1.

C O O R D I N A T I O N

1.
The neural system and the endocrine system together coordinate and integrate a! he
activities of the organs.
The neural system provides an organised network of point-to-point connections for
a quick coordination.

.The endocrine system provides chemical coordination through hormones.

2 NEURAL SYSTEM IN ANIMALS

Sponges (Porifera) do not have neurons.
Hydra like coelenterates have similar neurons, that form network (nerve net).
a

. In earthworm, the nervous system.consists of a single ventral nerve and paired ganglia
and segmental nerves from the segmental ganglia.
Insects have a better organised nervous system, with a brain, double ventral nerve

cord, ganglia and nerves.

Vertebrates have a well developed brain.
 SYSTEM
3. HUMAN NEURAL
3. can be classifiecd as follows
neural system
T h e human
Nervous aystem

Peripthera NarvouA AyAtamn

Central Nervous ayatem

Spinal cord
Sensory o Motor or
3reln aMerent pattways eerent pathways

Somatic/Vountary Autonomic/ Invoyntar

8ystem 1ystam

Sympathetic Parasympathetic
nervous sys tem nervous ystem

includes brain
and spinal cord.
Central nervous system nerves arising from the brain (cran:
system includes all the ial nerr
nervous
Peripheral
cord nerves).
(spinal
and spinal are of two types
fibres of the P'NS
The nerve

nerve fibres,
which transmít the impulse
trom the
tissues/organs to h
Afferent
central nervous system.
which transmit the impulse from the central nervous Surre
slem
(i) Efferent nerve fibres,
to the tissues. from the central ner
nervous system sends impulses
The somatic or voluntary
skcletal muscles.
sy'stem to the sends impulses from the central re
The autonomic involuntary nervous system
or
of the body.
and smooth muscles
system to involuntary organs sympathetic nervous 5tem
autonomic nervous system, i.e.,
The two divisions of the other.
nervous system,
are antagonistic to each
and parasympathetic
TYPES OF NEURONS
system.
the functional units of
nervous
Neurons or nerve cells are
are called nuclei.
of neurons in the central nervous system,
Groups nervous system, are called ganglia.
of neurons in the peripheral
Groups dendrites and one long axon, eg. pyram dal
nerve cells have many short
Multipolar
cortex.
cells in cerebral neurons the
and one dendron, e.g., bipolar
A bipolar nerve cell has a long axon

retina side branch of the main

axon; «g ey
nerve cells have the cell body in a
Unipolar
are found in the embryonic stage. the zdi
neurons are present special companion
cells known as glia;
Surrounding the te
and also insulate
nutrition to neurons, consume their waste products
cells provide
neurons ot neurons
"
wrap around the
avons
Schwann cells are a type of glial cells, that
the peripheral nervous system.

tough covering called epineurium and on

its inside, the nerve tiDtre
A nerve has a

are gathered into bundles (fascicles), wrapped in the perineurium.

 STRUCTURE OF NEURON

neuron has a cell body, dendrons (dendrites) and an axon,

oll body contains eytoplasm with a nucleus and certain granular bodies, called
The
Nissl's granules.
A numb
mber of processes (outgrowt arise from the cell body; the longest among them
A
aon while the
others are called
it called
their branches dendrites.
dendrons and Dendrites
The avon 1 long nbre and is branched
A

at its distal
end; each branch terminates
as a bulb-like siructure caled synaptic
Dendron
knob, which contains synaptic vesicles Nucleus
with neurotransmitters.
Niss's granules
The axon transmits the impulse away
from the cell body, while the dendrites/
dendrons conduct it to the cell body.
Axon
. Axons are of two types depending on
the presence or absence ot a myclin Neuilemma
shceath around it; they are myelinated
Schwann cal!
axons/nerve fibres.
The myelinated nerve fibres are
enveloped with Schwann cells, which
form a myelin sheath around the axon. Myalin sheath
The myelin sheath is not continuous and
the gaps are called nodes of Ranvier.
Node cf Rarvier
.Myelinated nerve fibres are found in the
brain and spiral cord, while non-
myelinated fibres are commonly found in
autonomous and somatic neural
systems.
6. GENERATION AND cONDUCTION OF
NERVE IMPULSE
Neurons are excitable, because
their Axon temirai
membranes are in a
The neural membrane
polarised state.
has different
types of ion-channels and these ion- Flg. 21.1 A Neuron with
channels
and is
selectively permeable to different ions; this creates myelinated axon
are
responsible for the generation and conduction of their potential difterences
)
Resting Membrane Potential impulse.
At the
resting stage i.e., when the neuron is not
impulse, the membrane of neuron is more involved in conduction of
ions; the membrane is permeable to K* ions than
ta a
axoplasm and also Cl impermeable the
to
ions. negatively charged proteins of the
So the
axoplasm (inside) of the axon has a high
charged proteins, CI ions and concentration negatively
of

ions Potassiumm ions but a low

concentration ot Na
Contrast to this, the extracellular fluid
Concentration of Na* ins (outside of the aron) has a
high
and low concentration of K°
ion
 membrane a r e
maintained by ther
the
There ionic gradients
across
which transports f "ctive
transport of ions by the sodium-potassium pump, three Na
inwards.
outwards and two K° has positive charge
a uh:
axonal membrane the
surlace of the d; the
negatively charged;
So the outer the
inner surface of
the membrane/axoplasm
is
membrane
is said to be polarised.
i) Action Potential the polarised mem
at a site on
threshold stimulus is applied Tane
-When a it becomes freely
freelu permeable
at that site changes;
the membrAne perneability
o Na ions and there is a revoreal
is rapid inflow of Na* ions the
ASa Tesult, there a

polarity
The of the membrane.
inside/axoplasm now becomes positively charged while the outside

and this is called depolarisation.

becomes negatively charged membrane at the site of stimulati
across the on
The potentíal difference is
known as action potential. ,

curret flows through

the axoplasm from the depolarised regio
the the polarised
Nownext region and through the ECF from the polarised regigion
the depolarised region.
result the action potential is generated
in the next segment and thi
As a
fibre.
of the nerve
process continues along the length
Extracellular fluid
Na
+

Axoplasm Axon

Extracellular fluid
Na
Extracellular fluid

Axoplasm

Extracellular fluid

Fig. 21.2 Conduction of Action Potential

(ii) Repolarisation
the stimulus-induced permeability to Na* ions is
AT the site of stimulation,
extremely short lived.
Jt is quickly followed by an increase in the permeability to K* ions.
Within a fraction of a second, K diffuses outside and restores the resting
potential of the membrane at the site of excitation.
At this stage the membrane is said to be repolarised.

TRANSMI`SION OF IMPULSE ACROSS THE SYNAPSE

A synapse is the functional junction between two neurons, formed by the membranes
of a pre-synaptic neuron and a post-synaptic neuron.
 1thett a e two ty}S Ol sj1Apses namel

)lectricai synaes and (i) Chemical synapses

he ncs
ditferncrs
between the
tw types ot
synapses are
given helew
Electrical Synapses
Themembranes of the pre-synaptic
Chemical Synapses
The
and post synaptic neurons are in membranes
pre-synaptic and ofpost-synaptic
lose provimity and there is no
the
synaptic cleft. membranes are
iElctrical current can flow directly fluid-filled space,separated
the
by a

from one neuron to the other. Transmission involves synaptic

chemicalscleft.
called neurotransmitters.
()Impulse conductlion is faster.
Impulse conduIction is
(ir)Electrical syTiapses are rare in our slower. relatively
system. Chemical synapses
common
are the most
he chcmical synapses, typ2 of
synapses.
the axon
terminal called
of synaptic vesicles in its axoplasm. synaptic knob contains
The synaptic vesicles contains the
a
number
when an neurotransmitter.
impulse arrives at the axon terminal, it stimulates the
vesicles towards the movement of the synaptic
membrane, where they
use with the membrane
and release the
neurotransmitter into the
synaptic cleft.
The eleased neuro Axon

transmitter molecules
bind to their
oo Presynac
memerare
specific
receptors present on the Syractic
vesicle
post-synaptic membrane.
This binding stimulates Synaptc deft
the
opening of ion- Post aynaptc
channels that can memerane
generate the action Receptors
potential in the post- Neuretraramitter
synaptic neuron.
Fig. 21.3 A
Synapse
HUMANBRAIN
t15 the central information
and control system processing organ of the body and acts as the commanut
:
u) It controls
the following
i) Voluntary movementsactivities/functions
(i) Balance of the body
nvoluntary organs like heart, lungs (io) Functtoning ot endocrine glands
(v) Thermoregulation
( ) unger and thurst
(11) Circadian
rhythm of the body. (vii) tluman behaviour
 (ii) It is the site processing of:
() vision (i) hearing
(i) speech (tr) memory
(7) emotions and thoughts
() Intelligence
A. Parts of Brain
Itis well inside the cranium
protected
covered by a tough tissue covering calle
Inside the cranium, the btain is
CTanial meninges.
the outermost dura mater, middle thin lavn.
ayer
Meninges consists of three layers; mater
called arachnoid membrane, and
the innermost pia
The human brain has the following parts
Humen Brein

Forebrain
Midbra in Hindora

Corpora quadrigemina

Pons Cerebellum Medulia

Cerebrum Thaiamus Hypothalamus

Fronta Lobe Panetal Lobe Temporal Lobe Occpital Lobe

() Cerebrum
Cerebrum forms the major part of the human brain.
A deep cleft called longitudinal fissure divides the brain/cerebrum into wo
halves cerebral hemispheres)
The two cerebral hemispheres are joined togetber. by bundles oi denselv
packed nerve fibres called corpus callosur
Each cerebral hemisphere is divided by other grooves into four lobes namelv
frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital.
The convolutions or sulci and fissures or gyri, greatly enlarge the surface area
of the cortex to accomunodate more neurons.
The central sulcus separates the motor area of frontal lobe from
SAmatosensory area of parietal lobe.
The outer surface of cerebrum, the cerepral cortex, is called grey mater due
to its greyish appearànce; the cell-bodies of the neurons are concentrated in
this region.
The cerebral cortex contains motor areas, sensory areas and association areus
Association areas are responsible for intersensory associations, memory and
Communication.
nner to the cortex is the white mater, that consists of nyyeliuuated nexre tubres
in the form of nerve fibre tracts
(ii) Thalamus

t just under the cerebrum,

lies
1.e., cerebrum
Thalamus is the major coordinating centre for
wraps around the
thalamus
sensory, and motor signals.

Gray matter or Cortex

-White matter

Hypothalamus
Midbrain
Pons
-Cerebellum
Medulla

Spinal cord
Fig. 21.4 L.S. of brain
(i) Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus lies at the base of the thalamus.
It has centres to control body
It contains several
temperatur, hunger, thirst etc)
groups of
iv) Limbic system
neurosecretory cells, which sécrete hormones.
The inner parts of the cerebral
called amygdala,
hemispheres and group of deep structures
a

hippocampys etc. form a complex structure called limbic

system.
Along with the hypothalamus/it is involved in
the
behaviour, expression of emotions, motivation etc. ) ) regulation
of sexual

() Midbrain
Midbrain i_ located between the
of the hindhrain.
hypothalamusof the forebrain and the pons

The dorsal portion of the midbrain consists of four

small lobes called corpora
quadrigemina.
A canal called cerebral aqueduct passes through the midbrain.
(vi) Hindbrain
It consists of
pons, cerebellum and medulla oblongata.
Hons consists of the fibre tracts that interconnect different regions ofthe brain.
Cerebellum has a convoluted surface to include more neurons; it modulates
the motor commands initiated
by the cerebrum.
The medulla is the part that continues as the spinal cord.
he medulla contains centres which control respiration, cardio-vascular retlexes
and gastric secretions.
9 REFLEX ACTION AND REFLEX ARC

e t l e actio s 2very rapd robrtary,

s a t c tearur
T c o r s i C u s jeva
e
v e sTarse 2t Te
CuDorers
i e toLowE
The etie patrNaT erere (serscr tErors

1)Spectc recepterrs Eferec Dctor etis

reuo.
E r t e r m e d i 2 t e or relay
Efector orz2 d carsTs to
fro 2 sensO rza
The afferer: reuror recerves çuse
dorsal nerve root to the spira! cord to h e efiector
trom the C S
reuron carnes e siai
The etterent Asce crde Fecacter

Aerent caway

- - Ccrsa c a argicr

e ater

Irererar

Mctcr eurer
E e t catuzy
Stmuus

Eeco
Pesccrse

refiex
Fig. 21.5 Kneejerk