(2022 – 23)

CHEMISTRY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

Class – XI A

Topic – General Organic Chemistry

SUBMITTED TO:- SUBMITTED BY:-

Mrs. Sangita Jain Aditya Savale

ROLL NO.
 Certificate
This is to certify that the following is a bona fide
record of Chemistry project work done by Aditya
Savale a student of class XI - A of the Sacred Heart
Co – Ed School, under the guidance and supervision
of Mrs. Sangita Jain in particular fulfillment of
curriculum of Central Board of Secondary Education
(CBSE), during the academic year 2022 – 2023.

Internal Examiner External Examiner

_______________ _______________

Principal School Stamp

______________ _______________
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my special thanks of

gratitude to my teacher Mrs. Sangita Jain ma’am
as well as our Principal Rev. Sr. Anjely who gave
me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful
project on the Topic “General Organic
Chemistry”, which also helped me in doing a lot
of research and I come to know about so many
things.
Secondly I would also like to thank my parents
and friends who helped me a lot in finalizing this
project within the limited time frame.
 INDEX
S. No. Topic Page No.
1 Introduction 1
2 Isomerism 2
3 Nomenclature 7
4 Reacting Species 11
5 Conclusion 15
6 Bibliography 16
 INTRODUCTION
Organic chemistry is a subdiscipline within chemistry involving
the scientific study of the structure, properties, and reactions of organic
compounds and organic materials, i.e., matter in its various forms that
contain carbon atoms. Study of structure determines their structural
formula. Study of properties includes physical and chemical properties,
and evaluation of chemical reactivity to understand their behavior. The
study of organic reactions includes the chemical synthesis of natural
products, drugs, and polymers, and study of individual organic
molecules in the laboratory and via theoretical (in silico) study.
The range of chemicals studied in organic chemistry
includes hydrocarbons (compounds containing only
carbon and hydrogen) as well as compounds based on carbon, but also
containing other elements, especially
oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus (included in many biochemicals)
and the halogens. Organometallic chemistry is the study of compounds
containing carbon–metal bonds. In addition, contemporary research
focuses on organic chemistry involving other organometallics including
the lanthanides, but especially the transition metals zinc, copper,
palladium, nickel, cobalt, titanium and chromium.
Organic compounds form the basis of all earthly life and constitute the
majority of known chemicals. The bonding patterns of carbon, with
its valence of four—formal single, double, and triple bonds, plus
structures with delocalized electrons—make the array of organic
compounds structurally diverse, and their range of applications
enormous. They form the basis of, or are constituents of, many
commercial products
including pharmaceuticals; petrochemicals and agrichemicals, and
products made from including lubricants
them, solvents; plastics; fuels and explosives.
 Isomerism
isomerism, the existence of molecules that have the same numbers of
the same kinds of atoms (and hence the same formula) but differ in
chemical and physical properties. The roots of the word isomer are
Greek—isos plus meros, or ―equal parts.‖ Stated colloquially, isomers
are chemical compounds that have the same parts but are nonetheless
not the same. To make a crude analogy, two bracelets, each consisting
of five red and five green beads, could be arranged in many different
isomeric forms, depending on the order of the colours. Each bracelet
would have the same parts—that is, the five red and five green beads—
but each variation would be different. One could also imagine
combinations of those same beads in which pendant chains were
attached to a bracelet in a variety of ways. One might imagine two
bracelets of the same red-green order but with identical chains attached
in different orientations. Such structures also would be analogous to
isomers. In a more subtle analogy, one‘s hands can be seen as isomeric.
Each hand possesses the same kinds of fingers, but a right hand can
never be superimposed perfectly on a left hand; they are different.
Timing and energy are also factors in isomerism. Molecules are mobile
entities, undergoing all sorts of rotational motions that change their
shapes, and those motions require energy. Thus, some molecules can be
the same on one timescale or set of energy conditions but different, or
isomeric, on others. Finally, an isomer must be an energy minimum; it
must lie in an energy well.
 Types of isomerism

There are two primary types of isomerism, which can be

further categorized into different subtypes. These primary
types are Structural Isomerism and Stereoisomerism. The
classification of different types of isomers is illustrated
below.
 Structural Isomerism
Structural isomerism is commonly referred to as constitutional
isomerism. The functional groups and the atoms in the molecules of
these isomers are linked in different ways. Different structural isomers
are assigned different IUPAC names since they may or may not contain
the same functional group.
The different types of structural isomerism are discussed in this
subsection.

1) Chain Isomerism
 It is also known as skeletal isomerism.
 The components of these isomers display differently branched
structures.
 Commonly, chain isomers differ in the branching of carbon
 An example of chain isomerism can be observed in the compound
C5H12.

2) Position Isomerism
 The positions of the functional groups or substituent atoms are
different in position isomers.
 Typically, this isomerism involves the attachment of the functional
groups to different carbon atoms in the carbon chain.
  An example of this type of isomerism can be observed in the
compounds having the formula C3H7Cl.

3) Functional Isomerism
 It is also known as functional group isomerism.
 As the name suggests, it refers to the compounds that have the
same chemical formula but different functional groups attached to
them.
 An example of functional isomerism can be observed in the
compound C3H6O.

4) Metamerism
 This type of isomerism arises due to the presence of different alkyl
chains on each side of the functional group.
 It is a rare type of isomerism and is generally limited to molecules
that contain a divalent atom (such as sulphur or oxygen),
surrounded by alkyl groups.
 Example: C4H10O can be represented as ethoxyethane
(C2H5OC2H5) and methoxy-propane (CH3OC3H7).
5) Tautomerism
 A tautomer of a compound refers to the isomer of the compound
which only differs in the position of protons and electrons.
 Typically, the tautomers of a compound exist together in
equilibrium and easily interchange.
 It occurs via an intramolecular proton transfer.
 An important example of this phenomenon is Keto-enol
tautomerism.

6) Ring-Chain Isomerism
 In ring-chain isomerism, one of the isomers has an open-chain
structure whereas the other has a ring structure.
 They generally contain a different number of pi bonds.
 A great example of this type of isomerism can be observed in
C3H6. Propene and cyclopropane are the resulting isomers, as
illustrated below.
 Nomenclature
In chemical nomenclature, the organic chemistry nomenclature IUPAC
is a method of organic chemical compounds as recommended by the
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). It is
published in the Organic Chemistry Nomenclature. Ideally, any
conceivable organic compound should have a name from which to
construct an unmistakable structural formula. Inorganic chemistry also
has an IUPAC nomenclature. In order to avoid long and tedious names
in normal communication, the official recommendations for naming
IUPAC are not always followed in practice, except when a compound
has to be given an unambiguous and absolute definition. Sometimes,
IUPAC names may be simpler than older names, as with ethanol, rather
than ethyl alcohol. They can be more easily understood for relatively
simple molecules than non-systematic names which have to be learned
or looked over. The common or trivial name, however, is often
considerably shorter and clearer, and so preferred. Such non-systematic
names are often derived from an original compound source.
Furthermore, very long names may be less obvious than structural
formulas.
According to the Guidelines set by IUPAC, the nomenclature of
compounds must follow these steps:
1. The Longest Chain Rule: The parent hydrocarbon must be
identified and subsequently named. The parent chain belonging to
the compound in question is generally the longest chain of carbon
atoms, be it in the form of a straight chain or a chain of any other
shape.
2. The Lowest Set of Locants: The carbon atoms belonging to the
parent hydrocarbon chain must be numbered using natural numbers
and beginning from the end in which the lowest number is assigned
to the carbon atom which carries the substituents.
3. Multiple instances of the same substituent: Prefixes which
indicate the total number of the same substituent in the given
organic compounds are given, such as di, tri, etc.
 4. Naming of different substituents: In the organic compounds
containing multiple substituents, the corresponding substituents are
arranged in alphabetical order of names in the IUPAC
nomenclature of organic compounds in question.
5. The naming of different substituents present at the same
positions: In the scenario wherein two differing substituent groups
are present at the same position of the organic compound, the
substituents are named in ascending alphabetical order.
6. Naming Complex Substituents: Complex substituents of organic
compounds having branched structures must be named as
substituted alkyl groups whereas the carbon which is attached to
the substituent group is numbered as one. These branched and
complex substituents must be written in brackets in the IUPAC
nomenclature of the corresponding compounds.
The format of the IUPAC Name of the Compound can be written
as: Locant + Prefix + Root + Locant + Suffix
1. Root
The Word root indicates the total number of carbon atoms present in the
longest carbon chain belonging to the compound. For example, ‘Meth’
refers to a chain with 1 carbon atom and ‘Pent’ refers to a chain with
5 carbon atoms.
2. Suffix
The suffix in IUPAC nomenclature is usually a functional group
belonging to the molecule which follows the root of the name. It can be
further divided into the following types.
 A Primary Suffix, which is written immediately after the word
root as in the case of alkanes, where the suffix is ‗ane‘.
 A Secondary Suffix, which is generally written after the primary

suffix is written. For example, compounds having an alkane and

alcohol group attached to them will be named as alkanol, with ‗ol‘
being the secondary suffix for the alcohol group.
In accordance with these norms, the suffix of a compound can be
written as a part of the IUPAC name of the given compound.
3. Prefix
Prefixes are added prior to the root of the compounds IUPAC
nomenclature. Prefixes are very useful since they indicate the presence
of side chains or substituent groups in the given organic molecule.
These prefixes also offer insight into the cyclic or acyclic natures of the
compounds in question.
 Primary Prefixes Indicate the cyclic or acyclic nature of the given
compound. The prefix ‗cyclo‘ is used for cyclic compounds, for
example.
 Secondary Prefixes Indicate the presence of side chains or

substituent groups. An example of these types of prefixes would be

the ‗CH3‘ group, which is called the methyl group.
Thus, prefixes in IUPAC nomenclature can be broadly classified into
primary prefixes and secondary prefixes.
IUPAC Nomenclature of a Few Important Aliphatic Compounds
The IUPAC nomenclature of alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes are
discussed in the subsections below.
1. Alkanes
The General formula of alkanes corresponds to CnH2n+2
The suffix ‘ane’ is generally used to describe alkanes. Examples for the
nomenclature of alkanes as per IUPAC guidelines include methane for
the compound CH4 and Butane for the compound C4H10
2. Alkenes
The General formula of alkenes is described as CnH2n
The suffix ‘ene’ is used to describe alkenes via IUPAC norms.
Examples for the nomenclature of alkenes include the name ethene used
to describe the compound given by C2H4 and Propene used to describe
the compound given by C3H6
3. Alkynes
The General formula of alkynes is CnH2n-2 The suffix ‘yne’ is generally
used to describe alkynes. An example of the IUPAC nomenclature of
alkynes is: ethyne used to describe the compound given by C2H2
IUPAC Nomenclature of Aromatic Compounds
Earlier, most of the compounds with the same structural formula were
known by different names depending on the regions where they were
synthesized. This naming system was very trivial since it raised a lot of
confusion. Finally, a common naming system enlisting standard rules
was set up by IUPAC (International Union for Pure and Applied
Chemistry) for the naming of compounds. This method of naming is
IUPAC naming or IUPAC nomenclature.
IUPAC nomenclature of aromatic hydrocarbons is explained below:
1. According to IUPAC nomenclature of substituted aromatic
compounds, the substituent name is placed as a prefix to the name of
aromatic compounds. For example, a benzene ring attached to a one-
nitro group is named as nitrobenzene.
2. When more than one similar substituent group is present in the ring,
they are labelled with the Greek numerical prefixes such as di, tri, tetra
to denote the number of similar substituent groups attached to the ring.
If two bromo- groups are attached to the adjacent carbon atoms of the
benzene ring, it is named as 1,2-dibromobenzene.
3. When different substituted groups are attached to the aromatic
compounds, the substituent of the base compound is assigned number
one and then the direction of numbering is chosen such that the next
substituent gets the lowest number. Substituents are named in
alphabetical order. For example: when chloro and nitro groups are
attached to the benzene ring, we first locate the chloro group then nitro
groups.
4. In the case of multiple substituted aromatic compounds, sometimes
terms like ortho (o), meta (m) and para (p) are also used as prefixes to
indicate the relative positions 1,2-; 1,3- and 1,4- respectively. For
example, 1,2-Di-bromo-benzene can be named as o-di-bromo-benzene.
5. When an alkane with a functional group is attached to an aromatic
compound, the aromatic compound is considered as a substituent,
instead of a parent. For example: when a benzene ring is attached to an
alkane with a functional group, it is considered as a substituent named
phenyl, denoted by Ph-.
 Reacting Species
1) Electrophile and Nucleophile
Electrophile and nucleophile are the chemical species that donate or
accept electrons to form a new chemical bond. A nucleophile is a
chemical species which, in relation to a response, gives an electron pair
to form a chemical bond. Any molecule, ion or atom that is in some
manner deficient in electron can act as an electrophile.
A nucleophile is usually negatively charged or neutral with a lone pair
of electrons. H2O, -OMe or -OtBu are some examples. Overall,
the electron-rich species is a nucleophile. Electrophiles are generally
positively charged or neutral species with empty orbitals attracted to a
centre rich in electrons.
The chemical reactions happening between electron donors and
acceptors are described by concepts like electrophile and nucleophile.
These are the most important concepts in organic chemistry. They have
replaced cationoid and anionoid terms and were introduced in the year
1933.
Electrophile
Positively charged or neutral species are called electrophiles that are
deficient in electrons and can accept a pair of electrons. These are also
called species that love electrons (philic).
 The term electrophile can be split into ―electro‖ derived from
electron and ―phile‖ which means loving.
 They are electron deficient and hence love to accept electrons
(electrons loving).
 They are positively charged or neutral.
 They attract electrons. The movement of electrons depends on the
density.
 They move from high-density area to low density area.
 They undergo electrophilic addition and electrophilic
substitution reactions.
  An electrophile is also called Lewis acid.
Nucleophile
A nucleophile is a reagent comprising an negative charge or lone pair of
electrons. As a nucleophile is rich in electron, it looks for electron-
deficient locations. Nucleophiles act as Lewis bases, i.e, species which
can donate a pair of electrons.
 The term nucleophile can be split into ―nucleo‖ derived from the
nucleus and ―phile‖ which means loving.
 They are electron-rich and hence nucleus loving. They are

negatively charged or neutral.

 They donate electrons.

 The movement of electrons depends on the density.

 They move from low-density area to high-density area.

 They undergo nucleophilic addition and nucleophilic substitution

reactions.
 A nucleophile is also called a Lewis base.

For example, as nitrogen is less electronegative than oxygen, ammonia

is a stronger nucleophile than water. The lone pair of electrons on
nitrogen in ammonia can be more easily given than the lone pair of
electrons on oxygen in the water.
2) Carboanion
A carbanion can be defined as a negatively charged ion in which a
carbon atom exhibits trivalence (implying it forms a total of three
bonds) and holds a formal negative charge whose magnitude is at least -
1. When pi delocalization does not occur in the organic molecule (as it
does in the case of aromatic compounds), carbanions typically assume a
bent, linear, or a trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry. It is important
to note that all carbanions are conjugate bases of some carbon acids.
In all carbanions, the electron density is highly concentrated at the
negatively charged carbon atom. Therefore, this carbon becomes an
ideal point of attack for many electrophiles and other electron-deficient
species. Furthermore, this carbon atom is also the site at which the
molecule reacts with proton donors and halogenating reagents such as
diiodine. An illustration detailing the possible resonance structures of a
carbanion in which the carbon holding the negative charge is bound to
three different R groups is provided above. It can be noted that each of
the R-groups in this illustration can either denote an alkyl group, an aryl
group, or a hydrogen atom.

3) Carbocation
A carbocation is a molecule in which a carbon atom has a positive
charge and three bonds. We can basically say that they are carbon
cations. Formerly, it was known as carbonium ion. Carbocation today is
defined as any even-electron cation that possesses a significant positive
charge on the carbon atom.

Talking about some general characteristics, the carbon

cations are very reactive and unstable due to an incomplete
octet. In simple words, carbocations do not have eight
electrons, therefore they do not satisfy the octet rule.
carbocation, the hybridization of carbon will be sp2 and its shape is
trigonal planar. There is also a vacant p orbital which indicates its
electron-deficient nature. The carbon has 6 electrons in its valence shell.
Due to this, it is an electron-deficient species, also known as an
electrophile.
A carbocation is generally observed in an SN1 reaction, elimination
reaction, etc.
4) Free Radicle
A free radical is termed as a molecular species which can contain an
unpaired electron in its atomic orbital and can exist independently.
All the radicals share some common properties due to the unpaired
electron. Generally, molecules bear bonding electron pairs and lone
pairs a nonbonding electron pair or un-shared electron pair. Each
bonding or nonbonding electron pair has two electrons which are in
opposite in spin orientation, +1/2 and -1/2 in one orbital based
on Pauli‘s exclusion principle, whereas an unpaired electron is a single
electron, alone in one orbital. A molecule that has an unpaired electron
is called a free radical and is a paramagnetic species.
Properties of Free Radicals
Free radicals are unique and rare species and are present only under
special and limited conditions. However, some free radicals are familiar
to us in our lives.
Molecular oxygen is a typical free radical, a bi-radical species. Standard
and stable molecular oxygen is in triplet state and the two unpaired
electrons have the same spin orientation in two orbitals, respectively,
having the same orbital energy based on Hund‘s rule.
Nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide are also stable, free radical
species. Moreover, the reactive species involved in immunity are
oxygen free radicals, such as superoxide anion radical and singlet
molecular oxygen. So free radicals are very familiar to us in our lives
and are very important chemicals.
 Conclusion
Organic compounds are important constituents of
many products e.g., paint, food, plastic,
explosive, medicine, petrochemical, pesticide etc.
QualityOne important aspect of organic chemistry
is the synthesis of new compounds. It is also
important for chemists to understand how to
perform certain techniques, such as extraction and
distillation, to produce the new products, which
are usually drugs and cures for illnesses. In
general, organic compounds tend to possess
covalent bonding. They form the building blocks
for all living organisms.
 Bibliography
In order to complete this project I took help from following sites
and book :-
 Class XI Chemistry NCERT Textbook
 https://www.google.com/
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiki
 https://vedantu.com/chemistry/