Energy and Buildings 35 (2003) 933–940

Air quality in an underground garage: computational and

experimental investigation of ventilation effectiveness
K. Papakonstantinou a,∗ , A. Chaloulakou a , A. Duci a , N. Vlachakis b , N. Markatos a
a Chemical Engineering Department, National Technical University of Athens, 9 Heroon Polytechniou Street, 15780 Zografou, Athens, Greece
b Laboratory of Fluid Mechanics, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technological Educational Institute of Halkida, Psaxna 34400, Greece
Received 16 December 2002; accepted 6 February 2003

Abstract

The accumulation of contaminants that comes primarily from inside the building can constitute a potential health hazard in micro-
environments where people spend most of their time indoors. The present paper refers to the numerical prediction of carbon monoxide
(CO) concentration inside a typical garage in Athens urban area. Specifically, the study was concerned to investigate the indoor air quality
and focuses on identifying the appropriate ventilation system as an attempt to improve air quality in workplace micro-environments. The
model developed for the simulation of CO levels is used in conjunction with a general-purpose CFD code, PHOENICS that can provide
detailed information on the CO concentration and velocity fields in a three-dimensional configuration. The transient variation of CO
concentration was simulated under different scenarios of ventilation rates. Experimental measurements on the CO level inside the garage
were performed using the portable, electrochemical CO monitor (Solomat’s MPM4100). From the continuous readings, instantaneous
readings were stored every 15 s by the data log system. These data were used to verify the simulation results. Finally, the CO exposure of
employees and garage’s users is assessed and compared with occupational limit value and recommended public health criteria. The results
show that under the proper ventilation conditions the levels of CO concentration decrease and remain below the health based indoor air
quality criteria.
© 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Carbon monoxide; Enclosed garages; Numerical methods; CO dispersion; Ventilation; Indoor air quality

1. Introduction inside typical micro-environments with high-expected CO

Air pollution is defined in many air pollution control
lows as the presence of one or more contaminants, in
such quantities and of such duration as they be or tend to
be injurious to human life or property. Carbon monoxide
(CO) is a highly toxic gas, emitted as a product of incom-
plete combustion of hydrocarbon-based fuels. When in-
haled, CO binds reversibly with blood hemoglobin to form
carboxy-hemoglobin, impairing the oxygen-transport of the
blood, as well as the oxygen’s release to body tissues, caus-
ing therefore severe and even fatal asphyxiation. Despite the
reported elevated CO levels, the risk of humans developing
adverse health effects after exposure to CO has not been
fully evaluated yet in Athens. The human exposures to CO
experienced by some Athenians groups is considered a seri-
ous environmental issue [1]. However, there is an increasing
demand for indoor concentration measurements, especially
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +30-210-976-9789.
E-mail address: konppkon@phys.uoa.gr (K. Papakonstantinou).
concentrations. The garage micro-environment has been
reported as an important determinant of exposure to CO
[2]. Experimental measurements of CO levels in enclosed
garages were performed for the first time in the Athens
urban area. It was found that there were excesses to short
and long-term exposure limits to CO [3]. Insufficient or
malfunctioning ventilation inside, allows contaminated air
to accumulate, and pollutant concentrations to increase.
This accumulation of contaminant may cause damages to
the garage employees’ health, taking into consideration that
exposure to CO covers all their working day. The problem
of indoor air quality gives rise to questions concerning the
arrangement of fresh air supply [4–7]. Processes involved
in ventilation are the most important in determining the
quality of indoor air. It is important to get adequate mixing
of inlet air with room air, in order to obtain a uniform fresh
air distribution. Models have been developed to design the
mechanical ventilation in order to improve indoor air qual-
ity [8,9]. The evolution, during the last decade, of a large
number of multi-dimensional, multiphase models and solu-
tions techniques for simulating fluid flow and concentration

0378-7788/03/$ – see front matter © 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0378-7788(03)00020-3
934 K. Papakonstantinou et al. / Energy and Buildings 35 (2003) 933–940

dispersion processes, coupled with the development of mod- of the garage, was selected because here flow of vehicles is
ern high speed/low cost computers and work stations has concentrated and the public has access. The ‘inside-site’ was
made it possible to use new computational fluid dynamics selected since higher CO levels are expected to occur due to
methods to assess the effectiveness provisions in buildings. the number of the cars parked at this level. At both sites, mea-
A numerical computational model of the flow and concen- surements were performed at a height of 1.8 m from the floor.
tration behavior in enclosures is a helpful tool to predict the From the continuous readings, instantaneous readings
velocity fields as well as the distribution of CO levels gen- were stored every 15 s by the data log system. The testing
erated inside the garage [10,11]. The advantages in using day could be considered ‘typical’ with respect to traffic flow
numerical methods to analyze ventilation performance have inside the garage, climate conditions and outdoor levels.
been pointed out be Murakami [12] and Liddament [13]. Ventilation is not applicable in this garage.
Because the potential health effects of CO on human be-
ings are quite significant, keeping the CO level below a cer-
tain value is a matter of concern. Control of pollutant at the 3. Mathematical formulation and application of the
source is the most effective means of promoting indoor air model
quality. An adequate supply of outdoor air is essential to
dilute indoor pollutants. 3.1. The differential equations
The subject of the present study is the mathematical sim-
ulation of CO levels measured inside the garage as well For non-steady flow, the equations for continuity, velocity
as the assessment of exposure to CO for garage employ- components, and chemical concentrations can be expressed
ees and garage users under different ventilation conditions. in the following general conservation form for the general
The entire garage is treated as a single zone. The main ven- variable ϕ [14]:
tilation design problem is to find the appropriate ventila-

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ϕ
tion flow that guarantees that concentrations of pollutants (ρϕ) + (ρui ϕ) = Γϕ + Sϕ (1)
are kept below the acceptable threshold limit. The model ∂t ∂xi ∂xi ∂xi
developed for simulation purposes is used in conjunction where ρ is the density, µi the velocity vector components,
with a general-purpose CFD (computational fluid dynamic) Γ ϕ the effective exchange coefficient of ϕ and Sϕ is the
code that involves the partial differential equations gov- source rate per unit volume.
erning CO levels and ventilation conditions prevailing in The source rate and the effective exchange coefficient
three-dimensional buildings of any geometrical complexity. corresponding to each variable ϕ solved for in this study are
The results are presented in the form of velocity vectors given in Table 1.
and in CO concentration versus time diagrams. Experimen- The magnitudes being referred in this table are: µ the
tal and numerical results are both compared each other as viscosity, σ the Prandtl number for ϕ and G = µl (∂ui /∂xj +
well as with the occupational limit value and recommended ∂uj /∂xi )∂ui /∂xj the turbulence production rate. The values
public health criteria. of the constants C1 and C2 are 1.44 and 1.92, respectively
[14]. The buoyancy sources are included in the appropriate
momentum equation.
2. Experimental method—measuring procedure
3.2. The solution method
A Solomat’s MPM4100 environmental monitoring sys-
tem CO portable monitor was employed to measure CO To solve the set of the model differential equations to-
concentration in a typical central garage [3]. The moni- gether with their boundary conditions, a finite-domain tech-
tor is equipped with the amperometric two-electrode sensor nique is used which combines features of the methods of
1212GS to detect the electrons given up by the CO molecules Patankar and Spalding (1972) [15], and Spalding (1980)
as they are oxidized to CO2 . The electro-oxidation of the [16] and a whole-field pressure-correction solver (Markatos
CO results in the flow of a current which is proportional and Pericleous, 1984) [17]. The space dimensions are dis-
to the partial pressure of the CO in the gas sample. Reli-
able over the temperature range of −10 ◦ C to +55 ◦ C, its
measuring capacity ranges from 0 to 500 ppm. The monitor Table 1
is capable of recording data at given interval times and is Source rate and effective exchange coefficient for each ϕ
battery-operated. A total accuracy of ±2 ppm and resolution Equation ϕ Sϕ Γϕ
of 0.1 ppm characterize the monitor. Continuity 1 0 0
Inside the garage measurements were performed from 8 Momentum Ui (−∂p/∂xi ) + ρref gi µ
a.m. to 8 p.m. on a typical weekday. Two monitoring sites Kinetic energy of k G − ρε µ/σ k
were selected to provide examples of typical workplace areas turbulence
and to permit meaningful comparisons the ‘exit-site’ and the Eddy dissipation rate ε C1 (ε/k)G − C2 ρ(ε2 /k) µ/σ ε
Concentration mCO ṁ µ/σ CO
‘inside-site’. The ‘exit-site’ situated on the ramp on the exit
 K. Papakonstantinou et al. / Energy and Buildings 35 (2003) 933–940 935

cretized into finite intervals and the variables are computed
at only a finite number of locations, at the so-called “grid
points”. These variables are connected with each other by
algebraic equations derived by their counterparts by integra-
tion over the control volumes defined by the above intervals.
This leads to equations of the form:
 
(Aϕn + C)ϕP = Aϕn ϕn + CV (2)
n n
where the summation n is over the cells adjacent to a defined
ϕ
point P. The coefficients An , which account for convective
and diffusive fluxes across the elemental cell, are formulated
using hybrid differencing. The source terms are written in
the linear form Sϕ = C(V −ϕ), where C and V stand for a co-
efficient and a value of the variable ϕ. Pressures are obtained
from a pressure-correction equation that yields the pressure
change needed to procure velocity changes to satisfy the
mass continuity. The source terms are linearized. To solve
the three-dimensional flow equations the “SIMPLEST” prac-
tice of Spalding is followed, in which the finite-domain co-
efficients of the momentum equations contain only diffusion
contributions, the convection terms being added to the lin-
earized source term. The momentum equations are solved by
a point-by-point procedure. The pressure-correction equa-
tion is solved over the whole-field. The present model is
implemented in the general computer program PHOENICS
[14].
3.3. Test cases considered
For the purposes of this study, a fully enclosed central
garage, where the ventilation system was deactivated, is se-
lected. Garage capacity is 110 vehicles. The emission of
CO inside the garage depends on the number of vehicles
entering or leaving the garage. The CO emission rate for a
vehicle depends on vehicle characteristics including factors
such as the age of the vehicle, the engine power, vehicle
operating mode, vehicle speed and the level of the vehicle
maintenance. The amount of CO emissions generated inside
depends also on the amount of time a vehicle spends in dif-
ferent parking modes [4].
In the present investigation, a volumetric emission rate of
0.4–1 l s per car was assumed [18]. This value represents hot
emission conditions. Hot starts are common in this garage
where cars are usually parked for short periods. The total
number of cars entering or leaving the garage per 15 min
intervals was recorded. The total length of time for the car
operation inside the garage is 1 min. With those data, the
transient source strength every 15 min was calculated. These
data which represent CO emission rates at the exit of the
garage were used as input data for the numerical simula-
tion of CO levels inside in the absence of ventilation sys-
tem. A scenario of ventilation rate of 2 m/s was also investi-
gated as an attempt to improve air quality inside the garage
(Table 2).
The garage geometry, shown in Fig. 1, as well as the
conditions, which prevail in the closed space, is given in
Table 2. The reported results have been obtained using a
non-uniform grid consisting of 38 cells in x-direction, 10
cells in the y-direction and 26 cells in the z-direction (Fig. 2).
The solutions obtained are grid independent, guaranteed by
repeated runs using finer grids.
In order to determine the variability of indoor concen-
tration for the given garage two different scenarios were

Table 2
Data used in calculations
Data Case 1. No mechanical ventilation Case 2. Mechanical ventilation
Air induction velocity (m/s) – 2.0
Air viscosity (kg/m s) 10−5
Air density (kg/m3 ) 1.189
Garage dimensions (x, y, z) 35 × 4.3 × 23
Time (h) 8:15 8:30 8:45 9:00 9:15 9:30 9:45 10:00 10:15
Number of cars entering or leaving the 2 3 2 6 5 8 7 7 7
garage—every 15 min
CO source strength—every 15 min (g/min) 3.56 5.34 3.56 10.68 8.90 14.24 12.46 12.46 12.46
Time (h) 10:30 10:45 11:00 11:15 11:30 11:45 12:00 12:15 12:30
Number of cars entering or leaving the 6 5 10 6 7 5 8 0 1
garage—every 15 min
CO source strength—every 15 min (g/min) 10.68 8.90 17.80 10.68 12.46 8.90 14.24 0 1.78
Time (h) 12:45 13:00 13:15 13:30 13:45 14:00 14:15 14:30 14:45
Number of cars entering or leaving the 2 15 2 2 12 2 0 1 3
garage—every 15 min
CO source strength—every 15 min (g/min) 3.56 26.70 3.56 3.56 21.36 3.56 0 1.78 5.34
Time (h) 15:00 15:15 15:30 15:45 16:00 16:15 16:30 16:45 17:00
Number of cars entering or leaving the 1 1 3 2 3 0 3 1 0
garage—every 15 min
CO source strength—every 15 min (g/min) 1.78 1.78 5.34 3.56 5.34 0 10.68 3.56 0
936 K. Papakonstantinou et al. / Energy and Buildings 35 (2003) 933–940
Fig. 1. Garage ground plan.
investigated and compared with the experimental measured
CO concentration, one without ventilation system and one
with the existence of a mechanical ventilation system.
3.4. Boundary conditions
• At the inlet a fixed mass flow rate is specified as well as
the values of velocity.
• At walls, wall functions are used to calculate the wall
shear stress.
• The CO concentration, released by cars, is appropriately
modeled as mass source.
• The air, which is induced to the garage, is considered
clean from CO.
3.5. Grid dependence and computer storage
The calculations have been performed on an Origin 200
Workstation (Silicon Graphics), with a CPU R 10000 pro-
cessor and main memory 256MB.
Fig. 2. A 38 × 10 × 26 cells grid.
3.6. Convergence and time requirements
A converged solution was defined as one that met the
following criterion for all dependent variables:
max|ϕn+1 − ϕn | < 10−3 (3)
between sweeps indexed by n and n + 1. To improve con-
vergence, an under-relaxation scheme was used. Relaxation
of the “false transient” type was used for the three veloc-
ity components with a value of the “false time step” set to
0.1. For pressure and CO “linear” relaxation was used with
a value of 0.1 and 0.01 respectively. A typical CPU time
for a run with the above grid (9880 cells) is 30 min for full
convergence.
4. Results and discussion
Fifteen-second continuous readings recorded inside the
garage were used to construct longer period TWAs concen-
trations. The data are summarized in Table 3 in terms of 5,
15, 30 min, 1 and 8 h maximum values. The assessment of
indoor air quality was made in relation to the various relevant
standards. The Greek occupational limit values have been
adopted as the major reference as far as garage employee’s
exposure is concerned. Greek occupational law follows the
EU’s guideline with respect to CO exposure. The concen-
trations found in the underground and exit-site represent the
exposure not only for the garage occupants, but also for the
clients when they park the car by themselves. Thus, WHO
air quality guidelines are also presented in this Table.
This study focuses primarily on the validation of the
model used as well as investigates the ventilation effec-
tiveness. Some indicative results are given in the following
 K. Papakonstantinou et al. / Energy and Buildings 35 (2003) 933–940 937

Table 3 tem applied, at the human level of 1.8 m height. As it is

Maximum CO concentrations (ppm) averaged over 5, 15 and 30 min, 1 observed, a minimum value of 0.00006 m/s and a maximum
and 8 h, for each site monitored with relevant air quality criteria for CO value of 3.11 m/s is govern in the field. Near the entrance
(ppm) and on the ramp for the lower underground level the air ve-
Monitoring site 5 min 15 min 30 min 1h 8h locity has the higher values in contrast with the main field
Inside 92.1 84.3 67.3 57.3 43.2 where the velocity values are negligible.
Exit 163.6 102.2 68.5 62.2 41.7 In Fig. 4, the air velocity vector at x–z cross-section is
Air quality criteria for CO
given again for the same height but with the application of
Greece (occupational) – 300 – – 50 a mechanical ventilation system. As it is presented in this
ACGIH TLV – – – – 25 cross-section the velocity values are between 0.0862 and
NIOSH REL 200 – – – 35 4 m/s. As it is observed a strong vortex is created at the main
OSHA PEL 200 – – – 50 field of the garage, fact that causes a better ventilation of the
WHO – 87 52 26 9
examined space with a velocity value of 2 m/s, value which
is above the limits concerning human comfort. However,
considering that the clients of the garage stays there only a
Figures. In Fig. 3, the air velocity vector at x–z cross-section few moments, it is preferable to raise the air velocity in order
is given for the garage without ventilation system. In Fig. 4, to enter fresh air in the garage and extract contaminated air
the air velocity vector at x–z cross-section is given for the from the space.
under consideration garage but with the existence of a ven- In Fig. 5, the CO concentration versus time is given for
tilation system. In Fig. 5, the CO concentration versus time both experimental and numerical data, for the first mea-
is given for both experimental and numerical data, for the surement point, at an average human height level of 1.8 m.
first measurement point. In Fig. 6, a diagram of CO con- For this case, no ventilation system is considered. As it is
centration versus time is given for both experimental and shown in this diagram the numerical values of CO concentra-
numerical data, for the second measurement point. For both tion are overestimated in comparison with the experimental
the cases, no ventilation system is considered. Finally, in data. However, it is remarkable to say that for both of them
Figs. 7 and 8, CO concentration versus time is given for nu- the CO concentration has the same distribution versus time.
merical data, in the absence of ventilation and when a ven- As it is observed there are high CO values between 13:00
tilation system is applied, for the ‘inside’ and ‘exit’ sites, and 14:00 h and after 15:30 h. The 15 min WHO guideline
respectively. of 87 ppm is exceeded. Concerning the experimental data
As it is shown in Fig. 3, the air velocity vector at x–z the Greek occupational TLV–TWA is not exceeded. How-
cross-section is given for the garage with no ventilation sys- ever, the maximum 8 h recorded at this measurement site

Fig. 3. Air velocity field at x–z cross-section without ventilation system (m/s).
938 K. Papakonstantinou et al. / Energy and Buildings 35 (2003) 933–940

Fig. 4. Air velocity field at x–z cross-section with ventilation system (m/s).

Fig. 5. CO concentration field vs. time at “exit” measurement point without ventilation system.

Fig. 6. CO concentration field vs. time at “inside” measurement point without ventilation system.
 K. Papakonstantinou et al. / Energy and Buildings 35 (2003) 933–940 939

Fig. 7. CO concentration field vs. time at “exit” measurement point with ventilation system.

Fig. 8. CO concentration field vs. time at “inside” measurement point with ventilation system.

approach significantly this limit. It is 83.4% of the criterion
(see Table 3).
In Fig. 6, the CO concentration versus time is given for
both experimental and numerical data, for the second mea-
surement point, at an average human height level of 1.8 m.
For this case, no ventilation system is also considered. As it
is shown in this diagram, the numerical values of CO con-
centration are overestimated in comparison with the exper-
imental data. However, it is remarkable to say that for both
of them the CO concentration has the same distribution ver-
sus time. As it is observed there are high CO values close
at 10:30 h and between 13:00 and 14:00 h and after 15:30 h.
These values are under the 15 min WHO guideline. In terms
of Greek occupational TLV–TWA, it is not exceeded by the
experimental data (see Table 3). The highest 8 h CO con-
centration measured at this site is 86.4% of the criterion.
In Fig. 7, the CO concentration versus time is given for
both experimental and numerical data, for the first measure-
ment point, at an average human height level of 1.8 m. For
this case, a sufficient ventilation system is considered. For
this case, a sufficient ventilation system is considered as it
is explained above. It can be seen that during the high value
periods a considerable reduction of CO levels is obtained. In
comparison with the WHO limits, the ventilation system is
considered sufficient for the proper ventilation of this garage.
In Fig. 8, the CO concentration versus time is given for
both experimental and numerical data, for the second mea-
surement point, at an average human height level of 1.8 m.
For this case, again a sufficient ventilation system is consid-
ered. As it is observed the 15 min CO concentrations show
a considerable reduction over time and CO levels are main-
tained well below the WHO guideline.
5. Conclusions
This paper deals with the simulation of CO concentration
in different sites inside a typical central garage. Specifically,
the study investigates the dispersion of indoor CO levels
under two different conditions, with no mechanical ventila-
tion and when mechanical ventilation of 2 m/s was applied.
Experimental measurements of CO levels at the ‘exit’ and
‘indoor’ sites were also conducted and gave good agreement
with the numerical results. The study was also concerned to
investigate the indoor air quality. Thus, the measured results
were compared with short and long-term exposure limits to
CO. The results appeared to be very interesting and demon-
strate that numerical solutions are very effective for ventila-
tion design purposes. The design of an efficient ventilation
system will result in a better quality of air inside buildings.
940 K. Papakonstantinou et al. / Energy and Buildings 35 (2003) 933–940
As far as short and long-term health problems are concerned
CO compound, reducing CO levels in occupational spaces
is an important issue. It was found that when ventilation was
applicable the CO levels inside the garage fulfill the indoor
air quality acceptance requirements.
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