-< IMPORTANT NOTES

1. FUNCTIONS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

• Circulatory system . is meant for transport of substances like
(z) nutrients from the place of absorption to different tissues/organs.
(ii) respiratory gases between the organ of respiration and the tissues.
(iii) informational molecules like hormones from the glands to target tissues/organs
to maintain homeostasis.
(iv) metabolic intermediates to specific sites for further metabolism.
(v) metabolic wastes from different tissues to excretory organs.
(vz) water, H+ and heat to all parts of the body, for equal distribution.
• It helps in defence against foreign materials or organisms, as it has lymphocytes and
antibodies.
• It plays an important role in maintaining a constant body temperature, by uniformly
distributing the heat to all parts of the body.
 0
,AAN BL 00 . . . t" f ·
z. It~U•~
is a flu1'dofconnective tISsue, consis mg o plasma and formed elements called blood
various types.
1scle5
carpt Blood

I
+
Plasma
7
Corpuscles
-------ir----- I
r
Erythrocytes
(RBCs)
Leuco"""
(WBCs)
I 7
Thrombocytes

+ (Platelets)
Granulocytes ·
(Cytoplasm is
.7
. Agranulocytes
granular)
(Cytoplasm

+
Neutrophils
i l r
is homogeneous)
. I
Eosinophils
Basophils
Monocytes l
r
Lymphocytes

T-lymphocytes
'-i
B-lymphoeytes
Fig. 18.1 Components of Blood
(1) Plasma

- It is a straw-coloured viscous fluid and constitutes nearly 55% of the blood.

- 90-92% of plasma consists of water
- 6-8% of plasma consists of proteins.

- albumins.
The major classes of proteins in the plasma are fibrinogens, globulins and
- Their functions are as follows :
• Fibrinogens are involved in the clotting of blood.
" Globulins are involved in the defence mechanism of our body.
· " Albumins help to maintain the osmotic balance.
-- PI ·
Other proteins include the coagulation factors, which are in an inactive fonn.
astna Without Coagulation factors is known as serum.
- Plas111a cont~ the following mineral ions :
Na+, Ca++ Mg++ HCO - c1- PO -
' Ou, 0
.' ' 3' ' 4 I' 'd
h er organic compounds
(ii) F0 l'Inones, vitamins, etc. in the plasma are glucose, amino acids, 'P' s,
l'llted EI
, p elllents / Corpuscles
- ~'llled
tnere elements constitute· about 45% of the blood.
a
•re three kinds of formed elements namely :
· Eryth
b· Leu rocytes or Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs) )
c. 1b cocytes or White Blood Corpuscles ·(WBCs
ro:rnbocytes or Platelets
 a. Erythrocytes
•• They are the most abundant of all the cells in blood.
11• They are biconcave and disc-like with a diameter of 7-8 µm .
3
•• Their number is about 4.5 - 5.5 million/mm (about 5.0 million).
,,.. They do not · have nucleus, mitochondria or endoplasmic reticulum.
•• They are formed in the red bone marrow.
•• Their life span is about 120 days; is tlieir graveyard.
• The entire volume of the cell is filled with haemoglobin, a red-coloured
iron-containing pigment.
,,. An adult person has about 12 - 16 g of haemoglobin in 100 ml of blood .
• It contains the enzyme carbonic anhydrase.
b. Leucocytes
• They are large and possess a nucleus centrally.
• They are colourless due to the absence of any pigment.
3
• Their number is about 7000 / mm •
. ,. These are broadly classified into granulocytes and agranulocytes.
A. Granulocytes
> These are the cells with (i) granular cytoplasm and
(ii) polymorphic nucleus.
> They are of the following three types :

Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils

(i) They do not stain with They are stained by They are stained with
acidic or basic dyes. acidic dyes like eosin. basic dyes like
. methylene blue .
(ii} The nucleus is 5-7 lobed. The nucleus is bilobed. The nucleus has 2 or
3 lobes. '

(iii) They are phagocytic and They are slightly They play an
give protection against phagocytic but have a important role in
infection. role in detoxification. inflammatory reactions.
(iv) About 62% of leucocytes. About 2-3,% of leucocytes. 0.5-1 % of leucocytes.

B. Agra.nulocytes
> The cytoplasm has no granules and is pale blue _in colour.
> They have a large circular /kidney shaped nucleus.
> They are of the following two types :

Monocytes Lymphocytes
-'(t) Cells are large, 10-lSµm in There are 'two types of ·cells-small
diameter. lymphocytes (7-lOµrn -inir diameter) and
large lymphocytes (10.-14µm in diameter)
(ii-1Nucleus is kidney shaped. Nucleus is large and round.
(iit) They are phagocytic ai:td motile. They play an important role in the
immune syslem of the body.
,_$) 6-8% of leucocytes. I (iv) 25-30% of leucocytes.
 C,
Thrombocytes
> They are the· cell fragments formed by megakaryocytes in the bone
marrow. ·
Their number ranges between 1,50,000 and 3,50,000 mm3.
>
> They rel~ase substances that are concerned with the clottin of blood.
~efer Fig. 7.9 Blood cells) " - - - g
D GROUPS
5LOO O grouping and Rh-grouping are the two important blood groupings.
3. AB th ·t . . h
• both the cases, e en enon is t e presence or absence of certain antigens on the
• In of erythrocytes (RBCs).
surface .
·,
~- ~B The presence or absence of antigen A and/ or antigen B on the surface of Rllts,
is the basis of this grouping.
_ The plasma of different individuals has one and/ or two different antibodies,
produced in response to the antigens.
_ The following table gives the characteristics of the different blood groups :
Blood Antigen Antibody in Can be donated
Group on RBC Plasma to group(s)
A A anti-B A,O
B B anti-A B, 0
AB A, B nil A, B, AB, 0
0 nil anti-A, anti-B 0

Such a blood grouping, called ABO-blood grouping, was

Landsteiner.
- Blood groups are very important for consideration during blood transfusio
- Transfusion of mismatched blood group leads to agglutination (coagulatio
blood, which is fatal.
- 'O' group individuals are called 'universal donors' as they .can
onate blood to
persons of any blood group; this is because blood of 0-group does not have any
antigen to react with the antibodies of the recipient.
- 'AB'.blood group is called 'universal acceptor' as it can take blood of any group
(A, B, AB and O); this is because, there is no antibody in this blood group, to
react with the antigen(s) of the donor.
B. Rh • Grouping · .
- Rh-antigen is a protein discovered in Rhesus monkeys.
Rh-antigen is also present on the surface of RBCs of human beings. ..
- About 80% of human individuals have Rh-antigen and they are called Rh-positive .
th
. O ers who lack this antigen, are called Rh-negative. ..
- If Rh positive blood is transfused into an Rh-negative . m · dividual, specific
anti-Rh-antibodies are formed in the blood of the recipient.
 If an Rh-negative woman bears an Rh-positive foeh.1_s, at_ the time of delivery of
the first child, when foetal blood comes in contact with the mother's blood,
anti-Rh-antibodies are formed by the mo th er's blood.
.b d" am· m· the blood of mother for a long period.
These an ti o 1es rem .
If a second Rh-positive foetus is borne by t~e mo ther, the anti Rh-anti~odies in
the mother's blood enter the foetal circulation and destroy the RBCs; 1t results
in jaundice and severe anaemia in the new bo~n. .
Such a condition is described as erythroblastosis foetahs.

4. COAGULATION OF BLOOD
• When an injury -0ccurs, there is bleeding from the wound for sometime, but soon the
blood stops flowing out. . .
• This is because blood exhibits a mechanism called blood coagulation or clotting, to
prevent excess loss of blood from the body.
• A clot or coagulum is formed which consists of a network of fibres called fibrin in
which the dead and damaged corpuscles are trapped.
• When the blood comes out of an injured blood vessel, the platelets/ thrombocytes
clump together, break and · release platelet factors.
• The prothrombinase initiates the conversion of prothrombih of the pl; ,ma into
thrombin.
• Thrombin catalyses the conversion of 'fibrinogen into fibrin, which forms a mesh/
network.
• Ca++ ions are necessary for both the above steps in coagulation.
• The blood clot seals the injured blood vessel and thereby bleeding stops.

5. CIRCULATORY PATTERNS
• There are two major types of circulatory patterns (i) open circulation and (ii) closed
circulation.
(i) Open Circulatory System
-e.g., Molluscs except Cephalopods, Arthropods and Tunicates.
- When blood flows through open spaces (lacunae) and channels (sinuses) and
not confined to closed blood vessels, it is called open circulatory system.
A sufficiently high blood pressure cannot be developed in lacunae and sinuses.
- · Blood flows at a very slow velocity.
Blood directly comes in contact with the body tissues.
The volume of blood flowing to different tissues and organs cannot be
regulated according to the need.
(ii) Closed Circulatory System
e.g., All vertebrates, Echinoderms, cephalopods of Molluscs and Annelids.
- Blood is confined to heart and other closed blood vessels.
- A sufficiently high blood pressure can be maintained.
- So bl~od flows at a faster speed, which quickens the supply and removal of
matenals. ·
 Blood does not come in contact with the tissues/a ,,-
. rgans.
The volume of blood flowing to a particular tissue/or b d
- h d
according to t e nee an d h gan
ence is more advantageous. can e regu Iate
ATORY PATHWAYS AMONG VERTEBRATES
6- All ver tebrates possess
cJllCUL . a .muscular
, heart.
• They show single ctrculation, incomplete double circulation and d
• (i) fishes _ Sing~e Circulation . ouble circulation.
_ The heart 1s two-chambered, with an atrium and a ventricle.
_ The heart pumps out only deoxygenated blood, to the gills for oxygenation.
_ The oxygenated blood is supplied to all body parts and the deoxygenated
blood from all parts is returned to the heart.
_ This type of circul~tiori 1.s.J~~own as single circulation.
(ii) Amphibians (Incomplete double "ct ulation)
_ The heart is three-chambered with o atria and a ventricle.
_ The left atrium receives oxygenated b od, while the right atrium receives
deoxy~enated blood.
-But in the single ventricle, the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood get mixed
up and that is pumped to all parts of the body.
- This type of circulation is known as incomplete double circulation.
(iii) Reptiles (Incomplete double circulation)
- Reptiles excluding crocodiles (4-chambered) have three-chambered heart, with
two atria and an incompletely-partitioned ventricle.
- Though the atria receive the oxygenated and deoxygenated bloods separately,
the two types of blood get mixed up in the ventricie.
- They show incomplete double circulation like the, amphibians.-
\1, Aves and Mammals (Double circulation)
- The heart is four-chambered with two atria and two ventricles.
- The oxygenated and deoxygenated bloods are completely partitioned from
each other.
- The left auricle receives oxygenated blood, that passes into the left ventricle
which pumps it to all parts of the body.
- The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from all parts of the body, ~at
passes into the right ventricle which Pl.}1llPS it ·to the lungs for oxygenation.
7
- This type of circulation is called double circulation.
. lilJMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
• H .
urnan circulatory system consists of :
~I) the muscular, pumping organ, heart
th
~'.z) e blood vessels - arteries, veins and capillaries
th
tz) e blood, the circulating fluid and
th
rv) e lymph the tissue fluid.
8. HEART
• It is a blunt conical organ .of - - - - ' ~ - - - - - Aorta
about 12 cm long and 9 cm
-=:1--H:,..:--+::::;.;ol......,..---- Superior vena cava
broad ; its narrow apex is pointed
downward and to the left. Pulmonary artery
• Heart is enclosed in a double ;:-==--=---==-=--
,_ Pulmonary veins
walled sac, called pericardium,
that consists of an outer fibrous
-..L-1---"':---J\-'"--i--- Right atrium
and inextensible layer and an
inner serous layer.
Coronary artery
• In between the two layers is a
_4-..J.----1f--++--- Right ventricle
fluid-filled space; the fluid is
called per.icardial fluid and it - - " - - - Left ventricle
prevents any friction between the ' - - - - - - - - - Inferior vena cava
heart walls and the surrounding
Fig. 18.2 External Structure ~f Human Heart
tissues.
• The human heart consists of four
chambers; two auricles (atria) and
two ventricles.
• The auricles are located at the
broader end and the ventricles
are towards the posterior narrow
end.
• There is an external transverse
~~~;;:::__2_..,..,.__ Semilunar valves
~~;::P~ll:,.u,,_.,.~ Left auricle
groove between the auricles and
Right auricle
ventricles; it is called coronary
Bicuspid valve
sulcus.
• Internally, the two (right and left) .IJ::tt=- Chordae tendinae
auricles are separated by an inter lnterventricular
septum
atrial septum; it has an oval
...u.JJ-.J~- Left ventricle
depression cailed fossa ovalis,
which is the remnant of foramen · Right ventricle
ovale of foetal heart.
• The two ventricles are separated
by interventricular septum. Fig. 18.3 Internal Structure of Human Heart

• The atria and ventricles are

separated by auriculo-ventricular septum (AV septum).
• It has an opening between the right auricle and right ventricle, guarded by tricuspid
valve.
The opening in , the AV-septum between the left auricle and left ventricle is guarded
by bicuspid or mitral valve. ·
-The pointed ends of the flaps of AV-valves are attached to the ventricular wall by
•• chordae tendinae.
The right auricle receives inf~rior and ·superim:·1vena cav,ae and· the left auricle receives
• two pairs of pulmonary veins. ·
 two major arteries leaving the heart are pulmonary artery . (fr . ht --~
, 'fhe rta (from left ventricle); th~ir openings are gua d d b on:1 ng ven c1e)
and aoall of the heart 1~
. made of ~ard1ac. muscle fibres whi r eh b y semilunar
h valves. .
, 'fhe another
W .
fonrung a·network; thi ..
- s facilitates c ranc
quick conductio f th and d"connect
. with
one 1 bl d th - n o e car 1ac impulse
Coronary arteries supp y oo to . e cardiac muscles and coronary veins collect th .
• deoxy genated blood ~rom tbe "" catd1ac muscles · e
OD VESSELS _
9· ,5LOArten•es and veins are the main blood vessels ·
The wall of arteries/veins consists of three layers
' (i) T~e inner lining intima, made of squamous endothelium.
(iz) The ~ddle layer tunica ~edia, made of smooth muscles and elastic fibres.
(iii) The outermost layer tumca externa, made of fibrous connective tissues with
collagen fibres.
, The middle layer is thicker in arteries than in veins.
, The differences between arteries and veins are as in the table

,
Arteries
- /
.
-. Veins
(i) Arteries c~ry blood from the heart
to different parts of the body. Veins bring 'blood from different
parts of the body to the heart.
(iz) Arteries have thick walls to
_withstand the pressure of the Veins are thin walled as blood
blood. flows with no/very little
pressure.
(iii) They do not have valves
' of blood. They possess valves to prevent
back flow of blood.
(iv) Arterit are situated deeper in the
. . - ..,, Veins are superficially located.
tissues.
(v) Blood flow in arteries is due to
Blood ·flows due to' contraction
pumping action of heart. of muscles.

• The branches of arteries are called arterioles which further branch into capillaries in
the tissues.
' They have verv thin walls which facilitate the exchange of materials between the blood
and tissues/ti;sue fluid. ·• "'
• The branches of capillaries in the tissues unite to form venules which further join to
form the veins. ti
10. CON .
DUCTING ~ - STEM OF HEART .
• In rnanunals, r e heart
- . rmpu• • irn
•1.!!i. ted b the car
· ~• ~~..::::.::.::- ·ac
1 ~s
r
------=--- ., ,-- ----
is myogenic, i.e., the cardiac lse 15
1
. --

~e ca ctiac ~pulse is initiated by the sino-atrial node (SA-node), situated in th e upper

, ~era} Wall of the right atrium. d t m· ing the rate ,t·
1 .
llle fb .. . . d .by· e erm
of ct· res -of SA-Roo.e-show the -ab1hty of self-excitation an (hence called pacemaker).
1Scharge of cardiac impulse, it determines the hear,Lratg. -
 '
• o? ..
• The SA node is in close association
with the muscles of auricles and
conducts the impulse to auricles.
• The impulse is conducted t_o the
ventricles through the auncul~-
ventricular node (AV-node), located m SA-node
the posterior part of inter-atrial septum. AV-node
• From this node, the AV-bundle AV-bundle
{btmdle of His) arises and immedia-
tely branches into a right and a left Bund!~ branehes
...
bundle that enter the wall of right and Purkinje fibres
left ventricles respectively. ·
• These two bundle branches produce
many branches called Purkinje fibres
throughout the ventricular wall and
conduct the impulse to the muscles of Fig. 18.4 Conducting System of Heart
ventricles.
• The SA node generates a maximum of 70-75 action potentials per minute.
•Qince it is responsible for initiating and maintainir}g the rhY!hmic contra~til~ vity
. of the ~r~, it is called the pacemake~ ._
I 11. C DIAC CYCLE
• ( Cardiac cycle refers to the sequence of events which occur from the beginning of one
~ ~ean be~t to the beginning. of the next h~art beat) . · r--
• In the cardiac cycle, the phase of contraction of any heart chamber is called systole
and the phase of relaxation of any heart chamber is called diastole.
• A complete heart beat consists of one systole and one diastole of each of the atria
. and the ventricles.
(i) Joint diastole
e,/' It is the brief period in the cardiac cycle when both atria and
in the relaxed state. ·- " ventricles are
- / Blood continues to enter into the rig~t atrium through superior and inferior
c/ vena cavae; blood enters the left atnum through pulrn.onary veins.
70% of the blood passively enters the ventricles from their respective atria,
through the open atria-ventricular valves.
( ·") ial systole •

--;;:; ff•e ca[diadmpulse from the SA,-node reaches the atrial muscles, they starl
th~ systole. · , .
1/._S ~e ~ia
venti:1cles. c~ntr!1ct, the remaining blood in the atria
-=- is pumped
· into the

V Blood flo~, into the atria stops, as the roots of the \ eins get cl~sed by the
/
/\.
(iii) Ventricular systple
-
contracting atrial wall. . · ' - · .. _
·

~s the atrial systole approaches its end, the action potenti al passes . from the
SA n_o~e t? AV qode and then t~ ugh J?undle branches and
PtirkmJe fibres. · . °'
..... '"'I

_ Consequently ventricles contract and · the pressure inside the ·ventricles

increases.
7 The @ valv,e~ close .to prev~n~ the backflow of blood in_to th.- atria; this
produces the first heart sound ,_lubb' which lasts for about 0.16-. 0.9 sec.
_ As ventricular pressure increases and exceeds that of aortic pressure, the
semilunar valves open. ./
_ Blood is pumped into the pulmonary trunk from the right ventricle and into
the aorta from the left ventricle. '
(iv) Ventricular diastole

v- .As- the ventricular muscles celax, the ventricular diastole starts.

_ There is a decrease in the ventricular pressure and sJ
the semilunar valves
close to prevent the backflow of blood into ventricles fr~e major arteries ;
this produces the second heart-sound, 'dupp' which lasts for a shorter
duration of 0.1 sec. -
-
Then ~e AV valves open and blood starts flowing intq the ventricles, even
before the atrial systole starts.
12. ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (ECG)
y Electrocardiogram .is the graphic record of
the ~ a l potential differences produced
by the e'i_ci~a-tion of- he~~t muscles } s a
function of time. _7
£.Electrocardiograph is the machine used to - '
A\

"I"" -monitor. the heart. function.

T-wave
• To obtain a standard ECG, the patient is r-r- .-~p wave
connected to the machine with three r-r- .. ~n
electrical leads, one in each of the wrists , __
'
'

•-
and one to the left ankle, that monitor the
heart function.
I

• A normal electrocardiogram has the ....

following waves : ' P-R • 'ORS ' • I

l .
interval complex , ST segment
(i) P-wave, a small up.ward- wave, that S-T interval

indicates ~e depolarisation of the atrial 0.0 0.2 0.4' · 0.6 0.8

'
muscles.
,
- .
. Time (in second)
(iz) ~RS c~mplex, indicates the dtt?olaris~- Fig. 18.5 Electrocardiography
tion of the ventricular muscles and the
... sim~ar\eous repola~ation of the atrial muscL •
, tz) T-wave, indicate~ the re olarisation o · uscles.

,
:yetermme
co~tmg the number of QRS complex form
the rate of heart beat of an individual.
m a given time period, one can

Since
or ct· normal
·. . ECG has a fixed pattern' any deviation from it indicates an abnormality
lSorder m the heart functioning.
L3. REGULATION OF CARDIAC ACTIVITY
• The normal functioning of heart is auto-regulated, i.e., · regulated intrinsically by
specialised muscles; herice the ·heart is described as myog~nic.
• A special nerve centre in the medulla oblongata can• moderate the cardiac activity
through autonomic nervous system .(ANS). ·
• Nerve impulses from sympathetic nerves increase the rate of heart beat, strength of
ventricular contraction and thereby increase the cardiac output.
• Nerve impulses from parasympathetic nerves decrease the_rate of heart beat, strength
of ventricular contraction and thereby decrease the cardiac output.
• Hormones of adrenal medulla (adrenaline, nor-adrenaline) also moderate the heart
functioning.
14. - DOUBLE CIRCULATION
• Pulmonary circulation and the systemic circulation _are the two circulatory pathways
making the circulation a -double circulation.
• The oxygenated blood and the deoxygenated blood are received and pumped by the
right and the left halves of the heart respectively and there is no mixing up of blood.
• Coronary circulation and portal circulation form parts of the systemic circulation.
A. Pulmonary Circulation
, - - - - -- - -- Pulmonary artery

~,.........J~~~ ~ - Pulmonary vein~

-+----+--H-:.-+-J--t+-- Left atrium

--4-#---++--1.-+-1--.µ.,<C+.-...JJ-."-- Right atrium

--\+---I-+ - ~ ~ ~ - - Right ventricle

--1--1-- -=-- - - Left ventricle

Fig. 18.6 Pulmonary circulation .

circulation of deo~ygenated b~ood from _the right ve1;tricle to the lungs

oxyg¼na~ct blood from the lungs to the left atrium, is called pulmonary
ulation. - - r -

- It starts th the pulmonary artery carrying deoxygenated blood from the

right ventricle to the lungs.
- Two pairs of pulmonary veins bripg the oxygenated blood t.o 'the left atrium.
- This part of circulation serves for the regular oxygenation of .the deoxygEµ1ated
_blood, that comes from different parts of the body into the right atrium.
B. , (Estemic Circulation ·
The circulation of oxygenated blood from the left ~ntricle t o ~ of the
body, except lung,s and the return of deoxygenated blood from all parts of
15~y (ex-cept lungs) to the right atrium, is known as systemic circulation-
- It starts with the aorta arising from the left ventricle and t~rminates with e
superior and. inferior venae cavae, opening into the right atrium.
 _ The aortic arch before
turning downward as the
abdominal c!,Orta produce·s
three branches; these
branches supply blood to
the head, arms and the
cardiac muscles.
_ The abdominal aorta
supplies blood to the
visceral organs and the
==------- Aortic arch
lower extremities. v,'T'iiHP"d~~-\-- - Superior ve~a cava

- Systemic circulation serves Dorsal/ abdominal aorta

two important functions :
n~----"t'{---f-tf-+-- Inferior vena cava
a. Transport of oxygen ~;---;r-,,,-,-._ _ Right ventricle
and nutrients to all
body tissues and l'"-f---- Left ventricle
b. Removal of carbon
dioxide and other ""»r'1"r.r-tt---- Hepatic portal vein

nitrogenous wastes from = : - - ' - - ; ~ - - - Hepatic vein

the body tissues.
- Coronary circulation and
portal circulation are also
parts of systemic circulation. ·
(i) Coronary Circulation · Fig. 18.6 Systemic circulation
1

• It is the part of systemic circulation that supplies blood to the heart

muscles (myocardium).
,,. It starts with the coronary arteries arising from the aorta; they supply
oxygenated blood to the myocardium.
,,.., The deoxygenated blood is returned by the coronary veins to the superior
vena cava, that opens into the right auricle.
(iz) Portal Circulation
If a vein returning blood from a system of capillaries from an organ,
,,..
divides again into a second system of capillaries in another organ, before
reaching the blood to the heart, it is called a portal vein.
,.. The portal vein along with the capillaries to which it supplies blood,
constitutes the portal system.
i,.E.g. Hepatic po.rtal system; in this the hepatic portal vein returns blood
from the·intestine and breaks into a second system of capillaries in the liver
15. l"• and it enables the liver cells to obtain the nutrients from the small intestine.
• •1v1PIIAT1c SYSTEM
L~phatic syst~m includes the fluid, lymph, lymphocytes and lymph vessels.
(z) Lymph

- As blood 15
• flowing with pressure m • the arteries,• · some wafer. and .dissolved
. fl "d
. seep out into ·the tissue·
rnatenals . spaces; ·th'1s fl m'd 15
· called rnterstiha·.
1 u1
· .
 - The part of the interstitial fluid that enters the lymph channels, is called the
lymph.
- Lymph has a compositi~n . similar tQ, that of plasma, except ~at it has less
proteins. '-
- Lymph has lymphocytes, a type of agranulocytes.
(ii) Circulation of Lymph
- Fine channels arising from the tissue spaces, into which a portion of the
interstitial fluid flows, are the lymph vessels.
The lymph vessels join and ultimately open into the venous blood system and
reach the heart.
-(iii) Functions
- It acts as an accessory route for the flow of interstitial fluid into the blood.
- The lymphocytes play an important role in the defense against microbes and
other foreign materials.
- vakes the larger biomolecules into blood for circulation.