CELLULAR LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
(Async via Quipper Aug 23, 2021)
PARTS OF THE CELL
1. Plasma membrane
- Functions as a selective barrier
that separates the internal from
the external environment
- Regulates the flow of material in
and out of the cell
- Communication?
2. Cytoplasm
- Composed of Cytosol (intercellular
liquid) and organelles
(cytoskeleton, ribosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum, golgi
complex, lysosomes,
peroxisomes, mitochondria)
- Consists of all the cellular
contents between the plasma
membrane and the nucleus
3. Nucleus
- Houses most of the cells DNA
- Contains chromosomes that
houses the genes
PLASMA MEMBRANE (IN MORE DEPTH)
- The plasma membrane is the barrier that
surrounds and contains the cytoplasm
and controls the flow of substances in
and out of the cell while also identifying
the cell to other cells. It also participates
in intracellular signalling.
- “Fluid mosaic model” = describes the
arrangement of the plasma membrane “a
continually moving sea of fluid”
- Composed of membrane lipids and
proteins
- It is asymmetric
STRUCTURE OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
LIPID BILAYER
 = basic structural framework of
the plasma membrane and is
comprised of three (3) types of
lipid molecules; Phospholipid
(75%), cholesterol (20%),
Glycolipid (5%)
 = lipids are amphipathic (has
polar and non-polar parts), the
hydrophilic (polar part) faces the
extracellular fluid (ECF) and
cytosol while the hydrophobic
(non-polar part) faces towards the
other hydrophobic layer
 = structure order is: water ->
hydrophilic -> hydrophobic ->
hydrophobic ->hydrophilic -> water
- Membrane proteins = integral proteins vs
peripheral proteins
= integral proteins
extend into or through the lipid bilayer
and are mostly transmembrane proteins
(goes through the entire bilayer) and are
mostly glycoproteins meanwhile
peripheral proteins are not firmly
embedded into the plasma membrane
and could be attached to the polar heads
of the lipid proteins or integral proteins
= these proteins form
an ion channel and acts as carriers,
receptors, enzymes, linkers and cell
identity markers
- GLYCOCALYX = formed by the
carbohydrate portions of glycoproteins
and glycolipids
= functions as a molecular
signature and enables cells to adhere to
one another while protecting cells from
enzymatic degradation as well as the
 gastrointestinal and airway cells from
drying out. It is also why red blood cells
are slippery.
- MEMBRANE FLUIDITY
- fluidity depends on the number of
double bonds present in the fatty acid
tails. They have a directly proportional
relationship with each other. As the
number of double bonds increases so
does the fluidity.
- cholesterol makes the membrane less
fluid at normal temperature. As the
temperature drops the fluidity increases.
- decreased membrane rigidity ->
improves cell mobility
- enables cell processes such as cell
movement, growth, fluid, division,
secretion and cellular junction formation
- allows the membrane to self-heal when
punctured
- Membrane Permeability
- plasma membrane is a selectively
permeable lipid bilayer.
- only permeable to the non-polar
molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide
and steroids
-moderately permeable to the small
uncharged molecules such as water and
urea
- impermeable to ions and large
uncharged polar molecules such as
glucose
- transmembrane proteins act as
channels/carriers
- GRADIENT ACROSS THE PLASMA
MEMBRANE
- CONCENTRATION GRADIENT = difference
in the concentration of a chemical from
one place to another. (from extracellular
to intracellular). Concentration in
extracellular fluid - oxygen and sodium
ions vs concentration inside the cell -
carbon dioxide and potassium ions
- ELECTRICAL GRADIENT (membrane
potential) = the difference of electrical
charges in two diff regions. Inside the cell
is negatively charged meanwhile outside
the cell is positively charged
- ELECTROCHEMICAL GRADIENT = a
combination of concentration and
chemical gradient which also contributes
to the movement of substances across
the plasma membrane
- TRANSPORTATION WITHIN THE
MEMBRANE (SLIDE 24/110)
- occurs via active or passive process.
- active transport has 2 types primary and
secondary type
- requires ATP and its movement is
uphill or against the concentration
gradient and lower solute to higher solute
- passive transport is composed of
facilitated diffusion (uniport) and simple
diffusion with osmosis
- does not require ATP and its
movement is downhill and higher solute
concentration -> lower solute
PASSIVE PROCESSES
- Diffusion is a passive process in which the
random mixing of particles in a solution
occurs because of the particles kinetic
energy
- Solute = dissolved particles
- Solvent = liquid that does the dissolving
Factors that could influence the diffusion rate:
- steepness of the concentration gradient =
the gap between the concentration +
equilibrium = it’ll move faster to achieve
balance
- Temperature = the higher the temp the
faster it gets
- Mass of the diffusing substance = the
larger the mass the lower
 - Surface area = the larger the faster = water movement is through
- Diffusion distance = the greater the simple diffusion and through aquaporins
distance the slower (AQPs)
= can only occur when a
TYPES OF PASSIVE DIFFUSION membrane is permeable to water but
- SIMPLE DIFFUSION = substances pass impermeable to certain solutes
freely through the lipid bilayer without the = there are two (2) forces
help of transport proteins governing osmosis, maintaining
= non-polar, hydrophobic equilibrium; Hydrostatic pressure
molecules such as oxygen, carbon (pressure from the liquid) and oncotic
dioxide, nitrogen gas, fatty acid, steroid, pressure (pressure from the impermeable
fat-soluble vitamins (ADEK) as well as solutes)
small uncharged polar molecules such as = the amount of pressure
water and urea fall within this type of needed to restore equilibrium is called
diffusion osmotic pressure

- FACILITATED DIFFUSION = substances - under normal conditions = osmitic

pass with the help of an integral
membrane protein.
= the channel-
mediated substances (solute moves down
the lipid bilayer through a membrane
channel) are ions such as sodium,
potassium, chloride and calcium ions
while the carrier-mediated (a carrier
brings the solute down its concentration
gradient) substances are glucose fructose
galactose and vitamins
pressure of the extracellular fluids are the
same as the cytosol therefore no change
will occur to the cell volume
- when a cell is placed in a collusion with
different osmotic pressures it can lead to
changes in cell size, shape and volume in
accordance to the concept of tonicity

(note: there are such things called gated

channel and they are the part of the
channel protein acts as a plug)

- Osmosis = net movement of a solvent

through a selectively permeable
membrane
= water is an example of a
substance that goes through osmosis
= in this context the solvent
(water) moves from an area of high water
concentration towards an area of low
water concentration
= in this context the solute
(water) moves from an area of low solute
concentration to an area of high solute
concentration
 - TONICITY - the measure of the solutions
ability to change the volume of cells via
water content
- isotonic solution = equal concentration
inside vs outside therefore the movement
of the water will go in and out w/o
altering the size and shape of the cell
- hypotonic solution = solute is greater
inside than the outside cell therefore the
movement of the water into the cell
which may lead the cell to swelling or
bursting
- Hypertonic solution = solutes are lesser
inside than the outside therefore the
movement of the water flows out from
the inside towards the outside of the cell
causing the cell to shrink (crenated)
ACTIVE PROCESS
- Active transport is needed for polar or
charged molecules that need to move
“uphill”
- Requires energy to transport the
molecules across the membrane
- Has two (2) sources of cellular energy
- Primary Active Transport = energy from
hydrolysis of ATP
- Secondary Active Transport = energy
from stored energy in an ionic
concentration gradient
- Examples of some solutes that require to
be actively transported are sodium,
potassium, hydrogen, calcium, iodide,
chloride, amino acids and
monosaccharides (do note that some can
be transferred via facilitated diffusion)
Primary active transport (PUMPS)
- ENERGY is derived from ATP hydrolysis
that changes the shape of the carrier
protein and pumps the substance against
its concentration gradient
- Most important pump is the sodium
potassium pump (Na-K ATPase)
- maintains low concentrations of sodium
by pumping it out against the
concentration gradient and high
concentration of potassium by moving it
against the concentration gradient within
cytosol
- its important as it maintains the cell
shape and volume as well as generates
the electrical signals for action potential
Secondary active transport
- Energy stored in Na+ or H+ gradient is
used to drive other substances across the
membrane against the concentration
gradient
- Indirectly uses the hydrolysis of ATP (as
Na+ and H+ is established by primary
active transport)
- A carrier protein binds to the Na+ and
another substance (eg. glucose or amino
acid) and changes in shape so that both
substances can cross the membrane at
the same time
- There are two (2) types of secondary
active transport
- symporters = moves substances in the
same direction
= absorption
= Na-glucose symport
= Na-amino acid symport
Antiporters = moves substances
in the opposite direction
= regulations of ions
and pH
= Na-Ca++ antiport
= Na-H+ antiport
Other active transport systems (Transport in
Vesicles)
- ENDOCYTOSIS = “endo” = inside = in
which the materials move into a cell
= has three (3) types:
- Receptor-mediated endocytosis =
a highly selective type of
 endocytosis in which cells take up in which the vesicles undergo endocytosis
specific ligands and are used for on one side, move across, then undergo
the uptake of LDL (bad exocytosis on the other side
cholesterol), transferrin (iron) = this occurs in endothelial
vitamins, antibodies, and certain cells
hormones.
= CYTOPLASM
has 6 steps: binding -> vesicle - Consists of all the cellular contents
formation -> uncoating -> fusion between the plasma membrane and the
with endosome -> recycling of nucleus
receptors to plasma membrane -> - Has 2 components:
degradation in lysosomes - cytosol (Intracellular fluid) = the fluid
portion of cytoplasm surrounding the
- Phagocytosis = cell eating (mostly organelles
seen in macrophages and = constitutes 55% of the cell’s volume
neutrophils) = site of many chemical reactions such as
= a form of glycolysis
endocytosis in which the cell = composed of 75-90% water, the
engulfs large solid particles. remaining are dissolved and suspended
(Undigested materials are components while some have
excreted or turned into lipofuscin aggregations such as lipid droplets or
granules) The cells that are glycogen granules
capable of performing
phagocytosis are called COMPONENTS OF THE CYTOSOL:
phagocytes.
1. Cyto skeleton = a network of protein
- bulk-phase endocytosis = filaments (ie. microfilaments,
pinocytosis or cell-drinking intermediate filaments and microtubules)
- = a form of endocytosis in which that extends throughout the cytosol which
droplets of extracellular fluid are functions as a scaffold to the
consumed cytoskeleton and other organelles
= typically occurs in intestines and structure which helps determine the
kidney shape of a cell and organize the cellular
- = steps: formation of vesicle -> components as well as aids the
fluid and dissolved solutes in movement of the organelles within the
vesicle -> fusion of lysosome and cell, of chromosomes during cell division
vesicle -> digestion of lysosomal and of whole cells such as phagocytes
enzymes -> released inside the
cells as digested solutes 2. Organelles = the specialized structures
within the cells
- EXOCYTOSIS = “exo” = outside = in which = has diff functions but they
the materials move out of the cell by have one goal aka promote homeostasis
fusion with the plasma membrane of 2.1. Centrosome = microtubule
vesicles formed within the cell organizing center (near the nucleus)
= composed of two (2)
- TRANSCYTOSIS = movement of centrioles and one pericentriolar matrix
substance into, across and out of the cell
 = builds microtubules in
non-dividing cells and forms the mitotic
spindle during cell division
2.2 Cilia and Flagella = the motile
projections of the cell surface and are
made of microtubules
= Cilia = numerous,
short, hair-like projections that extend
from the surface of the cell. It moves
fluids along a cell’s surface and are found
in the respiratory tract
= Flagella = longer
than cilia and usually moves an entire
cell. It generates a forward motion along
its axis by rapidly wriggling in a wavelike
pattern. An example of a flagella is a
sperm cell
2.3 Ribosomes = the site of protein
synthesis and contains high content of
rRNA. Ribosomes consist of 2 subunits a
large subunit + small subunit
= there are many subtypes
of ribosomes according to their function.
Some are attached to the nuclear
membrane and the endoplasmic
reticulum (which synthesizes the proteins
destined for insertion in the plasma
membrane or secretion) and some are
free ribosomes (which synthesizes
proteins used in the cytosol)
2.4 endoplasmic reticulum = a network of
membranes in the form of flattened sacs
or tubules
= rough endoplasmic reticulum =
continuous nuclear membrane and the
outer surface is stuffed with ribosomes. It
produces proteins such as the secretory
proteins, membrane proteins, organellar
proteins and synthesizes glycoproteins
and phospholipids which then are
transferred to cellular organelles which
are inserted into the plasma membrane
or secreted
= smooth endoplasmic reticulum = not
studded with ribosomes and produces
fatty acids and steroids. It also releases
glucose in liver cells, inactivates or
detoxify lipid-soluble drugs, releases
calcium during muscular contraction
(sarcoplasmic reticulum)
2.5 Golgi Complex = more extensive in
cells that secrete proteins and is
consisted of 3-20 cisterns (small,
flattened membranous sacs with bulging
edges)
= entry (cis) face = cistern that faces the
ER; convex
= exit (trans) face - faces the plasma
membrane
= medical cisterns - sacs between entry
and exit faces
= it modifies, sorts, packages, and
transports proteins received from the ER, forms
secretory vesicles (discharges substances via
exocytosis), membrane vesicles (carries new
molecules to the plasma membrane) and
transport vesicles (carries molecules to the other
organelles)
2.6 lysosome = membrane-enclosed
vesicles that form from the Golgi
complex. They may contain as many as
60 kinds of powerful digestive and
hydrolytic enzymes (lysosomal enzymes).
It is composed of transport pumps
(imports H+) and transporters (moves
products of digestion such as glucose,
fatty acids, and amino acids) into the
cytosol. Its main function is to digest
substances that enter the cell via
endocytosis and transport the final
products of digestion into the cytosol and
is also responsible for autophagy
(digestion of worn-out organelles) and
autolysis (digestion of the entire cell) and
also performs extracellular digestion
2.7 peroxisome = “microbodies” which
contains oxidases and works to detoxify
alcohol and other damaging substances
 as well as preventing the accumulation of
by-products
2.8 proteasome = it destroys unneeded,
damaged or faulty proteins and contains
proteases and is capable of self-
replication
2.9 mitochondria = powerhouse of the
cell (by generating ATP through aerobic
respiration) and play a role in apoptosis
= capable of self-
replication and has ribosomes attached
to the mitochondrial matrix. The
mitochondria also has its own DNA
(multiple copies of circular DNA that
contains 37 genes for the synthesis of
2rRNA, 22 tRNA, and 13 proteins) the
mitochondrial genes are inherited from
the mother only
NUCLEUS
= has most of the cell’s genes and controls the
cellular structure, directs the cellular activities
and produces ribosomes in the nucleoli
Parts of the nucleus:
- Nucleus envelope = double-membrane,
separates the nucleus from the
cytoplasm, lipid bilayer and outer
envelope is continuous w the RER
- Nuclear pore = contains a circular
arrangement of proteins surrounding a
large central opening, controls the
movement of substances between the
nucleus and cytoplasm
- Nucleoli/Nucleolus = located within the
nucleus, produces ribosomes and
prominent in cells that synthesize a large
amt of proteins
The chromosomes are the genes housed within
the nucleus that controls cellular structure and
direct cellular activities. The genes are arranged
along the chromosomes.
Somatic cells have 46 chromosomes
A genome is the total genomic information
carried in a cell/organism
DNA Helix + Histones -> nucleosome -> further
coiling -> chromatin -> 2 chromatids +
centromere -> chromosome
Note: a nucleosome is a double stranded DNA
wrapped twice around a histone
Protein synthesis
- has two (2) processes:
- Transcription = copying DNA into an RNA
(nucleus)
- the first step to protein synthesis
- the sequence of base triplets in DNA is
copied to produce a complementary
sequence of R9NA (codons)
- creates three (3) types of RNA:
1. mRNA = messenger RNA which
directs the protein synthesis
2. rRNA = ribosomal RNA which
joins the ribosomal proteins to
form ribosomes
3. tRNA = transfer RNA which binds
the amino acids and incorporates
it into the protein during the
translation
-RNA polymerase is an enzyme that
catalyzes the transcription of DNA
- the transcription process
1. Initiation
2. Elongation
3. Termination
-pre-mRNA is the product of transcriptions
and contains the introns (non-coding) and
exons (codes proteins)
DNA TO RNA
Adenine -> Uracil
Thymine -> Adenine
Guanine -> Cytosine
Cytisine -> Guanine
- Translation = translates RNA to protein
(cytoplasm)
- nucleotide sequence of mRNA is
translated into a sequence of amino acids
which then forms a new protein molecule
 - ribosomes = organelle responsible - Reproductive cell division
= small binding site = binds to - = undergoes meiosis and produces a
the mRNA haploid cell (only has half of the
= large binding site = binds to chromosomes aka 23)
the tRNA = this occurs in the gonads (ovaries and
Aminocyl (A) site binds the tRNA carrying testes) that produce gametes (egg cell
the next amino acid to be added and sperm cell) in which the number of
Peptidyl (P) site - binds to tRNA carrying chromosomes are reduced by half
the growing peptide chain = has 2 successive stages:
Exit (E) site - binds to tRNA before being = meiosis I (reductional division) – begins
released into the ribosome with diploid cells and ends with two (2) daughter
haploid cells
= meiosis II (equatorial division) - begins
with two (2) haploid cells and ends with four (4)
haploid daughter cells

- Control of cell destiny

- there are three (3) possible destinies for
the cell
1. To remain alive and functioning
w/o dividing
2. To grow and divide
3. To die
Which forms a polypeptide - there are various signals that tell a cell
- Genetic expression is stored in sets of when to exist in the G0 phase, when to
three nucleotides divide and when to die.
- base triplets - set of three nucleotides in - Cyclin-dependent proteins (CDK’s)
DNA are crucial for the regulation of
- codon - complementary sequence of DNA replication mitosis and
base triples (codes for a specific amino cytokinesis
acid) - The process is regulated by cyclins
(which activates or deactivates
Cell division the CDK’s)
- activated by transfer of
- process by which cells reproduce themselves
phosphate group from ATP to
- Somatic cell division = undergoes mitosis
protein
and produces a diploid cell (normal amt
- deactivated by removing the
of chromosomes aka 46)
phosphate group
= homologous chromosomes = 2
chromosomes that make up one pair of
chromosome
= human cells (except for gametes)
contain 23 pairs of chromosomes)
Cell cycle = interphase (cell not
dividing) (G1 phase -> S phase -> G2
phase) -> mitotic phase (cell is dividing)
 protein molecules which leads to
stiffening and loss of elasticity
- Autoimmune response = changes in cell
CELL AGING identity markers while aging leads to
Cellular diversity autoimmune response, attacking cells
- cells vary considerably in size. They are leading to destruction
measured in micrometres and the largest cell is
oocyte which is 140um
- cells also vary in shape which may reveal a lot
about their function in the body
- Sperm - whip-like tail for locomotion
- Red blood cell - disc shape to enlarge its
surface area
- smooth muscle cell - spindle shape to
increase muscle shortening during
contraction
- Nerve cells - have long extensions to
permit conduction of nerve in long
distances
AGEING - a normal process accompanied by the
progressive alteration of the body’s homeostasis
responses
- produces observable changes in structure
and function and increases vulnerability to
environmental stress and disease
Geriatrics - branch of medicine that deals w
medical problems and care of an elderly person
Gerontology - the scientific study of the process
and problems associated with ageing

Factors relating to cell aging:

- Ageing genes as part of the genetic
blueprint
-- cells have only limited capacity to divide
-- cessation of mitosis is normal,
genetically programmed event
- Erosion/shortening of telomeres
- TELOMERES - DNA sequences found at
the tip of the chromosome
- Protects the tip of the chromosome from
erosion
- Each cellular division leads to shortening
of telomeres → functional chromosome
material may be lost → cell death
- Glucose = may be haphazardly added to
proteins in the cells which forms
irreversible cross-links between adjacent