UNIVERSITY OF BAHRAIN

BAHRAIN TEACHERS COLLEGE

Topics in Earth Sciences for Primary Teachers
TC2SC245

My
SCIENCE
Journal

Done by Zamzam Sayed Yaser

Section: 6
Id: 20184857
 “The earth is
what we all have
in common.”
- Wandell Berry
 Content
1. Introduction to Earth Science

2. Earth Systems and atmosphere

3. Energy Transfer in the atmosphere

4. Air currents

5. moisture, Clouds, and Precipitation

6. Renewable and Nonrenewable Energy

7. Climate: Weather
8. The Geosphere: Rocks, minerals, Soil

9. Earth surface changes

10. Weathering, Erosion and deposition

11. Sun, Earth & Moon systems
12. Solar System
13. Beyond Our Solar System
14. Tides
1

Introduction to
Earth Science
Thursday – February 11, 2021
 Summarization

What is earth science?

Earth Science is a general science that includes all sciences that seek to
understand the Earth and its surrounding space, such as geology,
oceanography, meteorology, and astronomy.

Earth’s Major Spheres

Geosphere Atmosphere

Solid earth Gases (the air)

Biosphere Hydrosphere

All life All water

Earth’s Atmosphere Layers

√ Earth as a system
consists of an
almost infinite set of
subsystems.

√ Humans are part of

the Earth system.

Oxygen: 21%

Other gases: 1%

Nitrogen: 78%
 Reflection
What did I learn:
In fact, I did not learn much
new information during this
lesson as it only contains an
introduction to EARTH
SCIENCE, but on the other
hand it activated my previous
knowledge on this topic.
What helped me learn:
The videos that the course
instructor showed us during
the lecture helped me to
receive the information
smoothly.
What have I done to learn it:
I wrote my own notes during
the lecture as well as watched
educational videos to gain
additional information and
delve deeper into the topic
How was my performance and
how could it be improved:
I did well, but in the coming
lessons I will make sure to
prepare for the lecture and
actively participate in it.
2

Earth
Systems and
atmosphere
Thursday – February 18, 2021
 Summarization

The Earth is made up of four main interacting systems,

which are sometimes called spheres

What is earth System science?

Earth System Science is the study of how the
four spheres of the Earth system interact
continually, each affecting the others.

Conceptual Map:
Spheres of the Earth All interact

There are
On or near To form

4 spheres Earth’s Complex

Namely surface system

Geosphere Hydrosphere Atmosphere Biosphere

Consists of Consists of Consists of Consists of

Rocks & Soil Water in all forms Layer of gases All living things

Example of System Interactions :

Hurricanes (atmosphere) sweep across the ocean (hydrosphere) and
onto the land (geosphere), damaging the dwellings of people (biosphere)
who live along the coast..
 Reflection

What did I learn?

I got to know the four spheres of the Earth

in detail, in addition to learning about a new
science, which is Earth System Science.

How did I learn?

I wrote my own notes during the lecture
as well as reviewing the presentation slides
for the lesson.

Support Factors
The educational videos that were shown
to us during the lecture helped me to
receive the information easily and keep
them in my mind.

My performance and ways to improve it

I prepared for the lecture and paid close attention
to the course instructor while explaining the lesson.
Next time, I hope my learning won't be limited to
slide content, but rather researching other sources
and getting additional information.
3

Energy
Transfer in
the atmosphere
Monday – February 22, 2021
 Summarization

What is Meteorology?
Meteorology is the study of atmospheric phenomena such as
movement of air and the exchange of heat.

How is energy transferred in the Atmosphere?

Radiation Conduction Convection

What is Earth’s energy budget?

Earth’s Energy Budget describes the balance between the radiant energy
that reaches Earth from the sun and the energy that flows from Earth back
out to space.

Incoming energy interacts with the Earth's environment

in three different ways:

1. Absorption
2. Reflection
3. Scattering (Rayleigh Scattering, Mei Scattering,
Non-selective Scattering)

in order to maintain a balance between the energy

that reaches the earth from the sun and the energy that
flows from the earth back into space.
 Reflection

What did I learn:

In this lesson, I learned about meteorology, as I learned the
methods of energy transfer in the atmosphere (radiation,
conduction, and convection). In addition to all of that, I learned
a new concept that I did not recognize in the past, which is
"Earth's Energy Budget".

How did I learn:

The course instructor played a big role in my understanding of

the lesson. I also researched external sources to delve into and
understand some of the concepts better.

Support Factors:

The videos shown during the lecture helped increase my

understanding and enjoyment of the lesson.

My performance and ways to improve it:

My performance on this lesson was excellent as I prepared a
comprehensive summary of the lesson and shared it with my
classmates. Performance can be improved by increasing study
hours, as the lesson is long and needs a deep study.
4

Air
currents
Thursday – February 25, 2021
 Summarization

How do air currents work?

The global circulation of an atmospheric air current is the
result of the Earth's temperature differences that create air
pressure changes. The air and wind currents definition is
air moving from high to low-pressure areas.

Severe weather & Storms

Air Masses Fronts Severe Storms

In meteorology, an air When two air masses A storm is a violent

mass is a volume of air
defined by its
temperature and water
vapor content.
Air masses cover many
hundreds or thousands of
miles and adapt to the
characteristics of the
surface below them. They
are classified according to
latitude and their
continental or maritime
source regions.
meet, they form a front,
which is a boundary that
separates two air masses.
Scientific definitions
for front: The boundary
between two air masses
that have different
temperatures or humidity.
Types of fronts:
1. Cold fronts: Occur
when heavy cold air
displaces lighter warm air,
pushing it upward.
2. Warm fronts: Occur
when warm air replaces
cold air by sliding over it.
3. Stationary fronts:
Occur when neither warm
nor cold air advances. The
two air masses reach a
stalemate.
4. Occluded fronts (cold
occlusion): an occluded
front is formed when a cold
front meets a warm front
that was moving ahead of it.
disturbance of the
atmosphere with strong
winds and usually rain,
thunder, lightning, or snow.
Examples of severe
storms:
1. Tornadoes: Violent
windstorms that take the
form of a rotation column
of air called a vortex. The
vortex extends
downward from a
cumulonimbus cloud.
2. Hurricanes: Whirling
tropical cyclones that
produce winds of at least
119 kilometers per hour.
3. Thunderstorms: A
thunderstorm is a rain
shower during which you
hear thunder.
 Reflection

What did I learn:

In this lesson, I learned about air currents, how they work
and their types, in addition to learning about different types
of storms.

What have I done to learn it:

I delved into some concepts by researching and
watching some educational videos, in order to
understand the lesson properly.

How was my performance and how could it be improved:

My performance in this lesson was good, but I encountered
some problems as there were a large number of air
currents that were explained in the lesson, and it was
difficult to memorize all of them.

What helped me learn:

I prepared for the lesson before it was explained, in addition to
following up with the course professor while explaining the lesson,
and this is what helped me a lot to understand the lesson and study
it well.
5

moisture,
Clouds, and
Precipitation
Monday – March 1, 2021
 Summarization

Precipitation:
Precipitation is any form of water that falls from a
cloud.
* When it comes to understanding
atmospheric processes, water vapor is the
most important gas in the atmosphere.

Water’s Changes of State:

Solid Liquid GAS

Humidity:
Humidity is a general term for the amount of water
vapor in air.
* Air is saturated when it contains the maximum
quantity of water vapor that it can hold at any
given temperature and pressure.

Humidity related concepts:

1.Relative humidity is a ratio of the air’s actual water-vapor content
compared with the amount of water vapor air can hold at that temperature
and pressure.

2. Dew point is the temperature to which a parcel of air would need to be

cooled to reach saturation.
 Summarization

Clouds
Cloud Formation:
Air Compression and Expansion
When air is allowed to expand, it cools, and
when it is compressed, it warms.

Processes That Lift Air

Four mechanisms that can cause air to rise are:

Orographic lifting Convergence

Frontal wedging localized convective lifting

Stability
- Density Differences: Stable air tends to remain in its original position, while
unstable air tends to rise.

- Stability Measurements: Air stability is determined by measuring the temperature

of the atmosphere at various heights.
• The rate of change of air temperature with height is called the environmental
lapse rate.

- Degrees of Stability: A temperature inversion occurs in a layer of limited depth

in the atmosphere where the temperature increases rather than decreases with
height.

- Stability and daily weather: When stable air is forced above the Earth’s surface,
the clouds that form are widespread and have little vertical thickness compared to
their horizontal dimension.

Types of Clouds

Cirrus Cumulus Stratus

 Reflection
What did I learn:
In this lesson, I learned about
water in the atmosphere, and in
particular about humidity,
precipitation, and various types of
clouds such as Cirrus clouds,
Cumulus clouds, and Stratus
clouds.
What helped me learn:
The lectures and videos that
attached with each lesson helped
me study it more effectively.
What have I done to learn it:
I have reviewed the presentation
slides that were uploaded by the
course instructor, as well as
watched some explanatory
videos that enable me to
understand some of the natural
processes that were covered in
the lesson as the process of
forming clouds more clearly.
How was my performance and
how could it be improved:
In fact, I encountered some
problems while studying this lesson,
as the concepts were new and
somewhat complex, but my
performance could be improved
through daily study and internet
search for additional explanations.
6

Renewable and
Nonrenewable
Energy
Thursday – March 4, 2021
 Summarization

RENEWABLE ENERGY is useful energy that is collected from

renewable resources, which are naturally replenished on a human
timescale.

Renewable Energy Recourses

Solar power is energy from the sun that is converted into thermal or
Solar energy electrical energy.

Wind power or wind energy is the use of wind to provide mechanical

Wind Energy power through wind turbines to turn electric generators for electrical
power.
Hydropower, also known as waterpower, is the use of falling or fast-
Hydro energy running water to produce electricity or to power machines.

Geothermal energy is heat derived within the sub-surface of the

Geothermal earth. Water and/or steam carry the geothermal energy to the Earth's
surface. Depending on its characteristics, geothermal energy can be
used for heating and cooling purposes or be harnessed to generate
energy clean electricity.
Biomass energy is energy generated or produced by living or once-
living organisms. Biomass is organic, meaning it is made of material that
Biomass energy comes from living organisms, such as plants and animals. The most
common biomass materials used for energy are plants, wood, and
waste.
 Summarization

NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY comes from sources that will run

out or will not be replenished in our lifetimes—or even in
many, many lifetimes.

Nuclear Petroleum Coal Natural Gas

Nuclear Energy: The energy released during nuclear fission or

fusion, especially when used to generate electricity.

Nuclear fission uses uranium to create energy. Nuclear energy is

a nonrenewable resource because once the uranium is used, it is
gone!

Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are considered

nonrenewable because they can not be replenished in a short
period of time. These are called fossil fuels.

Interesting facts about non-renewable energy:

1. Fossil fuels cause the biggest environmental
damage!
2. Fossil fuel frenzy started after World War II
 Reflection

What did I learn?

During this lesson, my knowledge about

renewable and non-renewable energy sources
expanded, as I had previously studied this lesson,
but in a simpler way.

How did I learn?

I reviewed the course slides for this lesson

and searched the Internet for additional
explanations and interesting information
related to this topic.

Support Factors
The course instructor explanation and the
videos that she presented during the
lecture helped me a lot in understanding
the lesson.

My performance and ways to improve it

My performance in this lesson was very good, and I
along with a group of my colleagues explained part of
this lesson during the lecture. My performance can be
improved by researching and reading about renewable
energy applications in developed countries.
7

Climate:
Weather
Monday – April 5, 2021
 Summarization

Climate is the long-term average of weather, typically averaged

over a period of 30 years.

When you hear the words “weather” and “climate” you might think they
mean the same thing, but they are quite different!

It might be rainy today or it might be sunny, that’s the weather.

But climate is the pattern of weather in a place over a much longer time.

LOCAL WEATHER GLOBAL CLIMATE

Mon TUE WED THU FRI

Factors That Affect Climate:

Latitude Water Bodies

Elevation Atmospheric Circulation

Topography Vegetation

World Climates Classification:

The Köppen climate classification system
uses mean monthly and annual values of
temperature and precipitation to classify climates.
 Summarization

World Climates
1. Humid Tropical Climates:
Humid tropical climates are without winters. Every month in such a climate has a
mean temperature above 18 C. The amount of precipitation can exceed 200 cm per
year.

Wet tropical climates have high temperatures and much annual

Wet Tropical
precipitation.

Tropical Wet Tropical wet and dry climates are climates that transition
and Dry
between the wet tropics and the subtropical steppes.

2. Humid Mid-Latitude Climates

Climates with mild winters have an average temperature in the coldest month that is
below 18 C but above -3 C. Climates with severe winters have an average
temperature in the coldest month that is below -3 C.

Types:

Humid Mid-Latitude With Mild Winters

- A humid subtropical climate
- A marine west coast climate
- A dry-summer subtropical climate

Humid Mid-Latitude With Severe Winters

- A subarctic climate

3. Polar Climates: Polar climates are those in which the mean temperature of the
warmest month is below 10 C.

4. Highland Climates: highland climates are cooler and wetter than nearby areas
at lower elevations.
 Summarization

Climate Changes

1. Natural Processes That Change Climates

Volcanic Ocean Solar Earth

Eruptions Circulation Activity Motions

2. Human Impact on Climate Changes

The Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is a natural warming of both
Earth’s lower atmosphere and Earth’s surface from
solar radiation being absorbed and emitted by the
atmosphere.

Global Warming
As a result of increased levels of carbon dioxide and
other greenhouse gases, global temperatures have
increased. This increase is called global warming.
 Reflection

What did I learn:

In this lesson, I learned about the climate, its changes, and the
different types of climate in the world.

How did I learn:

I studied this topic by reviewing lesson PowerPoint slides as

well as watching educational videos on YouTube.

Support Factors:

The course instructor's explanation along with my search on

educational sites helped me a lot to better understand the
topic.

My performance and ways to improve it:

My performance in this lesson was good and I participated

during the lecture, but it is possible to improve performance
by making summaries in the form of a conceptual map to
arrange and simplify the important information in the lesson.
8

The Geosphere
Rocks, minerals,
Soil
Thursday – April 8, 2021
 Summarization

The geosphere includes the rocks and minerals on

Earth from the molten rock and heavy metals in the
deep interior of the planet to the sand on beaches
and peaks of mountains.

The geosphere also includes the abiotic parts of soils,

and the skeletons of animals that may become fossilized
over geologic time.

Rocks

Definition Types Examples

A rock is
Igneous rocks Granite
any Formed from basalt
naturally magma
occurring
solid mass
or
aggregate Sedimentary
of minerals rocks Limestone
or Formed from Conglomerate
mineraloid sediments
matter.

Metamorphic
rocks Marble
Formed due Slate
to pressure Quartzite
and heat
 Summarization

Mineral is a naturally occurring

inorganic solid with a definite chemical
composition and a crystalline structure.

Minerals

Types Identifying Uses

Silicate
Contain Color Jewelry
silicon and
oxygen

Streak Toothpaste
Carbonate
Contain
carbon and
oxygen Hardness:
Table salt
Moh’s Scale

Iron-Bearing
Contain Iron, Glass &
sulfur, and Cleavage pottery
oxygen
 Summarization

Soil: The upper layer of earth in which plants

grow, a black or dark brown material typically
consisting of a mixture of organic remains,
clay, and rock particles.

Soil Characteristics

Composition Texture Soil Structure

1. Mineral matter 1. Sand (large size) Soil particles clump

2. Humus 2. Silt (sediment) together to give a
3. Water 3. Clay (small size) soil its structure.
4. Air 4. Loam (a mixture of
all three sizes)

Soil formation
Time Climate Organisms Slope
- The longer a soil has - Greatest effect on soil - Organisms influence - Steep slopes often
been forming, the formation. the soil's physical and have poorly developed
thicker it becomes. chemical properties. soils.
- Important in all - Furnish organic matter - Optimum slope is a
geologic processes to soil. flat-to-undulating
(moving up and down)
upland surface.
- Orientation, or
direction the slope is
facing, influences soil
formation.
 Reflection

What did I learn:

In this lesson, I have learned about the geosphere and its
most important components such as rocks, minerals, and
soil.

What have I done to learn it:

I have studied the presentation slides which were
uploaded by the course instructor and read additional
explanations online in order to understand the lesson
well.

How was my performance and how could it be improved:

My performance during this lesson was good, but not excellent, and
the reason for that was that I was stressed with many tasks so that I
could not study it calmly and with full focus. I can improve my
performance by organizing my time and giving the lesson the right
time to study it effectively.

What helped me learn:

The instructor's explanation of the lesson along with the educational
videos that she showed during the lecture helped me to facilitate my
understanding of the topic.
9

Earth
surface changes
Monday – April 26, 2021
 Summarization

The Earth’s surface is constantly changing.

These changes mostly occur in very minute
ways which over time accumulates to create
the earth’s physical features we observe
around us today.

Earth Surface Changes

Due to slow processes Due to Rapid processes

Such as erosion and Such as landslides, volcanic

weathering eruptions, and earthquakes

Earth Surface Changes due to rapid processes:

1. Plate Tectonics

Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth's outer shell is

divided into large slabs of solid rock, called “plates,” that
glide over Earth's mantle, the rocky inner layer above
Earth’s core.

Types of plate boundary:

Transform Boundary Divergent Boundary Convergent Boundary

 Summarization

Earth Surface Changes due to rapid processes:

2. EARTHQUAKES

An earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by the rapid release

of energy.

Basic Concepts:

Focus Epicenter

Faults

Cause of Earthquakes:

Elastic Rebound Hypothesis:

• Most earthquakes are produced by the rapid release of elastic
energy stored in rock that has been subjected to great forces.
• When the strength of the rock is exceeded, it suddenly breaks,
causing the vibrations of an earthquake.

Types of earthquake waves:

• Body Waves - Primary (P) & Secondary (S) Waves.
• Surface Waves - Rayleigh & Love Waves.

Effects of earthquakes:
The primary effects of earthquakes are ground shaking, ground rupture,
landslides, tsunamis, and liquefaction. Fires are probably the single most
important secondary effect of earthquakes
 Summarization

Earth Surface Changes due to rapid processes:

3. VOLCANOES

Factors Affecting Eruptions:

• Composition of the magma

• Temperature of the magma

• Dissolved gases in the magma

Viscosity:
• Viscosity is the measure of a material's resistance to flow.

Factors affecting viscosity:

Temperature (hotter magmas are less viscous)

Composition (silica content)

1. High silica—high viscosity

(e.g., rhyolitic lava)

2. Low silica—more fluid (e.g., basaltic lava)

Volcanic Material:

Lava Flows Gases Pyroclastic Materials

Types of Volcanoes:
Geologists generally group volcanoes into four main kinds: cinder cones,
composite volcanoes, shield volcanoes, and lava domes.
 Summarization

Fossils are the remains or traces of prehistoric

life. They are important components of sediment
and sedimentary rocks.

Fossil formation:

Fossils and Correlation:

The principle of fossil succession states that fossil organisms succeed one
another in a definite and determinable order. Therefore, any time period can be
recognized by its fossil content.

Dating with radioactivity:

Radiometric dating, radioactive dating or
radioisotope dating is a technique which is used to date
materials such as rocks or carbon, in which trace radioactive
impurities were selectively incorporated when they were
formed
 Reflection
What did I learn:
In this lesson, I learned about
the Earth’s surface and the
changes that are taking place on
it, and in particular the rapid
changes such as plate tectonics,
earthquakes, and volcanoes.
What helped me learn:
The course lectures besides
watching the educational videos
that the course professor attached
to each lesson helped me to
understand the lesson very well.
What have I done to learn it:
I reviewed the lesson PowerPoint
slides as well as searching through
external sources over the Internet
to broaden my understanding of
the lesson.
How was my performance and
how could it be improved:
My performance in this lesson was
good, but it needs more
development, as I faced difficulty
while memorizing information
because it was too much in this
lesson. This problem can be solved
by preparing simple summaries such
as conceptual maps or joining study
groups.
10

Weathering,
Erosion and
deposition
Thursday – April 29, 2021
 Summarization

Earth Changes Due to Slow

Processes

Weathering Erosion Deposition

(breaking apart) (Transporting) (Drop off)

Frost Action
Physical Weathering
Freezing/ thawing of ice cracks rocks
Exfoliation
Alternating hot/ cold cracks rocks
Abrasion
Grinding od rock against rock

Frost Action
Plant roots growing into rocks

Chemical Weathering Oxidation

Iron + Oxygen = Iron Oxide (rust)

Carbonation
Acid rain dissolves limestone (caves)
 Reflection

What did I learn?

During this lesson, I learned about the
changes in the Earth's surface due to slow
processes such as erosion, weathering, and
deposition.

How did I learn?

I studied this topic by reviewing course

presentation slides uploaded by the course
professor which clarify and explain the
concepts very well.

Support Factors
The educational videos that were attached
with the lesson slides, which summarize the
topic in a very smooth and simple way,
helped me a lot in understanding the topic
and studying it.

My performance and ways to improve it

My performance in this lesson was excellent, especially
because the lesson relies a lot on previous knowledge,
which made it easier for me to understand the new
information. Performance can be improved by delving
deep into the topic and searching for additional
information.
11

Sun, Earth &

Moon systems
Monday – May 3, 2021
 Summarization

The Study of Light:

Electromagnetic Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation includes gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet
light, visible light, infrared radiation, microwaves, and radio waves.

Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum is the arrangement of electromagnetic radiation
according to wavelength.

Nature of Light
In some instances, light behaves like waves, and in others, like particles. In the
wave sense, light can be thought of as swells (waves) in the ocean. This motion is
characterized by a property known as wavelength, which is the distance from one
wave crest to the next.

Photons
A photon is a small packet of light energy.

Spectroscopy
◆ Absorption Spectrum

◆ Emission Spectrum

The Doppler Effect

The Doppler effect is the apparent change in frequency of electromagnetic or
sound waves caused by the relative motions of the source and the observer.
 Summarization

Tools for Studying Space:

1. Refracting Telescopes 3. Radio Telescopes

2. Reflecting Telescopes 4. Space Telescopes

The Sun
Structure of the Sun
Because the SUN is made of gas, no sharp boundaries
exist between its various layers. Keeping this in mind,
we can divide the sun into four parts: the solar
interior; the visible surface, or photosphere; and two
atmospheric layers, the chromosphere and corona.

The Active Sun

Sunspots
• A sunspot is a dark spot on the sun that is cool in contrast to the surrounding
photosphere.

Prominences
• Prominences are huge cloudlike structures consisting of chromospheric gases.
Solar Flares
• Solar flares are brief outbursts that normally last about an hour and appear as a
sudden brightening of the region above a sunspot cluster.

*Auroras, the result of solar flares, are bright displays of ever-changing light caused by
solar radiation interacting with the upper atmosphere in the region of the poles.

The Solar Interior

Nuclear fusion is the way that the sun produces energy. This reaction converts four
hydrogen nuclei into the nucleus of a helium atom, releasing a tremendous amount of
energy.
 Summarization

Earth’s Moon:
The Moon is Earth’s only natural satellite and the fifth
largest moon in the solar system. The Moon’s presence
helps stabilize our planet’s wobble, which helps stabilize
our climate. The Moon’s distance from Earth is about
240,000 miles (385,000km). The Moon has a very thin
atmosphere called an exosphere.

What’s the Moon like?

The Moon is a dusty ball of rock. Its surface is home to mountains, huge craters
and flat planes called ‘ seas ’ made of hardened lava.

How Big is the Moon?

It’s about 1/4 the size of Earth. Specifically, it’s 27% in diameter.

Earth and Moon to Scale

Moon Rotation
The moon rotates on its axis. The moon's rate of rotation nearly matches its orbital
period, which keep the same side facing Earth.

Moon Stats
Moon’s orbit around Earth is inclined about 5 degrees to Earth’s plane of orbit around
the Sun
 Reflection
What did I learn:
In this lesson, you learned
about the nature of light, the
sun, and the Earth’s moon in
a comprehensive manner.
What helped me learn:
The course instructor’s
explanation, along with my
internet search for additional
information, helped me reach a
comprehensive understanding
of the lesson.
What have I done to learn it:
I reviewed the lesson
PowerPoint slides as well as
watched tutorial videos
explaining some of the lesson's
important concepts.
How was my performance and
how could it be improved:
I did well in this lesson as I
have a great interest in
astronomy. From my point of
view, my performance and
understanding would be better
if some practical activities or
scientific experiments were
added.
12

Tides
Monday – May 3, 2021
 Summarization

What are tides? Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused
by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the
Moon and the Sun, and the rotation of the Earth.

Types of Tides
Semi-Diurnal Tides Two high tides and two low tides in a day.
Tides Based on
Diurnal Tides One high and one low tide every lunar day.
Frequency
Mixed Two unequal high tides and two unequal low tides in
approximately a 24-hour period.
Spring Tides A tide just after a new or full moon, when there is
Tides Based on the the greatest difference between high and low water.
Position of Earth, Neap Tides A tide just after the first or third quarters of the
Sun, and the Moon moon when there is least difference between high
and low water.

Tidal Range:
The tidal range is the difference between the level of the ocean at high tide and
low tide.

How is the height of the tide measured?

The height of the tide is measured from an imaginary point known as chart datum.
Chart datum is where all the heights and depths are taken from a nautical chart.
 Reflection

What did I learn:

In this short lesson, I learned about tides and their
different types in brief.

What have I done to learn it:

I have reviewed the lesson slides that were
uploaded by the course professor in order to
understand the lesson well.

How was my performance and how could it be improved:

My performance was good as the lesson was easy
and smooth and I did not encounter any
difficulties while studying it.

What helped me learn:

Reading in additional sources and looking at scientific sites
offering useful information about tides helped me learn the
lesson much better.
13

Solar
System
Thursday – May 6, 2021
 Summarization

The Solar System is the gravitationally bound system of the

Sun and the objects that orbit it, either directly or indirectly.

Of the objects that orbit the Sun directly, the largest are the eight planets:

Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

The Terrestrial planets The Jovian planets

* Size is the most obvious difference between the terrestrial and Jovian planets.

* Density, chemical makeup, and rate of rotation are other ways in which the two
groups of planets differ.

Formation of the Solar System: Nebular Theory

- A nebula is a cloud of gas and/or dust in space.

- According to the nebular theory, the sun and

planets formed from a rotating disk of dust and gases.

- Planetesimals are small, irregularly shaped

bodies formed by colliding matter.
 Summarization

Minor Members of the Solar System

1. Asteroids: Micro planets

An asteroid is a small, rocky body whose diameter can range
from a few hundred kilometers to less than a kilometer.

Most asteroids lie between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. They
have orbital periods of three to six years.

2. Comets
A comet is an icy, small Solar System body that, when
passing close to the Sun, warms and begins to release gases,
a process that is called outgassing. This produces a visible
atmosphere or coma, and sometimes also a tail.

A Coma is the fuzzy, gaseous component of a comet’s head.

Kuiper Belt Like the asteroids in the inner solar system, most Kuiper belt comets move
in nearly circular orbits that lie roughly in the same plane as the planets.

Oort Cloud Comets with long orbital periods appear to be distributed in all directions
from the sun, forming a spherical shell around the solar system called the
Oort cloud.
Halley’s Comet The most famous short-period comet is Halley’s comet. Its orbital period is
76 years.

3. Meteoroids
A meteoroid is a small space rock moving through a solar system. Space is full of
meteoroids.

Most meteoroids are small, the size of pebbles or dust from a comet’s tail, but they
can also be quite large. They’re all chunks off of something bigger, sometimes even
the moon or Mars!
 Reflection

What did I learn:

In this lesson, I learned about the solar system, how it was

formed, and the planets and celestial bodies it contains.

How did I learn:

I have reviewed the PowerPoint slides that were uploaded by

the course instructor, as well as looking for additional
information on the official NASA website, in order to
understand the lesson well.

Support Factors:

Both the instructor’s explanation of the topic during the lecture

along with the explanatory videos she showed helped me to
receive the information easily and smoothly.

My performance and ways to improve it:

I did well in this lesson especially as I love astronomy so much

and enjoy studying it. My performance can be developed through
increased active participation during the lecture.
14

Beyond Our
Solar System
Monday – May 10, 2021
 Summarization

A STAR is an astronomical object consisting of a

luminous spheroid of plasma held together by its
own gravity.

Properties of Stars
Characteristics of Stars
A constellation is an apparent group of stars originally named for mythical
characters. The sky contains 88 constellations.

Star Color and Temperature: Color is a clue to a star’s temperature.

Cooler stars tend to be redder in color, while hotter stars have a bluer appearance. Stars
in the mid ranges are white or yellow, such as our sun.

Binary Stars and Stellar Mass: A binary star is one of two stars revolving
around a common center of mass under their mutual gravitational attraction.

Measuring Distances to Stars

Parallax: Astronomers estimate the distance of nearby objects

in space by using a method called stellar parallax, or
trigonometric parallax.

Light Year: A light-year is the distance light travels in a year,

about 9.5 trillion kilometers.

Stellar Brightness
Astronomers define star brightness in terms of apparent magnitude (how
bright the star appears from Earth) and absolute magnitude (how bright the
star appears at a standard distance of 32.6 light-years, or 10 parsecs).

Hertzsprung–Russell Diagram
A Hertzsprung–Russell diagram shows the relationship between the absolute
magnitude and temperature of stars.
 Summarization

Star Birth & Death

The Milky way Galaxy

The Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our

Solar System, with the name describing the galaxy's
appearance from Earth: a hazy band of light seen in
the night sky formed from stars that cannot be
individually distinguished by the naked eye

The Big Bang Theory

The big bang theory states that at one time, the entire universe was confined to a
dense, hot, supermassive ball. Then, about 13.7 billion years ago, a violent explosion
occurred, hurling this material in all directions.
 Reflection
What did I learn:
In this lesson, I learned about
stars, and everything related to
them, the Milky Way galaxy,
and the Big Bang theory.
What helped me learn:
What helped me understand
the lesson very well was the
lecture of the course
instructor and the videos that
she presented during the
lecture, as well as the
educational videos that I
personally viewed on
YouTube
What have I done to learn it:
In order to learn this
lesson, I reviewed the
lesson’s PowerPoint slides
in addition to searching for
additional information from
the Internet to make my
understanding of the lesson
more comprehensive.
How was my performance and
how could it be improved:
My performance in this lesson
was good, but not excellent.
The lesson is long, contains a
lot of information and needs
more lengthy study, so I must
review it again to fully
understand it.
The journey is not
over yet!
I may have reached the end
of the journal, but the
journey is not over yet, the
journey of exploring the
world and acquiring
knowledge will continue as
long as we are alive.
The End!
Bye
Bye