, setting the lowest printing angle possible will result in
the best mechanical properties of the structure under bending loads.
Moreover, after the analysis performed on the results obtained by the compression
tests, further conclusions can be obtained regarding the mechanical behavior of the wings
with a gyroid infill under compressive forces. Firstly, higher infill densities will mean,
Drones 2022, 6, 285 26 of 27

generally, a better mechanical performance, as a greater maximum strain is reached before

the structure collapses. In addition, the thicker regions of the wings will deform more easily
but will have a greater margin of deformation to partially recover their original shape once
the compressive load is removed. On the other hand, the thinner regions will be able to
withstand greater maximum stress but will take a lower deformation to behave plastically.
Furthermore, the 3D printer used was a factor that determined some characteristics of
the wing’s mechanical behavior. Through the compression tests, it was shown that structures
printed with the conventional 3D printer were able to withstand greater forces before col-
lapsing, probably due to a better adhesion of the consecutive filaments. However, a wing
manufactured with a conventional printer will exhibit more critical behavior under bending
forces due to the discontinuities in its assembly, as it should be printed in four parts. These
will join with an adhesive, which will fail more easily than a continuous structure, such as the
wing manufactured with a Z-infinite printer. This paper demonstrates that AM offers new
possibilities for rapid development of UAVs, reducing costs and time production.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.G.-G. and P.C.-P.; methodology, C.G.-G. and P.C.-P.; soft-
ware, C.G.-G.; validation, P.C.-P.; formal analysis, P.C.-P.; investigation, P.C.-P.; resources, J.A.G.-M.;
writing—original draft preparation, C.G.-G., P.C.-P. and J.A.G.-M.; writing—review and editing,
C.G.-G., P.C.-P. and J.A.G.-M.; funding acquisition, J.A.G.-M. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received partial funding from the Government of Spain under the project
PID2019-108807RB-I00 and Generalitat Valenciana under IDIFEDER/2021/040.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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