Electrical Machines

CHAPTER-3
induction machine.
1
 INDUCTION
 An induction m/ne is an ac m/ne at w/h the stator wdg is excited with
alternating current and rotor current are produced by induction;
transformer action .

 Most of the time an induction m/ne is used as an induction motor, it is

seldom used as a generator;

 b/c its performance chxs a generator is unsatisfactory for most appns,

although recently it has been found to be well suited for wind power
appns.

 The indn m/ne may also be used as a freq changer.

2
 cont……
 When excited from a balanced source, it will produce a magnetic filed in
the air gap rotating at synchronous speed d/ned by the No of stator poles
and the applied stator freq

 The rotor of an indn m/ne may be of two types.

1.Wound- rotor:- ( built with a poly phase wdg similar to & wound with the
same no of poles as, the stator )

 The rotor wdg are connected to insulated slip-rings mounted in the shaft.

 Carbone brushes bearing on these rings make the rotor terminals

available external to the motor.
3
 cont…..

 Relatively uncommon, found only in a limited no of appns

 b/c of expensive maintenance cost to upkeep the slip-rings,
carbon brushes & also rotor wdgs.
2. Squirrel-cage rotor:- consists conducting bars embed in slots
in the rotor iron & (sckted at each end by conducting end
rings)
 no wdgs & no slip rings
 Most commonly used type (b/c of its simplicity & ruggedness
of constrn)
4
 The Concept of Rotor Slip
 the voltage induced in a rotor bar of an induction motor depends on
the speed of the rotor relative to the magnetic fields.

 Since the behavior of an induction motor depends on the rotor's

voltage and current.

 Two terms are commonly used to define the relative motion of the
rotor and the magnetic fields.

 One is slip speed, defined as the difference between synchronous

speed and rotor speed:

5
 cont…..
 The other term used to describe the relative motion is slip, which is
the relative speed expressed on a per-unit or a percentage basis. That
is, slip is defined as

 the equation can also be expressed in terms of angular velocity w

(radians per second) as

6
 cont…..

 If the rotor turns at synchronous speed, s = 0, while if the rotor is

stationary, s = 1.

 All normal motor speeds fall somewhere between those two limits .

 It is possible to ex press the mechanical speed of the rotor shaft in

terms of synchronous speed and slip.

7
 The Electrical Frequency on the Rotor

 An IM is similar a rotating transformer

 the primary similar to stator & the secondary similar to rotor,

 but unlike a transformer, the secondary frequency may not be the

same as the primary frequency.

 If the rotor of a motor is locked so that it cannot move,

 then the rotor will have the same frequency as the stator.

 And rotor speed drops to zero, s = 1

8
cont…….

9
 cont……..

 Several alternative forms of this expression exist that are sometimes

useful.

10
 cont……..

Example-1 :- A 208-V, 10-hp, four-pole, 60-Hz, Y-connected induction

motor has a full-load slip of 5 %.
(a) What is the synchronous speed of this motor?
(b) What is the rotor speed of this motor at the rated load?
(c) What is the rotor frequency of this motor at the rated load?
(d) What is the shaft torque of this motor at the rated load?

11
 The Equiv. Circuit of an Induction Motor

 An induction motor relies for its operation on the induction of

voltages and currents in its rotor circuit from the stator circuit
(transformer action).

 Hence, the equiv. ckt of an IM is similar to the equiv. ckt of TR.

The TR model of an IM

 A TR per phase equiv. ckt representing the operation of an IM is

shown below.

12
 cont…..

 The transformer model of an IM. with rotor and stator connected by

an ideal transformer of turns ratio .

 As in any TR, there is a certain resistance and self-inductance in the

primary (stator) windings, which must be represented in the equiv. ckt
of the m/ne

 R1 = The stator resistance &

 Xl = the stator leakage reactance.

 Also, like any transformer with an iron core,

 the flux in the machine is related to the integral of the applied voltage
E l.
13
 cont…..

 The curve of mmf versus flux (magnetization curve) for this m/ne is
compared to a similar curve for a TR. As shown below

 The magnetization curve of an IM compared to that of a TR.

14
 cont…..

 the slope of the IM mmf-flux curve is much shallower than the curve
of a good TR.

 this is b/c there must be an air gap in an IM, which greatly increases
the reluctance of the flux path and therefore reduces the coupling b/n
1st & 2nd wdgs.

 The higher reluctance caused by the air gap means that a higher
magnetizing current is required to obtain a given flux level. (since the
air gap reluctance opposes the flux flow).

15
 cont…..

 Therefore, the magnetizing reactance Xm in the equivalent circuit will

have a much smaller than it would in an ordinary TR.

 The primary internal stator volt. El is coupled to the secondary by

an ideal TR with an effective turns ratio .

 The turns ratio for a wound-rotor is basically the ratio & the
conductors per phase on the stator to the conductors per phase on the
rotor.

 It is rather difficult to see clearly in the cage of rotor motor b/c

there are no distinct windings on the cage rotor.

16
 cont…..

 the voltage produced in the rotor in turn produces a current flow

in the shorted rotor (o r secondary) circuit of the m/ne.

 The primary impedances and the magnetization current of the

induction motor are very similar to the corresponding components in
a TR equiv. ckt.

17
 The Rotor Circuit Model

 when the voltage is applied to the stator wdgs, a voltage is induced in

the rotor wdgs of the m/ne.

 In general, the greater the relative motion b/n the rotor & the stator
magnetic fields, the greater the resulting rotor volt. & rotor freq.

 the largest induced voltage occur in the rotor when the rotor is
stationary ( & also the largest relative motion also occurs ) b/n stator
MF & rotor (s =1).

 The smallest volt. & freq. occur when the rotor move at {the same
speed (synch. speed) as the stator MF, resulting in no relative
motion.} s = 0,
18
 cont…….

 when the voltage is applied to the stator wdgs, a voltage is induced in

the rotor wdgs of the m/ne.

 Mag. & freq. of the volt. induced in the rotor at any speed b/n
these extremes is directly proportional to the slip of the rotor,

 if the mag. of the induced rotor voltage at locked-rotor conditions is

called

 The magnitude of the induced voltage at any slip will be given by the
equation

 If the rotor is locked S = 1, so

19
 cont…….

 And the freq. of the induced volt. at any slip is :-

The rotor ckt model of an induction motor

 This voltage is induced in a rotor containing both resistance and

reactance.
 The rotor resistance is a constant independent of slip,
 The rotor reactance is affected by slip.
20
 cont…….

 b/c The reactance of an IM rotor depends on the inductance of the

rotor and the freq. of the volt. & current in the rotor.

 With a rotor inductance of , the rotor reactance is given by

21
 cont…….

 The resulting rotor equivalent circuit is shown in above fig.

 And the rotor current flow can be found as:-

Therefore, the overall rotor impedance taking into account rotor slip
would be:-
22
cont…….

23
 The Final Equivalent Circuit

 To produce the final per-phase equiv. ckt for an IM, it is necessary

to refer the rotor part of the model over to the stator side.

 The same transformation applied for transformer can be done for the
IM motor ckt.

 If the effective turn ratio of an IM is then the transformed rotor volt.

Becomes.

24
 cont……

 Then the final per phase Equiv. ckt is as shown below.

25
 POWER AND TORQUE IN INDUCTION MOTORS

• Losses and the Power-Flow Diagram

26
 Cont……
 by examining the per-phase Equiv. circuit of an induction motor, the
power and torque equations governing the operation of the motor can
be derived.
 The input current to a phase of the motor is :-

 the stator copper losses, the core losses, and the rotor copper losses
can be found.
 The stator copper losses in 3-ɸ :- p SCL  3  2
1 R1

 core loss:- 1
pcore  3E Gc  Gc 
1
2

Rc
27
 cont...
 so the air-gap power can be found as:-

 The only element in the equiv. circuit where the air-gap

power can be consumed is in the resistor R2 /s.
 Therefore, the air-gap power can also be given by:-

 The actual resistive losses in the rotor ckt are given by:-
R2
I R  aeff I 2 , RR  2
aeff
28
 cont....
 Since power is unchanged when referred across an ideal
TR, the rotor copper losses can also be expressed as,
PRCL  3I 22 R2  sPAG 
 After stator copper losses, core losses, and rotor copper
losses are subtracted from the input power to the motor.

 the remaining power is converted from elec. to mech.

Form.

29
 cont....
 the rotor copper losses are equal to the air-gap power times
the slip:-

 Therefore, the lower slip of the motor, the lower rotor

losses in the machine.

 if the rotor is not turning, the slip S = 1 and the air-gap

power is entirely consumed in the rotor.

30
 cont....
 This is logical, since if the rotor is not turning, the output
power Pout = Tload wm, must be zero (b/c rotor speed zero
then, angular speed is zero).

 Since Pcont = PAG - PRCL = 0

 this also gives another relationship b/n the air-gap power

and the power converted from elec. to mech. form:-

31
 cont....
 Finally, if the friction and windage losses and the stray
losses are known, the output power is :-

 The induced torque in a m/ne. is the torque generated by

the internal elec-to-mech power conversion.

32
 cont....
 This torque differs from the torque actually available at the
terminals of the motor by an amount equal to the friction
and windage torques in the machine.

 Hence the developed induced torque is:-

33
Separating the Rotor Copper Losses and the PConv
in an Im. Equiv. Ckt

 Part of the power coming across the air gap in an induction

motor is consumed in the rotor copper losses, & also
converted to mech.

 Hence it may be useful to separate the resistance used in

RCL element & the air-gap power in equiv. ckt.

34
 Cont……

 Since PAG would require R2/s & RCL require R2 elemt.

 The d/ce b/n PAG & RCL would give the converted power.

 therefore the power consumed in a resistor of value :-

35
 cont....

fig. The per-phase equivalent circuit with rotor losses and

Pconv separated.

36
 Cont….

Example-2 A three-phase Y-connected 220 V (L-L) 7.5KW 50Hz 6-pole

IM has the following parameter values in Ω/phase referred to the stator:

R1=0.294 R2 = 0.144

X1=0.503 X2 = 0.209 Xm = 13.25

The total friction & windage & core loss may be assumed to be constant at
403w independent of load. For slip of 2% compute

i. The speed

ii. o/p torque & power

iii. Stator current

iv. Pf & efficiency

37
 IM Torque-Speed Chxs (curves)

 The torque-speed r/ship will be examined from the

motor's magnetic field behavior & then a general
equation for torque as a function of slip will be
derived from the IM. equiv. ckt.

38
 The Derivation of the IM Induced-Torque Eqn
 The equiv. ckt. of an IM and the power flow diagram for
the motor to derive a general expression for induced torque
as a function of speed.

 The latter equation is especially useful, since the wsync is

constant for a given freq. & no of poles.

 Hence there is need to drive PAG .

 based on the IM equiv.ckt, the PAG is defined as:-

39
 cont......
 the power absorbed in the resistance R2/s.

 The air-gap power supplied to one phase of the motor can:-

40
 cont...

 If I2 can be determined, the air-gap power and the

induced torque will be known.

 The easiest ways is to determined using the Thevenin

equiv.ckt .

 Thevenin's theorem state that any linear ckt that can be

separated by two terminals from the rest of the system
can be replaced by single voltage source in series with an
equiv. impedance.
41
 cont...
 To calculate using Thevenin equiv. model.

42
 cont...
 Simplified equiv. ckt of an induction motor.

 Since the magnetization reactance XM >> X1 & XM >> R1

the magnitude of the Vth is approximately,

 The Thevenin impedance is given by,

43
 cont.....
 Because XM >> Xl and XM + Xl >> R1 the Thevenin
resistance and reactance are approximately given by,

 From simplified equiv. ckt the current I2 is given by:-

44
 cont....
• PAG is given by:-

45
 cont.....
 A plot of induction motor torque as a function of speed
(and slip) is shown below

46
 Comments on the IM Torque-Speed Curve
 The induced torque of the motor is zero at synch. speed.
(wm=ws) , so S=0 (no much power)

 The torque- speed curve is nearly linear b/n no load and full
load. (at near nsysc)

 max. torque is known as pullout torque or breakdown

(max. torque that cannot be exceeded.), It is 2 to 3 times
the rated full- load torque of the motor.

 the starting torques is very larger (Tstart > Tfull-load), Wm = 0

47
 Cont……
 torque for a given slip value would change to the square
of the applied voltage.

 If the rotor is driven faster than synch. speed, {the

direction of the induced torque in the m/ne reverses & the
m/ne becomes a generator, ME→EE} the motor would
then become a generator

 If the reverses direction of the stator magnetic fields, it

would act a braking action to the rotor, (plugging)

48
cont....

49
 cont...
 The power converted to mech. form in an induction motor
is equal to:-

 There for, the peak power supplied by the induction motor

occurs at a different speed.

 Than the maximum torque, and no power is converted to

mech. form when the rotor is at zero speed.

50
 Maximum (pullout) Torque in an IM
 Since the induced torque is equal to PAG/wsynch the max.
pullout torque when may be found by finding the max air
gap power.
 Since the air-gap power is equal to the power consumed in
the resistor R2 /s,
 The max. induced torque will occur when the power
consumed by that resistor is max.
 The max. power transfer theorem states that max. power
transfer to the load resistor R2/ s will occur when the
magnitude of that impedance is equal to the magnitude of
the source impedance. 51
 cont.....
 The equivalent source impedance in the circuit is:-

Hence the max power transf. is possible when slip is follows

 the referred rotor resistance R2 appears only in the

numerator,
 so the slip of the rotor at maximum torque is directly
proportional to the rotor resistance.
52
 cont.....
 The value of the max, torque can be found by inserting the
expression for the slip at maximum torque into the torque
equation
 The resulting equation for the maximum or pull out torque
is:-

 from this:-
a. Torque is related to the square of applied volt.
b. Torque is also inversely prop. to the m/ne impedances.
c. slip during max. torque is depedent upon rotor resistance
(R2)
d. Torque is also independent to rotor resistance. 53
Example-3:- for the motor from example-2 determine

a. The load component I2 of the stator current, the elec.mech. torque

Tind (Tmech) & Pmech for a slip of S = 0.03

b. The max. elec.mech. torque and the corresponding speed

c. The elec.mech. starting torque (Tstart ) & corresponding stator load

current I2, start

54
 COMPUTATIONS
AND
CIRCLE DIAGRAMS

55
 Circle Diagrams
• Circle diagrams are helpful in analyzing the operating characteristics

of an induction motor.

• After plotting the circle diagram it is possible to obtain all

performance characteristics such as efficiency, pf, stator Cu loss, rotor

Cu loss, iron loss, i/p power e.t.c at any desired load.

• The data necessary to draw the circle diagram can be found from

 no load and

 blocked-rotor tests 56
Circle Diagram for a Series Circuit
• Consider an ac series circuit with constant reactance and voltage, but
with a variable resistance.

From the circuit,

57
• It is the equation of a circle in polar coordinates, with diameter equal
to V/X.

• For ø=90° , sin ø =1

Imax=V/X

• As ø progressively decreases, sin ø becomes less and less hence the

magnitude of I decreases:

for ø=0° , sin ø =0 and I=0

• It is seen that the locus of current phasor is a semi circle with

diameter equal to V/X.

58
• By Convention voltage Phasor is plotted along vertical axis and I
along horizontal axis

• OA represents magnitude and ø is phase angle.

where, ø= tan-1[X/R]

59
• Now, consider the approximate equivalent circuit of 3-ø, IM referring to the
stator side,

• to the right of points ab, the ckt is similar to a series circuit, having a
constant voltage V1 and reactance X01 but variable resistance (corresponding
to different values of slip s).

• Hence, the end of current vector for I2 will lie on a circle with a diameter of
V/X01. 60
• I2 is the rotor current referred to stator,

• I0 is no-load current (or exciting current) and

• I1 is the total stator current and is the vector sum of the first two.

• When I2 is lagging and φ2 = 90º, then I2 will be maximum and equal to

V/X01 , or OC i.e. at right angles to the voltage vector OE.

61
• For any other value of φ2, point A will move along the circle shown
dotted.

• The exciting current I0 is drawn lagging V by an angle φ0. If R0 and X0

of the exciting circuit are assumed constant, then I0 and φ0 are also
constant.

• So, I1 lie on another circle which is displaced from the dotted circle by
an amount I0. Its diameter is still V/X01 and is parallel to the
horizontal axis OC.

• Hence, for an induction motor if it is tested at various loads, the locus

of the end of the vector for the current (drawn by it) is a circle.

62
No-load Test
• This test is conducted by running the motor unloaded with rated
voltage.

• i/p voltage, current and power are measured

63
Let I0 – i/p current measured by an ammeter,
V – stator applied voltage measured by a voltmeter,
W0- input power measured by two wattmeter readings W1 and W2.
i/p power,
Where, V and I0 are line values

Also excitation parameters also found as

Ic = I0 cos ø0 and Im = I0 sin ø0

R0 =V/ Ic and Xm = V/ Im (phase values I and V must be
considered)
64
• During no-load test, the current in the rotor is very small hence rotor

Cu losses can be ignored

• Cu loss in the stator is considerable if the no-load current is not very

small . However, if I0 is quite small, stator Cu loss may be neglected.

• Therefore, the only power losses that are considered under no-load

condition are:

i. stator core loss

ii. loss due to friction and windage

65
• The above losses are of constant in magnitude not vary with load and

they are collectively known as fixed losses.

• Thus, neglecting stator Cu loss,

the power i/p to the motor on no-load = fixed losses.

66
Blocked Rotor Test
• It is also known as locked-rotor or short-circuit test.

• For this test the rotor is locked, i.e., it can not rotate.

• a reduced voltage (up to 15 or 20% of nominal value) is applied to the

stator terminals and is so adjusted until rated current flows.

• input current, voltage and power are measured.

Let Vsc =Stator applied voltage

Isc =Stator current and

Wsc =I/p power to the motor

67
• During this test
Stator carries rated current =there is stator Cu loss

Since the rotor is short circuited and is locked, then the current
flows in the rotor wdg = causing rotor Cu loss

Since the applied voltage is very small = core loss is small and
may be neglected.

• It is assumed that

i/p power = Stator Cu loss + Rotor Cu loss

68
• The approximate equivalent circuit of the IM subjected to blocked
rotor test is shown below (per phase values to be considered)

• Req total resistance/phase referred to the stator

• Xeq total reactance/phase referred to the stator

Vsc and Isc are phase values

Z= Vsc/Isc , Input power/phase = Wsc/3=Isc2 Req

69
Therefore, Req = Wsc/3Isc2

Since Z= Req +jXeq

then, from blocked rotor test Req ,Xeq and Z are computed and the total
Cu loss per phase = Wsc/3

70
 Construction of Circle Diagram
• Circle diagram of an IM can be drawn by using the data obtained from
no-load and blocked rotor test.
• During blocked rotor test only a fraction of rated voltage is applied
across the stator.
Instead, if the full rated (normal) voltage is applied then
a. i/p current would be ISN=ISC[V/Vsc]
Where V- normal voltage
ISN –stator current corresponding to normal voltage
b. i/p power would be WSN=WSC[ISN/Isc]2
Or WSN=WSC[V/Vsc]2
WSN –the total power corresponding to normal voltage. 71
Procedures
• The stator applied voltage, V is taken as a reference phasor & is drawn

along the Y-axis.

• From no-load test, φ0 can be calculated. Hence, vector for I0 can be

laid off lagging φ0 behind the applied voltage V.

• From blocked rotor test, short circuit current ISN corresponding to

normal voltage and φS are found. The vector OA represents ISN in

magnitude and phase.

72
• Vector O′L represents rotor current I2 as referred to stator.

• The two points O′ and A lie on the required circle.

• For finding the centre C of the circle, chord O′A is bisected at right

angles.

• Through O’ a horizontal line is drawn perpendicular to the voltage

vector & the perpendicular bisector O’A meet this line giving point C.

73
• With centre C and radius = CO′, a semi-circle can be drawn & a

diameter O′D is obtained. The line O′A is known as out-put line.

• From point A perpendicular AG is drawn to the horizontal line OX

meeting O’D at point F

 all vertical distances represent the active power components of

the currents.

74
• The vertical component O′P of no-load current OO′ represents the no-

load input, which is equal to core loss, friction & windage (Fixed

losses).

O’P=FG = Fixed loses

• Similarly, the vertical component AG of short-circuit current OA is

proportional to the motor input on short circuit or if measured to a

proper scale, may be said equal to input power.

 which is equal to Stator Cu loss + Rotor Cu loss

75
• Torque line - is the line which separates the stator and the rotor

copper losses.

from no-load test, W0= Fixed loses represented by O’P=FG

AF is proportional to the sum of the stator and rotor Cu losses.

• The point E is such that

• As said earlier, line O′E is known as torque line.

76
How to locate point E ?
a. Squirrel-cage Rotor. Stator resistance/phase i.e. R1 is found from
stator-resistance test.

• Now, the short-circuit motor input Ws is approximately equal to motor

Cu losses (neglecting iron losses).

Point E is located
b. Wound Rotor. In this case, rotor and stator resistances per phase r2 and
r1 can be easily computed. For any values of stator and rotor currents
I1 and I2 respectively, we can write
77
• Point E obtained by dividing AF in the ratio r2’ : r1

78
• Assume that, the motor is running and taking a current OL in the
above Figure. Then, the perpendicular

JK represents fixed losses,

JN ‘’ stator Cu loss,

NL ‘’ the rotor input,

NM ‘’ rotor Cu loss,

MK ‘’ total loss

ML ‘’ rotor output and

LK ‘’ the total motor input.

79
80
• Hence, it is seen that, it is possible to obtain all the characteristics of
an IM from its circle diagram.

• From the circle diagram, it is also possible to obtain the maximum

quantities.

(i) Maximum Output

• It occurs at point M where the tangent is parallel to output line O′A.

• Point M may be located by drawing a line CM from point C such that

it is perpendicular to the output line O′A.

Maximum output is represented by the vertical MP.

81
(ii) Maximum Torque or Rotor Input
• It occurs at point N where the tangent is parallel to torque line O′E.
• point N is found by drawing CN perpendicular to the torque line.
-Its value is represented by NQ .
-Maximum torque is also known as stalling or pull-out torque.
(iii) Maximum Input Power
• It occurs at the highest point of the circle i.e. at point R where the
tangent to the circle is horizontal.
-It is proportional to RS.
-As the point R is beyond the point of maximum torque, the IM
will be unstable.
-Indicates the ability of the motor to carry short time over-loads.
82
83
Example
A 3-phase, 400-V induction motor gave the following test readings;

No-load : 400 V, 1250 W, 9 A

Short-circuit : 150 V, 4 kW, 38 A

Draw the circle diagram.

• If the normal rating is 14.9 kW, find from the circle diagram, the full-
load value of current, p.f. and slip.

84
85