Dokumen - Pub Flexible Ac Transmission Systems 1st Ed 9783030353858 9783030353865

CIGRE Green Books
CIGRE
Study Committee B4: DC Systems and Power Electronics
Flexible AC
Transmission
Systems
FACTS
CIGRE Green Books
Series Editor
CIGRE
International Council on Large Electric Systems (CIGRE)
Paris, France
CIGRE presents their expertise in unique reference books on electrical power
networks. These books are of a self-contained handbook character covering the
entire knowledge of the subject within power engineering. The books are created
by CIGRE experts within their study committees and are recognized by the engi-
neering community as the top reference books in their fields.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15209

Bjarne R. Andersen • Stig L. Nilsson
Editors
Flexible AC Transmission
Systems
FACTS
With 632 Figures and 71 Tables

Editors
Bjarne R. Andersen Stig L. Nilsson
Andersen Power Electronic Solutions Ltd Electrical Engineering Practice
Bexhill-on-Sea, East Sussex, UK Exponent
Sedona, AZ, USA
ISBN 978-3-030-35385-8 ISBN 978-3-030-35386-5 (eBook)

ISBN 978-3-030-35387-2 (print and electronic bundle)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35386-5
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
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Message from the President
CIGRE is the global expert community for electric power systems. It is a nonprofit
organization based in Paris. It consists of members from over 100 countries
representing 60 national committees. It functions as a virtual organization with
members who are experts in their technical field, forming working groups dealing
with issues facing the power delivery industry. In 2019, 230 working groups
including more than 3000 experts were working together to resolve the identified
issues. The output of the working groups is technical brochures. There are over
700 technical brochures, which contain the combined knowledge and practice of
engineering experts from all over the world. The brochures are practical in nature
enabling the engineer to plan, design, construct, operate, and maintain the power
delivery systems as required. CIGRE has over 10,000 reference papers and other
documents supporting the brochures and dealing with other relevant technical
matters.
This Green Book on Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) controllers,
compiled by Study Committee (SC) B4, DC Systems and Power Electronics, pro-
vides state-of-the-art information on power electronic systems that can be used to
support the changing needs of AC transmission systems. FACTS controllers can be
used to enable higher power transfers and to maintain the power quality. The book
comprises material from published technical peer-reviewed publications and techni-
cal experts in the field. CIGRE is a source of unbiased technical information.
Engineers can refer this book without fear of favoring one supplier or country. It is
a compilation of the combined expertise of many international experts providing an
unbiased objective textbook in FACTS design.
Like other CIGRE Green Books, this book contains input from many experts, not
only one or two. These international experts have provided technical information
relevant to readers irrespective of where the readers reside. The views expressed and
suggestions made are unbiased objective statements. These can be used as references
for engineers to develop standards and guidelines within their organizations. This
book is a reference book for academia, power transmission engineers, consultants,
and users.
I would like to congratulate those involved from SC B4 who have compiled this
book. Many of them have had to work in their spare time for hours to complete this
v
vi Message from the President
task, for which they worked as volunteers. I would recommend this book in forming
the basis for transmission and distribution system design activities now and in the
future.
October 2019 Dr. Rob Stephen
Dr. Rob Stephen was born in Johannesburg,

South Africa. He graduated from the University of the
Witwatersrand in 1979 with a B.Sc. in Electrical Engi-
neering. He joined the Eskom electricity utility in 1980.
He holds M.Sc. and M.B.A. degrees, as well as a Ph.D.
in Overhead Line Design. At Eskom he was Master
Specialist in the Technology Group responsible for
distribution and transmission technologies of all volt-
ages covering both AC and DC and was responsible for
the smart grid strategy for Eskom. He is past Chairman
of CIGRE SC B2 on overhead lines and has held
positions in CIGRE as Special Reporter and Working
Group Chairman and has authored over 100 technical
papers. He was elected International President of
CIGRE in 2016. He is also a Fellow of the
South African Institute of Electrical Engineers
(SAIEE).
Message from the Chairman of the Technical
Council
This Green Book on Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) aims at describing

the remarkable progress in the electrical transmission technology derived from the
increased application of power electronic devices and apparatus.
The FACTS concept was conceived in the 1980s with the objective of providing
the transmission systems with additional facilities to control power system operation,
including voltage control using parallel connected devices and active power flow
using series connected devices. As transmission systems are expanded to meet a
growing demand of electricity, the need to use efficient and fast system control
mechanisms to ensure stable and reliable electricity service of high quality for the
consumers, who are becoming increasingly dependent on electrical power. At the
same time, there may be objections from the public against the building of new
transmission facilities. FACTS controllers can provide solutions to some of these
issues, by enabling higher power transfers on existing and new lines.
Although the technology name, FACTS, implies that the scope of applications
would be only for transmission systems, distribution systems (medium and low
voltage systems) will also benefit from many of those successful experiences gained
during decades in the transmission segment of power systems.
This Green Book has been authored by leading industry, research, and academic
professionals as its intent is to provide a comprehensive view of the FACTS technol-
ogy including the basic means of control in AC networks and the characteristics of
available FACTS controllers. The book includes information on emerging control-
lers, technical description of FACTS controllers, application examples of all types of
controllers, and economic, technical, and environmental studies considerations.
Relevant technical issues of FACTS controllers have been considered, including
electromagnetic compatibility, specification, testing, commissioning, life manage-
ment – including reliability and availability – and operation, in order to serve as a
truly useful guideline for utilities, regulators, project developers, investors, as well as
for future research activities in terms of new ideas and applications.
This Green Book on FACTS technology becomes available when CIGRE is
celebrating its first Centennial Session, during the 4.0 Industry Thinking era, in
which the distinctions between transmission and distribution and between end user
and electricity provider are eroding and as the entire electric power system is
becoming more interactive and reliant upon intelligent systems.
vii
viii Message from the Chairman of the Technical Council
CIGRE’s focus has, of course, widened to address the entire electric power
system – the end-to-end approach (E2E). Generation, transmission, distribution,
and end use of electric energy are all addressed across the entire spectrum from
1200 kV transmission grids to local micro-grids, employing AC or DC, and provid-
ing unbiased information willingly shared with other organizations.
I take the opportunity to acknowledge the two Editors of this Green Book, Stig
Nilsson and Bjarne Andersen, as well as all chapter authors and contributors for the
excellent and timely contribution from which the entire global power systems
community will benefit.
Yours faithful,
Marcio Szechtman
CIGRE Technical Committee Chair
Message from the Secretary General
In 2014, I had the pleasure to comment on the launch of a new CIGRE publication
collection in an introductory message about the first CIGRE Green Book, the one on
Overhead Lines. The idea to valorize the collective work of the study committees
accumulated over many decades, by putting together all the technical brochures of a
given field in a single book, was first proposed by Dr. Konstantin Papailiou to the
Technical Committee (now Council) in 2011.
In 2015, cooperation with Springer allowed CIGRE to publish the Green Book on
Overhead Lines again as a “Major Reference Work” distributed through the vast
network of this well-known international publisher. In 2016, the collection was
enriched with a new category of Green Books, the CIGRE “Compact Series,” to
satisfy the needs of the study committees when they want to publish shorter, concise
volumes. The first CIGRE Compact Book was prepared by Study Committee D2,
under the title Utility Communication Networks and Services.
The concept of the CIGRE Green Books series has continued to evolve, with the
introduction of a third subcategory of the series, the “CIGRE Green Book Technical
Brochures” (GBTB). CIGRE has published more than 720 technical brochures since
1969, and it is interesting to note that in the first one, on tele-protection, the first
reference was a Springer publication of 1963.
A CIGRE Technical Brochure produced by a CIGRE working group, following
specific Terms of Reference, is published by the CIGRE Central Office and is
available from the CIGRE online library, e-cigre, one of the most comprehensive,
accessible databases of relevant technical literature on power engineering. Between
40 and 50 new technical brochures are published yearly, and these brochures are
announced in Electra, CIGRE’s bimonthly journal, and are available for download
from e-cigre.
In the future, the Technical Council of CIGRE may decide to publish a technical
brochure as a Green Book in addition to the traditional CIGRE Technical Brochure.
The motivation of the Technical Council to make such a decision is to disseminate
the related information beyond the CIGRE community, through the Springer
network.
Like the other publications of the CIGRE Green Books series, the GB TB will be
available on e-cigre in electronic format free of charge for the co-authors of the book.
CIGRE plans to copublish new Green Books edited by the different study commit-
tees, and the series will grow progressively at a pace of about one or two volumes per
ix
x Message from the Secretary General
year. This new Green Book, a Major Reference Work prepared by Study Committee
B4 on Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS), is the fourth of this subcategory.
I want to congratulate all the authors, contributors, and reviewers of this book
who give the reader a clear and comprehensive vision of the past, current, and future
developments of FACTS.
Secretary General Philippe Adam
Graduate of the École Centrale de Paris, Philippe Adam

began his career in EDF in 1980 as a research engineer
in the field of HVDC and was involved in the studies
and tests of outstanding projects like the Cross Channel
2000 MW link and the first multiterminal DC link
between Sardinia, Italy, and Corsica, France. After
this pioneering period, he managed the team of engi-
neers in charge of HVDC and FACTS studies of the
R&D division of EDF. In this period, his CIGRE mem-
bership as a working group expert and then as a work-
ing group convener in Study Committee 14 was a
genuine support to his professional activities. Then,
he held several management positions in the EDF Gen-
eration and Transmission division in the fields of sub-
station engineering, network planning, transmission
asset management, and international consulting until
2000. When RTE, the French TSO, was created in
2000, he was appointed manager of the Financial and
Management Control Department, in order to install
this corporate function and the necessary tools. In
2004, he contributed to the creation of RTE interna-
tional activities as Project Director first and then Dep-
uty Head of the International Relations Department.
From 2011 to 2014, he has been the Strategy Director
of Infrastructures and Technologies of the Medgrid
industrial initiative. In the meantime, between 2002
and 2012, he has served CIGRE as the Technical Com-
mittee Secretary and as the Secretary and Treasurer of
the French National Committee from 2009 to 2014. He
was appointed Secretary General of CIGRE in
March 2014.
Preface
The global environment of electric power systems is changing due to various

technical requirements. For instance, needs of long-distance, large-capacity EHV
and UHV, DC and AC transmission, introduction of renewable energy, develop-
ments in dc grids, active distribution networks, massive exchange of information,
integration of HVDC networks with power electronics, massive installations of
energy storage, and awareness of environmental sustainability are defined and
investigated in various activities. Further, with aging equipment, replacement and
refurbishment options become important. Therefore, FACTS and DC equipment life
cycle management and life extension become very important issues in view of the
costs involved, efficiency, and reliability requirements. The developments of new
technologies as well as new techniques are at the heart of our activities.
The objectives of CIGRE are to disseminate and promote the interchange of
technical knowledge and field experience in the field of electricity generation,
transmission, and distribution. Being the largest global association in these areas,
CIGRE provides a unique platform to combine the expertise of universities, research
centers, laboratories, manufacturers, TSOs, developers, and utilities. Numerous
international working groups develop solutions for emerging problems in an inter-
national context, which are often related to the scope of different CIGRE study
committees.
Within CIGRE, Study Committee (SC) B4 “DC Systems and Power Electronics”
deals with all aspects of DC transmission systems and equipment, power electronic
equipment, and the DC equipment for distribution systems. At all stages, technical,
safety, economic, environmental, and social aspects are addressed as well as inter-
actions with, and integration into, the evolving power system and the environment.
All aspects of performance, specification, testing innovative technologies, opera-
tional experience, and the application of testing techniques are within scope, with a
specific focus on the impact of changing interactions and demands due to evolution
of the power system. Life cycle assessment techniques, risk management techniques,
education, and training are also important.
xi
xii Preface
Dr. Rashwan graduated with B.Sc. in Electrical Engi-

neering from Alexandria University, Egypt, and with a
Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the University of
Manitoba in Winnipeg, Canada. Dr. Rashwan started
his career with Manitoba Hydro in 1974 as a plant
engineer at Dorsey converter station. In 1993, he was
appointed the Manager of HVDC Engineering. In
2002, Dr. Rashwan was appointed the President of
Transgrid Solutions (TGS), an engineering power sys-
tems consulting firm located in Winnipeg. Dr. Rashwan
has been involved in many HVDC and FACTS projects
worldwide. He has worked with utilities, suppliers, and
developers worldwide. He has authored and coauthored
over 80 papers and reports in the area of HVDC and
FACTS.
Dr. Rashwan has been involved in CIGRE since 1982
mainly with Study Committee 14 which is currently
Study Committee B4. Dr. Rashwan is a Life Fellow of
IEEE, and a distinguished member of CIGRE.
Dr. Rashwan was awarded in 2010 the prestigious
IEEE HVDC Uno Lamm Award for his contributions
to the field. Dr. Rashwan is the current chair of SC B4
and member of the Steering Committee.
Contents
Volume 1
Part I Introduction ....................................... 1
1 Introduction to Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS)

Controllers: A Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Willis Long and Stig L. Nilsson
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Electric Power Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1 Early Developments of Power Transmission
Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Reactive Power and Voltage Control in
AC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Long-Distance Power Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4 Special Industrial Voltage Control Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.5 Power Transfers from Distant Generators to
Load Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3 FACTS Green Book’s Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Part II AC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2 AC System Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Stig L. Nilsson, Manfredo Lima, and David J. Young
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.1 Early Developments of Electric Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2 Electric System Analysis Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2 AC Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1 Early Developments of Electric Power Systems . . . . . 26
2.2 AC Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3 Power System Frequency Domain Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.1 Transmission Line Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2 Simplified Power Flow Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
xiii
xiv Contents
3.3 Analysis of Three-Phase Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.4 Harmonic Network Analysis and Other Special
Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4 Power System Time Domain Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5 Maximum Stable Power Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.1 Power Transfer into a Resistive Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.2 The Per-Unit System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6 Power Transfer Through Long Overhead Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.1 Load Limit for Uncompensated Long
Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.2 Transient Stability of Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3 AC Network Control Using Conventional Means . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2 AC Power System Control Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3 Overhead Transmission Lines and Underground Cables . . . . . . 56
3.1 Characteristics of Transmission Lines and Cables . . . . . 56
3.2 Reactive Power Compensation Needs for Lines . . . . . 57
3.3 The Ferranti Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.4 Methods of Reducing Transmission Line
Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4 Power System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.1 Switchgear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.2 Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3 Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.4 Shunt Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.5 Synchronous Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.6 Surge Arresters and the Control of Network
Overvoltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5 Var Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6 Tools Available to Control Reactive Power Flow . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.1 Passive Shunt Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.2 Passive Series Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.3 Active Reactive Power Compensation and Voltage
Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7 Load Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8 Dealing with Disturbing Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9 Phase Unbalance Due to Single-Phase Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
10 Increasing Stability for Very Long Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
11 Power Production Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
12 Transmission System Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
13 Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Contents xv
4 AC Network Control Using FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission

Systems) Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Antonio Ricardo de Mattos Tenório
1 AC Network Needs and FACTS Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
1.1 Active Power Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
1.2 Reactive Power Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2 Topology of FACTS Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3 Description and Functions of SVCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.1 Principles of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.2 Application of SVCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4 Description and Functions of STATCOMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5 Description and Functions of TCSCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.1 Principle of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6 Description and Functions of SSSCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7 Description and Functions of UPFCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8 Power Losses in FACTS Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
9 System Security and Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
10 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Part III Technical Description of FACTS Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5 Power Electronic Topologies for FACTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Colin Davidson
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
2 Semiconductor Switching Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2.1 Semiconductor Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2.2 Devices of the Thyristor Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2.3 Devices of the Transistor Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3 Line-Commutated Thyristor Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3.1 Building Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4 Self-Commutated Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.1 Current-Sourced Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.2 Voltage-Sourced Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.3 Self-Commutated Converter
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6 Technical Description of Static Var Compensators
(SVC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Manfredo Lima and Stig L. Nilsson
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
2 Main Circuit Components of an SVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
2.1 Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
2.2 Thyristor Switched Capacitors (TSC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
xvi Contents
2.3 Thyristor Switched Reactors (TSRs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

2.4 AC Harmonic Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2.5 SVC Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3 SVC Voltage Versus Current Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4 Combinations of SVC Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5 First Brazilian SVCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6 Later Brazilian SVCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7 Thyristor Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.1 TCR Thyristor Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.2 TSC Thyristor Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.3 SVCs Gate Power Drive Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.4 Thyristor Valve Cooling System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.5 Thyristor Valve Control and Protection Systems . . . . . 182
8 SVC Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.1 Early SVC Analog Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.2 Digital Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
8.3 Additional Control Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
8.4 The Use of Series Reactor to Reduce Harmonics and
Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
9 Coordinated Operation of SVCs Operating Electrically Close . . . . . 189
10 SVC Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
10.1 SVC Transformers Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
10.2 SVC Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR) Losses . . . . . . 196
10.3 SVC Thyristor Switched Capacitor Losses . . . . . . . . . 201
10.4 SVC Harmonic Filter Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
10.5 Control, Protection and Auxiliary Equipment
Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7 Technical Description of Static Compensators (STATCOM) . . . . . 207
Colin Davidson and Marcio M. de Oliveira
1 STATCOM Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
1.2 Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
1.3 V-I Characteristics of a STATCOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
1.4 Voltage-Sourced Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
1.5 Limitations and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
2 Multi-pulse Circuits with Magnetic Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
3 Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC)-Based STATCOM . . . . 221
3.1 The Chain Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
3.2 Half-Bridge MMC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
4 Other Primary Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
4.1 STATCOM Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
4.2 STATCOM Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
4.3 DC Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Contents xvii
4.4 AC Harmonic Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

4.5 High-Precision Current Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
5 Layout Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
6 Control Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
6.2 Space Vector Control Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
6.3 Application Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
6.4 Converter Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
6.5 Special Control Considerations for Electric Arc
Furnace Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
7 Losses and Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
8 Hybrid STATCOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
8 Technical Description of Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors
(TCSC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Stig L. Nilsson and Marcio M. de Oliveira
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
2 TCSC Principles of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
3 Operating Range of TCSC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
4 Power-Transmission Characteristic Controlled by TCSC
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
5 Cost Benefit of TCSC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
6 TCSC Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
6.1 TCSC Static Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
6.2 TCSC Dynamic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
6.3 TCSC Modeling Considerations for Long-Term
Planning Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
6.4 Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
7 TCSC Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
7.1 TCSC Platform Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
7.2 TCSC Thyristor Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
7.3 Valve Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
8 Insulation Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
9 TCSC Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
9.1 No-Load Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
9.2 Load Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
10 Harmonic Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
11 Torsional Interactions Between Turbo-Generators and
TCSC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
11.1 Series Capacitor Bank Interactions with
Turbo-Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
11.2 Subsynchronous Damping Performance of
TCSC Compensated Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
xviii Contents
12 Stability Improvement and Power Oscillation Damping with

TCSC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
12.1 Transient Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
12.2 System Damping Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
13 Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
9 Technical Description of the Unified Power Flow Controller
(UPFC) and Its Potential Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Ram Adapa, Stig L. Nilsson, Bjarne R. Andersen, and Yi Yang
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
2 UPFC Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
2.1 AC Power Flow Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
2.2 UPFC Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
2.3 Power Flows with an UPFC Installed in a Line . . . . . . 306
2.4 Operating Principles (Functions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
3 UPFC Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
3.1 Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
4 UPFC Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
4.1 Overvoltage Protection and System Starts . . . . . . . . . . 329
4.2 VSC System Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
4.3 Converter Valve Protection Consideration . . . . . . . . . . 332
4.4 UPFC Impact on the Protective Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
5 UPFC Converter System Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
5.1 VSC Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
5.2 STATCOM Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
5.3 SSSC Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
5.4 UPFC Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
6 Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) . . . . . . . . . . . 343
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
6.2 Possible Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
6.3 The SSSC Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
7 Interline Power Flow Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
7.1 Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Part IV Applications of FACTS Controllers ................... 353
10 Controllers Using the Saturation of Iron for AC Network

Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
David J. Young
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
2 The Saturation Characteristic of Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
2.1 The Basic Static Var Compensator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
2.2 The Magnetic Constant Voltage Transformer . . . . . . . . . 361
Contents xix
3 Harmonics in Saturated Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362

3.1 Harmonics in a Single-Phase Self-Saturated
Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
3.2 Harmonics in Three-Phase Self-Saturated
Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
3.3 Reduction of Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
3.4 Magnetic Frequency Multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
4 The Magnetic Amplifier or Transductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
4.1 100 MVA Transductor for Alternator Testing . . . . . . . . . . 371
4.2 Tertiary-Connected Transductor for Dynamic
Var Balancing in a 132/275/400 kV Network . . . . . . . . . 374
4.3 Magnetically Controlled Shunt Reactors (MCSR) . . . . . . . . 375
5 Development of Effective Compensation for Arc Furnaces . . . . . 376
5.1 Characteristic Features of Arc Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
5.2 Experimental Arc Furnace Compensation by
Transductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
5.3 Experimental Arc Furnace Compensation by
Self-Saturated Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
5.4 Commercial Applications of Saturated Reactors for
Arc Furnace Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
5.5 Compensation by Decoupling
Transformer-Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
6 Three-Phase Self-Saturated Reactors with Harmonic
Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
6.1 The Twin Tripler Saturated Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
6.2 The Treble Tripler Saturated Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
6.3 Slope Correction for Saturated Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
7 Applications of Self-Saturated Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
7.1 Disturbances Caused by Industrial Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
7.2 Compensation for Long Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . 388
7.3 Commercial Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
7.4 Static Var Compensation for the 2000 MW HVDC
Cross-Channel Link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
11 Development of Magnetically Controlled Shunt Reactors in
Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Sergey V. Smolovik and Alexander M. Bryantsev
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
2 The Need for Reactive Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
3 Development of Magnetically Controlled Shunt Reactors in
Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
4 MCSR Operation Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
4.1 Mathematical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
4.2 Higher Harmonics Suppression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
xx Contents
4.3 A Model for Stability Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

5 Magnetically Controlled Shunt Reactor Operation
Experience in 110–500 kV Power Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
5.1 Overview of the MCSRs in Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
5.2 Benefits of the MCSRs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
5.3 Voltage Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
5.4 Power System Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
6 Tavricheskaya MCSR, Siberia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
12 Application Examples of SVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Hong Rao, Shi He, Xiaodan Wu, Marcio M. de Oliveira,
Guillaume de Préville, Colin Davidson, Zhanfeng Deng,
Tuomas Rauhala, Georg Pilz, Bjarne R. Andersen, and Shukai Xu
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
2 Brief Introduction of SVCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
3 SVC in Wuzhou, Guangxi, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
3.1 Application Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
3.2 System Structure and Operating Parameters . . . . . . . . . . 428
3.3 System Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
4 SVC in Dong Anshan, Liaoning, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
4.3 Main Operating Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
5 SVCs in Gansu, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
5.2 SVC System Structure and Operation
Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
6 SVCs in Holeta Substation, Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
7 SVC Merlatière and Domloup in West France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
8 SVC in Kangasala Substation Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
9 Taoxiang Substation SVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
9.1 Project Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
9.2 Introduction of the Taoxiang SVC System . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Contents xxi
9.3 Main Parameters of the Taoxiang SVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461

9.4 Technical Characteristics of the Taoxiang SVC . . . . . . . . 462
9.5 General Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
10 Relocatable SVCs for National Grid, UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
10.2 System Structure and Operation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . 466
11 Nemiscau SVCs in Quebec, Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
11.3 Main Operation Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
12 Viklandet and Tunnsjødal SVCs in Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
13 Haramain High-Speed Railway (HHR) SVCs in
Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
14 Directly Connected SVCs in Texas, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
15 SVCs at Bout De L’Ile (BDI) on the Island of Montreal,
Hydro-Quebec, Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
16 Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
13 Application Examples of STATCOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Shukai Xu, Shaobo Wang, Guangjie Zuo, Colin Davidson,
Marcio M. de Oliveira, Rizah Memisevic, Georg Pilz,
Bilgehan Donmez, and Bjarne R. Andersen
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
2 Brief Introduction of the STATCOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
xxii Contents
3 STATCOM in East Claydon, UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515

4 MMC STATCOM in Shanghai, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
5 STATCOM in Cerro Navia, Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
6 Multiple STATCOMs in Guangdong, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
6.3 Control Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
7 STATCOM in Inner Mongolia, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
8 STATCOMs in HVDC Converter Station in Yunnan, China . . . . . . 543
8.4 Performance Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
9 STATCOMs in Aurangabad, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
9.3 Main Operation Modes (or Control Function)
and Protection System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
10 STATCOM in Alabama, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
11 Four STATCOMs in Queensland, Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Contents xxiii

12 Hybrid STATCOM in Rourkela, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
13 STATCOM System in South Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
14 Mobile STATCOM, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
14.3 Major Operation Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
14.5 Project Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
14 Application Examples of the Thyristor Controlled Series
Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
Stig L. Nilsson, Antonio Ricardo de Mattos Tenório, Subir Sen,
Andrew Taylor, Shukai Xu, Gang Zhao, Qiang Song, and Bo Lei
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
1.1 Loading of AC Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
1.2 AC Systems with TCSC Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
2 Installed TCSC Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
3 TCSC Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
3.1 USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
3.2 Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
3.3 Sweden: Stöde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
3.4 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
3.5 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
3.6 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
4 Performance Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
15 Application Examples of UPFC and Its Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
Stig L. Nilsson, Shukai Xu, Bo Lei, Zhanfeng Deng, and
Bjarne R. Andersen
1 Brief Introduction of UPFCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
1.1 UPFC Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
xxiv Contents
1.2 Installed UPFC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648

2 UPFC in Inez, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
3 UPFC in Kangjin, Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
3.5 Current Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
4 UPFC/Convertible Static Compensator (CSC) in Marcy,
USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
4.4 UPFC System Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
5 UPFC in Nanjing, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
6 UPFC in Suzhou, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
7 UPFC in Shanghai, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
Volume 2
Part V FACTS Controller Planning and Procurement . . . . . . . . . . . 707
16 Economic Appraisal and Cost-Benefit Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709

Mário Duarte
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
Contents xxv
3 General Approach to Economic Appraisal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713

4 Problem Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
5 Identification of Alternatives and Assessing Relative
Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
5.1 Bespoke Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
5.2 Performance Characteristics for Planning
Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
5.3 Functional Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
5.4 Measurement of Incremental Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
6 Cost-Benefit Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
6.1 Initial Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
6.2 Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
6.3 Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
7 Results Summarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
8 Investment Decision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
17 FACTS Planning Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753
Bjarne R. Andersen, Dennis Woodford, and Geoff Love
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
1.1 Planning Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
1.2 Specification Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
1.3 Models for Planning and Specification
Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
1.4 Further Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
2 Planning Studies for FACTS Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
2.1 Timeline for Undertaking Planning Studies . . . . . . . . . . . 757
2.2 Power System Studies Undertaken During
Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758
2.3 The Need for FACTS Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
3 Studies for Preparation of Technical Specification of a
FACTS Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
3.1 Development of Appropriate AC Network
Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
3.2 FACTS Controller Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
3.3 Short Circuit Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
3.4 Transient Stability and EMT Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
3.5 Harmonic Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
4 Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
4.1 Modelling of FACTS Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
4.2 Steady-State Power Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765
4.3 AC Short Circuit Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768
4.4 Harmonic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
4.5 Transient Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
xxvi Contents
4.6 Electromagnetic Transients (EMT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778

4.7 Real-Time Simulation (RTS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782
4.8 Models to Be Provided by the Vendor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
4.9 Other Models and Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
18 Environmental Considerations for FACTS Projects . . . . . . . . . . . 787
Bjarne R. Andersen, Bruno Bisewski, Narinder Dhaliwal, and
Mark Reynolds
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788
2 Management of Environmental Issues and Stakeholder
Engagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
2.1 Management of Environmental Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
2.2 Project Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
2.3 Stakeholder Engagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
3 Impact of FACTS Controllers on the AC Network . . . . . . . . . . . 793
3.1 Impact of Changed Power Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
4 Environmental Impact of a FACTS Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
4.2 Environmental Aspects Related to Site
Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
4.3 Environmental Impact of the FACTS Station
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799
4.4 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806
4.5 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806
4.6 Decommissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
5 Audible Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
5.1 Relationship of Performance Limits to Time
Duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
5.2 Audible Sound from FACTS Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
5.3 Environmental Influences on Audible Noise . . . . . . . . . . 809
5.4 Audible Noise Level Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
5.5 Sound-Emitting Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813
5.6 Sound Reduction Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
5.7 Operating Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
5.8 Sound Level Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
5.9 Verification of Component Sound Power
Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822
5.10 Verification of Sound Levels from the FACTS
Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
5.11 Specification of Audible Noise Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
Contents xxvii
6 Electric and Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827

7 Electromagnetic Emissions and Compatibility Limits . . . . . . . . . 829
7.1 Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
7.2 Electromagnetic (EMC) Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
7.3 Harmonics and Interharmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842
19 Procurement and Functional Specifications for FACTS
Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
Ben Mehraban, Hubert Bilodeau, Bruno Bisewski, and Thomas Magg
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
2 Selection of Bidding and Contracting Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
2.1 Form of Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
2.2 Bidding Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
2.3 Contracting Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
3 Bidding Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
3.1 Invitation to Tender: Cover Letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
3.2 Instructions to Tenderers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
3.3 Information to Be Submitted by the
Tenderers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
3.4 Commercial Conditions and Payment Terms . . . . . . . . . . 853
4 Bid Evaluation and Comparison of Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854
4.1 Evaluation of Proposals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855
4.2 Technical Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855
4.3 Non-technical and Commercial Evaluation:
Life Cycle Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 856
4.4 Evaluation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
5 Preparation of a Functional Technical Specification . . . . . . . . . . 857
5.1 Objective of Functional Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
5.2 Project Background and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858
5.3 Standards and References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858
5.4 Definitions/Acronyms/Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858
5.5 Scope of Project and Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
5.6 Site, Environmental, and Network
Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860
5.7 Performance Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862
5.8 Equipment Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867
5.9 Civil and Building Works Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869
5.10 System Studies and Design to Be Performed by the
Contractor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
5.11 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
xxviii Contents
5.12 Maintenance Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872

5.13 Spare Parts and Special Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872
5.14 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873
5.15 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874
References ............................................ 876
Part VI Implementation of FACTS Controllers ................ 879
20 FACTS Controller Integration and Design Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . 881

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882
2 Modelling Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884
3 Studies Performed During the Bidding Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884
3.1 Rating Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
3.2 Dynamic Performance Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889
4 Post-award Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890
4.1 Process Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890
4.2 Equipment Design and Rating Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
4.3 Interaction Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
5 Studies at the Commissioning Stage of a FACTS
Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
5.1 Studies Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
5.2 Switching AC Side Filters and Transformers . . . . . . . . . . 903
5.3 Performance of the Controls Applied for Damping
Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
5.4 AC System Fault Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906
5.5 Model Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
6 Studies Over the Operational Life of the FACTS Controller . . . . . . 907
6.1 Process Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
6.2 Transmission Network Planning and Operational
Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908
6.3 Post-disturbance Analysis (Model Validation
Studies) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
6.4 Pre-specification Studies of New Transmission and
Generation Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
7 Model Maintainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
7.2 Challenges to Model Maintainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
7.3 Approaches to Model Maintainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913
7.4 Future Prospects in Modelling and Model
Maintainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
Contents xxix
21 FACTS Equipment Design and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921

Hubert Bilodeau, Bruno Bisewski, Manfredo Lima, Shukai Xu,
Bo Lei, and Ben Mehraban
1 Project Management During Planning and Design Phases . . . . . 922
1.1 Duties of the Owner’s Implementation Team . . . . . . . . . 923
1.2 Vendor’s Project Management Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
1.3 Contracting Strategies and Contract Packaging . . . . . . . . 927
1.4 Contract Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929
1.5 Project Implementation Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930
2 FACTS Equipment Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934
2.1 General Testing Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934
2.2 Primary Equipment Factory Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936
2.3 Control and Protection Equipment Factory Testing . . . . . . . 941
2.4 Discrete Protection System Tests (Not Embedded
in Control System) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956
2.5 Cooling System Factory Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956
2.6 Site Testing and Commissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956
2.7 Performance Monitoring Period: Reliability and
Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956
3 Example of FST/FAT Tests for the Ceará Mirim SVC
in Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
3.1 Ceará Mirim SVC Main Circuit Component
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
3.2 Ceará Mirim SVC Closed-Loop Control
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
3.3 Ceará Mirim SVC Additional Control Loops . . . . . . . . . 959
3.4 Degraded Modes of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960
3.5 Coordination Between Electrically Close SVCs to
Avoid Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960
3.6 Real-Time Hardware-In-The-Loop (HIL) Tests . . . . . . . . 962
3.7 Step Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963
3.8 Performance Under Strong Disturbance Conditions . . . . . . . 964
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966
22 Commissioning of FACTS Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971
Babak Badrzadeh, Andrew Van Eyk, Peeter Muttik, Bryan Lieblick,
Bo Lei, Thomas Magg, Shukai Xu, and Marcio M. de Oliveira
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973
2 General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973
2.1 General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973
2.2 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974
2.3 Measurement Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975
2.4 Role of Power System Modelling and Simulation . . . . . . . . 977
xxx Contents
3 Four-Stage Commissioning Tests for FACTS Controllers . . . . . . 978

3.1 Checks on Equipment Prior to Commencement of
Commissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979
3.2 On-Site Equipment Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980
3.3 Sub-system Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
3.4 System Commissioning Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988
3.5 Grid Compliance Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
4 Typical Commissioning Tests for SVCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015
5 Typical Commissioning Tests for STATCOMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031
5.3 Practical Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035
6 Typical Commissioning Tests for UPFCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038
7 Commissioning of TCSC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
7.1 Pre-commissioning Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
7.2 Sub-system Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041
7.3 System Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042
7.5 System Interaction Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044
7.6 Special Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044
7.7 Power Oscillation Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045
8 Model Validation Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
8.1 SVCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
8.2 STATCOMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056
Part VII FACTS Operation and Lifetime Management . . . . . . . . . . 1061
23 Operation of FACTS Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063

Vinay N. Sewdien
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
2 The Survey Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
3 Role of FACTS in System Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
4 FACTS Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
5 FACTS Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
6 Upgrade and Retirement of FACTS Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
24 Lifetime Management of FACTS Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Narinder Dhaliwal and Thomas Magg
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
1.1 FACTS Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Contents xxxi
2 Maintenance of Facts Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075

2.1 Maintenance Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075
2.2 Scheduled Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1076
2.3 Maintenance Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1076
3 Maintenance Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
3.1 Capacitor Banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
3.2 Control and Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
3.3 Interface Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081
3.4 Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083
3.5 Semiconductor Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1084
3.6 Station Auxiliary Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085
3.7 Surge Arresters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1086
3.8 Valve Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
4 Documentation and Staff Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089
4.1 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089
4.2 Staff Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091
5 Spare Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093
5.1 Types of Components Used Within Controllers . . . . . . . . 1093
5.2 Replacement and Management of Obsolescence . . . . . . . 1094
6 Management of System Performance and Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096
6.1 FACTS Controller Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096
6.2 Performance of the FACTS Controller in the
AC System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1097
7 Life Assessment Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1097
7.1 Life Assessment Timetable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1098
7.2 Alternatives and Justification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1100
7.3 Basis for Replacement/Refurbishment of
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1101
8 Decommissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102
8.1 Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102
8.2 Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102
8.3 Control Cabinets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102
8.4 Cooling System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103
8.5 Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103
8.6 Site Clean-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103
8.7 Structures and Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103
8.8 Switchgear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103
8.9 Thyristors, IGBTs, and Electronic Circuit Boards . . . . . . . 1103
8.10 Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104
Calculation of FACTS Controller Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1110
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1113
Contributors
Ram Adapa Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, USA
Bjarne R. Andersen Andersen Power Electronic Solutions Ltd, Bexhill-on-Sea,
East Sussex, UK
Babak Badrzadeh Australian Energy Market Operator, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Hubert Bilodeau Retired from Hydro-Québec, Montreal, QC, Canada
Bruno Bisewski RBJ Engineering Corporation, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
Alexander M. Bryantsev JSV “ESCO”, Moscow, Russia
Colin Davidson GE Grid Solutions – Grid Integration, Stafford, UK
Antonio Ricardo de Mattos Tenório Operador Nacional do Sistema Elétrico –
ONS, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
Guillaume de Préville GE’s Grid Solutions Business, Massy, France
Zhanfeng Deng Global Energy Interconnection Research Institute (GEIRI), Bei-
jing, China
Narinder Dhaliwal TransGrid Solutions, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
Bilgehan Donmez AMSC, Ayer, USA
Mário Duarte EirGrid Plc, Dublin, Ireland
Shi He Rongxin Huiko (RXHK) Electric Technology Co., Ltd., Anshan, China
Bo Lei Energy Storage and Power Electronics, HVDC and Power Electronics
Department, EPRI of China Southern Power Grid, Guangzhou, China
Bryan Lieblick AMSC, Devens, MA, USA
Manfredo Lima Transmission Planning and Studies Department, Chesf, Recife,
Brazil
Pernambuco University, Recife, Brazil
Willis Long University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
xxxiii
xxxiv Contributors
Geoff Love PSC Consulting, Dublin, Ireland

Thomas Magg Serala Power Consulting, Johannesburg, South Africa
Ben Mehraban American Electric Power, Columbus, OH, USA
Rizah Memisevic System Perfomance and Connections, Power Link, Virginia,
QLD, Australia
Peeter Muttik GE Grid Solutions, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Stig L. Nilsson Electrical Engineering Practice, Exponent, Sedona, AZ, USA
Marcio M. de Oliveira ABB FACTS, Västerås, Sweden
Georg Pilz System Engineering and Network Studies for FACTS Installations
Worldwide, Siemens, Erlangen, Germany
Hong Rao Electric Power Research Institute of China Southern Power Grid (EPRI
of CSG), Guangzhou, China
Tuomas Rauhala Fingrid Oyj, Helsinki, Finland
Mark Reynolds POWER ENGINEERs Inc., New York, NY, USA
Subir Sen Central Transmission Utility-Planning & Smart Grid, Power Grid Cor-
poration of India Ltd., New Delhi, India
Vinay N. Sewdien TenneT TSO B.V., Arnhem, The Netherlands
Sergey V. Smolovik JSV “STC UPS”, Saint-Petersburg, Russia
Qiang Song Tsinghua University, Tsinghua, China
Andrew Taylor Electricity Transmission, National Grid, London, UK
Andrew Van Eyk ElectraNet, Adelaide, SA, Australia
Shaobo Wang Rongxin Huiko (RXHK) Electric Technology Co., Ltd., Anshang,
People’s Republic of China
Dennis Woodford Electranix Corporation, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
Xiaodan Wu NR Electric Co., Ltd., Nanjing, China
Shukai Xu HVDC and Power Electronics Department, Electric Power Research
Institute of China Southern Power Grid (EPRI of CSG), Guangzhou, China
Yi Yang State Grid Jiangsu Electric Power Research Institute, Nanjing, China
David J. Young Stafford, UK
Gang Zhao NARI Group Corporation of Sate Grid Corporation of China (SGCC),
Beijing, China
Guangjie Zuo XJ Group Co., Ltd., Xuchang, China
Part I
Introduction
Introduction to Flexible AC Transmission
Systems (FACTS) Controllers: A Chronology 1
Willis Long and Stig L. Nilsson
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Electric Power Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1 Early Developments of Power Transmission Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Reactive Power and Voltage Control in AC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Long-Distance Power Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4 Special Industrial Voltage Control Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.5 Power Transfers from Distant Generators to Load Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3 FACTS Green Book’s Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Abstract
This Green Book on Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) controllers is
intended to assist electrical engineers and power system planners in understand-
ing how to select, apply, and manage power electronic systems used for the
control of voltage, reactive power, and active power in AC systems. This intro-
ductory chapter provides some background and historical perspective on how AC
power transmission systems function and how they evolved to become an
indispensable infrastructure all over the world.
W. Long
University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
e-mail: willis.long@wisc.edu
S. L. Nilsson (*)
Electrical Engineering Practice, Exponent, Sedona, AZ, USA
e-mail: stig_nilsson@verizon.net; snilsson@exponent.com
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 3

B. R. Andersen, S. L. Nilsson (eds.), Flexible AC Transmission Systems, CIGRE Green
Books, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35386-5_1
4 W. Long and S. L. Nilsson
1 Introduction
FACTS is an abbreviation of Flexible AC Transmission System used by the Electric

Power Research Institute (EPRI) in the United States in its research documents
developed beginning in 1987. The FACTS controllers are intended to assist electrical
engineers and power system planners, who are faced with the problems on how to
control the voltages in an Alternating Current (AC) power system as well as also
controlling the power flows in the systems. EPRI prepared budget documents for the
FACTS program that were circulated to the EPRI Advisory Committees for review
and approval. The term was publicly introduced by Dr. Nari Hingorani at the
American Power Conference 50th Annual Meeting in Chicago, Illinois (Hingorani
1988).
CIGRE defines FACTS as follows: Power Electronic Devices used in Transmis-
sion and Distribution networks include controlled shunt and series reactive power,
such as Static Var Compensator (SVC), Static Compensators (STATCOM) Thyristor
Controlled Series Compensation Systems (TCSC), as well as devices capable of
transferring active power between its terminals and provide shunt and series reactive
power control, as well as devices with energy storage capability. Other types of
devices may be developed as it becomes necessary to have more control over AC
networks because of the need for increased power flows on the existing power lines
in the AC networks (What is FACTS).
The concise definition by IEEE for FACTS is: “Alternating current transmission
systems incorporating power electronic-based and other static controllers to enhance
controllability and increase power transfer capability” (Larsen and Weaver 1995;
Larsen and Sener 1996).
The core technologies in FACTS controllers utilize power semiconductors, which
enable faster response than what is achievable with electromechanically switched
systems. FACTS controllers can be used to modulate injection of reactive power that
can be used to stabilize the power system after a significant disturbance.1 Some
FACTS controllers can also inject active power for system damping. That is, FACTS
controllers are beneficial primarily where the AC system exhibits transient or
dynamic stability limitations or where the duty cycle imposed on mechanically
reactive power control systems or active power flow control systems are limited.
This Green Book contains information about application issues, benefits of various
controllers and trade-offs between conventional and FACTS controllers.
2 Electric Power Fundamentals
It is a fact of life of electric power flows that power flowing through an electric
circuit also leads to power flowing into inductances in the circuits and capacitances
surrounding the circuits. The energy stored in inductances and capacitances is not
Reactive power is used to describe electromagnetic energy flows that do not perform any work.
1
1 Introduction to Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) Controllers: A. . . 5
associated with any work as contrasted with the active power flows. The stored
energy is referred to as reactive power, which is basically a mathematical concept
arising from the use of single frequency phasor mathematics. Energy stored in
inductances and capacitances occurs in Direct Current (DC) as well as AC circuits
although in a DC circuit, the energy stored in inductances and capacitances only
flows when there is a change in the voltage or current flows. In an AC system, this
occurs continuously because of the change in voltage and current polarities during
each AC cycle. In fact, excessive amount of reactive power poses limitations on the
length of overhead transmission lines as well as underground transmission cables
when used for AC power transmission. That is, the amount of reactive power flowing
in an AC system must be controlled in order for power to be delivered through an AC
circuit.
The issues with reactive power were well addressed by Charles Concordia as
follows: “But why should we want to transmit reactive power anyway? Is it not just a
troublesome concept, invented by the theoreticians, that is best disregarded? The
answer is that reactive power is consumed not only by most of the network elements,
but also by most of the consumer loads, so it must be supplied somewhere. If we
cannot transmit it very easily, then it ought to be generated where it is needed.
——— There is a fundamental and important interrelation between active and
reactive power transmission. We have said that the transmission of active power
requires a phase displacement of voltages. But the magnitudes of these voltages are
equally important. Not only are they necessary for power transmission but they must
be high enough to support the loads and low enough to avoid equipment breakdown.
Thus we have to control and, if necessary, to support or constrain, the voltages at all
the key points in the network. This control may be accomplished in large part by the
supply of consumption of reactive power at these points” (Concordia 1982).
A special problem is associated with some industrial processes such as arc
furnaces. Their operation can create large fluctuations of the active power, which
translates into large, rapid voltage variations that lead to flicker in electric lights and
can cause electric equipment to malfunction.
2.1 Early Developments of Power Transmission Theories
The theory for how long transmission lines behave was actually developed by
telecommunications engineers after Samuel Morse in the 1830s and 1840s devel-
oped a practical method for message transmission using DC signaling combined
with a code based on short and long pulses (Library of Congress). However, the
square pulses used for the message transfer at the transmission end arrived at the
receiving end as pulses with rounded edges because the higher frequencies contained
in the pulsed signals were attenuated faster than the lower frequencies. Therefore,
after a certain length of the telegraph line, the received pulses had been rounded off
to the degree that the received signals were not possible to decipher. This lead to
research about how to deal with the distortion of the coded signals as a function of
distance.
In 1855, Lord Kelvin proposed a law for prediction of the maximum operating speed
for telegraph lines with negligible inductance and capacitive leakage (Martin 1969).
This was followed by Heaviside, who in 1887 published a fundamental theory for how
distortion-free transmission over a pair of wires would be possible if the ratio of the
series resistance and the line inductance was equal to the ratio of the shunt conductance
and the capacitance between the wires (Heaviside 1894). Heaviside’s analysis provided
a foundation for how transmission lines behave although for long-distance power
transmission reducing the shunt conductance around the conductors is not an option
since minimization of the line losses is an important objective for efficient transfer of
power.
As is well known to electrical engineers, in a low loss overhead transmission line
the capacitive charging current flowing into an open-ended long-transmission line
will cause the voltage at the end of the line to increase. This is referred to as the
Ferranti effect (Steinmetz 1971). Using antenna theory, if the line has the length a
quarter wave at the applied power frequency voltage (1,500 km for 50 Hz and
1,250 km for 60 Hz), the voltage will be infinite and the current goes to zero, which
of course does not represent a practical electric power transmission line. Fundamen-
tal frequency resonance at the quarter wavelength is also relevant for long High
Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) lines since commutation failures in the HVDC
converters will inject primarily large fundamental or second harmonic frequencies,
which can be amplified along the line. (Harmonic frequency injection into a long AC
or DC line can also lead to standing waves that might lead to interference with
communication equipment.) If a long AC line is loaded up such that the load level is
equal to the surge impedance of the line (for a lossless line this is equal to the square
root of the ratio between the line capacitance and the inductance), the voltage and
current will be the same as those at the sending end (CIGRE Green Book on
Overhead Lines 2014).
2.2 Reactive Power and Voltage Control in AC Systems
Power engineers have long understood how to change the impedance of long lines
such that the voltage along the line can be maintained over a range of loads from zero
to some desired level (Miller 1982a). Theoretically, this can be achieved by installing
synchronous condensers at multiple points along the line since these machines can
be controlled to keep the line voltage constant for large variations in the line loading
(Baum 1921). Compensating by inserting capacitors in series with the line conduc-
tors make the line appear to be shorter than it physically is. Compensation by
inserting reactors in between the conductors and ground lowers the capacitive
currents and thus reduces the Ferranti effect under low load conditions (Das 2002).
Also, shunt capacitors reduce the inductive reactive power generated in the line at
high loads, which keeps the receiving end voltages within a desirable boundary but
can lead to high overvoltages from line to ground if the load is suddenly interrupted
and the capacitor banks remain connected to the line (Miller 1982b).
Reactive power compensation of lines by inserting capacitors in series was

also recognized as a means to enable power to be transferred over long distances.
This would be attractive for transfer of power from hydrogenation facilities often
located far from the load centers. An early demonstration of such a system was the
installation of a series capacitor bank in New York State (Shelton 1928). The need
for electric power in Sweden after the Second World War combined with the
availability of hydropower in northern Sweden led to application of series capacitors
in the late 1940s in a newly developed 400 kV system (Jancke and Åkerström 1951).
This was followed by installations of series capacitor banks in among other places
the West Coast of the USA and Canada. However, as was predicted by Concordia,
capacitive series compensation of AC lines could lead to subsynchronous resonance
(SSR) when steam turbine generators were connected to such lines (Concordia
and Carter 1941; Bodine et al. 1943). In fact, turbine shaft damage occurred in the
Mohave generating station in the USA, as a result of SSR between the generator
and series compensated lines connected to the generating station (Hall and
Hodge 1976). It was determined that series compensation of lines connected to
large turbo-generators could be an issue. However, SSR has not been an issue for
hydro-generator plants and systems.
In sparse, integrated power systems the power does not always flow through the
desired path and in such systems so-called loop flows are often a critical issue. In
situations where series compensation is not a viable approach, phase-shifting trans-
formers are the preferred solution. Such phase shifters can be used to adjust the
power flows by means of load tap changers that will adjust the phase angle between
the two sides of the phase shifter but the insertion of the phase shifter in the circuit
will lead to increased reactive power generation because the phase shifter inserted
in the circuit will increase the series inductance in the circuit. This is an inherent part
of the electric power system that needs to be controlled.
2.3 Long-Distance Power Transmission
Further to the topic of long-distance power transmission, we have in the USA the
Oak Ridge National Laboratory report (ORNL) “Comparison of Costs and Benefits
for DC and AC Transmission” (Diemond et al. 1987). This report is of considerable
historical interest. Published in February 1987, it was led by Cliff Diemond and
Gene Starr (Bonneville Power Administration) and edited by Willis Long (Univer-
sity of Wisconsin). This report presents information intended to assist electric utility
system planners in making economic comparisons between equivalent AC and
DC transmission systems. In doing so, it sets forth operational characteristics of
the two systems, including:
• Controllability of AC and DC systems

• Asynchronous interconnection using DC
• Power flow modulation by DC and AC systems
• AC voltage control by AC and DC systems
• Power routing by AC and DC controls

• Increased power density over a transmission corridor by using DC
• Unchanged AC power flows and short circuit levels by using DC
• Control of short circuit impact by using AC techniques
• Reduced environmental impact in a DC line as compared with an AC line
For AC systems, information is provided on the use of series and shunt compen-
sation to increase power transmission while maintaining stability and acceptable
voltage profiles. Examples of sample calculations are provided, together with curves
for comparing alternatives.
The cost data for AC substations, DC and AC transmission lines, and DC
underground cables are also presented, but these data points are dated and might
not be representing the technology options available at present. However, the
included techniques for calculating total costs (including the capitalized cost of
losses) might still be useful.
2.4 Special Industrial Voltage Control Issues
Power electronic–based systems referred to as Static Var Compensators (SVCs) were

developed in the 1970s to address these issues. The first experimental application of
an SVC system for transmission line damping was the EPRI-Minnesota Power &
Light and Westinghouse project commissioned in 1978. The system installed by
MP&L at the Shannon substation would enable an 80 MW increase (from 320 to
400 MW) in the power from Manitoba to Minnesota.
2.5 Power Transfers from Distant Generators to Load Areas
The tools available to the power system planners and operators for management of
the power flows and the reactive power generated as a part of the power flows were
systems comprised of generators, synchronous compensators, shunt reactors and
capacitors, and series capacitor banks. The power electronic alternative was
limited to SVC systems, which were mostly used for voltage control at industrial
sites. The oil embargoes of 1974 and 1979 dramatically changed the situation
because the high cost of oil impacted the cost of electric energy in areas that relied
on oil-fired power plants. The much higher energy cost also caused the cost of steel
produced by older, energy-inefficient steel processes used in the USA to become
noncompetitive in comparison to the more energy-efficient steel plants in other
countries. The result was the steel production in the USA was shut down. Since
these plants were in areas primarily served by electric power plants using coal,
there was a surplus of power from coal plants in the mid-West in the USA but the
oil-powered power plants produced high-cost electricity. The idea was put forth
that if the high voltage transmission system between the mid-West and the
southern states in the USA could be used to bring low-cost coal-based power to
the oil using regions, some of the economic dislocations could be alleviated (Tice
et al. 1984). This would require massive amounts of reactive power compensation
equipment and also addition of systems that could be used to boost the power
flows through the high power circuits. It would also require means to handle
outages or disturbances in the system if some high power link would be
interrupted. That is, system emergencies would not be allowed to cause a collapse
of the power systems. This led to EPRI’s development of an ambitious plan to
develop technologies that can be used to manage the active power flows in an AC
system as well as manage the reactive power generated from high power flows on
existing AC lines. The idea was to enable the use of any existing thermal capacity
available in the existing power transmission lines for power flows from regions
with surplus power to regions with a demand for lower cost power. A caveat was to
do this without jeopardizing the reliability of the existing power system. This is
how EPRI’s Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) development project
arose (Larsen et al. 1992).
The emphasis of the EPRI project was to develop thyristor controlled series
capacitor (TCSC) systems for power flow control and Static Compensators
(STACOM) systems for voltage control (Damsky 1992; Nilsson 1998).
3 FACTS Green Book’s Scope
This CIGRE Green Book is a collection of information intended to help power

system planners, engineers, and operators navigate the increasingly complex FACTS
options for how to manage the active and reactive power control technology options.
The information is contained in the following:
AC Systems
• ▶ AC System Characteristics
• ▶ AC Network Control Using Conventional Means
• ▶ AC Network Control Using FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems)
Controllers
Technical Description of FACTS Controllers
• ▶ Power Electronic Topologies for FACTS

• ▶ Technical Description of Static Var Compensators (SVC)
• ▶ Technical Description of Static Compensators (STATCOM)
• ▶ Technical Description of Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC)
• ▶ Technical Description of the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) and Its
Potential Variations
Applications of FACTS Controllers
• ▶ Controllers Using the Saturation of Iron for AC Network Control

• ▶ Development of Magnetically Controlled Shunt Reactors in Russia
• ▶ Application Examples of SVC
• ▶ Application Examples of STATCOM
• ▶ Application Examples of the Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor
• ▶ Application Examples of UPFC and Its Variants
FACTS Controller Planning and Procurement
• ▶ Economic Appraisal and Cost-Benefit Analysis

• ▶ FACTS Planning Studies
• ▶ Environmental Considerations for FACTS Projects
• ▶ Procurement and Functional Specifications for FACTS Controllers
Implementation of FACTS Controllers
• ▶ FACTS Controller Integration and Design Studies

• ▶ FACTS Equipment Design and Testing
• ▶ Commissioning of FACTS Controllers
FACTS Operation and Lifetime Management
• ▶ Operation of FACTS Controllers

• ▶ Lifetime Management of FACTS Controllers
References
Baum, F.G.: Voltage regulation and insulation for large power long distance transmission systems.
J. AIEE. 40, 1017–1032 (1921)
Bodine, B., Concordia, C., Kron, G.: Self-excited oscillations for capacitor compensated long-
distance transmission systems. Presented at the AIEE National Technical Meeting, New York,
25–29 Jan 1943
CIGRE Green Book on Overhead Lines, Section 1, Chapter 4.2, CIGRE, Paris (2014)
Concordia, C.: Foreword. In: Miller, T.J.E. (ed.) Reactive Power Control in Electric Systems. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY, USA (1982)
Concordia, C., Carter, K.: Negative damping of electrical machinery. Presented at the AIEE winter
convention, Philadelphia, 27–31 Jan 1941
Damsky, B. (ed).: Proceedings: FACTS Conference 2, EPRI report TR-101784, December 1992,
Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto
Das, J.C.: Load Flow over Power Transmission Lines, Chapter 10. In: Power Systems Analysis:
Short-Circuit Load Flow and Harmonics. CRC Press (2002)
Diemond, C.C., Starr, G.: Comparison of costs and benefits for DC and AC transmission. In: Long,
W.F. (ed.): Oak Ridge National Laboratory Report ORNL-6204, Oak Ridge (1987)
Hall, M.C., Hodge, D.A.: Experience with 500-kV subsynchronous resonance and resulting turbine
generator shat damage at Mohave generating station. Analysis and control of subsynchronous
resonance, IEEE PES Special Publication 76 CH 1066-0-PWR, pp. 22–29 (1976)
Heaviside, O.: Electrical papers (1894). https://archive.org/details/electricalpapers02heavrich.
Accessed 28 Jan 2018
Hingorani, N.G.: High power electronics and flexible AC transmission systems. IEEE Power Eng.
Rev. 8(7), 3–4 (1988)
Jancke, G., Åkerström, K.F.: The series capacitor in Sweden. Presented at the AIEE Pacific general
meeting, Portland, 20–23 Aug (1951)
Larsen, E., Sener, F.: FACTS applications, IEEE FACTS Working Group and IEEE FACTS
Application Task Force (1996)
Larsen, E., Weaver, T.: FACTS overview, IEEE FACTS Working Group and CIGRE FACTS
Working Group (1995)
Larsen, E.V., Miller, N.W., Nilsson, S.L., Lindgren, S.R.: Benefits of GTO-based compensation
systems for electric utility applications. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 7(4), 2056–2064 (1992)
Library of Congress, 1793 to 1919: https://www.loc.gov/collections/samuel-morse-papers/articles-
and-essays/invention-of-the-telegraph/. Accessed 28 Jan 2018
Martin, J.: DC signaling. In: Martin, J. (ed.) Telecommunications and the Computer, pp. 126–136.
Prentice Hall (1969). Library of congress # 78-76038
Miller, T.J.E.: 1.5.2 voltage regulation. In: Miller, T.J.E. (ed.) Reactive Power Control in Electric
Systems, pp. 13–18. Wiley (1982a)
Miller, T.J.E.: Passive shunt compensation. In: Miller, T.J.E. (ed.) Reactive Power Control in
Electric Systems, p. 108. Wiley (1982b)
Nilsson, S.L.: Experience and use of FACTS. EPSOM ’98, Zürich, Sept 1998
Shelton, E.K.: The series-capacitor installation at Ballston., New York. Gen. Electr. Rev. 31,
432–434 (1928)
Steinmetz, C.P.: Lectures on electrical engineering, vol. III. Dover Publications, New York (1971)
Tice, J.B. et al.: New Transmission Concepts for Long Distance Energy Transfer for Oil and Gas
Displacement, Proceedings, American Power Conference, vol. 46, pp 476–483 (1984)
What is FACTS? http://b4.cigre.org/What-is-SC-B4. Accessed 28 Jan 2018
Willis F. Long, Professor Emeritus, Electric Power Systems,

University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA. Willis F. (Bill) Long has
been with the Departments of Engineering Professional Develop-
ment and Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of
Wisconsin-Madison) since 1973, serving as EPD’s Program Direc-
tor, Electric Power Systems. Dr. Long’s principal research interests
are in power electronic applications in electric utility systems. He is a
Life Fellow of IEEE and has chaired several Power and Energy
Society Committees and Working Groups. He is the recipient of the
2008 Uno Lamm HVDC Medal for Leadership and Relevant Con-
tributions to the Spread of Knowledge and Promotion of HVDC
Technology Among Power System Engineers and Scientists. He is a
Distinguished Member of CIGRE, recipient of the 2009 Technical
Committee Award, and immediate past Secretary of Study Commit-
tee B4, HVDC Links and AC Power Electronic Equipment. In 2012
he received the Philip Sporn Award from the US National Commit-
tee of CIGRE for Cumulative Career Contributions to the Advance-
ment of the Concept of System Integration in the Theory, Design,
and/or Operation of Large High-Voltage Electric Systems in the
United States. Bill is a registered Professional Engineer in Wiscon-
sin, USA. He is an active outdoorsperson and teaches special topics
in mathematics to students at Marquette Elementary School.
Stig L. Nilsson, Principal Engineer, Exponent, Inc., USA.

Stig Nilsson started out working for the Swedish State Telephone
Board with carrier communication systems. Following this, he
worked for ASEA (now ABB) with HVDC systems and for
Boeing with computer system developments. During his
20 years with EPRI in USA he initiated in 1979 the development
of digital protective relaying system developments and in 1986
EPRI’s FACTS initiative. In 1991 he was awarded a patent on
Apparatus for Controlling the Reactive Impedance of a Transmis-
sion Line. Stig Nilsson is a Life Fellow of IEEE. He has chaired
the IEEE PES T&D Committee, the IEEE Herman Halperin Elec-
tric Transmission and Distribution Award Committee, the IEEE
PES Nari Hingorani Facts and Custom Power Awards Committee,
several IEEE Fellow nomination review committees, been a mem-
ber of the IEEE Standards Board, IEEE PES subcommittees and
working groups. Stig Nilsson has been the US Representative and
Secretary of CIGRE Study Committee B4 on HVDC and Power
Electronics. He is the recipient of the 2012 I.E. PES Nari
Hingorani Facts and Custom Power Awards. He received the
CIGRE U.S. National Committee Philip Sporn Award and the
CIGRE Technical Committee Award in 2012. He has also received
the CIGRE Distinguished Member Award for active participation
in CIGRE Study Committees and the USNC of CIGRE (2006);
and the CIGRE USNC Attwood Associate Award in 2003. Stig
Nilsson is a registered Professional Engineer in the state of
California, USA.
Part II
AC Systems
AC System Characteristics
2
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.1 Early Developments of Electric Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2 Electric System Analysis Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2 AC Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1 Early Developments of Electric Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2 AC Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3 Power System Frequency Domain Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.1 Transmission Line Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2 Simplified Power Flow Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3 Analysis of Three-Phase Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4 Harmonic Network Analysis and Other Special Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4 Power System Time Domain Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5 Maximum Stable Power Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.1 Power Transfer into a Resistive Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.2 The Per-Unit System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6 Power Transfer Through Long Overhead Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.1 Load Limit for Uncompensated Long Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.2 Transient Stability of Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
S. L. Nilsson (*)
M. Lima
Transmission Planning and Studies Department, Chesf, Recife, Brazil
e-mail: manfredo@chesf.gov.br
D. J. Young
Stafford, UK
e-mail: davidyoung@btinternet.com

16 S. L. Nilsson et al.
Abstract
Electric power has become indispensable to most people in the world. It is
transmitted either as direct current (DC) or as alternating current (AC). DC
power is used to transfer large blocks of electric power at high voltage levels
over long overhead lines or through underground or undersea cables. A signifi-
cant amount of the AC power delivered to consumers is converted to DC before it
is used to operate power electronic devices and various industrial processes, but
DC power cannot be transformed to a higher or lower DC voltage level without
first being converted to AC in an intermediate step. Consequently, AC power has
become the dominating technology for transmitting and distributing the generated
electric power to the end users.
This chapter discusses the basic characteristics of AC electric power generation,
transmission, and utilization. In order to do this, the fundamental scientific discov-
eries and concepts are presented, and some of the engineers and scientists and their
contributions to the development of electric power systems are also discussed.
1 Introduction
1.1 Early Developments of Electric Theory
Electric power is now an indispensable commodity to most people in the world. Most
power is generated by alternating current machines and transmitted either by direct
current (DC) systems in which the polarity of the voltage and direction of the current
flows are unchanging or by alternating current (AC) systems in which the polarity of the
voltage and current changes periodically with a frequency defined by standards. DC
power is primarily used to transfer large blocks of electric power over long, high-voltage
overhead lines or through underground and undersea cables. It is both interesting and
ironic that a significant amount of the AC power delivered to consumers is then converted
to DC before it is used to operate power electronic devices and many industrial processes.
The reason for this is that DC power cannot be transformed to a higher or lower DC
voltage level without first being converted to AC in an intermediate step. AC power is
therefore the dominating technology for transmitting the generated electric power to the
users. This was not the case in the early days of electric power system developments.
In the earliest days of the use of electricity, after Swan and Edison had indepen-
dently developed satisfactorily operating incandescent lamps, local DC distribution
networks sprang up to supply electric power to users from a nearby generator, driven
by steam or water power.1 Although light provided by arc lamps was already being
1
Many scientists worked on making incandescent light sources beginning with Sir Humphry Davy
in England in 1802. Sir Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison both made major breakthroughs on the
design of electric light bulbs in 1877–1879, but the Edison vacuum light bulb with a carbon filament
was the first practical, relatively reliable light bulb that made it into the market. http://
edisontechcenter.org/incandescent.html#inventors
2 AC System Characteristics 17
used, the incandescent lamp had the potential to provide small, long-lasting, and
reliable light bulbs in domestic and commercial premises.2 Thus, the initial com-
mercial driving force behind the development and growth of electric power distri-
bution systems was to provide electric light. However, prior to the development of an
electric light, means to generate electric power had to be developed. A British
scientist, Michael Faraday, had discovered in 1831 that if electric current flowed in
a conductor, it was possible to induce a current flow in a second, nearby, conductor
by moving the first conductor and also by creating a changing current flow in the first
conductor to induce a current in the second conductor (Chisholm 1911). This is the
so-called induction effect, which was crucial in allowing electricity to be trans-
formed from a curiosity into a powerful new technology.
Several years after his first experiments, Faraday returned to the study of elec-
tricity and magnetism. He formed two separate windings, one on each side of an iron
ring. When he energized one winding from a battery, he observed a transient current
in the other winding; when he disconnected the battery, the second winding expe-
rienced another brief current but in the reverse direction. Faraday recognized this as
electromagnetic induction – a current in one winding had magnetized iron, which in
turn had induced a current in another winding. This was the prototype of a trans-
former. Another experiment involved a multi-turn spiral winding on a paper cylin-
der; moving one end of a long bar magnet rapidly into and out of the cylinder caused
an alternating current to flow in the winding. He mounted a copper disc on an axle
between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. When the disc was made to spin, he
collected a constant current from sliding terminals on the axle and the rim of the disc.
These are the fundamental discoveries that describe the functioning of generators,
motors, and transformers needed for generation, transmission, and utilization of
electric power.3
1.2 Electric System Analysis Fundamentals
1.2.1 Ohm’s Law for DC and AC Circuits

Electric circuit theory had to be developed for design and analysis of electric power
systems. It began with some very basic discoveries about the relationships between
voltage and current flows.
2
Sir Humphry Davy constructed the first arc lamp (1807), using a battery of 2,000 cells to create a
100-millimeter (4-inch) arc between two charcoal sticks. When suitable electric generators became
available in the late 1870s, the practical use of arc lamps began. The Yablochkov candle, an arc
lamp invented by the Russian engineer Paul Yablochkov, was used for street lighting in Paris and
other European cities from 1878. https://www.britannica.com/technology/arc-lamp
3
Faraday also determined the speed of light.
The German (Bavarian) scientist, Georg Ohm, had discovered that the current
flow from a direct current (DC) voltage source was inversely proportional to the
resistance to current flow in the circuit.4 That is:
V DC
I DC ¼ (1)
R
where:
IDC is the direct current in amperes.

VDC is the DC voltage from the source in volts.
R is the resistance in the circuit in ohms (named in honor of the inventor).
The term for the inverse of resistance is conductance (1/R) with a unit called
Siemens.
The electric power (P) dissipated in the circuit described by Eq. 1 is the product of
the voltage and the current, i.e.:
V 2DC
P ¼ V DC I DC ¼ ¼ RI 2DC (2)
R
A magnetic field surrounds a current flow whether through space, as during a
lightning strike, or through a conductor. It takes energy to establish the magnetic
field, which delays the current rise though the conductor. The energization transient
current rise of a circuit when connected to a DC voltage source is described by the
following simple differential equation:
di
V DC ¼ iR þ L (3)
dt
where:
L measured in Henry (H) is the so-called inductance of the circuit.
Equation 3 shows that at time zero, when the current is zero, the rate of change in
the current is inversely proportional to the magnitude of the inductance L. When the
time goes to infinity, the rate of change of the current is zero, and the equation reverts
to Ohm’s law as shown in Eq. 1.
4
These equations should be well known to all who have taken elementary physics and mathematical
courses. The equations are valid for quasi-stationary electrical systems only (no radiation). They are
just repeated here as an introduction to the development of the requirements for power system
design and operation.
Fig. 1 Step response of a 1.00

first-order linear system 0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
63% = time constant τ=L/R
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10 α
0.00
-0.10
Assuming that the current at time zero is zero, then the solution to the differential
equation (Eq. 3) is the well-known equation:
V DC
1 e L = R
t
i¼ (4)
R
where:
e is the natural logarithm, approximately equal to 2.718281828459.

t is the time in seconds.
The ratio of L/R is the time constant, τ, for this simple circuit. It is the time at
which about 2/3rds (63%) of the total change of the current flow has taken place. It
can be expressed as the tangent of an angle α, where α is the slope of the response at
time zero (Fig. 1). In this simple first-order linear system represented by Eq. 4, 95%
of the response is reached when the exponential part of the equation is approximately
1/e3 (i.e., three time constants). After five time constants, the change is more than
99% complete.
By using the Laplace transformation where p is the Laplace operator, Eq. 3 can be
written as follows, assuming that the current i is zero prior to time zero:5
V DC
¼ iðR þ pLÞ (5)
p
Note that the Laplace transform of a constant is 1/p. This format enables algebraic
manipulations of the equation and simplifies the solving of differential equations.
5
The Laplace transform was invented by the French mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace
(1749–1827), and systematically developed by the British physicist Oliver Heaviside
(1850–1925), to simplify the solution of many differential equations. https://www.britannica.com/
science/Laplace-transform
Solving Eq. 5 for i gives the following:
V DC
i¼ (6)
pðR þ pLÞ
The time domain solution of Eq. 6, which is typically found in lookup tables, is
identical to Eq. 4.
In the circuit described by Eq. 3, the DC voltage source may be replaced by an
AC voltage source with the frequency ω in radians per second (ω is equal to 2πf
where f is the frequency in Hz). If the resultant AC current has an amplitude I varying
in time as sin(ωt), then, since the rate of change of sin(ωt), is ωcos(ωt), for steady-
state conditions, Eq. 3 can be written as
vðt Þ ¼ I ðR sin ωt þ ωL cos ωt Þ ¼ I ðR sin ωt þ X L cos ωt Þ (7)
where ωL is substituted by XL, which is the inductive reactance for frequency f in

ohms.
Equation 7 shows that there are two orthogonal voltage components: one that is in
phase with the current and one that leads the current by 90 . These two components
form a right-angle triangle in which the hypotenuse is the square root of the sum of
the squares of the two right angle components. This defines an AC impedance with
an absolute value [Z], in ohms, equal to
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
½Z ¼ R2 þ X 2L (8)
The ratio of these two components is
XL sin ϕ
¼ tan ϕ ¼ (9)
R cos ϕ
where ϕ is the angle between R and [Z], so that:
R
R ¼ ½Z cos ϕ or ¼ cos ϕ (10)
½Z
and
XL
X L ¼ ½Z sin ϕ or ¼ sin ϕ (11)
½Z
By substituting the expressions for R and XL from Eqs. 10 and 11 into the right
side of Eq. 7, the following equation is obtained:
vðt Þ ¼ I ½Z ð cos ϕ sin ωt þ sin ϕ cos ωt Þ ¼ I ½Z sin ðωt þ ϕÞ

¼ V sin ðωt þ ϕÞ (12)
That is, the voltage V is leading the current by ϕ radians and the magnitude V of
the voltage is equal to
V ¼ I ½Z (13)
This is the equivalent of Ohm’s Law (Eq. 1) for AC circuits.

The admittance [Y] with the units of Siemens (S) is defined as the inverse of the
impedance [Z]. Using admittance formulation, Eq. 13 can then be written as
I
V ¼ (14)
½Y
In Eqs. 13 and 14, the absolute values of the impedance and admittance are used.
This provides the magnitude of the current but not the phase angle between the
voltage and current. Normally the impedance Z is given as a complex number,
R jX, where R is the real component and X is the “imaginary” (quadrature)
component. Similarly, the admittance Y has a real component (G) and a quadrature
component (B) and can be written as Y = G jB. The real component of the
admittance is called the conductance and the quadrature component is the
susceptance. If the absolute values of the impedance or admittance are replaced by
the complex impedance or admittance, then Eqs. 13 and 14 will contain both the
magnitude and phase angle information as shown in Eq. 12.
In the analyses up to Eq. 14 only an inductive reactance has been considered.
However, most electrical analysis problems also include a capacitive reactance.
Capacitive currents arise when a voltage is applied to an insulator such as vacuum,
air, an insulating fluid, or a solid insulating material, because of the electric field that
surrounds any energized part in an electric circuit. This field originates from electric
charges located at the surfaces of the conducting components. It can be measured in
the insulating materials (dielectric) surrounding the charges. The relationship
between the charge and, in this example, a steady-state DC voltage is as follows:
Q ¼ CV DC (15)
where
Q is the charge in ampere-seconds (As).
C is the capacitance of the dielectric system surrounding the charge, measured in
farads (F).
VDC is the voltage as measured between the point with the charge and some other
point in space to which the electric field is referred.
If it is assumed that a voltage, v, is increased from zero (i.e., there is no stored

energy in the system prior to time zero) to some value V, then a displacement current
will flow in the dielectric system, which will then be charged to a voltage V as follows:
ð
i dt ¼ Q ¼ CV (16)
Equation 16 describes a system in which a voltage v(t) develops as soon as the

current is injected at time zero. If Eq. 16 is rewritten using the Laplace transforma-
tion assuming that no charge exists in the system prior to time zero, it will be:
i
¼ CF p ðvðt ÞÞ (17)
p
Under this assumption, for steady-state conditions the Laplace operator p can be
replaced by the complex operator jω (Gille et al. 1959). Furthermore, using the fact
that j2 is defined as (1) and applying an AC voltage v( f( jωt)), the following
expressions are obtained:
ið f ðωt ÞÞ ið f ðωt ÞÞ
vð f ðjωÞÞ ¼ ¼ j ¼ jX C ið f ðωt ÞÞ (18)
jωC ωC
Equation 18 shows how capacitive reactance XC is defined. When the capacitive

reactance is compared to the inductive reactance as defined by Eq. 7, it is evident that
the inductive reactance and capacitive reactance have different signs. This difference
represents a phase shift of 180 between the currents through an inductance and a
capacitance. The current lags the voltage in an inductance but leads the voltage in a
capacitance.
The differential equations used to describe an AC system are often solved directly
by means of powerful computer programs based on numerical analysis methods or
by means of Laplace equation methods. However, AC circuit analysis is often also
performed in the frequency domain in which phasors are described by amplitudes
and angles using complex number arithmetic. In the frequency domain Eq. 5 can be
re-written by replacing the Laplace operator p with the complex operator jω as
follows:
F ðvð jωt ÞÞ ¼ iðR þ jX L Þ (19)
If it is assumed that a complex voltage F(v( jωt)) equal to Ve jωt = V(cosωt + j sin ωt)
is applied to a circuit with a complex impedance valid for the frequency ω radians
per second of [Z]e jϕ = [Z](cos ϕ + jsin ϕ), then the steady-state current i(t) is as
follows:
V e jωt V e jðωtϕÞ
i ðt Þ ¼ ¼ (20)
½Z e jϕ ½Z
The actual instantaneous current as a function of time t is then the real component
of Eq. 20.

V j ωtϕ V
i ¼ Re e ¼ cos ðωt ϕÞ (21)
½Z ½Z
Equation 21 is an alternative derivation of Ohm’s law for AC. It shows that the
voltage is leading the current by the angle ϕ as is described by Eq. 12 and the
magnitude of the current is equal to the magnitude of the applied voltage divided by
the absolute value of the impedance as described by Eq. 13. The angle function
difference between Eqs. 12 and 21 arises because in Eq. 12 the current is the phase
reference, whereas in Eq. 21, the voltage was chosen as the phase reference. If the
reactance jXL in Eq. 19 is replaced by a capacitive reactance jXC, then the angle ϕ
in Eq. 21 will be positive, which means that the current will lead the voltage by the
angle ϕ.
If a capacitor is added to the circuit described by Eq. 3, the capacitor current (i) is
described by Eq. 17, and the system is then described by a second-order linear
equation as follows:
d 2 v R dv v
2
þ þ ¼0 (22)
dt L dt LC
If the rate of change of voltage is replaced by the Laplace operator p, the equation
becomes as follows:
R 1
p2 þ p þ ¼0 (23)
L LC
The general expression for the roots ( p) of this equation is:

s
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

R R 2 1
p¼ (24)
2L 2L LC
It is convenient to simplify the appearance of this equation by substituting

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi the
symbols α for R/2L, which is known as the damping factor, and ω0 for 1/ LC, which
represents the undamped natural frequency of the capacitor and the inductor. Then,
Eq. 23 can be written as
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
p ¼ α α2 ω20 (25)
The two roots of Eq. 25 are

p1 ¼ α þ α2 ω20 (26)
and
p2 ¼ α α2 ω20 (27)
The general solution is of the form (Gille et al. 1959):
V ¼ Aep1 t þ Bep2 t (28)
The detailed solutions depend on the relative values of α and ω0. When α is greater
than ω0, the transient is overdamped without any transient overshoot in response to a
step in the voltage. When the damping factor is reduced so that α < ω0, the circuit is
underdamped, and the solution is expressed in complex numbers and has a damped
oscillatory response. This is typical for power systems since it is desirable to keep the
losses as low as possible and still be able to operate the power system.
These equations correspond to those used to describe mechanical systems;
voltage can be considered as equivalent to force, and current is equivalent
to velocity. In this equivalent model, a mass becomes an inductance, mecha-
nical resistance is the electric resistance, and the mechanical stiffness is the
capacitance.
1.2.2 Kirchhoff’s Laws

The German (Prussian) scientist, Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, in 1845 announced his
mathematical laws that allowed currents, voltages and resistances to be calculated
for electric networks. These were extensions of Ohm’s law. One of these laws is the
Kirchhoff’s current law that states that the sum of the currents entering a junction or
electric node is zero, i.e., the total sum of all the currents entering a node must equal
the total sum of the currents leaving the node. This is written as follows:
X
k ¼N
Ik ¼ 0 (29)
1
where Ik are the individual branch currents as illustrated in Fig. 2.

Kirchhoff’s second law states that the sum of all potential differences in a loop of
a network with N nodes is also zero. That is:
Fig. 2 Node currents sum

to zero
I1
I2
I4
I3
Fig. 3 Branch voltages sum 1 V12 V23

to zero 2 3
V10 V34
V20 V24
0 V40 4
X
k ¼N
ðV kþ1 V k Þ ¼ 0 (30)
0
where:
Vk+1 – Vk is the voltage drop in the branch between nodes k and k+1.
Figure 3 illustrates this for the four branch networks marked with red arrows.
1.2.3 Electric Material Properties

There are two fundamental material constants used to calculate the inductive and
capacitive reactances. For inductance calculations, the material constant is referred
to as the permeability, which for vacuum is denoted μ0 with units of Henry/unit
length. The permeability of other materials is normally given as a multiplier of
μ0 and written as μμ0. A similar material constant for dielectric material is the
permittivity denoted by e0 for vacuum with units of Farad/unit length; a multiplier
e is applied for other materials and is typically written as ee0 in electrical equations.
The two constants μ0 and e0 are particularly significant because they relate to the
speed of light (c) in a vacuum, as follows:
1
c ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (31)
μ0 e0
c is almost exactly equal to 300,000 km/s.

Furthermore, the wave impedance of free space is
rffiffiffiffiffi
μ0
Z0 ¼ (32)
e0
Z0 is about 377 ohms in the metric system and is a real impedance (resistance). It is
also called the surge impedance which, for transmission lines, is calculated as
(CIGRE 2014):
rffiffiffiffi
L pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Z0 ¼ ¼ X LX C (33)
C
where L, C, XL, and XC are the circuit parameters for the lines and cables.
It should be noted that for cables, the dielectric constant for the insulation material
in the cable has a dielectric constant that is more than twice the dielectric constant of
vacuum, which slows the wave propagation rate to less than half of the speed of
light. Furthermore, since C is large (XC small), the surge impedance for a cable is
very low.
The 33 equations shown above provide the fundamental understanding needed to
analyze power transmission systems.
2 AC Power Systems
2.1 Early Developments of Electric Power Systems
Toward the end of the nineteenth century, power system developments were pursued
at a rapid pace in Europe and the United States. Lucien Gaulard of France and John
Gibbs, a British engineer, demonstrated an AC power transmission and distribution
system in London in 1881 (CIGRE 2014). At about the same time, Edison was one
of the pioneers developing DC power distribution systems for commercial purposes.
In 1882, he set up a DC distribution system of about 90 kilowatts in London (enough
to supply about 1000 lamps) and a larger system with a generating capacity of
600 kilowatts, at Pearl Street in Manhattan, New York, in 1882–1883 (Sulzberger
2003a).
Edison’s incandescent lamps were designed to operate at 100 volts. To allow for
losses in the supply conductors, the dynamos (generators) were designed for
110 volts. Initially Edison used a two-wire system, but later devised a three-wire
DC distribution system operating at, respectively, plus and minus 110 volts, with the
third conductor at 0 volts. This improved the efficiency of the system, because the
third conductor only carried the difference between the currents in the high-voltage
conductors. Edison installed many more DC distribution systems, which were
successful – up to a point, as they could only cover a very limited area around the
generating station.
George Westinghouse knew about the AC power distribution system that had
been built by Gaulard and Gibbs. This system used “secondary generators” or
transformers to step voltages up and down.6 Westinghouse acquired several of the
Gaulard and Gibbs transformers in 1885 and the American rights to them in
February 1886. Some voltage variation problems of the Gaulard-Gibbs system
were solved by William Stanley, who worked for George Westinghouse in
6
The transformer makes use of the induction effect discovered and demonstrated in 1821 by
Michael Faraday.
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. By September 1886, the Westinghouse Electric

Company had designed the equipment needed to commercialize an AC distribution
system. The first trial system was installed in Lawrenceville, Pennsylvania, several
miles from the Westinghouse plant and served some 400 lamps for 2 weeks. This
same equipment was then moved to Buffalo, New York, where, in November 1886,
it became part of the first commercial AC electric power system in North America.
By October 1887, more than 30 Westinghouse AC systems were in operation.
George Westinghouse also heard about another inventor, Nikola Tesla and his
accomplishments. Tesla developed the principal components needed for a system of
AC electric power generation and transmission that are universally utilized through-
out the world today. He had in November and December 1887 filed for seven US
patents in the field of polyphase AC motors, power transmission, generators, trans-
formers, and lighting. Westinghouse realized the importance of Tesla’s inventions,
purchased Tesla’s AC patents, and employed Tesla to work on the full-scale devel-
opment of AC systems.
It was recognized early in this development that electric generators and motors
would operate best if the electrical driving force could be made constant. In a single-
phase AC system with a generator connected to a load through two conductors, a
pulsating torque arises as described in Sect. 2.2 and causes undesirable shaft
vibrations in the generators and motors installed in the system. The development
of polyphase systems eliminated the pulsating torque. Tesla was a proponent of a
two-phase, four-wire system in the late 1880s, in which a steady torque was
produced when the two-phase voltages were equal and spaced apart by 90 electrical
degrees (Tesla 1888). Two-phase systems of this type remained in operation for
many decades.
A more efficient solution is the three-phase system, described in more detail in
Sect. 3.3, in which three equal voltages are spaced 120 electrical degrees apart. In
such a system, which only needs three conductors, the torque used to drive the shaft
of a generator is constant providing a vibration-free rotating force; when connected
to a motor, this will deliver a vibration-free torque to the motor shaft. The first three-
phase power transmission system was built in Germany in 1891. This was a
100-mile-long AC line operated at 30 kilovolts (kV), supplying power from a
hydro-generator at Lauffen to Frankfurt (CIGRE 2014). The line was installed by
the Oerlikon Company (Sulzberger 2003b). Special designs of transformer (e.g.,
using the Scott connection) enable two-phase and three-phase systems to be linked
together (Heathcote 2007).
Early power stations were primarily coal-fired steam-generating stations, which
required a reliable supply of water, access to a good transport system, and a sizeable
area of land for stockpiling coal and for storage and disposal of waste products.
Residents living close to the plants disliked the smoke pollution and, as urban land
prices increased, there was pressure to locate generating stations remotely from
residential areas. This was possible after Tesla’s improvements to transformer design
facilitated this remote location of generating stations. Transformers convert
low-voltage, high-current AC electric power sources to high voltages and low
currents for efficient power transmission across high-voltage lines to load centers.
The input power to a transformer equals the output power (minus a small amount of
losses). At the end of the transmission line, the power is converted back to low
voltage and distributed to loads.
The availability of efficient transformers also enabled power from hydroturbines
to be harnessed. Hydropower plants could only rarely be located close to population
centers and therefore required long transmission lines to deliver power to the users.
This was also a strong driving force behind the development of high-voltage
transmission systems. The inherent difficulties with these developments are
discussed in ▶ Chap. 1, “Introduction to Flexible AC Transmission Systems
(FACTS) Controllers: A Chronology.”
2.2 AC Power
AC power systems of today are operated with almost constant frequencies, but the
world is split between two base system frequencies. One is 50 cycles per second
(Hertz abbreviated Hz) and the other is 60 Hz. Systems using 50 Hz cannot be
directly interconnected to systems using 60 Hz and vice versa. Some countries, for
example, Japan, are split between 50 and 60 Hz regions. There are also other system
frequencies in use for special applications. One of these is 400 Hz, which leads to
lighter weight of generators and motors and therefore is used for marine and
aeronautical power systems where transmission and distribution distances are
short. In contrast, some single-phase traction (train) systems are operated at lower
frequencies such as 162/3 Hz (50 Hz divided by 3); the inductive voltage drop, as
described by Eq. 6, is smaller for low frequencies, and therefore the distance between
traction feeder substations can be greater than if a 50 Hz supply were to be used.
Figure 4 illustrates a single-phase alternating current system supplied by a
generator whose voltage varies sinusoidally with time. If the frequency of this
wave is f Hz with the angular frequency, ω = 2πf, then the magnitude of the voltage
varies between plus and minus a maximum value, Vmax, which is the amplitude or
crest value of the applied voltage. The instantaneous voltage v(t) (shown in Fig. 4
with arbitrary scales for illustration) is then
vðt Þ ¼ V max sin ωt (34)
If the generator is connected to a resistor (without any inductance), then in

accordance with Eq. 12, Fig. 4 shows that the current will also vary sinusoidally
with time and in-phase with the voltage:
V max
i ðt Þ ¼ sin ωt ¼ I max sin ωt (35)
R
The instantaneous power dissipated in the resistance is the product of the voltage
and the current, similar to Eq. 2 for DC. Thus the instantaneous power for AC, with
the unit of watts (W), is described as
Fig. 4 Single-phase AC voltage, current, and power waveforms
p ¼ vi ¼ i2 R ¼ RðI max sin ωt Þ2 ¼ 0:5RðI max Þ2 ð1 cos 2ωt Þ (36)
As is shown in Fig. 4, the AC power is only produced when the voltage and
current are non-zero and have the same frequency. Furthermore, in a single-phase
system, the power varies with twice the power frequency, and its average value is
half of its crest value.
In AC systems, the effective values of sinusoidally varying voltage and current
are equal to the square root of their crest (or amplitude) values; this is the root-mean-
square (RMS) value, which is calculated for the current as follows:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ð
1 T 2
I rms ¼ i dt (37)
T 0
In Eq. 37, the time, T, over which the integration should take place is one full
cycle equal to 1/f. The same form of equation applied to the voltage produces an
RMS value for the voltage. Equation 37 is valid for any periodic current shape, but
for the special case that the current is sinusoidal (without distortions), the RMS value
is equal to the square root of the crest value. The equation for the average power can
then be written as follows, assuming that reactance is present and causes a phase shift
with an angle ϕ between the voltage and current:
P ¼ V rms I rms cos ϕ (38)
The term cosϕ is called the power factor. It arises as a result of the presence of
inductances and capacitances in the circuit. These components just store energy
for a portion of the cycle and then release the stored energy for an equal portion of
each cycle. Consequently, they do not produce any active power, and the
energy circulation is therefore termed reactive power, abbreviated as vars and
denoted by the symbol Q, with the unit volt-ampere reactive or var which is
calculated as
Q ¼ V rms I rms sin ϕ (39)
When the angle ϕ is non-zero, the simple product of voltage and current (VrmsIrms)
is called the apparent power, denoted by S, with the unit volt-ampere (VA). The
relationship between the three different power expressions is
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
S ¼ P2 þ Q2 (40)
An alternative way to express voltage and current is to use the complex formu-
lations V=Vrmse jα and I = Irmse j(αϕ). The complex power can then be calculated
using the conjugate of the current equal to I = Irmse-j(αϕ):
S ¼ V I ¼ V rms ejα I rms ejðαϕÞ (41)
The voltage and current used in Eq. 41 are the RMS values of the voltage and
current calculated using Eq. 37. If the voltage and current waveforms are distorted by
frequency components different from the nominal power system frequency, the
apparent power will not have the pure sinusoidal waveforms which are required
for accurate calculation of P, the active power component.
3 Power System Frequency Domain Analysis
As described in ▶ Chap. 1, “Introduction to Flexible AC Transmission Systems

(FACTS) Controllers: A Chronology,” the transmission of electric power on over-
head lines was investigated by Heaviside, who studied the behavior of telegraph
lines that were being built beginning in the mid-1800s. In 1887 he published a
fundamental theory for how distortion-free transmission over a pair of wires would
be possible if the ratio of the series resistance and the line inductance was equal to the
ratio of the shunt conductance and the capacitance between the wires. Many of the
equations that are still in use for analysis and design of electric transmission lines
were originally developed by Heaviside (1894). The equations he developed for
telegraph lines are also valid for electric power circuits, although power transmission
is at a single frequency, typically 50 or 60 Hz. Also, for electric power transmission,
losses have to be minimized to achieve high system efficiency.
3.1 Transmission Line Equations
Figure 5 shows a simplified illustration for a long transmission line illustrated by

using short segments of lumped inductance and capacitance models where each
element represents a series inductance equal to ΔL and a shunt capacitance of ΔC.
The surge impedance as calculated by Eq. 33 is then the square root of the ratio of ΔL
and ΔC.
Sending end Receiving end

Ix Line inductance
Is Ir
Vs Vx Vr
x Line capacitance
Fig. 5 Lumped element model of a long transmission line
Equations 42 and 43 are the equations governing the voltage and current distri-
bution for transmission of power through a lossless transmission line and provide a
reasonable approximation for the long distance electric power transmission illus-
trated by Fig. 5. Disregarding the line resistance is a reasonable approximation for
long-distance electric power transmission unless the power losses have to be calcu-
lated. Equations 42 and 43 are so-called frequency domain equations valid for a
single wavelength λ, which is calculated as the speed of light divided by the
frequency. The speed of light is inversely proportional to the square root of the
dielectric constant multiplied by the permeability as shown in Eq. 22 for vacuum.
This equation is also applicable to air environments. Specifically, the equations
describe the standing waves on a lossless transmission line of length a (Miller 1982):
V ðxÞ ¼ V r cos βða xÞ þ jI r Z 0 sin βða xÞ (42)
and for currents

Vr
I ð xÞ ¼ j sin βða xÞ þ I r cos βða xÞ (43)
Z0
where
V is a voltage phasor with a specific frequency, amplitude, and phase angle.

I is a current phasor with a specific frequency, amplitude, and phase angle.
x is the distance from the sending end to the point on the line where the voltage and
current are to be calculated.
The load at x = a (the end of the line) is Vr /Ir.
Z0 is the surge impedance of the line as defined by Eq. 33. Z0 is a real impedance; that
is resistive.
L is the line inductance per unit length.
C is the line shunt capacitance per unit length.
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
β is equal to ω LC .
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Since 1= LC is the propagation velocity (u) along the line.
β ¼ 2πf
u ¼ λ where λ is the wavelength of the applied AC voltage.
2π
These equations lead to the following conclusions:
• The voltage profile along a line depends on the power factor of the load.
• If the termination impedance is equal to Z0 which means Vr/Ir = Z0, then the
voltages and currents are uniform along the entire line (Zx = Z0).
• If the line is open (the termination impedance is infinite), the current Ir at the end
of the line is zero, but the voltage at the end of the line is higher than at the
sending end. It is amplified along the line from x = 0 to x = a by a factor as shown
in Eq. 44. This voltage rise is the so-called Ferranti effect as described in
▶ Chap. 3, “AC Network Control Using Conventional Means”:
cos βða xÞ
Vx ¼ Vs (44)
cos ðβaÞ
Equation 45 is the result of setting x = 0 in Eq. 44:
V 0 ¼ V s ¼ V r cos βða 0Þ ¼ V r cos θ (45)
where θ is the electrical length of the line expressed in radians or wavelengths.

Since there is no active power transfer into the line when the receiving end is
open, Vs and Vr must be in phase:
• If a line is opened to disconnect load at the receiving end, the voltage at the end of
the line will revert to the open-circuit level, but in addition, a transient overvolt-
age equal to the step change in the current (Δi) divided by the surge impedance
(Z0) will travel toward the closed line end. This adds to the overvoltage at the
open end. Continuously connected shunt reactors can be used to limit the
overvoltage at the open line ends as discussed in ▶ Chap. 3, “AC Network
Control Using Conventional Means.”
Equations 42 through 45 are valid for both overhead lines and underground
cables. For overhead lines, the surge impedance, Z0, is between about 300 and
400 Ω, but for cables it can be between 25 and 40 Ω. This large difference is because
the capacitance between the conductors and ground for overhead lines is quite low,
but for cables it is very much larger, and this has a big impact for the capacitance C in
Eq. 33. In cables this capacitance causes a high charging current to flow, in
quadrature with the real (active power) current; this increases the thermal loading
of the cable and limits the distance over which AC power can be transmitted through
uncompensated cables. For example, a solid dielectric cable at 150 kV has a real
power transfer capability of only 80% of its thermal capacity at a distance of 70 km,
while a fluid-filled cable, which has a higher charging current, is limited to between
20 and 25 km (CIGRE TB 110 1996). A 400-kV solid dielectric cable can be used for
up to 50 km, while a fluid-filled cable could not exceed a length of between 10 and
20 km (CIGRE TB 504 2012).
In all AC power transmission systems, reactive power compensation is needed for
satisfactory control of AC voltages. As described by Miller, reactive power com-
pensation is a complex issue that requires careful analysis (Miller 1982). Lines can,
and often must, be compensated to maintain a relatively flat voltage profile along
their length, to avoid line overvoltages and undervoltages, and thereby to increase
their power handling capacity, as described in ▶ Chap. 3, “AC Network Control
Using Conventional Means.”
3.2 Simplified Power Flow Equations
The resistance, series inductance and shunt capacitance of transmission lines and
cables are distributed relatively uniformly along the length of the line and cable. An
accurate analysis of line behavior requires the use of second-order partial differential
equations, but hyperbolic functions are typically used for such analysis (Nolasco
et al. 2014). Nevertheless, for simple analytical purposes, it is satisfactory and
convenient to represent the impedances as the total, “lumped” quantities of resis-
tance R, series inductive reactance jXL, and shunt capacitive reactance – jXC, and it is
often appropriate to analyze electric transmission lines using simple two-port net-
work models as shown in Fig. 6. If such a network contains only linear components,
it can be described by means of three equations (Gille et al. 1959; Fink and Beaty
1978; Anderson and Farmer 1996):
V s ¼ AV R þ BI R (46)
I S ¼ CV R þ DI R (47)
AD BC ¼ 1 (48)
In these equations A, B, C, and D are factors, which depend on the series and
shunt impedances inside the two-port model. A and D are constants, B has the unit of
ohms, and C is an admittance with the unit of Siemens.
The network can be conveniently described in matrix format as follows:
Fig. 6 Two-port network IS IR

model
VS Network VR

VS A B VR
¼ (49)
IS C D IR
There are two commonly used two-port models. One is a T-link as shown in
Fig. 7, and the other is a Pi- link (so called because of its resemblance to the Greek
letter Pi, Π) as shown in Fig. 8.
The A, B, C, and D constants for the T-link are

ð1 þ Y Z 1 Þ ðZ 1 þ Z 2 þ Y Z 1 Z 2 Þ
(50)
ðY Þ ð1 þ Y Z 2 Þ
and for the Pi-link are

ð1 þ Y 2 Z Þ ðZ Þ
(51)
ðY 1 þ Y 2 þ Y 1 Y 2 Z Þ ð1 þ Y 1 Z Þ
Note that an impedance is only defined for a specific, single frequency.

The impedance Z in the Pi-link is equal to Z1 plus Z2 in the T-link, and Y in the
T-link is equal to Y1 plus Y2 in the Pi-link. In simple load flow calculations for short
lines (up to about 80 km or 50 miles), Y is set to zero, and Z is set to XL or jωL with
the resistance in the line assumed to be zero. For longer lines, to improve the
accuracy of the models, two or more two-port networks can be connected in series
as shown in Eq. 43 for connection between two two-port networks.

A1 B1 A2 B2 ðA1 A2 þ B1 C 2 Þ ðA1 B2 þ B1 D2 Þ
¼ (52)
C1 D1 C2 D2 ðC 1 A2 þ D1 C 2 Þ ðC 1 B2 þ D1 D2 Þ
Physical line models for high-frequency study purposes are built using multiple T
or Pi sections connected in series. This has been used in older transient network
analysis (TNA) models built using lumped circuit parameters. These types of system
have been replaced by real-time computer models, using the differential equations
for transmission lines. For high-frequency transmission line studies such as those
used for analysis of switching and lightning surges, the model of the earth’s
impedance might have to be included, using Carson’s equations (Olsen and
Pankaskie 1983). However, this Green Book will not elaborate further on this topic.
Fig. 7 T-link IS IR
Z1 Z2
VS Y VR
Fig. 8 Pi-link IS IR
Z
VS Y1 Y2 VR
3.3 Analysis of Three-Phase Circuits
All bulk power AC transmission lines are three-phase lines with the three-phase
voltages operating at 120 electrical degrees apart, as illustrated in Fig. 9 by the
representation of the vertical positions of the tips of the blades in a three-bladed
propeller. In a three-phase system, the three individual-phase voltages have equal
amplitudes with reference to ground. However, by convention, the voltage V used to
describe the system voltage is the phase-to-phase voltage amplitude; that is, the
distance between the tips of the propeller blades. Thus, the amplitude of the voltage
to ground is the system voltage V divided by √3. The vector sum of the three
symmetrical phase voltages is zero.
The detailed analysis of an extensive three-phase power system requires equa-
tions to be formulated for each of the three phases throughout system; this analysis
was, and still is, mathematically demanding even with the use of powerful com-
puters. Charles LeGeyt Fortescue, a Canadian electrical engineer working for Wes-
tinghouse, developed a theory for how any set of N unbalanced phasors could be
expressed as the sum of N symmetrical sets of balanced phasors known as symmet-
rical components (Fortescue 1918). For a three-phase system, these are called
positive, negative, and zero sequence components. The positive sequence system
is the dominant component, rotating in the positive direction from phase A to B to
C (or RST, YBG or similar phase notations). The negative sequence rotates A to C to
B, and the zero sequence components are all unidirectional. Other similar mathe-
matical theories such as those proposed by Edith Clarke and R.H. Park are typically
applied to rotating machine systems (Park 1929; Clarke 1943). However, the
symmetrical component theory developed by Fortescue is commonly used to solve
asymmetrical power system problems and especially for the analysis of unbalanced
system short-circuit faults.
The symmetrical component calculations make use of an operator a, which
creates a phase shift of 120 and is defined as

a ¼ ej120 (53)
Fig. 9 An illustration of a three-phase power system

The square of a (a2) creates a phase shift of 240 , and the cube of a (a3) becomes a
phase shift of 360 .
The transformation of three voltages in a three-phase system can be calculated
using for simplicity matrix formulations as follows:
2 3 2 32 3
V0 1 1 1 Vа
1
4 V1 5 ¼ 4 1 a a2 54 V b 5 (54)
3
V2 1 a2 a Vc
where Va, Vb, and Vc, the inputs to the matrix, are the actual three AC system voltages
provided with amplitudes and phase angles. The outputs from the matrix calculation are
Vа0, the zero sequence voltage

Vа1, the positive sequence voltage
Vа2, the negative sequence voltage
This is illustrated in Fig. 10 which shows the three fictitious measured voltages Va,
Vb, and Vc with a graphical representation of the three sequential components. This
might depict the AC system voltages during faults but not during steady-state operation
of the AC system. The three zero sequence components are marked A0, B0, and C0; the
positive sequence voltages are marked A1, B1, C1; and the three negative sequence
voltages are marked A2, B2, and C2. The positive sequence system rotates from A to B to
C, whereas the phase rotation for the negative sequence system is from A to C to B.
The original voltages can be calculated by using the inverse matrix as follows:
2 3 2 32 3
Vа 1 1 1 V0
4 Vb 5 ¼ 4 1 a2 a 54 V 1 5 ¼ T 012 V 012 (55)
Vc 1 a a2 V2
where
T012 is the symmetrical 3 3 matrix.
V012 is the 3 1 voltage column vector.
Fig. 10 Illustration of the

symmetrical component B2
concept C1
VCA
Vc
A1 A2
VBC
Va
Vb VAB
B1 A0 , B0 , and C0
C2
The currents can also be transformed into symmetrical components. The sum of
the three calculated zero sequence currents is then equal to the neutral current In.
That is, In equals 3Ia0.
For most electric power load flow calculations, only the positive sequence
system is used, and the three-phase system is treated like a single-phase system.
This is valid for most calculations since the zero sequence and negative sequence
voltage and current components of a three-phase power system are normally small.
However, for many three-phase high-voltage transmission lines, the impedances
(primarily the inductive reactance) for each of the three phases are not precisely
equal because the coupling between the phases and to ground is not identical for
all of the phases. This is obvious in the case of a flat line configuration where all of
the phases are suspended at the same height above ground; the center phase is
strongly coupled to the outer phases, but the outer phases are not so closely
coupled to each other. This unbalance can usually be corrected by rotating
(transposing) the relative positions of the conductors, at intervals along the length
of the line, so that each of the three phases has an overall equal coupling to the
other phases and to ground.
The individual-phase impedances can be converted to sequence components
using the following operations shown in matrix form:
Z 012 ¼ T 012 1 Z abc T 012 (56)
The T matrix is defined in Eq. 55. The symmetrical impedance matrix Zabc will
include the self-impedances on the diagonal and the mutual impedances between the
phases of the diagonal (Kundur 1994).
3.4 Harmonic Network Analysis and Other Special Studies
There are numerous new types of generators and loads which incorporate power
electronic systems and generate harmonics, such as high-voltage DC (HVDC)
systems, wind turbines, and flexible AC transmission system (FACTS) controllers.
Consequently, it has become necessary to develop tools to calculate the magnitudes
of the harmonic current flows and to assess the effects of these current flows
throughout the AC system. This is described in more detail in ▶ Chap. 17,
“FACTS Planning Studies.” Accurate harmonic load flow models are not easy to
develop (CIGRE TB 139 1999). Furthermore, the AC system harmonic impedances
are constantly changing as a result of line switching and generators being switched in
or out to match the load demand; in addition, the characteristics of the connected
loads are constantly changing, so that it is difficult to create a meaningful impedance
plot for a selected point in the AC network. One other issue is that line transpositions
which are made in order to balance the power frequency impedances of a line will
not balance the harmonic impedances for that same line. Consequently, for the
purposes of harmonic filter design, it is usual to study the harmonic impedances
for many circuit conditions and to evaluate, for each harmonic, a locus within which
all possible harmonic impedances will lie.
Another specialized load flow study requires a DC model of a network in order to
calculate the distribution of geomagnetically induced current (GIC) flows that arise
as a result of the earth’s magnetic field disturbances caused by solar storms. These
very low-frequency currents cause transformer saturation, which can lead to large
flows of odd and even harmonic currents. The effects of GIC can be severe (Liu et al.
2009). Modeling of the GIC distribution in the networks also requires an estimation
of the DC resistances throughout the network which is being studied.
Special studies are needed to scan AC networks to discover if there is any
potential for sub-synchronous resonance (SSR) that can cause serious damage to
turbogenerator plants. The resonance might be of the torsional interaction (TI) form
between series compensated lines and generators, or it could be induction generator
effects (IGE) or torque amplification (TA). IGE can occur if there is insufficient
electrical and mechanical damping at critical torsional frequencies appearing in the
armature circuits of synchronous generators. IGE appears as the side bands between
the fundamental power system frequency and the mechanical resonance frequencies
in the turbogenerators. TA is a specific stress associated with dumping energy from
series capacitors into the generators upon recovery from an AC system short-circuit
event.
The first two of these SSR types can be studied using frequency scanning of the
positive sequence impedance system as viewed from the generator’s bus to deter-
mine the damping at the critical turbogenerator frequencies. There are many ways to
perform such an analysis by creating Bode, Nichols, or Nyquist plots to evaluate the
real component at the critical torsional frequencies (Anderson and Farmer 1996;
Gille et al. 1959). TA effects require time domain analysis; see the Sect. 4.
4 Power System Time Domain Analysis
Many power system problems require calculations where time is a variable.

Time domain programs are used to study the stability of power systems in
response to disturbances such as short circuits inside the power system, loss of
loads, or loss of generators. This involves study of the swing behavior of generators
and the behavior of the system during and after switching operations and faults. The
study of the stability of power systems with multiple generators, many transmission
paths, and different loads is complex but can be done if the following features are
included in the power system model (Anderson and Fouad 1993):
• The system configurations before and after a disturbance

• The connected loads and their characteristics
• The synchronous machines affected by the disturbance
• The excitation systems of the generators
• The governors of the turbines
• Other supplementary controls and components of the power system
Modeling of high frequencies, detailed switching operations, and other similar

transient events in a power system requires different computational tools, often
including detailed models of individual phases and lines, as well as discrete com-
ponents such as transformers, circuit breakers, etc. It is desirable to make use of
digital computers for such analyses. Breakthroughs in the design of digital compu-
tational methods eventually led to the development of the so-called Electromagnetic
Transients Program (EMTP) (Dommel 1969; Dommel and Mayer 1974). The
developed computational methods can include frequency-dependent components
and nonlinearities. For example, the impedance of the ground under the transmission
lines is frequency dependent, and surge arresters are nonlinear.
EMTP programs are, for example, used for studies of TA effects of turbogener-
ators, but studies of TA stresses are based on power system transmission line models
valid for power system frequencies and therefore may not include all AC system
susceptance.
A frequent issue, when using EMTP-type programs for the study of power
systems in time domains significantly shorter than one period of the nominal
power system frequency, is that the circuit impedances have to be modeled in such
detail that the model is valid for the upper frequency of interest to the study
objective. Leakage inductances and stray capacitances have to be included in the
models to produce valid results for the study of interest. It may even be necessary to
consider that the capacitance of a wound capacitor is reduced as the frequency of the
applied voltage is increased, because there is an inductance between the foil layers
that limits the current flow toward the ends of the foil and there is also direct
capacitive coupling between the foil layers in the capacitor roll. Similarly, a reactor
will behave as a capacitor at some high frequencies because the capacitive coupling
between the winding turns of the reactor coil bypasses the inductance of the coils.
Transformers will have a complex impedance spectrum because of the complexity of
their winding arrangements. The complicated impedance characteristics of bus
structures and other equipment may also have to be considered to achieve valid
results.
As a rule of thumb, a conductor might have an inductance of 1 to 1.5 μH per
meter, and the wave propagation time in air along a 1-m conductor would be about
3 ns. While this might not be significant for many studies, a 10-m service drop plus a
grounding conductor in series with a 2-nF coupling capacitor might have a resonance
point at about 1 MHz, which limits the use of a coupling capacitor for high-
frequency transient measurements.
If a simulation is conducted using EMTP-type programs, the effect of the time
step between calculations also has to be considered. Fixed or variable time steps
might be built-in features of some computer programs, in which case the longest
time step will be the determining factor in regard to the upper frequency for which
the results will be valid. Although smoothing routines might be used in presenting
the results, the validity of the results if converted to the frequency domain is
limited to a fraction of the “sampling” frequency represented by the time between
calculations. For example, if the time step between calculations is 10 micro-
seconds, this is equivalent to a “sampling” frequency of 100,000 Hz but,
depending on what is being calculated, the valid frequency range of the simulation
will not exceed 20 to 25 kHz. Therefore, the setting up of a transmission system
problem for study in an EMTP program is not easy, and such studies are often
performed by specialists.7
EMTP-type programs are still based on quasi-stationary power system models,
and it is assumed that there is no electromagnetic radiation from lines or other power
system components. This is not correct if time domain phenomena are studied where
the coupling from a transient source to the surrounding media can reach the study
object faster than the conducted transient. It should be well known that the near field
around an antenna cannot be modeled using far-field assumptions, but such mistakes
are often made. For example, the effect of a surge on a transformer bushing from
closing or opening disconnect switches or breakers may be seen sooner at the
bushing by electric field coupling through the air from the switch than the conducted
transient traveling along the busbars.8 Also, a reflection of the transient wave from
the ground, a nearby conducting objects or an impedance discontinuity in front of or
closely behind the source for the transient, will change the temporal characteristics of
the transient wave in this simple example assumed to be applied to a bushing. This
should make it clear that conventional time domain simulation tools using lumped
parameter circuit models should not be used for studies of transients with rise times
in the nanosecond to hundreds of nanosecond range. This requires different com-
puter simulation tools (EPRI 1993).
5 Maximum Stable Power Transfer
5.1 Power Transfer into a Resistive Load
A transmission line, as shown in Fig. 11, with a resistive load and a constant
voltage at the source can be used to illustrate the power transfer limit for trans-
mission lines.
In this simple system, IS is equal to IR, VS = VSe jδ, where δ is the phase angle
between VS and VR, and if X = ωL, then the apparent power received at the receiving
end is9

V S V R V S cos δ þ jV S sin δ V R
SR ¼ V R ¼ VR (57)
jX jX
7
EMTP is the name for a commercial program, but an alternative transients program (ATP) and
systems in which EMTP is embedded, such as PSCAD, are available.
8
An electromagnetic wave travels one third of a meter per nanosecond in vacuum and slightly less
along a conductor. Also, a wave traveling between a conductor and ground travels slower than a
wave traveling between two conductors.
9
The star denotes the conjugate of the terms within the bracket.
Fig. 11 Simple lossless IS IR

transmission line with
resistive load VS jωL R
VR
1
Per Unit Voltage, Active and Reactive Power
Resistive Load
0.5
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Current
Receiving End Voltage Received Power Reactive Power in Line
Fig. 12 Active and reactive power against load current for Fig. 11 system
jV R V S cos δ þ V R V S sin δ jV R 2
SR ¼ (58)
X
The active power sent through the line is the real component of Eq. 58:
V RV S
P¼ sin δ (59)
X
The reactive power component is the “imaginary” part of Eq. 58:
V R V S cos δ V R 2
QR ¼ (60)
X
Thus, the power flow through the line causes a reactive power demand to be
developed in the line.
The capability of this lossless transmission line to transfer power under various
conditions is illustrated in Fig. 12, which shows the active power P and reactive
power Q supplied by an infinite source,10 plotted against the load current I. The
10
An infinite source is a generator whose output voltage does not change irrespective of changes to
the load.
Receiving End Voltage
Resistive Load
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Received Power
Fig. 13 Transmitted power versus receiving-end voltage with a resistive load
variation of receiving-end (load) voltage, VR, expressed in per unit of the supply
voltage, VS, is also plotted. When the magnitude of load resistance, R, is reduced, the
current and reactive power each increase at different rates, whereas VR decreases.
The active power also increases initially as the current increases.
For the particular case when R is equal to X = jωL, the active power P reaches its
maximum value (given by Pmax = VR2 / R = VS2 / 2R). At this load point, the
numerical value of the active power P is equal to the numerical value of the reactive
power Q. For this condition the receiving-end voltage VR is equal to VS/√2, and the
angle δ is 45 . For this specific value of load resistance, the power has reached its
maximum value; any further reduction of load resistance is accompanied by a
reduction of both P and VR, whereas Q continues to increase.
Figure 13 is a plot of the relationship between the load voltage VR and the
transmitted power P, which shows how important it is for the stable operation of a
system that voltages at load points should not be allowed to drop very far below the
nominal value. It can be seen in Fig. 13 that, as the load increases, the rate at which the
load voltage decreases becomes more rapid, eventually leading to a complete collapse
of the load voltage when it reaches the nose of the curve. The load characteristic is
unstable beyond the nose, and consequently the transferred power drops to zero.
This kind of voltage instability is more prone to occur in systems with large
inductive impedances. It can be exacerbated by loads that tend to consume constant
active and reactive power irrespective of the magnitude of their applied voltage. Loads
of this kind include those that are supplied by transformers with on-load tap changers,
when the tap changers have an automatic control that attempts to maintain a constant
secondary voltage. Ohtsuki, Yokoyama, and Sekine described this effect with an
induction motor load (Ohtsuki et al. 1991). A high-voltage DC line controlled to
transmit a constant power through the line is another form of constant load. Constant
power control can destabilize an AC system. Power transfer into non-ideal loads is
1.2
1.0 A
A1
Receiving End Voltage
0.8
0.6
0.4
D1
0.2 D
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Received Power
PF 0.95 Leading PF 0.9 Lagging PF 0.8 Lagging PF 1.0
Fig. 14 Family of voltage-load curves for different power factor loads
illustrated in Fig. 14, which shows a family of voltage-load curves for different power
factor loads, including the unity power factor case illustrated in Fig. 13. When the load
current has a power factor less than one, it contains a lagging component. In that case,
the maximum power capability will be smaller, and the voltage for a given load will be
reduced compared with the unity power factor load shown in Fig. 13.
For a particular power factor curve and for any power less than the maximum,
there are two possible operating points; for example, points A and A1, shown in
Fig. 14, are stable because dVR/dP is negative, which means that an increased load
will reduce the operating voltage and vice versa for a reduced load. Only the upper,
stable values represent possible system operating conditions. However, if the load is
increased or the power factor is decreased, the operating point moves toward the
“nose” of the curve with a progressive reduction of voltage, which then tends toward
a complete collapse of the load transmission. That is, operating points D and D1,
shown in Fig. 14, are not possible since, as soon as the nose of the curve is reached,
dVR/dP becomes positive and the system will collapse. It is clear from the curves
with reduced power factor that a transmission line has a very limited capacity to
carry any lagging reactive component of load, but Fig. 14 also shows an interesting
result for a load with a leading power factor. This has the double advantage of
increasing both the load voltage and the maximum power that can be transferred.
5.2 The Per-Unit System
In power system analysis, it is usually convenient to use a per-unit system to

normalize system variables, especially when a great number of transformers are
present, as in an actual high-voltage power system. Compared to the use of the

physical units amperes, volts, and ohms, the per-unit system produces computational
simplicity by eliminating units and expressing power system quantities as dimen-
sionless ratios. A quantity in per unit is calculated as the ratio of the actual quantity in
physical units to a base value of this quantity that has previously been defined.
The per-unit (pu) system is normally built on defining a base power and nominal
system voltage; a per-unit value in dimensionless units or in percent is obtained as
follows:
actual value
pu value ¼ (61)
base value
If the quantity in pu is multiplied by 100, then the value is in percent of the base value.
If the base power S is defined as kVABase, then the voltage and impedance for the
base values are as follows:
pffiffiffi
S¼ 3kV Base I Base (62)
The base current is defined as
kVABase
I Base ¼ pffiffiffi (63)
3kV Base
Since it is assumed that the voltage in this example is given in kilovolts, the base
impedance is then
kV 2Base
Z Base ¼ (64)
kVABase
Using Eq. 61, any calculated quantity can now be converted to pu values.
A well-defined per-unit system can minimize computational effort, simplify
evaluation, and facilitate understanding of system characteristics. In practice, the
base values may be chosen independently and quite arbitrarily, while the other values
follow automatically, depending on the fundamental relationships between system
variables. Normally, the base values are chosen so that the principal variables will be
equal to 1 per unit under rated conditions.
6 Power Transfer Through Long Overhead Lines
6.1 Load Limit for Uncompensated Long Lines
As described above, the power that can be transmitted through a long overhead
transmission line is limited by the series inductance of the line and its SIL. Figure 15
illustrates a long transmission line connecting a generator, with voltage VS, to a load
Fig. 15 Simple long line P

model
X/2 X/2
Vm
VS VR
Fig. 16 Midpoint line voltage

VS VR
Vm
δ/2 δ/2
center which includes a combination of generators and loads and has a voltage VR.
To simplify the illustration, the line is shown as a simple series inductive impedance,
X (split into two equal parts), and the effects of line resistance and shunt capacitance
are ignored. The voltages at the ends of the line, VS and VR, are assumed to be
maintained constant and equal for all values of line current I. The voltage, Vm, at the
midpoint of the line is equal to VS and VR when there is no load. As the current
increases, so does the angle, δ, between the voltages, as described by Eq. 65 and
illustrated in Fig. 16. The amplitude of the midpoint voltage begins to decrease and is
given by Vm = VS cos δ/2. By symmetry, because VS = VR, Vm will be in phase with
the line current, I, and the power flowing through the line will therefore be
V SV R
P ¼ V mI ¼ sin δ (65)
X
The amount of power transferred, as a function of the angle across the line, is
shown in Fig. 17. The power reaches a maximum value, given by Pmax = VS2 / X, if
the angle δ shown in Fig. 16 reaches 90 ; with maximum power transfer, the voltage
Vm has fallen to 70.7% of VS. If δ increases beyond 90 , then, as shown in Fig. 17,
the transmitted power decreases and falls to zero when δ reaches 180 ; the region of
operation between 90 and 180 cannot be sustained in steady state and is unstable.
When the maximum power in this case is compared with the maximum power
transfer in the simple case of Fig. 12, it can be seen that control of the load voltage,
VR, has enabled the power transfer to be doubled compared with the condition in
which there was a “dead” load and VR was not controlled.
It is not practicable to operate near the maximum power condition with a
steady-state power angle close to 90 , because a small disturbance could take
the angle beyond 90 and, as was discussed in Sect. 4, cause the power transmis-
sion to fail.
P/Pmax
1
V1,δ1 jX12 V2,δ2
P1
0 90 180
δ1 - δ2 = δ [deg]
Fig. 17 Power angle curve
6.2 Transient Stability of Power Systems
An elementary view of system stability can be arrived as if it is assumed that, as in

Fig. 17, there is one turbogenerator connected to a strong power system which is almost
an infinite bus (not affected by any disturbance). The generator will be stable as long as
the steady-state power angle δ does not exceed 90 . If the steady-state condition is
disrupted by a fault or other disturbances, the generator will start to accelerate or
decelerate. The mechanical swing equation for this condition is (Kundur 1994)
2H d 2 δ
¼ Pm Pmax sin δ (66)
ω0 dt 2
where:
• H is the inertia constant defined as the kinetic energy in watt-seconds at rated

speed divided by the machine’s VA base rating.
• ω0 is the nominal power system frequency in mechanical radians per second.
• Pm is the mechanical input power to the machine.
• Pmax is the maximum output power at δ equal to 90 .
This can be rewritten as:
d 2 δ ω0
¼ ðP m P e Þ (67)
dt 2 2H
where Pe is the electric power load.
Equation 66 cannot be solved directly. The power system behavior is nonlinear. It
includes saturation of magnetic circuits of generators, nonlinear loads, etc. Many
system stability programs linearize the nonlinear components for small signal
stability analysis, which is valid because for the system to be stable, it has to be
small signal stable.
A key concept to illustrate the stability of a single machine or a group of machines

swinging together (modal equivalent) is the equal area criterion. This can be
understood by multiplying both sides of Eq. 67 by 2dδ/dt which leads to Eq. 68
(Kundur 1994):
2 ð
dδ ω0
¼ ðPm Pe Þdδ (68)
dt H
In order for a system to recover its normal operation after any disturbance, the
mechanical power input and the electric power loads have to balance after some
finite time. This is illustrated for a simple theoretical case shown in Fig. 18. This
illustrates a power versus angle curve in which the steady-state power Pm is less than
the maximum and the angle is δ1.
If a fault occurs on the line and the power transfer falls to zero, the constant
mechanical power input to the generator at the sending end will cause it to accelerate
when its electrical load is lost; simultaneously, the loss of power into the receiving
end will cause its generators to decelerate, but when the receiving-end system is very
large, this effect will be small. However, the angle between the generator and the
receiving system will begin to increase. Provided that the fault is cleared and the
system is restored to normal within a few cycles, power flow will be able to resume,
but the angle between the generator and the system will have increased to δ2, and the
two systems will still be moving apart. At the angle δ2, the power transfer through
the line will be P2; this load is greater than the mechanical input power, and because
of the extra load, P2 – Pm, the machine at the sending end will start to slow down
(and those at the receiving end will be speeding up), which slows the rate of
separation. This recovery process can continue provided that (P – Pm) remains
positive and the angle does not reach δcrit.
In this simple example, the transfer energy lost during the fault is proportional to
the area A1; when the area A2 between δ2 and δ3 (representing the surplus energy
after the fault) is equal to A1, the machines at each end of the line will again be
running at the same speed but will be separated by a larger angle than in the original
steady state. At this point the excess transfer of energy will begin to reduce the
transfer angle, leading to an oscillatory period before conditions settle back to
steady-state transfer of Pm at angle δ1. The stability margin is indicated by the area
Fig. 18 Equal area criterion

Pmax
A2
Pm Amargin
A1
0 δ
0 90 180
δ1 δ2 δ3 δcrit
Amargin, between the angles δ2 and δcrit. Power system stabilizers are usually fitted on
the generators to damp the oscillations to achieve faster return of the system to the
post-fault steady-state condition.
For the above example, a fault in the AC system brings the load to zero for a short
time (which depends on the speed of operation of the protective relaying systems);
the integral in Eq. 68 from the initial angle δ1 to the angle δ2 when the fault is cleared
and power transfer is restored is
ð δ2
ω0
Pm dδ ¼ A1 (69)
δ1 2H
After power restoration, the energy causing deceleration of the machine is equal to
ð δ3
ω0
ðPm Pe Þdδ ¼ A2 (70)
δ2 2H
To be stable, the area A2 + Amargin has to be at least equal to A1, i.e., δ2 must be less
than δcrit.
References
Anderson, P.M., Farmer, R.G.: Series Compensation of Power Systems. PBLSH! Inc., Encinitas
(1996)
Anderson, P.M., Fouad, A.A.: Power System Control and Stability. IEEE Press, Piscataway (1993)
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CIGRE TB 139: Guide to the Specification and Design Evaluation of AC Filters for HVDC
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https://pdfpiw.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=00381970&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.uspto.gov%
2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%
2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252FPTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%
3D1%2526f%3DG%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D0381,970.PN.%2526OS%3DPN%2F0381,970%
2526RS%3DPN%2F0381,970&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&Input=
View+first+page
Stig L. Nilsson started out working for the Swedish State Tele-
phone Board with carrier communication systems. Following this,
he worked for ASEA (now ABB) with HVDC systems and for
Boeing with computer system developments. During his 20 years
with EPRI in the USA, he initiated in 1979 the development of
digital protective relaying system developments and in 1986
sion Line. Stig Nilsson is a Life Fellow of the IEEE. He has
chaired the IEEE PES T&D Committee, the IEEE Herman
Halperin Electric Transmission and Distribution Award Commit-
tee, the IEEE PES Nari Hingorani Facts and Custom Power
Awards Committee, and several IEEE Fellow nomination review
committees and been a member of the IEEE Standards Board,
IEEE PES subcommittees, and working groups. Stig Nilsson has
been the US Representative and Secretary of CIGRE Study Com-
mittee B4 on HVDC and Power Electronics. He is the recipient of
the 2012 IEEE PES Nari Hingorani Facts and Custom Power
Awards. He received the CIGRE US National Committee Philip
Sporn Award and the CIGRE Technical Committee Award in
2012. He has also received the CIGRE Distinguished Member
Award for active participation in CIGRE Study Committees and
the USNC of CIGRE (2006) and the CIGRE USNC Attwood
Associate Award in 2003. Stig Nilsson is a registered Professional
Engineer in the state of California, USA.
Manfredo Lima was born in Recife, Brazil, in 1957, received

the BSc degree in Electrical Engineering from Pernambuco Fed-
eral University (UFPE) in 1979, the MSc degree in Electrical
Engineering from the same University in 1997, and the PhD
degree in Mechanical Engineering with emphasis on automation
systems from Paraíba Federal University (UFPB) in 2005. He
joined Chesf in 1978, where he develops activities in the areas
of power electronics, FACTS devices, power quality, control sys-
tems, electromagnetic transients, and HVDC transmission. In
1992 he joined Pernambuco University (UPE) where he develops
research activities. Nowadays he is the Chesf representative on
Cigré Brazil SC B4 (Power electronics and HVDC Links) and is a
founding member of the Brazilian Electric Power Quality Society
(SBQEE).
David Young was educated at King Edward’s School, Birming-

ham, and read Mechanical Sciences at Cambridge University.
After joining the General Electric Company (GEC), he was
appointed as Assistant to the Company’s Consultant, Dr. Erich
Friedlander, at Witton, Birmingham, where he was immediately
involved in the early development of static var compensators
(SVC) for flicker correction and then for their wider application
in transmission and distribution systems. The first SVCs, using
controllable saturated reactors, were quickly superseded by self-
saturated reactors. He became the chief engineer responsible for
SVC and FACTS projects using saturated reactors and power
electronic devices, initially at Trafford Park, Manchester, and
then at Stafford where he was also responsible for harmonic filter
design, including filters for HVDC projects. He was appointed as a
consultant after the company became part of Alstom and worked
as an independent consultant after retiring. He was a member of
the Disturbances Study Committee of UIE (International Union
for Electricity applications) which specified and produced the
UIE/IEC Flickermeter and served on the IEE (Institution of Elec-
trical Engineers) Panel P9. He was a member of several CIGRE
Working Groups reporting on the application of SVCs and on
reactive compensation and harmonic filtering for HVDC. In
1996 he was awarded GEC’s Nelson Gold Medal, and he received
the IEEE PES FACTS Award in 2000.
AC Network Control Using Conventional
Means 3
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2 AC Power System Control Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3 Overhead Transmission Lines and Underground Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.1 Characteristics of Transmission Lines and Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.2 Reactive Power Compensation Needs for Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.3 The Ferranti Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.4 Methods of Reducing Transmission Line Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4 Power System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.1 Switchgear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.2 Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3 Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.4 Shunt Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.5 Synchronous Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.6 Surge Arresters and the Control of Network Overvoltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5 Var Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6 Tools Available to Control Reactive Power Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.1 Passive Shunt Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.2 Passive Series Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.3 Active Reactive Power Compensation and Voltage Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7 Load Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8 Dealing with Disturbing Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
S. L. Nilsson (*)
M. Lima
D. J. Young
Stafford, UK

9 Phase Unbalance Due to Single-Phase Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

10 Increasing Stability for Very Long Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
11 Power Production Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
12 Transmission System Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
13 Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Abstract
Electricity has become a vital means of providing power for a very wide range of
domestic and industrial applications. The networks of generators, transmission,
and distribution circuits that have evolved to serve the needs of electric power
users are highly complex and difficult for most to fully comprehend. In principle,
however, the rules governing the design and operation of AC power systems are
fairly simple. Briefly stated, in any electric power system, the control objectives
are as follows:
• The system frequency must be kept constant by closely matching the gener-
ation and the connected electric loads at all times.
• The current flows have to be controlled so that no element of the power system
is overloaded.
• The voltages throughout the power system must be kept within a narrow range,
usually between about 95% and 105% of the nominal voltage.
• The power system must continue to supply the connected loads after the loss of
the largest generating unit or any other transmission system element, even
when the system is already being operated with one element out of service.
This chapter discusses these common factors with emphasis on the power
transmission elements of the networks; it describes the design of transmission
networks and the control methods which were developed to enable electrical
supply systems to operate with efficiency, reliability, robustness, and safety using
conventional power system equipment. The power electronic controllers avail-
able for power system control are discussed in ▶ Chap. 4, “AC Network Control
Using FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems) Controllers.”
1 Introduction
As described in ▶ Chap. 2, “AC System Characteristics,” electric power transmis-

sion systems have evolved into extensive networks using high voltage, high power
three-phase overhead transmission lines operating at voltages from about 100 kV up
to 1000 kV and, to a lesser extent, underground cables that operate at up to 500 kV.
Future line and cable designs will potentially operate at even higher voltages.
Already in the 1970s, design information for AC systems operating up to 1500 kV
was obtained through EPRI sponsored research in the USA (Comber et al. 1976).
3 AC Network Control Using Conventional Means 53
The need to transport very large amounts of electric power from remote areas in
China has now led to the actual use of 1000 kV AC lines (Fairley 2019).
AC systems have grown from small generation systems serving only local loads
into extremely large interconnected systems. Major power generating stations,
especially hydroelectric plants, are generally located far from the load centers.
Power is delivered to these load centers through high capacity overhead transmission
lines and underground cables. Many large highly concentrated loads such as steel-
works draw most of their power from generating plants situated close by but are
usually linked in to larger networks.
The primary objective for an electrical network is to be able at all times to meet
the load demands of all the power users connected to the system (who sometimes
have different priorities and needs). The generated power has to be closely matched
to the consumed power, because it is not feasible to store any significant amount of
AC power for later use.1 If the demand for power is less than the generated power,
the frequency of the power system, as discussed in ▶ Chap. 2, “AC System Char-
acteristics” will tend to increase; the opposite happens if the generated power is less
than the demand for power, so that the frequency will tend to decrease. In order to
maintain the system frequency close to its target value, the total output of all the
generators must be continuously adjusted to match the overall power demand on the
network.
Figure 1 illustrates features that are often present in an AC network. There will
usually be a number of generating stations feeding into the network at different
points to enable sufficient power to be supplied to the major load centers, such as
cities and industrial plants, as well as to other adjacent systems. Networks will
usually include some loads that can cause disturbance to other users and very
often there will be sources of harmonics and potential unbalance.
Figure 2 illustrates other aspects of the interconnections found in power systems.
Transformers, as described in the Sect. 4.2 below, are used to step up the voltage
from the generators feeding into the high voltage network and then to step it down at
the load centers so that the power can be distributed to the various users. Because the
process of network development typically takes decades, and technology changes
over time, modern power systems typically include older subsystems operated at
historically lower voltages, with higher voltage components overlaying the older
systems. Thus, there is often more than one level of high voltage used in different
parts of a network.
All power system components are designed to have low losses so that the losses in
the power system during normal operation can be kept to a minimum. Losses are
basically just dissipated as heat that will be transferred to the environment, and they
do not add any economic value. The costs of the transmission losses must initially be
borne by the system operator but are eventually passed on to consumers via their
1
Electric power can be stored as mechanical or chemical power but normally not in any significant
amount as electric power.
Fig. 1 Typical power system AC network
Fig. 2 Typical interconnections to be found in power systems
tariffs. The inductive reactances in generators, transformers, transmission lines, and

cables are normally much larger than the resistances. The reactances capture and
release electric energy during each power cycle and there are some small but
unavoidable losses caused by the currents flowing into and out of these reactances.
It is therefore important that, as far as possible, the system reactances should not be
greater than is necessary for the satisfactory operation of the network.
The adverse effects of reactances on system voltages and system stability are
described in ▶ Chap. 2, “AC System Characteristics.” In order to deal with these
unavoidable effects on the system, transmission and distribution networks usually
include reactive power balancing equipment such as shunt and series capacitor banks
that counteract the effects of inductive reactance, and shunt reactors that counteract
excessive capacitive reactive power. Series reactors must sometimes be installed to
maintain satisfactory operating conditions for parts of the network. Synchronous
compensators, as described in the Sect. 4.5.1, have often been used to provide a fast
dynamic response to sudden changes of load or to other system conditions and
disturbances. The special name for reactive power given by IEC is “var,” derived
from volt-ampere reactive (IEC 60027-1 2005).
2 AC Power System Control Objectives
In any electric power system, the control objectives are as follows:
• The generation and the connected loads have to be closely matched at all time to
maintain a constant power system frequency.
• The current flows in all parts of the system need to be monitored and controlled
such that the integrity of the complete system is not threatened and that no
element of the power system is thermally overloaded.
• The voltages throughout the power system have to be maintained within a narrow
range; this is typically between 95% and 105% of the nominal voltage but may
under some abnormal or low load conditions be allowed to range between 90%
and 110% of the nominal voltage.
• A power system must be able to sustain the loss of any single generating unit or
bulk power transmission system element without any serious effect on the
connected loads. This is referred to as an N-1 contingency. This criterion must
also be met if the system is already being operated with one significant element
out of service, which is referred to as an N-1-1 contingency. For many large
systems, two simultaneous events, an N-2 contingency, must be sustained without
any serious effects.
These requirements need to be satisfied taking into account outages for routine
maintenance and the possibilities of the sudden loss of major loads or of generation
and/or transmission capacity due to fault conditions. Therefore, networks need to be
robust and reliable enough to ride through fault conditions with the minimum impact
on users and then to resume continuous operation supplying the power demands of
all users. Some large users may reach an agreement with their energy supplier that
they will reduce their load demand under exceptional conditions of multiple contin-
gencies in order that the interconnected network may remain in operation.
3 Overhead Transmission Lines and Underground Cables
3.1 Characteristics of Transmission Lines and Cables
Our understanding of electric transmission line designs grew out of work performed
by Heaviside when he studied telegraph lines in the late nineteenth century (Heav-
iside 1894). As described above and in more detail in ▶ Chap. 2, “AC System
Characteristics,” conductors have both series inductance and shunt capacitance.
Table 1 lists typical characteristics for 230 kV, 60 Hz, high power transmission
lines and cables (Cigre TB 504 2012). In each case, the series inductive reactance,
XL, is typically an order of magnitude larger than the resistance R (Cigre TB 110
1996). Although Table 1 shows circuit parameters for paper insulated lead covered
(PILC) cables and high pressure pipe (PIPE) type cables, which are older technol-
ogies, this table illustrates the issues associated with cable systems. Modern cross-
linked polyethylene (XLPE) cables have lower dielectric constant (ε = 2.2) and
therefore lower shunt capacitances than older constructions but still have much
higher capacitive charging currents than overhead line (OHL) systems.
The shunt capacitance associated with the conductors of transmission lines and
cables is dependent partly on the diameter of the conductor and partly on the spacing
between the conductors. For convenience of analysis, the shunt capacitance in
Table 1 is expressed as a capacitive susceptance (denoted by Bc). Its impact on the
system is expressed as charging Mvar per km at the nominal system frequency and
voltage.
The capacitive susceptance between the conductors, including the ground, is
very small for an OHL but much larger for cables. As described in ▶ Chap. 2, “AC
System Characteristics,” this leads to a high surge impedance Z0 for an OHL and a
much lower surge impedance for the cable alternatives. (For this reason, direct
parallel connection of overhead lines and cables is not practicable because the
cables would pick up the majority of the power flows if paralleled with a line.)
The striking difference between cables and lines can be seen in the amount of
capacitive charging power (Mvar/km) generated by the cables. Because most of the
loads within large cities are typically fed by high voltage underground cables, an
excess of capacitive vars is generated during light load periods. This is especially
significant in cities during nights and weekends and can cause unacceptable
Table 1 Typical OHL and cable parameters for nominal voltage 230 kV
Nominal voltage, V0 230 kV
OHL/cable OHL PILC cable PIPE cable
R (ohm/km) 0.050 0.0277 0.0434
XL (ohm/km) 0.488 0.3388 0.2052
Bc (μS/km) 3.371 245.6 298.8
Z0 (ohm) 380 37.1 26.2
SIL (MW) 140 1426 2019
Charging Mvar/km = V02 Bc 0.18 13.0 15.8
overvoltages, which might sometimes be reduced by switching out cable circuits

and sometimes by switching in shunt reactors to bring the voltages down to within
the acceptable range.
3.2 Reactive Power Compensation Needs for Lines
For short lengths of OHL, the shunt capacitive reactance is very much larger than the
series inductive reactance and can usually be ignored in simple calculations. How-
ever, this simplification cannot be used for underground cables. Modeling of trans-
mission line and cable circuits are described in detail in ▶ Chap. 2, “AC System
Characteristics” from which Equation 56 is copied and included here as Equation 1
for convenience. This equation describes the power flows through a lossless, short
transmission line. As is obvious from Equation 1, in order for active power (where
the voltage and current are in phase) to flow through a transmission circuit there has
to be a phase angle shift between the source and load sides of the circuit, because if
the sending and receiving end voltages are in phase (δ = 0), there can be no active
power flow through the circuit. Some reactive impedance is therefore essential for
the transfer of power through an AC circuit.
A consequence of this reactance is that the active power flow is accompanied by a
reactive power flow. Equation 2 quantifies the reactive power which has to be
provided from each end of the line to enable the active power flow. This equation
describes the flows for a symmetrical circuit in which the voltage magnitude is the
same at both ends of the circuit.
V1V2 V2
j P1 j ¼ j P 2 j ¼ sin ðδ1 δ2 Þ ¼ sin δ ð1Þ
X12 X
V2
jQ1 j ¼ jQ2 j ¼ ð1 cos δÞ ð2Þ
X
where
V1 is the sending end voltage with an amplitude equal to V1 and an angle equal to δ1.
V2 is the receiving end voltage with an amplitude equal to V2 and an angle equal to δ2.
X12 = X is the line’s reactance.
δ is the electric angle between the sending and receiving ends of the line (δ = δ1 –
δ2).
P1 is the active power sent from the sending end.
Q1 is the reactive power supplied from the sending end.
P2 is the active power received at the receiving end.
Q2 is the reactive power supplied from the receiving end.
A graphical representation of the active power flow equation, Equation 1, is

provided on the right-hand side of Fig. 3 where V1 is the sending end voltage, V2
P/Pmax
Q2
V1, d 1 jX12 V2, d 2
P1, Q1 P1
0 90 180
d 1 – d 2 = d [deg]
Fig. 3 Power transmission characteristic
is the receiving end voltage, and δ is the angle across the line. Figure 3 is the
theoretical power angle curve that describes the power flow obtainable if the angle is
changed slowly and held steady at a particular value. It does not show the power
angle if the angle is rapidly changed and neither is it intended to show the thermal
power flow limit. It just shows that, in steady state, the transmitted power reaches its

maximum value when the angle δ is 90 and begins to decrease when the angle δ

exceeds 90 .
A practical steady-state power flow condition for a transmission line illustrated by

Fig. 3 is with an angle δ not exceeding about 30 , for which the power transfer would
be up to about half of the maximum value. During normal (system intact) operation,
the transmission lines and other network equipment are loaded typically to between
about one-third and one-half of their thermal limits; the angle δ is on the left side of
the 90 degree point shown in Fig. 3. If the loading of the circuit exceeds the 90 degree
point, the system collapses. This can occur as a result of faults or severe outage
conditions when some of the circuit elements in the system might be stressed beyond
their thermal or short-time overload rating limits.

Normally, the load flow control needed to avoid exceeding the 90 or thermal
limits need not be very fast acting as the thermal time constant of system elements is
in the range of minutes, but the control must also take into account the protection
settings (Cigre TB 051 1996). However, the reactive demands associated with an
increased loading can lead to voltage collapse and an outage, unless the sending and
receiving ends are able to supply the reactive power to support the voltages.
Unintended reverse action of load tap changers, discussed in the Sect. 4.2, has also
been implicated as a cause of a voltage collapse (Ohtsuki et al. 1991).
In Fig. 4, it is assumed that the sending end is located in a strong system, with
very small voltage variations for different power flow levels, but the receiving end is
located in a weak system. In that case, the receiving end voltage can be described by
the phasor Equation 3, where Iline is the current flowing in the line.
V 2 ¼ V 1 ðX 12 I line Þ ð3Þ
Receiving end voltage
Active power transfer Pmax
Fig. 4 Voltage collapse example
Fig. 5 One phase of a long IS IR

transmission line, represented
as a Pi circuit VS Y1 X Y2 VR
With: X = jωL and Y1 = Y2 = jωC/2
Figure 4 illustrates the situation where the power system at the receiving end of an
overhead line does not provide enough reactive power to support the voltage. In this
case, the receiving end voltage will be reduced to the point of collapse as the power
transfer level increases. (This graph is referred to as the nose curve, because it has the
appearance of a nose.)
3.3 The Ferranti Effect
As the length of line increases, the series reactance X becomes larger but the shunt
reactance is reduced (susceptances Y1 and Y2, shown in Fig. 5, increased) and can no
longer be ignored. This is especially significant for cables.
Figure 5 uses a two-port network to illustrate the positive sequence impedance
(or one of the three phases in a three-phase representation of a line) of a long
transmission line or cable, as described in ▶ Chap. 2, “AC System Characteristics.”
The network is modeled as a Pi-circuit fed by a constant voltage, VS, at the sending
end, but it is assumed that the network has an open circuit at the remote end (the
network resistance is not shown, because it is small compared with the reactance).
With a total inductive reactance, XL, and a total shunt capacitive reactance, XC
(represented by capacitive reactances of 2XC each end), the impedance of the line
seen from the sending end is 2XC – XL. The voltage at the open circuit end of the line,
VR, is VS 2XC/(2XC – XL). This voltage rise at the end of an unloaded line is called
the Ferranti Effect (Steinmetz 1971).
The practical significance of the Ferranti Effect can be illustrated by the example
of an unloaded, 320 km (200 miles) long overhead transmission line operating at
60 Hz; for typical parameters of inductive reactance, 0.47 Ω per km (0.75 Ω per
mile), and shunt capacitive reactance, 0.29 MΩ per km (0.18 MΩ per mile), the total
series reactance is 150 Ω and the shunt capacitive reactance is 900 Ω, arranged as
lumped components of 1800 Ω at each end. The net capacitive reactance seen from
the sending end is 1650 Ω and the voltage at the remote end of the line is 1800/1650,
i.e., about 1.09 times the sending end voltage, giving a Ferranti Effect voltage rise of
about 9%. This representation of transmission lines by simple lumped components
becomes increasingly inaccurate as line lengths increase; thus, using the same simple
line model for a 640 km long (400 miles) overhead line, the overvoltage would be
calculated to increase to about 50%. However, to obtain an accurate result for lines
longer than 320 km, a more detailed model is needed and shows that a 50% increase
would be obtained for a line with a length of about 670 km.
Figure 6 is a detailed model of a long transmission line, represented by n short
segments of lumped inductance and capacitance, where each segment represents a
series inductance equal to L/n and a shunt capacitance of nC.
As described in ▶ Chap. 2, “AC System Characteristics,” if the line is open (the
termination impedance is infinite), the current Ir at the end of the line is zero but the
voltage Vr at the end of the line is higher than at the sending end; this Ferranti voltage
rise can be calculated as in Equation 4.
V 0 ¼ V s ¼ V r cos βða 0Þ ¼ V r cos θ ð4Þ
where θ is the electrical length of the line expressed in radians or wavelengths.

Equation 4 illustrates how an overhead line can be compared to an antenna, in
which the wavelength λ would be the speed of light divided by the frequency. The
Sending end Receiving end

Is Ix Line inductance
Ir
Vs Vx Vr
x Line capacitance
Fig. 6 Multi element model of a long transmission line

Fig. 7 Reactive compensation IS IR

of long AC lines
VS Y3 Y1 X Y2 Y4 VR
With: X = jωL; Y1 = Y2 = jωC/2 and Y3=Y4=1/(2jωLS)
speed of light, as described in ▶ Chap. 2, “AC System Characteristics” is inversely

proportional to the square root of the dielectric constant multiplied by the perme-
ability. For air the speed of light is about 300,000 km/s. The wavelength is then for
an overhead line about 6000 km for 50 Hz and 5000 km for 60 Hz. Thus, the quarter
wavelength (which is where the impedance of an antenna is infinite, i.e., the voltage
goes to infinity and the current goes to zero) for a typical AC line is just below
1250 km at 60 Hz (assuming a wave propagation speed equal to the speed of light).
Therefore, very long lines have to be detuned in some way to avoid the quarter-wave
resonance point.
At 50 Hz, the Ferranti Effect is not so severe but is equally important. For the
same typical conductor, the Ferranti Effect on a 320 km (200 miles) overhead line
would be about 6%. The 50% overvoltage limit would be reached for a line about
800 km long (close to 500 miles). The quarter wavelength for a 50 Hz line is
1500 km (about 930 miles).
A method commonly used to reduce the impact of the Ferranti Effect on long
overhead lines is shown in Fig. 7, which again shows the line as a two-port network
including the capacitive susceptances Y1 and Y2. It also includes shunt reactors
(inductive susceptances Y3 and Y4) connected to the line at each end so that the
effect of the line’s shunt capacitive reactance is significantly reduced (the net
susceptance is Y1+Y3 at one end and Y2+Y4 at the other end of the line); hence the
voltage rise for light loads is smaller.2 Shunt reactors are also used on cable circuits
to extend the load limits of cables. However, for cables, assuming a dielectric
constant of 2.2, the wave propagation speed is about 136,000 km (about 85,000
miles) per second, giving 340 km (about 212 miles) for a quarter wavelength. This is
an unrealistic length for AC cable circuits but is fully acceptable and frequently used
for HVDC cable links.
3.4 Methods of Reducing Transmission Line Inductance
The series inductance of transmission lines is clearly an important factor which

limits the ability of a line to transmit power between its two ends. Several methods
exist to reduce the intrinsic inductance of lines thereby improving their transmission
capacity. The following methods are available to line designers for reduced surge
impedance designs (Nolasco et al. 2014):
2
Parallel connected admittances (susceptances) can be added.
• Reducing the phase spacing of the line conductors by compaction of the line
• Increasing the number of conductors per phase bundle
• Increasing the conductor diameter
• Increasing the bundle conductor radius
• Introducing bundle expansion along the line span but keeping the conventional
bundle spacing inside and near the towers
The possibility of reducing the effective inductance of the line by the insertion of
series capacitors is discussed in the Sect. 6.2 of this chapter.
4 Power System Components
AC systems include a number of components used to control power flows and to

enable transformation of the voltages up and down for different purposes. The
following subsections provide information on some of the main components that
have an impact on the power system.
4.1 Switchgear
Switchgear such as disconnect switches and circuit breakers are installed in the
networks so that equipment and lines can be connected and disconnected as required
for safe operation and maintenance of the network.
There are many switching devices including load-break switches that cannot open
fault currents but can interrupt load currents. Disconnect switches are intended to
open and close circuits when loads are not connected; they must sometimes break a
small amount of capacitive current when they are opened but not more than can be
interrupted when the gap between the two ends of the disconnect switch is fully
opened. These switches are opened to enable access to equipment and busbar
segments for maintenance purposes. Earthing/grounding switches are usually also
provided in substations to ensure that the equipment to be maintained cannot be
made live.
Circuit breakers are used to open a circuit when it is carrying load as well as when
it is carrying fault currents, so that lines and equipment with faults can be quickly
isolated from the power system; this enables the unfaulted parts of the AC system to
resume operation.
4.2 Transformers
Transformers, as described in ▶ Chap. 2, “AC System Characteristics,” are the key

components that make AC electric power distribution possible, by enabling power
from generators operating at relatively low voltages but very high currents to be
converted to high voltages and lower currents for transfer over long AC power lines
Fig. 8 Simple single-phase

transformer Core
N1 N2
F22
F11
V1, I1 F12 F21 V2, I2
or cables to a place close to the users. As shown in Fig. 2, the power then passes
through other transformers and is eventually distributed at low voltage levels to
feeders for use in industrial, commercial, and residential facilities. A basic single-
phase transformer, illustrated in Fig. 8, consists of two coils, or windings, arranged
around a continuous, closed, core made of a magnetic material (for power trans-
formers, the material is a special form of steel) in such a way that they share a
common magnetic flux; when one winding is energized by an alternating voltage, it
generates an alternating magnetic flux most of which links directly into the second
winding and produces an induced voltage between its terminals. A transformer is a
practical application of Faraday’s law of induction. The simple winding arrangement
in Fig. 8 illustrates the principle of a transformer, but in actual power transformers,
the coils are typically arranged as cylindrical windings, placed one outside the other
around the same limb of the core (Heathcote 2007).
Mutual induction and mutual reactance are terms which describe the nature of the
magnetic interaction between two windings. If it is assumed that a voltage, V1 is
applied to one winding which is assumed to have N1 winding turns, this will produce
a flux Φ1, with one component, Φ12, flowing in the core (and linking with the second
winding with N2 turns), and a leakage flux, Φ11, flowing in the space between the
winding and the core. The AC voltage applied to winding N1 generates a varying
flux in the winding as follows

dΦ1 dΦ11 dΦ12
V 1 ¼ N 1 ¼ N 1 þ ð5Þ
dt dt dt
and correspondingly

dΦ2 dΦ22 dΦ21
V 2 ¼ N 2 ¼ N 2 þ ð6Þ
dt dt dt
The magnetic field intensity, H, inside the winding is proportional to the current
flow through the winding, the length, and the number of turns in the winding as
follows:
N
H¼ I ð7Þ
l
where
N is the number of turns in the winding.

l is the length of the winding.
The magnetic flux density, B is then
N
B ¼ μμ0 H ¼ μμ0 I ð8Þ
l
where
μ0 is the permeability for vacuum.

μ is the permeability multiplier for the magnetic material of the magnetic circuit.
B is the flux density for each turn in the winding.
The total flux through N turns in the winding is then
N2 A
Φ ¼ NBA ¼ μμ0 I ð9Þ
l
where
A is the effective area of the flux path.
The inductance of the winding, L, is derived from the geometry and material
parameters of Equation 9. That is
N2A
L ¼ μμ0 ð10Þ
l
The resistance to the flow of a magnetic flux is called the reluctance and is defined
as
l
R¼ ð11Þ
Aμμ0
The leakage flux in and around winding N1 is equal to the inductance L1 times
current I1 through the winding; the flux that is routed through the core is equal to the
mutual inductance M between the windings times I2, the current flowing in winding
N2. Thus, if the circuit resistance is ignored
dI 1 dI
V 1 ¼ L1 þ M21 2 ð12Þ
dt dt
The corollary for winding N2 is
dI 2 dI
V 2 ¼ L2 þ M12 1 ð13Þ
dt dt
If the leakage fluxes are insignificant, then from Equations 5 and 6 with Φ1 equal
to Φ2, the following is found
V 1 N 1 dt 1 N 1
dΦ
¼ ¼ ð14Þ
V 2 N 2 dΦ2 N 2
dt
It then follows that
I1 N 1 ¼ I2 N 2 ð15Þ
that is, the ampere-turns for the two windings must be the same.
If the losses in the transformer are insignificant, then the power on both sides of
the transformer must be the same. Therefore, if a load Z2 is connected to the N2 side
of the transformer and using the fact that I2 Z2 is equal to V2
V 1 I 1 ¼ V 2 I 2 ¼ I 22 Z 2 ð16Þ
Using Equation 16 to transfer current I2 to the N1 side, the impedance Z2

transferred to the N1 side of the transformer is
2
N1
I 21 Z 1 ¼ I 22 Z2 ¼ I 21 Z 2 ð17Þ
N2
or
2
N1
Z1 ¼ Z2 ð18Þ
N2
Tap-changers are usually built into transformers to vary their turns ratio. These
can be either no-load or on-load tap-changers. Tap-changers have a profound impact
on managing the loading in the AC system; if a load has a constant impedance,
changing the transformation ratio by means of an on-load tap-changer can be used to
reduce the power consumed on the N2 side of the transformer. However, if the load
on the N2 side has a constant power demand, then the power flow through the
transformer will not change when the ratio of the transformer is changed (Ohtsuki
et al. 1991).
Special transformers have been developed for various applications. A phase angle
regulator (PAR) is used to change the phase angle δ between the two sides of the
transformer (Heathcote 2007). It can be used for load flow control but not for
reactive power compensation. A quadrature boosting transformer (QBT) can also

provide a solution for load sharing difficulties. A QBT is a shunt transformer
provided with a secondary winding connected in series with a transmission line; it
can be used to insert a voltage in quadrature with the voltage drop in a transmission
line due to the flow of active power. This equipment can be used to increase or
reduce the power flow in a line.
When tap-changers are used in a PAR, they can be used to adjust the angular
injection of voltage, and in a QBT, they can progressively reduce the load in a line
when an overload condition is being approached.
4.3 Reactors
A reactor is basically a coil with only one winding. It works as an energy storage
element because, as is shown in Fig. 9, it absorbs energy as the current increases in
one quarter of the applied AC voltage cycle, and in the next quarter cycle, the
absorbed energy is returned to the AC system.
When a fundamental frequency voltage is applied to a pure reactor, the current

through it, as shown in Fig. 9, is delayed by 90 from its voltage. The reactive power
Q that a three-phase reactor absorbs is
pffiffiffi V 2
Q¼ 3 ð19Þ
jωL
where
1.5
0.5
Energy return
0
180
270
360
450
540
630
90
0
-0.5 Energy absorpon
-1
-1.5
AC voltage Reactor current
Fig. 9 Reactor voltage and current

V is the system voltage (phase to phase voltage).

L is the inductance per phase of the reactor.
ω equals 2πf where f is the system frequency.
The inductance of a long air-cored reactor is broadly described by Equation 10

with the permeability multiplier μ = 1 for air, so that the effective permeability is
equal to μ0. The total leakage flux is only completely coupled to the turns at the
middle of the coil. Towards the ends of the coil, some of the flux “seeps out” and is
not coupled to those turns. This effect is particularly marked for short coils. “Fring-
ing factors” are applied to the calculation of the coil reactance to take this into
account. The leakage magnetic fields outside an air-cored reactor can cause signif-
icant circulating currents to flow in any conducting material which is near to
it. Closed loops should be avoided in any earthing conductors in the vicinity of an
air-cored reactor.
Reactors of a given rating are much more compact if they include an iron core. In
this case, the external leakage fields are much weaker and the fringing effects are less
marked; the core is normally constructed to include short gaps, where the perme-
ability is equal to μ0 (but the magnetic field is very strong because of the iron), in
order to reduce the reactance compared with a continuous iron core. Iron-cored
reactors are normally oil-insulated and mounted in a tank, like a power transformer.
Whereas an air-cored reactor has a constant reactance, even for extreme over-
currents, the reactance of an iron-cored reactor will become increasingly nonlinear
for strong overcurrents because of saturation in the iron core.
Another approach to air-cored reactor design, which shortens the air path and
minimizes the external magnetic field effects, is to surround the coil with an iron
shroud, which captures virtually all of the leakage flux. Like gapped reactors,
shrouded reactors are usually oil-immersed and oil-insulated.
Shunt reactors must be connected to each phase of the three-phase system. To be
effective, sufficient energy storage capacity must be connected to all phases (Cigre
TB 051 1996).
4.4 Shunt Capacitors
A capacitor is similar to a reactor in that it also acts as an energy storage element.

When energized from a fundamental frequency source, capacitors accumulate
energy from the AC power system during a quarter of a cycle as the voltage increases
and return the energy back to the power system during the following quarter cycle, as
is shown in Fig. 10. Comparison with Fig. 9 shows that the reactor absorbs energy in
the same quarter of the voltage cycle that the capacitor releases its energy and the
reactor releases energy simultaneously as the capacitor absorbs it.
The reactive power that a three-phase capacitor bank can generate is
pffiffiffi 2
Q¼ 3V jωC ð20Þ
1.5
0.5
Energy absorpon
0
0
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
-0.5
Energy return
-1
-1.5
AC voltage Capacitor current
Fig. 10 Capacitor voltage and current
where
V is the system voltage (phase to phase voltage).

C is the capacitance per phase of the capacitor.
ω equals 2πf where f is the frequency.
A fixed relationship exists between the maximum energy storage capability

(Wmax) of these elements and their rating as expressed as follows:
Qrated
W max ¼ ð21Þ
ωN
where
Qrated is the reactive power rating of the equipment.

ωN is the rated angular power system frequency (2πf where f is the frequency).
This way, it can be concluded that a capacitor’s energy storage capability corre-
sponds to the rated power Qrated during 1/ωN seconds, i.e., 3.18 ms in a 50 Hz system
or 2.65 ms in a 60 Hz system.
There must be equal ratings of capacitors connected to each phase of a three-
phase system and, to be effective, sufficient total energy storage capacity must be
connected (Cigre TB 051 1996).
Capacitor banks for transmission applications are made up of a multiplicity of
individual capacitor units, which are connected in series and parallel groups to
provide the required total Mvar rating at the applied system voltage. Each capacitor
unit is a container in which there are smaller individual capacitor elements, which are
again arranged in series and parallel groups. To assist safe handling, the units also
contain discharge resistors which dissipate any residual charge within a few minutes.
In simple terms, each element consists of two sheets of aluminum foil, separated
by a dielectric spacing material; the foils and spacers are wound into cylinders and
then flattened before being interconnected and arranged inside the container of the
capacitor unit. In early capacitors, the spacing material consisted of several layers of
paper and the capacitor units were filled with mineral oil. The dielectric between the
foils was the composite of paper and oil and the voltage rating of an element was a
few hundred volts. Because mineral oil is flammable, capacitor faults sometimes led
to fires. Although the losses in a capacitor are small, they are not negligible and,
because of constraints on internal temperatures, the ratings of power capacitor units
were originally limited to a few tens of kvar.
Successive improvements in capacitor design and manufacturing techniques have
included the use of fire-resistant chlorinated bi-phenyls (since abandoned on envi-
ronmental grounds and replaced by other insulating fluids) as the fluid impregnant,
and the introduction of polymer film for insulation between laser-cut aluminum foils.
These changes resulted in higher rated voltages for the capacitor elements, lower
losses, and reduced internal temperatures so that capacitor units can now have
ratings of up to several hundred kvar and about 25 kV. Instantaneous overvoltage
capability is limited by the puncture strength of the polymer films to a few times the
crest value of the rated voltage. At lower levels of overvoltage, partial discharge
conditions develop in the dielectric materials and will reduce the life of the
capacitors.
Even though modern capacitors have an extremely low failure rate, most power
capacitors are protected by fuses as well as by protective relaying. In some capacitor
designs, each individual element has its own fuse so that any faulty element will be
disconnected without the need to take a complete unit or bank out of service. In a
large bank, the change of capacitance will be insignificant; although the elements in
parallel with a failed element will experience a slightly higher voltage, the affected
capacitor unit is usually capable of continuing in service almost indefinitely without
further failures.
The most common type of external fuse is an expulsion fuse, which acts to
disconnect a complete capacitor unit when internal elements fail and provides a
visual indication of which unit has failed. The change in bank capacitance is more
noticeable than for an internal fuse, and the failure is normally detected and alarmed
by unbalance protection so that an outage can be planned to replace the faulty unit.
4.5 Synchronous Machines
4.5.1 Synchronous Generators

Generators are machines used to produce electric power, i.e., they are used to convert
mechanical energy into electrical energy. The source for the mechanical energy
might be a dam with hydroturbines, steam generators that drive steam turbines,
diesel generators, gas turbines, wind turbines, etc. Synchronous machines are
complex and are best described in detailed text books (Kundur 1994; Anderson and
Fouad 1993; Krause et al. 1995).
Generators have a rotor with a DC magnetic field; the rotor is connected to the
shaft of the turbine. A stationary set of windings, the stator, surrounds the rotor. The
rotating field of the rotor interacts with the stator windings and a voltage is induced
in the windings. The speed of the rotor and the arrangement of the stator windings
are such that the output voltage is a three-phase voltage with a frequency equal to the
nominal, fundamental power system frequency; typically 50 or 60 Hz.
H. K. Park published the fundamental theory for analysis of synchronous
machines (Park 1929). He used the d, q, 0 transformations where d is the direct
axis, q is the quadrature axis, and 0 is the common mode quantity. This method is
preferred over Fortescue’s positive, negative, and zero sequence networks for anal-
ysis of rotating machinery (Fortescue 1918).
The terminal quantities of a synchronous machine can be described by the
following two equations (Kundur 1994):
ΔΨ d ðpÞ ¼ GðpÞΔefd ðpÞ Ld ðpÞΔid ðpÞ ð22Þ
and
ΔΨ q ðpÞ ¼ Lq ðpÞΔiq ðpÞ ð23Þ
where
Ψ is the instantaneous value of the flux linkage.

p is the Laplace operator.
G(p) is the stator to field transfer function.
Ld is the d-axis operational inductance.
Lq is the q axis operational inductance.
The output voltage is controlled by an exciter, which acts on the field circuit to
decrease or increase the flux as appropriate. A governor maintains the correct speed
of the generator by controlling the input energy. The generator may be equipped with
additional control systems, such as a power system stabilizer, to improve the
recovery of the generator after system short circuits or other disturbances.
When there is a sudden disturbance on the system, the effective reactance of a
generator changes with time. This changing reactance is normally expressed in a
simplified way and generators are characterized by their sub-transient, transient, and
synchronous reactances. The sub-transient reactance is fairly small with a time constant
of about 20 to 100 ms. The transient reactance is larger and might have a time
constant from fraction of a second to a few of seconds. The synchronous reactance is
substantially larger and is used for steady state calculations (Kundur 1994).
4.5.2 Synchronous Compensators

Synchronous compensators are synchronous machines that do not generate power;
they only draw a small amount of power from the system, sufficient to cover their
operating losses and to enable them to rotate at synchronous speed when connected
to the AC system. Since the energy required for their operation is small, their
generated voltages are almost in phase with the AC system voltages.
These machines are used to control the magnitude of the AC system voltage at
their point of connection. By overexciting the compensator, it will generate
reactive power, which increases the voltage at the point of connection, and by
underexciting the machine, it will absorb reactive power and therefore reduce the
voltage.
A synchronous compensator has a rotating mass, the inertia of which will result in
some output power being produced by the machine if the AC system starts to retard
as a result of a system fault. Thus the machine inertia results in some power injection
into (or absorption from) the AC system, which can be beneficial for system stability.
A synchronous compensator is therefore used to provide fast voltage and reactive
power control, appearing to the AC system as a voltage behind the impedance of the
compensator. The voltage control system’s response would typically be about
500 ms, but it might be more or less if field forcing is applied (Kundur 1994). The
internal “synchronous reactance” of a synchronous compensator is relatively high,
and for steady-state conditions, the stable controllable range when absorbing reac-
tive power is only about half of the continuous rating when generating reactive
power. A synchronous compensator inherently responds much more quickly to rapid
changes of its terminal voltage than to changes of its excitation. Its values of
sub-transient and transient reactance are much lower than its synchronous reactance
but, as their names imply, they are only effective for short periods immediately after
a voltage change at the compensator terminals. The effective reactance increases
from the transient reactance towards the synchronous reactance with a time constant
of perhaps 1–2 s.
If there is a change of phase angle of the applied voltage, this will apply a torque
to the rotor. Because the compensator is not coupled to a power source, the rotor
will start to change its speed, gaining or losing energy as it moves towards
synchronism; there is then a decaying oscillation around the new equilibrium
position. If there is an unfortunately timed sequence of phase angle changes (such
as can be initiated by an arc furnace), it is possible for the compensator to lose
synchronism with the system.
On the one hand, whereas shunt capacitors and reactors are static devices (apart
from the associated switchgear), synchronous compensators need the regular main-
tenance and refurbishment associated with rotating plant and they require a range of
essential auxiliaries; they also require more substantial civil works and have higher
losses than shunt capacitors and reactors. On the other hand, synchronous compen-
sators allow the injection into the AC network of continuously variable reactive
power, based on their ratings and the characteristics of their control systems.
4.6 Surge Arresters and the Control of Network Overvoltages
It is necessary for a network to be operated and controlled in such a way that all
equipment is protected from excessive overvoltages. Surge arresters (sometimes
called lightning arresters or surge diverters) are the devices normally used to prevent
damage due to extreme short duration and transient overvoltages, including lightning
strikes. For each nominal operating voltage used in different parts of the network, the
equipment is tested to withstand impulse voltages greater than the protective voltage
levels provided by the surge arresters. A continuous maximum operating voltage is
also defined for each voltage level and the network needs to be equipped and
operated so that the steady-state voltage never exceeds the permissible maximum
operating voltage at any point in the network.
5 Var Compensation
Reactive power (var) compensation and voltage control are complex issues that
require careful analysis (Miller 1982). Lines can and often must be compensated to
maintain a relatively flat voltage profile along the line to avoid line overvoltages.
Compensation is also used to increase the power flow through a line. Furthermore,
compensation is used to reduce the reactive power flows in lines by minimizing the
reactive current component flowing through the lines. Typical compensation strate-
gies are as follows:
• Capacitive compensation at the line ends is used to compensate the AC power

system for the reactive power consumed by the line inductances when the line
carries a heavy current. The conventional technology used for this is to install
switched or fixed shunt capacitors.
• Switched or fixed shunt reactors are used to prevent overvoltages during periods
of low loads especially for networks including cable systems. Shunt reactors
connected to a line increase the surge impedance of the line.
• Switched shunt capacitors may be installed on long lines close to the line’s
midpoint. Because this reduces the surge impedance of the line and provides
voltage support at its midpoint, the transmission capacity of the line is increased.
• Switched or fixed shunt reactors may be connected close to the midpoint of a line
to reduce the voltage at its midpoint during light load conditions. Shunt reactors
are also typically connected at both sides of a midpoint connected series
capacitor bank.
• Increasing the level of series compensation can be achieved by switching in
additional series capacitors to improve the load carrying capability of a series
compensated line in response to system disturbances, but this is only possible if
the risk for subsynchronous resonance (SSR) is negligible.
• For long cable circuit lengths, it may be necessary to place shunt compensation at
some intermediate points along the cable to reduce the charging current flowing in
the cable. If a long length of a high voltage underground cable trips at the load
end, but remains connected at the source end, the resulting overvoltage on the
cable due to the large amount of cable charging reactive power can be particularly
severe (Cigre TB 504 2012).
The optimum amount and location of fixed or switched shunt compensation in a

power system must be determined by examining load flow cases for different load
levels and taking into consideration future expansion.
6 Tools Available to Control Reactive Power Flow
6.1 Passive Shunt Compensation
As is shown in Fig. 9, in a purely inductive reactance, the current lags the voltage by

90 while, as is shown in Fig. 10, in a purely capacitive reactance the current leads

the voltage by 90 . Thus, if the reactive power demand in an AC system is lagging
the voltage phasor, the addition of a capacitive shunt reactance can be used to reduce
or cancel the inductive current flow and vice versa. Consequently, shunt reactors and
capacitors are tools that can be, and are, used to compensate reactive power flows in
AC systems. These reactive power components can be fixed (continuously
connected to the power system) or switched. Switching of these elements enables
the reactive power compensation to be controlled to be a close match to the active
power flow requirements.
Shunt reactors are often permanently connected at the ends of long transmission
lines, but reactors may also be switched into service at selected locations to prevent
the system voltage exceeding its upper voltage limits when the system load is light.
Switched reactors are then disconnected when the load has risen sufficiently to give a
satisfactory reactive power balance within the network. Shunt reactors for high
voltages have normally been constructed with a gapped iron core or an iron shroud
round an “air-core” coil and are oil-cooled, but air-cored, air-insulated reactors
connected to a tertiary winding of a substation transformer are also used.
When the load rises further and the inductive reactive power from the lines and
transformers outweighs the line shunt capacitive reactive power, additional capaci-
tive balancing can be provided by means of switched shunt capacitor banks made up
of a series/parallel configuration of individual capacitor units, as described in the
Sect. 4.4. Capacitor banks often include low impedance series reactors to limit the
inrush current when they are energized, especially if more than one capacitor bank is
installed at a substation; parallel switching of capacitor banks results in very high
charging/discharging currents, which can lead to reduced capacitor life. When strong
harmonic sources are present in a system, capacitor banks may be configured as
harmonic filters which include larger series reactors to reduce harmonic distortion or
to detune possible resonance conditions. Shunt capacitors are widely used in distri-
bution systems to counteract the inductive component of system loads and raise the
load power factor to a high value.
Switched shunt reactors and capacitors can only be introduced into the network in
a stepwise fashion and their controlled switching includes time delays to avoid
unnecessary or frequent switching operations in response to a voltage disturbance
of short duration. When an AC system needs faster or continuously variable reactive
power compensation and voltage support, generators and synchronous compensators

have traditionally been used, as discussed in the Sect. 4.5.2 above.
6.2 Passive Series Compensation
As is clear from Equation 1, long-distance power transmission, in which the series

reactance X is large, involves large amounts of reactive power that is consumed by
the line. By inserting a capacitor in series with the line, the effective series reactance
is reduced as illustrated by Equation 24 (Anderson and Farmer 1996):
Xeffective ¼ XL XC ð24Þ
where
XL is the fundamental frequency series reactance of the uncompensated line.

XC is the fundamental frequency capacitive reactance of the series capacitor.
Although the effective reactance of the line is reduced by inserting a series

capacitor, Equation 24 is oversimplified because the susceptance (shunt capacitance)
of the line is ignored and other shunt connected voltage control equipment is ignored
too. The amount of reactive power compensation inserted by means of a series
capacitor is always proportional to the current flow through the line without any
external control actions being needed (although the capacitor can be bypassed or
additional series capacitors can be inserted through switching). Series compensation
with fixed series capacitors has therefore been used for a long time to directly
compensate the reactive power consumption in some transmission lines, thereby
decreasing the angular difference between sending and receiving end voltages
(Jancke and Åkerström 1951).
Because series capacitors reduce the power frequency impedance of a compen-
sated line, fault currents can be significantly increased to a multiple of the rated
current. Special protective relaying systems are therefore needed to detect and clear
faults on series compensated transmission lines (Wilkinson 2019). Immediately
after a fault occurs on a line, the capacitors basically function as a short circuit, so
that the fault current is initially limited by the line’s inductance. The delayed
increase of the fault currents may not last very long but it might be sufficient for
special, fast-acting protective relaying systems to initiate opening of the circuit
breakers for the faulted line. Although capacitors are able to withstand the short-
time thermal effects of overcurrents, they must be protected against overvoltages
by bypass devices, which need to operate before the overvoltage becomes high
enough to cause capacitor failures. This means that the capacitors will not influence
the fault currents in the line after they have been bypassed, but it also means that
there will be a delay before the capacitors are reinserted in the line circuit after the
fault has been cleared. This increases the impedance (reactance) of the line and, as a
consequence, reduces the ability of the line to carry high loads straight away after
clearing of the fault.
Series capacitors always introduce natural frequencies below the power fre-
quency. Series capacitors can resonate with the generator and line inductances at
sub-synchronous frequencies; the subharmonic oscillations which follow any tran-
sient disturbances can lead to self-excitation of alternators, to rotor hunting, and to
shaft oscillations. This phenomenon is known as sub-synchronous resonance (SSR)
and has led to turbogenerator failures (Walker et al. 1975). However, there are now
well-proven techniques to determine if a generator unit is at risk of SSR, and there
are also protective relaying solutions to isolate a generator if SSR arises (Anderson
and Farmer 1996).
Another form of disturbance at subharmonic frequencies can occur when capac-
itors are in series with devices that have a nonlinear reactive characteristic because
they use saturable iron in the magnetic path; these devices include transformers and
gapped-core “linear” reactors. This kind of disturbance is known as ferroresonance
(Engdahl 2017). It sometimes occurs as a result of transient conditions, such as the
energization of a large transformer when there is a series capacitor in the supply
circuit. Overvoltage protection across a series capacitor installation will sometimes
operate to remove the resonance condition. Ferroresonance can be suppressed by
means of suitable damping circuits included with a series capacitor installation. The
grading capacitors across a multigap circuit breaker, when it is open, can be an
unexpected source of series capacitance. Ferroresonance can also occur with voltage
transformers but is typically associated more with distribution systems than with
high power transmission lines.
Series reactors are also used in some situations. One application for series reactors
is when it is necessary to reduce short-circuit levels in a part of the network where the
fault clearance capability of switchgear could otherwise be exceeded. Another
situation occurs when one transmission line has such a low reactance compared
with other available parallel paths that it accepts too much of the power flow and is in
danger of being overloaded; a series reactor will increase its impedance and force
other lines to take a greater share of the load. This generally increases the total
reactive power absorption in the system and may require additional shunt capacitors
to supply balancing reactive power. However, the active compensation provided by
phase angle regulators (PAR) as described above is sometimes a preferred approach
to reduction of circuit loading.
6.3 Active Reactive Power Compensation and Voltage Control
Synchronous generators, described in the Sect. 4.5, are the power plants from which
power is injected into the system, but they are able to supply reactive power as well as
active power. The exciter on a generator can be used to increase (overexcite) or reduce
(underexcite) the excitation of a generator. When a generator is underexcited, the
internal voltage behind its impedance is lower than the system voltage and the machine
will draw reactive current from the bus to which it is connected. By absorbing reactive
power from the AC system, the generator will act like a reactor and reduce the bus
voltage but its RMS current will also increase.3 If the generator is overexcited, it will
inject reactive power into the AC system and increase the bus voltage. Note that the
generator’s excitation system includes underexcitation and overexcitation limits
(Kundur 1994). Even though generators are capable of being used for AC voltage
and reactive power control, these functions are now less readily utilized in deregulated
power systems; there are significant costs associated with the flow of reactive currents,
because they detract from the ability of the generators to produce active power.
Synchronous compensators, described in the Sect. 4.5.2, have been widely used
for voltage and reactive power control. They are synchronous machines that do not
generate AC power and only draw power from the AC system to cover their
operating losses. They provide a continuously variable source of reactive power. If
they operate underexcited, they act like a variable shunt reactor, and if they are
operated overexcited, they act like a variable shunt capacitor in the same way as
synchronous generators do (Miller 1982). They also provide some inertia to the
power system to which they are connected. The power electronic (FACTS) control-
lers available for power system control are described in ▶ Chap. 4, “AC Network
Control Using FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems) Controllers.”
7 Load Compensation
Very few loads operate with a power factor equal to one. Most loads draw currents
that are not fully in phase with the voltage and therefore include a reactive compo-
nent. If this reactive component of the current is allowed to be passed on from the
load to the power source, it will cause additional losses in the power supply circuits
but, more importantly, will cause severe voltage drops and will limit the power
carrying capability of the network. It is therefore desirable to reduce the reactive
component of the load current so that it is as close to zero as possible; since the
power factor of loads is normally lagging, this reduction can be accomplished using
shunt capacitors. These can be made up of switchable capacitor modules which
approximately match the load, to minimize the amount of over- or under-
compensation. Power factor correction components are normally located as close
to the loads as possible and are typically switched automatically using local mea-
surements and controls (Miller 1982). One example of this is the practice of
installing switched shunt capacitor modules along medium voltage distribution lines.
Many power electronic based loads also inject harmonics into the power system.
Harmonic currents add losses to the power system and are therefore undesirable.
Shunt capacitors will often act as a sink for higher order harmonics but sometimes
harmonic filters are needed to prevent harmonics from entering the power system, as
described in the Sect. 6.1. Capacitors inserted into the power system can also
3
Note that underexcitation will reduce the transient stability performance of the generator.
magnify the effects of harmonics if their application results in harmonic frequency

resonances (Cigre TB 553 2013).
These applications of reactive power control equipment are effective in limiting
reactive power demands from the load buses. However, the characteristics of the
loads vary with the weather, time of day, day of the week, and seasons. The load
characteristics are typically aggregated for use in load flow calculations.
8 Dealing with Disturbing Loads
The majority of disturbing loads, such as arc furnaces and rolling mills, are
connected to sub-transmission or high voltage distribution systems. For such
disturbing loads, necessary arrangements should as far as possible be made to
alleviate the effects on other connected loads caused by these kinds of highly
disturbing loads. Nevertheless, it can happen that the point of connection to the
high voltage network is not strong enough to avoid interference effects and voltage
disturbances on the wider network. Strengthening and reinforcing the network at the
point of connection is usually costly, but appropriate strengthening might be the only
way to accommodate these disturbing loads.
Arc furnaces and rolling mills, etc., are just examples of the effects on power quality
due to power electronic and other disturbing loads. Some loads can inject direct current
into the network, usually at low distribution voltage levels, and this causes transformer
saturation and generates even order harmonic currents. The transient effects of large
motor starts and saturation of transformers when they are switched into service are also
sources of temporary voltage dips and odd or even harmonic distortion.
Under balanced system conditions, third and other triplen harmonic distortions in
the line-to-line voltages are normally very low. However, when the system voltages
or impedances become unbalanced, third harmonic voltages are able to develop in
the line-to-line voltages and third harmonic currents will be able to flow. Due to the
physical asymmetry of the conductors in a transmission line, the phase impedances
are not quite equal, and this will result in unbalanced phase voltages. In order to even
out these differences, it is usual to arrange for the conductors to be transposed in their
relative positions at intervals along the route.
Fifth and seventh (and higher) harmonic currents are commonly produced by
industrial loads; harmonic filters are usually provided with the major distorting loads
to reduce their impact on the system. However, these odd harmonics are also present
in the magnetizing currents of all transformers; occasionally network capacitances
and inductances can form a near-resonance condition which magnifies the harmonic
voltage distortion at some locations on the high voltage network. These resonances
can be particularly important for the lower order harmonic frequencies; significant
voltage distortion at higher order harmonic frequencies is generally avoided because
the transmission system shunt capacitance presents a low impedance to them.
Harmonic studies are needed to determine appropriate means to remove or reduce
any resonances, sometimes by avoiding certain circuit configurations or alternatively
by adding tuned or damped filter circuits.
Fig. 11 Load balancing

circuit
9 Phase Unbalance Due to Single-Phase Loads
Strongly unbalanced loads are normally only encountered in distribution systems where
single-phase traction loads could be fairly common. If there are several points from
which such single-phase loads are supplied, the worst unbalance can usually be reduced
by distributing the loads between the three phases of the system in order to approach a
time-averaged balanced load. It is possible to convert a single-phase resistive load into a
balanced three-phase load, without consuming extra power in the other phases, purely
by means of reactive components, as shown in Fig. 11. If the single-phase load is
variable between zero and a maximum value but the balancing components are fixed,
their values can be chosen to compensate half the maximum load and thus halve the
worst unbalance. Comprehensive balancing requires a dynamic balancer.
10 Increasing Stability for Very Long Lines
Figure 3 in the Sect. 3.2 illustrates the relationship between the power transferred
through a transmission line and the angle between the voltages at the ends of the line.
The underlying reason for the shape of this curve was identified in ▶ Chap. 2, “AC
System Characteristics,” fig. 16, as the collapse of the voltage at the midpoint of the
line, even when the terminal voltages are maintained at a constant value. In the early
days of the development of long distance transmission, it appeared that this voltage
instability would prevent AC power transmission over distances greater than about
200 miles. A basic solution to enable power to be transmitted over much longer
distances was proposed by Baum (1921). He posited that if a very long line were to
be subdivided into several sections, with a synchronous compensator installed to
maintain a constant voltage at each point of connection, each section would have the
same stability limit, and this would become the stability limit for the complete line –
of any theoretical length.
Figure 12 shows a basic example of this principle, with a synchronous compensator
connected to the midpoint of a line, with one machine at the sending and an infinite bus
Fig. 12 Midpoint shunt P

reactive power compensation a
X/2 X/2
by means of a synchronous
compensator Vm
VS VR
b
Vm
VS VR
d/2 d/2
2.5
2
Power (P) per unit
1.5
0.5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Power Angle (δ)
Uncompensated Line Ideal Compensation Practical Compensation
Fig. 13 Power/angle curves with synchronous compensator connected to the midpoint of a line
at the receiving end. The voltages at the ends of the line have the same magnitude and
the compensator would be controlled to act as an “infinite busbar” and provide a
constant voltage, Vm, nominally equal to the voltages at the line terminals.
This midpoint “infinite busbar” is not required to supply active power and will not
control the phase angle of Vm, but it supplies the reactive power necessary to control
the voltage at the midpoint of the line. This additional voltage support effectively
divides the line into two equal sections, each with a reactance X/2 and operating at an
angle δ/2. Each section of line now has its own, independent, stability limit, which is
reached when δ/2 = 90o. Thus the theoretical total angle between VS and VR can now

be 180 , i.e., double the conventional critical angle of 90 , with a resultant increase in
power transfer capability of the long line.
Figure 13 shows theoretical and practical power transfer curves with and without
midpoint voltage control. This principle can be extended to use two or more
synchronous compensators connected at several intermediate points in very long
lines, as proposed by Baum, to permit the angles of the terminal machines to be more

than 180 apart.
11 Power Production Control
Control of the generation plants in deregulated systems is isolated from the control
of the rest of the power system, whereas in vertically integrated power systems, the
control of the generation plants is closely integrated into the overall power system
control. In general, system owners/operators have to perform the following
functions:
Long-term power adequacy planning: Long-term power adequacy planning requires

analysis of the anticipated load growth over a time horizon longer than the time it
takes to acquire or build new power plants and the associated transmission
facilities.
Short-term forecasting considering weather and season predictions: Short-term
forecasting has a very wide time frame spanning day-ahead forecasts when
considering weather predictions up to several years in the case of hydropower
utilization.
Scheduled outage planning: Outage planning requires analysis of the expected
system loads for the duration of the outage. The outage analysis involves running
contingency studies to ensure that no single (or sometimes double) contingency
event can cause widespread system outages. Outages in adjacent power systems
also need to be considered as a part of this analysis because an outage in one area
might impair the security of another area.
Day-ahead generation forecast and economic dispatch plan: Economic dispatch
used to be an important part of system operation because it would lead to
commitments to operate the power system with the most economically advanta-
geous plants. It is still an important aspect of generation scheduling in many parts
of the world.
The economic dispatch function typically includes base power plants, such as
nuclear power plants, that operate 24 h a day, 7 days a week, with minimum output
power variations. Included in the generation mix are plants that supply power in
hourly blocks throughout the day. Finally, there are some power plants designated as
load-followers which make up for the unpredictable variations in the power demand.
Variable, non-dispatchable power generation sources such as wind power generators
and to some degree solar power plants also have to be considered in the generation
dispatching function (Zia et al. 2013).
In deregulated power systems, where the power comes from numerous inde-
pendently owned and operated power plants, the power generation is supplied
based on competitive bids from the available plants. The introduction of electric-
ity markets and breakdown of the national monopolies has been seen as a means to
increase efficiency of electrical energy generation and supply. It is assumed that
competition will provide the strongest cost-minimizing incentives, more effec-
tively than a typical cost based regulation would do, and it is also assumed that it
has the ability to trigger innovation (Cigre TB 301 2006). If the demand for power
is less than the available generating capacity, then competition should provide the
lowest cost electric power to consumers. However, if the demand for power is
higher than the generating capacity, the marginal cost of power theoretically goes
to infinity and curtailment of loads will have to be implemented to avoid black-
outs. However, the actual planning process to ensure reliable power generation
plant commitments has become much more complex because of the emergence of
renewable power plants, with less predictable performance attributes (Cigre TB
700 2017). Load shedding can also be a competitive function; consumers who
have the lowest need for power are potentially able to offer to shed load for a
price.
Contingency analysis: The dispatching of power plants has to include consider-
ations of transmission system constraints. Constraints are often the result of power
congestion in the transmission system; for example, too much power might flow
through lines that for some reasons are not capable of supporting the power flows.
When the demand for transmission capacity exceeds the transmission network
capabilities, it can lead to a violation of network security limits, which might be a
thermal, transient, or voltage stability limit, or a (N-1) contingency condition (Cigre
TB 301 2006). Sometimes the solution to avoid unacceptable transmission line loads
is to operate power plants which are low in the merit order and do not produce the
lowest cost power. These so called “must run” power plants might be necessary to
ensure that the power system will operate securely. Furthermore, the power outputs
from wind and solar power plants sometimes have to be curtailed because of power
system congestion.
Frequency control: Frequency control requires that at all times the generation
has to match the loads, with the system losses counted as loads. This requires hourly
and minute by minute commitment of generation facilities to achieve a stable
operating frequency. This is typically managed by having load-following generat-
ing plants. For some systems, the operational target is to maintain the system
frequency as closely as possible to the nominal frequency at all times. For other
systems, the frequency may be allowed to vary within defined limits, such as a
fraction of 1%, but over a 24-h period, the frequency is controlled such that the
long-term average frequency returns to the nominal value.4 For short time and
emergency conditions, the frequency may be allowed to deviate more widely, but
some loads would be disconnected in stages to prevent the frequency falling to an
unacceptably low value. During severe emergency conditions, many systems incor-
porate automatic load shedding in the case of generation deficiency, or generator
dropping in the case that too much generation is connected to the system and is
operating inefficiently.
A consideration is also that many systems use the power frequency to keep time.
Since it is not possible to achieve an absolutely constant balance between generation
and loads, the clocks driven by the power system might run ahead or behind the
standard real time. It then may become necessary to intentionally operate the power
systems with generation deficiency to retard the clocks or to operate the system with
power surplus to advance the clocks. Such control operations have to be run taking
into account the entire system, since otherwise the phase angles between subsystems
might exceed acceptable limits. In a worst case scenario after an extreme emergency
that caused prolonged low frequency, the discrepancy of power system time against
real time might not be recoverable and power system time would need to be reset.
12 Transmission System Control
The role of the transmission system operator is to manage the power flows deter-
mined by the generation dispatchers or energy managers. Transmission system
operators typically perform the following functions:
• Load flow forecasting based on the generation schedule

• Congestion analysis
• Scheduled outage analysis
• Contingency analysis
• Voltage and reactive power control
The transmission system constraints considering load forecasts and scheduled out-
ages are normally predetermined. The tool for this is a load flow program. Transmission
system constraints or congestions might require adjustments to the power schedules
discussed above (Cigre TB 301 2006). Also, transmission system operation requires
4
In the UK, where the frequency is allowed to vary within defined limits, it can be forecast that the
frequency will fall when domestic power demand rises sharply at the end of some key sporting
events. Before the forecast surge in demand, a pumped storage scheme is usually operated in its
pumping mode; just before the surge, it is changed to generating mode. This additional power input
helps to reduce the extent of the subsequent dip in frequency. Also in the UK, two high inertia
waterwheel type generators are used to contribute to the energy demand of an intermittent pulsed
load. As the load demand of the pulsed load increases, power is drawn from the generators, slowing
them to half speed and releasing 75% of their stored kinetic energy; this energy contribution reduces
the transient frequency disturbances and alleviates the stress on nearby generating sets.
information about the state of adjoining power systems because the generation topol-
ogy in one system can cause inadvertent power flows in other systems; the load flows
across the key interfaces or through interconnected lines among different systems, and
outages in the adjoining systems, might affect the system constraints. Therefore, these
flows and outages have to be included in all contingency assessments.
Contingency situations: The transmission system operator has to be prepared for
unplanned losses of generation plants or transmission lines. Such events might occur
in areas adjacent to the control area for which the specific operator is responsible.
Contingency situations might require immediate actions by the operator to ensure
continued stability of the power system or to contain any system overloads or other
security issues. It will most likely require rerunning of contingency analysis pro-
grams and might lead to activation of system recovery procedures.
The transient and other stability limits of dynamic nature might arise as a result of
random, unplanned events. The load flow programs used by the operators are not
suitable for modeling system stability issues, but these are considered by having
predetermined load limits for each circuit or set of circuits. Unscheduled outages
may arise because of line faults and equipment failures, which might lead to reduced
security of the power system. Typically, in energy management computer systems,
unforeseen events are simulated in a contingency analysis program in which random
outages are constantly introduced to ascertain if the system is still stable and secure
after an event (Xue et al. 1992). The result of this analysis can be used to preplan
load shedding or generation dropping actions if a serious, unplanned disturbance
were to occur. Accurate simulation results require that the state of the power system
is fully known, but at times the actual state of the system might not be available
because some system data is lacking. Holes in the measured data might then be
plugged by the use of a state estimator that uses available data to estimate the missing
data (Schweppe and Wildes 1970).
Transmission system operator support tools: The transmission system operators
have various tools available for management of their assigned control region. The
primary means for controlling the voltage and hence the reactive power flows in the
high voltage systems (primary control) were, prior to the introduction of FACTS
controllers, as follows:
• Automatic voltage regulators (AVR) systems used to control the output voltage
from generators.
• Synchronous compensators.
• Shunt capacitors, fixed or switched.
• Shunt reactors, fixed or switched.
• Series capacitors, fixed or switched, which reduce the reactive power consump-
tion of overhead transmission lines.
• Transformer load tap changers (LTC), which are used to adjust the ratio of the
transformer windings under load.
• PARs can be used to control load flows by means of on-load tap changing but they
introduce an inductive reactance in series with the line; the reactive power this
absorbs needs to be considered since it increases the need for shunt compensation.
• QBTs can be operated by controlling an on-load tap changer, which will com-
pensate for some of the reactive power consumed by the line’s reactance but they
can also be used to reduce the power flows through the line by inserting a voltage
that increases the equivalent line voltage drop. Thus, they can act like a virtual
line impedance that increases or reduces the line voltage drop between the source
and load sides of the line.
Network control: Network control, and specifically network voltage control

(or regulation), is typically divided into three levels: primary control, secondary
control, and tertiary control. These levels are temporally and spatially independent
by nature. Temporal independence means that the three control mechanisms do not
significantly interact with each other, operating in three adjacent time-scales or
frequency bands and maintaining robust performance and stability, when facing
system changes; if the control laws were more complex, there would always be
the risk of oscillation and instability. These three levels, whose implementation and
degree of automation vary among the various power systems, constitute the hierar-
chical structure of grid voltage control (Cigre TB 310 2007).
• Primary control relates to automatic actions on individual equipment based on

local measurements. The time scale ranges from 100 ms up to several seconds.
This might include automatic regulation of the high-side voltage of power plant,
possibly with line drop compensation; this partially increases grid voltage support
but might introduce destabilizing interactions between primary voltage
regulators.
• The secondary voltage regulation (SVR) system as defined by Cigre performs the
real time adjustment (manually or automatically) of the primary control reference
points (voltage, reactive power) and handles control resources (by continuous
controls as well as by switching on/off or up/down commands) as a function of
system requirements (Cigre TB 310 2007). A special problem that might fit into
the SVR regime is control of voltages in urban areas that have a high density of
underground cable systems since the inherent shunt capacitance of cables leads to
high system voltage under low load (night-time or holidays) conditions.
• The tertiary voltage regulation (TVR) system, as defined by Cigre, is strongly
related to economy and/or security optimization at the highest administrative
authority level (utility, pool, or country). TVR operates in a relatively slow
control mode (response time around 10 min when automatic), based on real-
time measurements. The TVR response time depends on dispatcher reaction time
(manual control) or the time required to compute new reference values (computer
assisted manual control or automatic control). This response time must not be too
long (to prevent the network from moving towards an insecure condition) or too
short (to avoid any conflicting action with the primary and secondary controls). In
case of an automatic closed-loop in the TVR system, its response time should not
be lower than 5 min in order to preserve temporal independence from the SVR
(Cigre TB 310 2007).
Voltage and Var control: The most effective solutions for reactive power and
voltage control involve some form of coordination between reactive power resources
and system controllers. The control equipment requirements to achieve these bene-
fits to system security are detailed below.
• Voltage quality: Voltage levels must be maintained in accordance with the planned
schedule, the supplier’s contract commitments, and the technical constraints.
• Power system security:
– Loss of one infeed or line must not endanger the network (i.e., a sufficient
reactive power reserve should be made available).
– Voltage values must remain within ranges compatible with equipment func-
tional specifications (equipment overvoltage limits, minimum voltage for
power station auxiliaries).
– Voltage control efforts must be evenly distributed among available resources.
– Excessive currents in equipment must be avoided.
• Voltage control coordination contributes to network stability by increasing the
system voltage stability margin or it may reduce the angle difference between
generators).
• Operating economy: The cost of production including losses (static optimization
problem) and the cost of generation operated according to security constraints
(essentially a dynamic problem) should be minimized.
Voltage control is therefore a problem of dynamic optimization with security

constraints (Guo et al. 2010). It involves a very wide range of time constants (from a
few hundred milliseconds for the compensation of rapid fluctuations to several hours
for load-following and the associated problem of generator start-up and shutdown).
Voltage control actions must therefore be structured over several time scales. Fur-
thermore, voltage control requires various forecast studies (daily, weekly, monthly),
whose aim is to define the best equipment arrangement for real-time control and the
optimized voltage plan to be implemented.
Another major aspect is the local nature of the voltage/var control, as opposed to
frequency/active power control. Reactive power control action (generator excitation,
capacitor/reactor switching, etc.) has therefore mainly a local impact, making it
possible to define many voltage control areas in an interconnected network. How-
ever, in a deregulated market scenario, owners of generating plants do not want to
reduce the output of the plants to supply reactive power for network control. This
requires the system operator to acquire ancillary services from the open market
(Oren 2001). Furthermore, in the case of strongly interconnected networks, the
voltage control areas may not be sufficiently decoupled and can develop significant
adverse interactions.
Geographical and temporal coordination of control actions are thus needed to
meet the various functional requirements (quality, security, economy). This
involves all the predictive studies and actions carried out to optimize voltage
and reactive power controls, aiming at producing a satisfactory and coordinated
behavior of its various components. The reactive power forecasts have to meet the
following criteria:
• Forecast studies must be carried out for various time horizons (day-ahead, week-
ahead, month-ahead).
• Forecast studies are used to optimize the system voltages and reactive powers by
defining the settings of the available controls, also including the choice of no load
transformer tap settings. Network reliability is considered in these studies by
checking the control margin for each forecast scenario.
• Forecast studies attempt to establish a voltage profile, which is both economical
and safe. Forecast studies have to be conservative in terms of reliability and
therefore may not be optimum in terms of economy. Sufficient reactive reserve
must be provided within each area to ensure that the system will be capable of
riding through “normal” operating incidents;
• Forecast studies aim at maintaining economy within reliability constraints for
much longer time horizons than those dealt by primary, secondary, and tertiary
control, which are meant for online operation. According to the real-time data
needs, the Tertiary Voltage Regulation pursues the forecast reference values as
closely as possible, while ensuring system security and reliability.
Voltage control issues: The control of grid voltage and reactive power in large
networks has become even more critical in the last decade, due to the higher
utilization of transmission assets. Many issues contribute to this, including: the
increased distance between production sites and the load centers; delays in building
new transmission projects; larger interconnections and increased meshing; power
interchanges over long distances; connection of large capacity units to higher voltage
levels, etc. Suitable voltage and reactive power control solutions, which take into
consideration higher loads and the associated transmission losses for multiple
scenarios and contingencies are therefore needed. In many regions, there is a lack
of real-time and closed-loop “automatic” coordination of reactive power resources
and network voltage control, so that manual voltage/var control is still in use.
Manual system control: Manual grid voltage control is still used by many system
operators worldwide and typically involves:
• Dispatching the generating units

• Forecasting reactive demand
• Scheduling the power plants’ high-side voltages
• Switching shunt capacitor or reactor banks for power factor correction and
voltage regulation
• Setting the voltage set points for LTCs
When the voltage set points are controlled manually according to written operator
instructions, or requested by the system operator when an urgent change is needed,
untimely or inadequate control actions may occur during slow dynamic phenomena
following unexpected events. Thus, this conventional approach to solving the
network voltage control problem is nowadays unsatisfactory because the actual

network operating conditions may quite often be different from their forecast values.
In many regions, voltage and reactive power control is therefore being changed to
take advantage of modern computer support systems.
13 Cross-References
▶ AC System Characteristics
▶ Introduction to Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) Controllers:
A Chronology
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with EPRI in USA he initiated in 1979 the development of digital
protective relaying system developments and in 1986 EPRI’s
FACTS initiative. In 1991 he was awarded a patent on Apparatus
for Controlling the Reactive Impedance of a Transmission Line.
Stig Nilsson is a Life Fellow of IEEE. He has chaired the IEEE
PES T&D Committee, the IEEE Herman Halperin Electric Trans-
mission and Distribution Award Committee, the IEEE PES Nari
Hingorani Facts and Custom Power Awards Committee, several
IEEE Fellow nomination review committees, been a member of
the IEEE Standards Board, IEEE PES subcommittees and working
groups. Stig Nilsson has been the US Representative and Secretary
of Cigre Study Committee B4 on HVDC and Power Electronics.
He is the recipient of the 2012 IEEE PES Nari Hingorani Facts and
Custom Power Awards. He received the Cigre U.S. National
Committee Philip Sporn Award and the Cigre Technical Commit-
tee Award in 2012. He has also received the Cigre Distinguished
Member Award for active participation in Cigre Study Commit-
tees and the USNC of Cigre (2006); and the Cigre USNC Attwood
Manfredo Lima was born in Recife, Brazil in 1957, received the

BSc degree in Electrical Engineering from Pernambuco Federal
University (UFPE) in 1979, the MSc degree in Electrical Engi-
neering from the same University in 1997 and the PhD degree in
Mechanical Engineering with emphasis on automation systems
from Paraíba Federal University (UFPB) in 2005. He joined
Chesf in 1978, where develops activities in the areas of power
electronics, FACTS devices, power quality, control systems, elec-
tromagnetic transients and HVDC transmission. In 1992 he joined
Pernambuco University (UPE) where develops research activities.
Nowadays he is Chesf representative on Cigré Brazil SC B4
(Power electronics and HVDC Links) and is a founding member
of the Brazilian Electric Power Quality Society (SBQEE).
David J. Young was educated at King Edward’s School, Bir-

mingham, and read Mechanical Sciences at Cambridge University.
After joining the General Electric Company (GEC), he was
appointed as Assistant to the Company’s Consultant, Dr Erich
Friedlander, at Witton, Birmingham, where he was immediately
involved in the early development of static var compensators
(SVC) for flicker correction and then for their wider application
in transmission and distribution systems. He became the Chief
Engineer responsible for SVC and FACTS projects using saturated
reactors and power electronic devices, initially at Trafford Park,
Manchester, and then at Stafford where he was also responsible for
harmonic filter design, including filters for HVDC projects. He
was appointed as a Consultant after the company became part of
Alstom and worked as an independent consultant after retiring. He
was a member of the Disturbances Study Committee of UIE
(International Union for Electricity applications) which specified
and produced the UIE/IEC Flickermeter and served on the IEE
(Institution of Electrical Engineers) Panel P9. He was a member of
several CIGRE Working Groups reporting on the application of
SVCs and on reactive compensation and harmonic filtering for
HVDC. In 1996 he was awarded GEC’s Nelson Gold Medal and
he received the IEEE PES FACTS Award in 2000.
AC Network Control Using FACTS (Flexible
AC Transmission Systems) Controllers 4
Antonio Ricardo de Mattos Tenório
Contents
1 AC Network Needs and FACTS Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
1.1 Active Power Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
1.2 Reactive Power Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2 Topology of FACTS Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3 Description and Functions of SVCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.1 Principles of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.2 Application of SVCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4 Description and Functions of STATCOMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5 Description and Functions of TCSCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.1 Principle of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6 Description and Functions of SSSCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7 Description and Functions of UPFCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8 Power Losses in FACTS Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
9 System Security and Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
10 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Abstract
This chapter describes the functional characteristics of proven FACTS control-
lers, their application in AC network, and the control and operating principles
applicable to their use in power systems. FACTS controllers that have been
proposed and prototyped or might be under development have not been included
in this chapter. The AC network needs are clearly pointed out, and different
A. R. de Mattos Tenório (*)

Operador Nacional do Sistema Elétrico – ONS, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
e-mail: ricardo.tenorio@ons.org.br

92 A. R. de Mattos Tenório
applications are explored to provide for the reader a broad spectrum of function-
alities of series, shunt, and series-shunt FACTS controllers. These FACTS con-
trollers can improve the power systems’ performance and controllability.
1 AC Network Needs and FACTS Controllers
The functions of the power system transmission network are to deliver power
generated from power plants to load centers and to provide interconnection between
different power systems for economic power sharing and enhanced reliability.
To achieve these functions, transmission networks should be able to handle power
exchange (active and reactive power) in a flexible and efficient way. The ▶ Chap. 2,
“AC System Characteristics” chapter provides an overview of AC system issues that
need to be considered, and ▶ Chap. 3, “AC Network Control Using Conventional
Means” chapter describes how these issues are managed without the use of FACTS
controllers.
FACTS controllers can improve the performance of the power system in the
following ways:
• Some provide continuous control of reactive power.

• Some provide continuous control of AC line power flows.
• Some controllers can simultaneously control both the active and reactive power
flows in an AC system.
• FACTS controllers can respond to changes in the AC power system in a cycle
or less.
• FACTS controllers can be inserted, disconnected, and reinserted without
limitations.
• FACTS controllers have built-in self-checking functions that will provide assur-
ance to the system operators that the controller is able to perform its functions
when required.
The continuous control capability of the FACTS controllers can add damping to
oscillatory, unstable, or lightly damped system oscillatory modes. Some FACTS
controllers can be used to move power between AC transmission lines, which can
enable power to be moved from higher loss and power-limited circuits to lower loss,
higher power-carrying capacity circuits. This might reduce the transmission system
losses, which would more than pay for the power losses in the FACTS systems
themselves. The fast response and high duty cycle performance can also be used to
improve the transient stability of the AC system and provide damping of the
oscillatory modes arising after a system transient disturbance. These capabilities
are beyond the capability of mechanically switched reactive power compensation
equipment typically used in AC transmission systems.
The FACTS controller’s self-checking capability is an improvement over
mechanically switched reactive power compensation systems since it is not known
4 AC Network Control Using FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems). . . 93
if a switched compensation system will work or not until the time when the
switching is initiated.
However, FACTS controllers cost more than conventional mechanically switched
reactive power control equipment. Nevertheless, in many actual applications, the
installed FACTS controllers have enabled postponement of additional line construc-
tion, which could represent substantial capital cost savings. Therefore, the potential
benefits from applying FACTS controllers needs to be clearly understood by the power
system planners and operators in order to build the lowest cost and most efficient AC
power system. More information about the cost-benefit analysis can be found in the
▶ Chap. 16, “Economic Appraisal and Cost-Benefit Analysis” of this book.
1.1 Active Power Transfer
Figure 1 shows a simplified transmission line. Let us assume that the active power
flows from node s to node r. That means the phasor Vs is leading phasor Vr, as shown
in Fig. 2.
In order to understand the concept of active and reactive power, the equations
below are defined. For a typical extra high-voltage transmission system, the reac-
tance X is much larger than the resistance R, and it is possible to establish the
following formula for active power transfer (lossless transmission line) (Elgerd
1983; Anderson and Farmer 1996).
V s :V r
Psr ¼ sin ðδsr Þ (1)
X
where δsr = δs δr
Fig. 1 Simplified short Zsr

transmission line model
s r
Vs R X Vr
Psr Prs
Fig. 2 Phasor diagram of Vs

voltages δrs
I
j IX w
Vr
By examination of the power transfer of Eq. 1, it is possible to conclude that to

change the flow on the line, it is necessary to vary the magnitude of the terminal
voltages Vs and Vr, the phase angle δsr, or the system reactance X. As a practical
matter, the magnitude of the terminal voltage cannot be varied significantly
without a costly voltage upgrade, because the AC voltage has to be maintained
in a narrow band, typically less than 5%. This leaves modification of the system
reactance X or the relative phase angle δsr as feasible options for power flow
control purposes.
It is important to note that the direction of the active power flow is deter-
mined by the sine of the angle δsr. The terminal voltage magnitudes Vs and Vr do
not have any influence on the direction. If Vs is leading Vr, the power direction
is from s to r. On the other hand, if Vs is lagging Vr the power flow direction is
from r to s.
1.2 Reactive Power Transfer
Regarding reactive power flow, it can be demonstrated that reactive power at each
terminal can be expressed as follows (Elgerd 1983):
V s V r cos δsr V 2r
Node r Qr ¼ (2)
X
V 2s V s V r cos δsr
Node s QS ¼ (3)
X
In the technical literature, an average reactive power flow Q is often defined as:
Qs þ Qr V 2s V 2r
Q¼ ¼ (4)
2 2X
Taking into account Eq. 4, the following conclusions can be drawn:
• If Vs is greater than Vr, the direction of reactive power flow is from s to r.

• If Vr is greater than Vs, the direction of reactive power flow is from r to s.
• If Vs is equal to Vr, Eqs. 3 and 4 become the following equation:
V 2s
Qs ¼ Qr ¼ ð1 cos δsr Þ (5)
X
Therefore, in this particular case, the reactive power that flows into the line at both
terminals is the same. The equations also show that reactive power cannot be
transmitted from the sending end to the receiving end or vice versa. That is, it has
to be provided locally at each end of the line.
2 Topology of FACTS Controllers
When it comes to the way the FACTS controller is connected to a power system, i.e.,
shunt, series, or shunt-series, the connection depends on the type of issues the
FACTS controller is supposed to resolve. On one hand, based on Eqs. 1 through 5,
it is possible to conclude that issues associated with control of active power flow
must be handled by series controllers. On the other hand, problems related to
voltage/reactive power control are mainly resolved through shunt controllers.
The use of series-shunt controllers, which are more complex in nature, is needed
for applications that require universal controllability, such as controlling of voltage
and active and reactive power depending on specific requirements. As an added
complexity, for long AC lines, it is often necessary to distribute series and/or shunt
controllers along the line in order to keep the voltage profile along the line as close to
constant as economically feasible.
3 Description and Functions of SVCs
The most commonly applied FACTS shunt controller is the Static Var Compensator
(SVC), usually known as an SVC. A detailed technical description of the SVC can
be found in ▶ Chap. 6, “Technical Description of Static Var Compensators (SVC).”
The SVC is capable of absorbing or generating reactive power in order to control
the magnitude of the system voltage to a preset level. The reactive power output of
the SVC can be changed very rapidly and very often (no need to recover after a rapid
excursion). This can be of great advantage to the AC system during and after faults in
the network, assisting with decreasing any overvoltages and increasing the voltage
during undervoltage condition. These actions help other essential equipment in the
AC network stay connected during the transient and dynamic periods that follows
recovery from faults in the network.
If in the planning process of the SVC its location is carefully chosen, it can also
dampen power oscillation through a control structure called POD (Power Oscillation
Damping). However, it is worth mentioning that the shunt controller’s performance
depends highly on where in the power system they are installed. The location has to
be where the power flows are controllable and in addition, the power system states
are observable. Therefore, damping of power oscillations requires a lot of dynamic
studies, including small-signal linear analysis of the power system, to define the best
placement of shunt FACTS controllers for this purpose. In-depth discussion on these
issues is beyond this chapter.
There are many different SVC configurations, but most of them use thyristor-
controlled reactors (TCR), thyristor-switched capacitors (TSC), harmonic filters,
and/or breaker-switched or fixed capacitors as basic branches (CIGRE TB 78
1993). A generic SVC schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 3.
An actual single line diagram for the Silves SVC in the Northern Brazil can be
seen in Fig. 4 (Tenório et al. 2016).
Fig. 3 Generic schematic diagram of an SVC using TCR and TSC
Fig. 4 Single line diagram for Silves SVC in the 500 kV network in Northern Brazil
The Silves SVC comprises two TCRs rated at 147.6 Mvar each, two TSCs rated
at 129.4 Mvar each, and two single-tuned filters (5th harmonic) at 36.8 Mvar each,
and the SVC is connected at 20 kV (secondary voltage). The rated output of the SVC
is 200 to + 300 Mvar at 500 kV. The coupling transformer reactance is 15% and the
transformer rating is 300 MVA.
The TCRs are controlled continuously to provide inductive reactive power in

order to keep the voltage at a preset value. When an overvoltage occurs, the TCRs
decrease their firing angle to control the voltage within the operating voltage band,
and the TSCs are switched off, if required. If the overvoltage is severe, the TCRs are
put in full conduction in such a way as to help the system recover the voltage to a
preset band.
The harmonic filters are continuously in operation. Therefore, they should be
considered when designing the inductive rating, which is reached with two TCRs
and two single-tuned harmonic filters. When an undervoltage occurs, the TSCs are
switched on, and TCRs increase their firing angle up to a point where they cease
conducting if the voltage is severely depressed. The capacitive rating is reached with
two TSCs and two single-tuned harmonic filters.
More examples of SVC Applications can be found in ▶ Chap. 12, “Application
Examples of SVC.”
3.1 Principles of Operation
The TCR is a nonlinear susceptance that can be controlled by the firing angle α of the
antiparallel connected thyristor valves, with the firing angle always being delayed
relative to its natural voltage zero-crossing. The TCR susceptance B as a function of
the firing angle α is depicted in Fig. 5 and analytically can be expressed by Eq. 6.
2ðπ αÞ þ sin ð2αÞ

B¼ pu (6)
π
By varying the firing angle α from 90 to 180 electrical degrees, it is possible to

change the TCR susceptance from its rated susceptance (B=1/(ωL)) or 1 pu to
Fig. 5 Voltage and currents

at firing angles of α = 90 and I
120 electrical degrees
Vsys
Vsys
I90
α = 90 deg
I120
α =120 deg
zero, i.e., an open circuit. Therefore, seen from the fundamental frequency points of
view, a TCR susceptance can be continuously controllable from zero up to 1 pu.
However, when operating at any point other than zero or 1 pu, it creates character-
istic harmonic currents which have to be dealt with (see ▶ Chap. 6, “Technical
Description of Static Var Compensators (SVC)”).
The TSC susceptance is not continuously controllable, as is the TCR, but it is
switchable each time its current passes zero, i.e., when its voltage is at a peak or if
the capacitor is already charged, when the voltage across the thyristor switch is
zero or at a minimum. Operating this way, it generates no harmonic currents, since
the TSC stops conducting at current zero-crossing, which means a firing angle of
90 electrical degrees, and again may resume conduction when the voltage across
the thyristor switch is zero. In terms of control, the TSCs are simply inserted on
and off in a binary logic in accordance with the SVC control system. Figure 6
illustrates the operation of a TSC with a binary control logic on/off. In normal
operation, when voltages change relatively slowly, the TSC is typically switched
on for a relatively long period of time and then off for a long period time, i.e., the
TSC valve conducts continuously during the on-state creating a fully sinusoidal
waveshape, and Fig. 6 only demonstrates the voltage and current waveshapes at
turn on and turn off for one valve direction. However, the significance of the TSC
switching performance is that it can be switched in and out in a rapid sequence,
which enables the TSC to be used for damping control by using a bang-bang
control function. This is an advantage over a mechanically switched capacitor,
which can be inserted but not be quickly disconnected and reinserted to provide
damping.
The rated capacitive output is the sum of the harmonic filters plus all TSCs in
operation. Conversely, the rated inductive output is the sum of the TCRs in operation
minus the harmonic filters, which are always connected. The zero Mvar working
point is usually reached when the reactive power absorbed by a TCR is equal to the
reactive power generated by the harmonic filters at fundamental frequency.
Due to the nonlinear characteristic of TCRs, it is necessary to apply a linearization
curve to the firing control system in order to provide a constant gain for both the
Fig. 6 Binary logic of

switch-off and switch-on of I
a TSC
Vsys V
V
I
Vsys
switch-off switch-on
Fig. 7 An SVC in closed U

loop control using an
Automatic Voltage Regulator
(AVR)
Ref
S AVR SVC
DV BREF
Fig. 8 V-I characteristic of an SVC (seen from high-voltage side)
capacitive and the inductive range, i.e., the ratio between

SVC susceptance and
voltage regulation error should be kept constant (ΔB
ΔV
ref
, throughout the rated output
range of the SVC, as shown in Fig. 7.
As a variable susceptance source of reactive power, an SVC typically has the
steady-state characteristic as shown in Fig. 8.
The SVC has a straight line characteristic in the V-I plane, with its slope slightly
increased to ensure that the two characteristics, i.e., the system load (blue trace)
and the SVC output (red-green traces), always have an interception point in the
output range. The added inclination to the SVC characteristic is commonly called
the slope or current droop, and it is usually expressed in percentage of the rated
power of the SVC. It can be expressed and seen from either the high-voltage side
(system side) or the low-voltage side (SVC side). The interception of the two
characteristics defines the operating point of the SVC as indicated by the coordi-
nates (Io, Vo) in Fig. 8. The SVC response time depends on the strength of the
system. However, typical response times specified for 60 Hz systems during a step
response are as follows:
(i) 33 ms for rise time

(ii) 100 ms for settling time
3.2 Application of SVCs
SVCs can strongly improve the performance of AC grids by using its ability to inject
or draw reactive power into or from the network. The following describes some
features that may be specified for SVCs.
3.2.1 Control of Overvoltages in AC Grids

One of the major sources of overvoltage in an AC grid is load rejection. Short
circuits occur, and power components sometimes fail in an AC grid, and these events
lead to the opening of circuit breakers, which may totally or partially disconnect load
centers. The longer the transmission lines, the higher the overvoltage resulting from
load rejections. This is mainly due to the Ferranti Effect, i.e., the charging of the
transmission line (Anderson and Farmer 1996), and the reactive power surplus
created by the load rejection. One important functionality of an SVC is its ability
to control overvoltages by sending the SVC to its inductive rated output for an
adequate period of time and in accordance with a specified overload/overvoltage
inductive cycle.
A typical overload inductive cycle is shown in Table 1 for an SVC connected to a
500 kV system. It shows the various voltages with time durations, which the
thyristor valves have to be designed to withstand. These overvoltages are translated
into overcurrents seen by the thyristor valves. Therefore, the overvoltages specified
must be defined based on electromagnetic transient studies to express truly the power
system needs as far as withstand capability of the equipment is concerned.
Table 1 Typical inductive overvoltage cycle for an SVC installed on a 500 kV network
Typical overvoltagesa (SVC on 500 kV network) Time duration
1.80 pu 33 ms
1.40 pu 200 ms
1.30 pu 1s
1.20 pu 10 s
1.10 pu Continuously
a
1pu = 408.248 kVpeak
3.2.2 Voltage Regulation and Reactive Power Supply for the AC Grid
SVCs are designed to provide automatic voltage regulation within the specified
operational voltage range. When a small disturbance occurs in a power system, the
voltage and power are changed, and an SVC provides an excellent means of
controlling the voltage to within a preset narrow band. Operational voltages lie
between 0.95 and 1.05 pu in general. So if the SVC is operating close to zero
Mvar, it is able to go either capacitive or inductive with full output to control the
voltage at the set point.
SVCs add a lot of operational flexibility and, therefore, can enhance the power
system operation regarding voltage control. The number of operations of transformer
on-load tap changers can be considerably reduced by using the SVCs to control the
system voltage to a desired value.
Most SVCs have a continuous control range, but some use stepwise control based
on TSCs and TSRs (thyristor-switched reactors) only, which do not generate har-
monics, and therefore harmonic filters are not required. The power system needs
must be clearly specified by the customer to the bidder to avoid misunderstanding.
To control in either a continuous mode (vernier) or stepwise is totally a matter
dependent on the power system needs.
In order to divide the reactive power demand between various SVCs in close
proximity or even with nearby generators, a slope (current droop) is used in the
controls to avoid overloading SVCs with smaller ratings, while the larger ones may
be idle. The slope is determined in a steady-state study in which all load conditions
and network topologies have to be carefully investigated to enable sharing of the
reactive power needs between the SVCs. Ideally, sharing should be proportional to
the SVC ratings and inversely proportional to their slopes after a disturbance.
3.2.3 Power Oscillation Damping of AC Grids

In the planning of a new SVC, a question may arise about the possibility of the SVC
helping to damp power oscillations that may occur in the grid after a contingency.
The answer depends on the location of the new SVC in the network. The effective-
ness of using a stabilizing signal such as a POD – power oscillation damping – is
extremely dependent on the SVC location. However, if the planner is aware of this
feature and explore the optimum location for system damping, the SVC might be
able to damp power oscillations in addition to its other functions.
By modulating the SVC reactive power, it is possible to damp oscillations in
a range from 0.2 to 2 Hz, which is the range of typical electromechanical modes
associated with a power system. SVC POD can play an important role in stabilizing
the power system after a disturbance, and it can postpone some transmission
reinforcements if the POD is well designed and the SVC location is optimized.
The SVC POD has a simple structure comprising a gain, washout filter(s),
low-pass filter(s), and lead-lag block(s) for dynamic compensation. Obviously, this
POD can be more sophisticated in order to include additional functionalities
depending upon the damping needs. Due to remote locations of SVCs, it usually
uses as input a signal of frequency variation or the value of active power flow in
a transmission line. Notice that depending on the power system characteristics, the
sign of the POD gain needs to be changed if the power flow is reversed when
the input signal used is the active power flow.
3.2.4 SVCs Operating in Close Proximity to Other SVCs

SVCs are usually equipped with gain optimizers to ensure their stable operation under
different levels of short circuit capacity at the point of connection. These gain optimizers
acquire the short circuit capacity from the network, for instance, by means of injecting a
pulse of current and measuring the voltage response. The short circuit power can be
calculated from the measured information. Different manufactures may have different
strategies. However, if there are two or more SVCs in close proximity, the signal
treatment to estimate the short circuit may be impaired because the other SVC starts
responding to the other, and consequently they disturb each other.
In addition, the SVC may interact adversely and react among themselves due to
relatively high controller gains during lower short circuit power conditions. This
adverse behavior must be prevented to ensure proper and stable operation of the
SVCs. These adverse interactions, called hunting, may have a severe impact on the
SVCs stability. To mitigate these interactions, it is necessary to develop a gain
reduction scheme that takes into account the number of SVCs in nearby operation
and in voltage control. This controller gain reduction scheme can be a linear or
nonlinear approach depending on the real-time studies developed in hardware in the
loop (HIL) investigations during the Factory Acceptance Tests (FAT).
Therefore, when several SVCs are operated in close proximity, it is necessary to
provide communication between the SVCs in order to exchange their status infor-
mation. This communication does not need to be fast, e.g., it may be sufficient to
exchange information every 10 s (Tenório et al. 2016).
A more detailed technical description of the Static VAR Compensator (SVC) can
be found in ▶ Chap. 6, “Technical Description of Static Var Compensators (SVC).”
Application examples of the SVC can be found in ▶ Chap. 12, “Application
Examples of SVC.”
4 Description and Functions of STATCOMs
A static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) is a reactive power-regulating

device based on the voltage-sourced converter (VSC) technology. It can be used to
maintain the AC system voltages and enhance the stability of the AC system
(CIGRE TB 663 2016). That is, it basically performs the same functions as an
SVC. Because of the smaller footprint required by STATCOM controllers, these
controllers have become frequently used in applications from industry to electric
power systems. The limitations of the gate turn-off thyristor (GTO) have been
overcome by the development of the integrated gate commutated thyristor (IGCT),
and the introduction and improvements of the insulated-gate bipolar transistor
(IGBT) have made it possible to apply Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) techniques
in the VSCs. This simple PWM technology has relatively high switching losses
which, as described in ▶ Chap. 5, “Power Electronic Topologies for FACTS,” has
led to the development of the lower loss modular multilevel converter (MMC)
Fig. 9 Schematic diagram of a STATCOM
technology. The detailed technical description of the STATCOM can be found in the
▶ Chap. 7, “Technical Description of Static Compensators (STATCOM)”.
The STATCOM is illustrated in Fig. 9. The core of the technology is an AC/DC
voltage-sourced converter (VSC) that provides a compensation current (I), associ-
ated with a voltage (Vo) injected by the converter into the power system.
The STATCOM current either lags or leads the system voltage (V1) by 90 electrical
degrees. In this way, a STATCOM acts as a synchronous condenser/compensator
with zero mechanical inertia.
The relationship between the voltages, currents, and reactive power is easily
derived from the schematic diagram shown in Fig. 9.
pffiffiffi pffiffiffi ðV 0 V 1 Þ
Q¼ 3:V 1 :I ¼ 3:V 1 : (7)
Xt
where V0 is the phase to phase fundamental frequency output voltage from the VSC,
V1 is the phase to phase voltage at the connection point of the VSC, I is the
fundamental frequency AC current flow through the transformer, and Xt is the
fundamental frequency reactance of the transformer.
Note that V0 is the synthesized fundamental frequency voltage component on the
AC side of the STATCOM converter. Therefore, if V0 equals V1, the compensation
current I equals zero, and no reactive power is generated or drawn from the network.
If V0 is greater than V1, the current I is leading the AC system voltage (capacitive),
and an amount of reactive power is injected into the point-of-common-coupling
(PCC). Similarly, if V0 is less than V1, the current I is lagging the AC system voltage
(inductive), and an amount of reactive power is drawn from the PCC.
A comparison between an SVC and a STATCOM regarding their V-I character-
istics is shown in Fig. 10, which illustrates the operating characteristics of a
symmetrically rated SVC (equal inductive and capacitive reactive power generation
at the nominal AC system voltage) and a STATCOM. The symbols used in the
figure are:
a SVC b STATCOM
V
Vov D Vov D
Vmaxcont Vmaxcont
Vrefmax Vrefmax
Vnom Vnom
A B
A B
Vrefmin Vrefmin
Vmin C Vmin
C
I I
ICrated Capacitive Inductive ILrated ICrated Capacitive Inductive ILrated
Fig. 10 Comparison of a STATCOM and an SVC – V-I Characteristics
Vnom: The nominal AC system voltage.

Vmaxcont: The maximum voltage at which the system is able to operate continuously.
Vrefmax: The maximum control system reference voltage.
Vrefmin: The minimum control system reference voltage
Vov: The maximum overvoltage at which the system is designed to operate.
Vmin: The minimum voltage at which the semiconductor valves can be operated.
IC: Capacitive output current
IL: Inductive output current.
As can be seen, a STATCOM can provide rated output reactive current even at
very low voltages. This cannot be accomplished by an SVC, since its reactive current
is dependent on the variations of the terminal voltage. However, for most transmis-
sion system applications, the performance of the shunt FACTS controllers below
80% of the nominal transmission system voltage is of limited value1. However, in
some applications, the STATCOMs respond faster than the SVC, and its capability of
boosting the low voltage can be important, e.g., for industrial and systems especially
sensitive to short-term AC voltage perturbations.
The low-voltage ride-through capability of the compensator should be specified
by the purchaser or the system operator in published Grid Codes. The needs of
a power system that can be provided by a STATCOM are listed below (CIGRE TB
144 1999).
• Voltage regulation and control

• Increase of steady-state power transfer capacity
• Increase of transient stability margin
• Damping of power system oscillations
1
STATCOMs can provide assistance to industrial and commercial equipment subjected to very low
voltages by boosting voltages faster than what is possible using capacitors.
• Damping of subsynchronous power system oscillations

• Balanced loading of individual phases
• Reactive compensation of AC-DC converters and HVDC links
• Power quality improvement
• Flicker control
• Application involving energy storage
Table 2 Comparison of SVCs and STATCOMs

Attributes SVC STATCOM
Semiconductor device Thyristor IGBTs or any other high-power
device with turn-off capability
V/I characteristic Superior overvoltage Superior undervoltage performance
performance
Application Bulk transmission system and High/medium/low voltage (T&D)
in the past in industrial
applications
Reactive power range Branches optimally designed Naturally symmetrical;
for any range asymmetrical ranges achieved with
hybrid STATCOM/TSC/TSR (See
Fig. 11)
Short circuit level hrated/SCC > 3–4a (lower Virtually any Qrated/SCC
requirement values require advanced
control strategies)
Valve reaction time half-cycle 1–2 ms
–inherent switching
frequency of the valves
Low-frequency Higher content due to TCR Negligible content if properly
harmonics harmonic generation controlled
High-frequency Low content Very low content but still needs to
harmonics (>30th) be analyzed
Power quality (flicker, Good capability for voltage Superior performance at fast load
voltage sags, load sags variations; active filter capability
balancing, active filters) (when properly dimensioned)
Availabilityb High (>99%) High (>99%)
Footprint Larger depending on the Small; larger for hybrid
rating and number of STATCOMs
branches
Losses Lower total losses than Lower no load losses than SVC at
STATCOM at full capacitive/ 0 Mvar
reactive operation
Renewables and More difficult to comply with Easier integration for achieving
distributed generation some Grid Codes Grid Code compliance
Technology status Mature with limited scope for Technology is mature but still
valve improvements; well- improving; number of applications
known among utilities increasing particularly at lower
voltages
a
Qrated = SVC or STATCOM rated reactive power; SCC = short circuit capacity
b
Availability should be driven by the power system and customer requirements, not from the
technology
Except for the last bullet, all other features can also be provided by SVCs.
It is important to highlight that if an energy source, such as a battery bank, is
connected to the VSC, then the VSC is able to absorb energy and deliver this
energy to the AC network. This concept is important because it helps to develop
the theory behind a UPFC which is described in Sect. 7 (Larsen et al. 1992; Gyugyi
et al. 1995).
Table 2 shows a comprehensive comparison between STATCOM and SVC,
providing the pros and cons of these FACTS controllers (Tenório 2014)
It is worth mentioning that for overload inductive cycles such as the one
described in Table 1, a STATCOM is not able to respond unless the semicon-
ductor valve is designed for the maximum overvoltage, which may be costly.
This is due to the high overvoltages demanded by power system with long
lines and their respective switching transients. The use of thyristor-switched
reactors (TSR) and/or thyristor-switched capacitors (TSC) combined with
STATCOM has emerged for these transient overvoltage conditions. This is
known as hybrid STATCOMs and brings out cost-effective design for applica-
tions that require the control of high transient overvoltages (TOV) or asym-
metrical rating output. Combining the technologies of multilevel VSC
(STATCOM) and the thyristor-based SVC results in an optimized FACTS
controller regarding robustness, security and reliability, under- and overvoltage
performance, TOV at fault clearing, speed of response, losses, etc. (Halonen
and Bostrom 2015).
A hybrid STATCOM schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 11.
A more detailed technical description of the STATCOM can be found in ▶ Chap. 7,
“Technical Description of Static Compensators (STATCOM).” Application examples
of the STATCOM can be found in ▶ Chap. 13, “Application Examples of
STATCOM.”
Fig. 11 Hybrid STATCOM/

TSR/TSC
Vdc Vdc
VSC TSR TSC

5 Description and Functions of TCSCs
As described in ▶ Chap. 3, “AC Network Control Using Conventional Means,”

series compensation is a proven technology that meets different needs of power
systems. Series capacitors have been successfully used for many years in long-
distance overhead transmission lines to improve the stability and power transfer
capacity in transmission systems.
Series capacitors have the effect of inserting a voltage in series with the trans-
mission line whose polarity is opposite to the inductive voltage drop across the line.
This results in a decrease of the apparent reactance of the transmission line. It is then
possible to achieve high real power flows continuously through the line or by
controlling the series reactance of the capacitor bank stepwise, high power flows
for short time during emergency loading conditions.
If control is added to a fixed capacitor, the inserted capacitor reactance can vary
physically or virtually. Such control means may be based on mechanical switching
equipment or power electronic devices. The insertion of a series capacitor element
can be accomplished in two to five cycles depending on the type of switches that are
used for the insertion operations. Once the additional series compensation is
switched in, typically it will remain inserted until the operators have managed the
situation that led to the need for the insertion before the inserted series capacitor
element will be bypassed. This is in recognition of the fact that mechanical switching
is relatively slow and has a limited duty cycle. When using power electronics, the
effective capacitance inserted can be controlled very fast, and the constraints
resulting from the use of conventional switches are removed, and the power flow
can be controlled in accordance with preset strategies.
The TCSC can provide the following benefits:
• Compensation of long transmission lines to increase power flows

• Control of power flow in lines, e.g., to prevent loop-flows of real power or prevent
overloading of other lines
• Improvement of transient stability and dynamic stability (power oscillation damping)
More detailed technical description of the TCSC is provided in ▶ Chap. 8,

“Technical Description of Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC).”
5.1 Principle of Operation
TCSC is equipment that belongs to what is generically called “Controllable Series

Capacitor.” For controllable series capacitors, Eq. 1 becomes Eq. 8.
V sV r
Psr ¼ sin δsr (8)
X Xc
where X is the line reactance and Xc is the net reactance of the controllable series
capacitor. Therefore, the higher Xc, the higher the transmitted power.
If Xc is controlled, the power flow can be adjusted to meet power system

requirements. It is usual to define the factor λ=Xc/X as a compensation degree of
the transmission line. Then the Eq. 8 may be written as:
V sV r
Psr ¼ sin δsr (9)
X ð1 λÞ
The TCSC is a conventional fixed series capacitor in parallel with a thyristor-

controlled reactor, similar to those used in SVCs except there is at least one
reactor used for each of the three AC phases: that is, the controlled reactors
are not connected to the high-voltage buses by means of a coupling
transformer. Figure 12a shows a simplified schematic diagram of a TCSC
and the main components of the TCSC. Figure 12b highlights the metal
oxide varistors (MOV) typically used to protect the series capacitor
when the current passing through the series capacitor bank increases due to short
circuits.
The TCSC is used for applications that require sophisticated, continuous, and fast
control of the series impedance of a transmission line. Each thyristor valve is
triggered twice per cycle. Since there is one valve per phase, the TCSC’s switching
Fig. 12 Generic schematic a Compensated

diagram of a TCSC Transmission Line TCSC
Local
Signal
Network
Elements
Ref Main Firing
Control Control
Supplementary
Control
Remote
Signals
b MOV
I line
C
Thyristor
Pair
Control System
To Buckley Bypass To Slatt

Disconnect
Isolation
Isolation Disconnect
Disconnect TCSC (with Resistor)
Module
Series
Capacitor
Varistor
Reactor
Thyristor
Reactor Valve
Bypass
Breaker
Fig. 13 Single line diagram of Slatt TCSC – six-module TCSC commissioned in the USA
frequency in steady state is six times the power frequency. That is, the TCSC can
begin to respond to a change in its operating point within just a few milliseconds.
The capacitor is effectively bypassed if the thyristors are triggered such that the
reactor carries continuous current. In this operating mode, the TCSC can be
represented by a small series reactor.
TCSCs can be a single module as shown in Fig. 12b or multi-module, i.e., with
several modules in series, which allow the TCSC impedance to be controlled
continuously and/or stepwise for each TCSC module.
Figure 13 shows the single line diagram of a multi-module TCSC,
which was commissioned in the USA, Slatt Substation, in the 1990s (CIGRE TB
554 2013; Piwko et al. 1994). The Slatt TCSC comprises six identical
TCSC modules connected in series. Each module consists of a capacitor and
a thyristor valve with its associated reactor and a varistor. The modules
are independent and each one can operate either bypassed or inserted. When
a module is bypassed, the thyristors are triggered for full conduction, and
the effective reactance is slightly inductive due to the reactor in series with
the valve. This design enables control of the power flows in the line over a
wide range. However, other installed systems do not require this capability
and therefore are typically designed to look like one module shown in the Slatt
diagram.
The impedance characteristic of a typical TCSC seen from fundamental fre-
quency is shown in Fig. 14, which depicts a resonance point, around 143 electrical
degrees, that has to be avoided by the control system.
TCSCs usually work in a range from the resonant point, with some safety margin,
up to 180 electrical degrees, when the TCR is blocked and the TCSC impedance is
its natural series capacitor reactance. Close to the resonant point, the TCSC develops
its maximum capacitive impedance. The inductive range is not usually used, except
at the firing angle of 90 electrical degrees at which the inductive reactance is given
by Eq. 10.
Resonance
Fig. 14 Typical TCSC fundamental Impedance
ðX C X L Þ
X TCSC ¼ j (10)
ðX C X L Þ
It is important to note that the reactance boost is due to the current through the
capacitor and the inductor (when the TCR is conducting). This causes the
non-sinusoidal voltage boost (jump) as seen in Fig. 15. Note that the line current
continues to be almost sinusoidal, and the harmonic currents are primarily circulat-
ing through the capacitor and inductor only (Edris 1994).
The natural resonant frequency of the TCSC circuit, k, is given by Eq. 11,
expressed in per unit of the fundamental frequency (Tenório 1995).
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
k¼ X C =X L pu (11)
Furthermore, the firing angle α at which the TCSC develops a resonance can be
expressed by Eq. 12.
π
αr ¼ π ð2n 1Þ: rd for n ¼ 1,2, . . . (12)
2k
The principle of operation of a TCSC depends on the function that the TCSC
performs. The main functions and/or applications are:
• Damping interarea power oscillations

• Transient stability improvement
• Damping subsynchronous resonance caused by torsional oscillations
20
VC
15
Voltage Boost
10
VC/IC/IR/lline [V,A]
5 IC
Iline
0
IR
-5
-10
-15
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250
wt (electrical degrees)
Fig. 15 Currents (capacitor & inductor) and voltage waveshapes of a TCSC – voltage boost when
the TCR starts conducting
• Power flow control

• Fault current limiter
Using the TCSC it is evident from Eq. 9 that it would be possible to control the
power flow through a transmission line by changing the control angle in the
capacitive range by retarding the triggering point for the thyristor valves thereby
boosting the degree of line compensation as shown in Fig. 14 without changing the
angle δsr. That is, the line can be operated with a higher degree of compensation than,
as discussed in ▶ Chap. 3, “AC Network Control Using Conventional Means,” is
typically applied using fixed series compensation systems. The ability of the TCSC
to provide damping of low damped oscillatory modes in the power system in
addition to the ability of the TCSC to provide damping of large system swings
after a system disturbance makes it possible to safely use a higher compensation
degree with TCSC than for fixed compensation systems.
5.1.1 Damping Interarea Power Oscillations

TCSCs are usually used as a part of the line compensation in such a way as to
dynamically control the line reactance (CIGRE TB 554 2013). TCSCs are usually
installed in addition to a fixed series capacitor, which provide the main part of the
line compensation. The fixed series capacitor provides the increase of synchronizing
torque; therefore, it increases the transient stability of the power system. The TCSC
provides damping torque through its reactance modulation.
MASTER + Vref
CONTROL -
.
V.
TCSC P
POD
Control
SYSTEM-1 TCSC SYSTEM-2
Fig. 16 Schematic diagram of two power systems interconnected by a fixed series capacitor and
a TCSC
Fig. 16 shows a schematic diagram of two power systems interconnected by

a fixed series capacitor and a TCSC compensated transmission line (CIGRE TB
554 2013).
When two power systems are interconnected by an AC link, a low frequency,
interarea mode is established. The larger the two system inertias, the lower the
interarea mode frequency. Furthermore, the weaker the AC link capacity, the lower
the interarea mode frequency.
The international experience with Power System Stabilizers (PSS) usage on
generators for damping electromechanical frequencies is widespread (Kundur
1994). However, the range of electromechanical frequencies for PSS usage lies
within 0.5–2.0 Hz. For lower frequencies (<0.3 Hz), however, effective damping
is considered to be difficult to attain (Gama et al. 1998). For those lower frequencies,
TCSCs can provide a very robust solution to damp interarea power oscillation
modes. One of the first commercial applications of TCSCs to damp an interarea
mode was put in operation in 1999 for the North-South interconnection in Brazil
(CIGRE TB 554 2013 and Gama et al. 1998). See also ▶ Chap. 14, “Application
Examples of the Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor.”
It can be demonstrated that for a TCSC to provide pure damping, its reactance has
to be proportional to the integral of the active power through the TCSC. The control
strategy to fight the interarea mode is simply to modulate the TCSC reactance as a
pure integral function. It is possible to use two different control strategies to realize
this POD function (Gama et al. 2000).
• Realization with Phasor Estimation (Ängquist and Gama 2001) – this feature was
deployed in the North-South interconnection in Brazil for the Imperatriz TCSC
(North terminal, Imperatriz substation). This POD comprises a phase-locked loop
(PLL) to extract the power oscillation signal and applies a phase angle displace-
ment (around 90 electrical degrees) lagging the power oscillation to modulate the
TCSC reactance.
• Realization with Washout and Lead-Lag Blocks – in this POD the washout filter
is used to remove the DC component of the oscillation signal, and the lead-lag
compensation provides the 90-degree lag at the oscillation frequency. This feature
4
No TCSC POD active North TCSC POD active Both TCSC PODs active
1000 1000 1000
800 800 800
600 600 600
400 400 400
Pline (MW)
Pline (MW)
Pline (MW)
200 200 200
0 0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
time (sec) time (sec) time (sec)
10 10
0 0
-10 -10
X TCSC
X TCSC
-20 -20
-30 -30
AC Network Control Using FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems). . .
-40 -40
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
time (sec) time (sec)
Fig. 17 Commissioning of North-South interconnection TCSCs – generator trip (300 MW) in Tucuruí Power Plant (North side)
113
was deployed in the North-South interconnection in Brazil for the Serra da Mesa
TCSC (South terminal, Serra da Mesa Substation).
To exemplify the damping of interarea mode, an actual recording of TCSC power

and reactance is shown in Fig. 17. This figure shows a generator trip (300 MW, one
generator of Tucuruí Hydropower Plant, North side) of the Brazilian North-South
interconnection in Brazil in different TCSC conditions.
As can be seen, if both TCSC PODs are disabled, the oscillations start growing,
and the system becomes unstable. However, if the TCSC POD North is active, the
North-South interconnection remains stable and restores its original power after
approximately 70 s. The same applies if both TCSC PODs are active. Note that
when the North TCSC POD is active, the controls switch the TCSC into TSR mode
(thyristor-switched reactor) in such a way that the TCSC impedance becomes
inductive (XTCSC >0). A controlled change of the TCSC reactance into TSR mode
is very important to damp the power oscillations effectively and also avoids the
operating region close to the parallel resonance shown in Fig. 15.
5.1.2 Fault Current Limiter

The TCSC’s ability to rapidly vary its impedance continuously or stepwise can be used
to limit fault currents. The TCSC can change from a capacitive range of operation to a
fixed inductive impedance, expressed by Eq. 9, through the TSR mode. This func-
tionality takes full advantage of the inherent speed of solid-state devices.
Many TCSCs in operation use the TSR mode to protect itself against high short
circuit currents and inherently limit the current due to the inductive reactance
developed when the TCR is fired at 90 electrical degrees.
Ideally, to perform as a fault current limiter, the TCSC should be designed to
withstand the short circuit current and develop a high inductive impedance. Therefore,
it is necessary to change some characteristics of the TCSC, such as equipment ratings
and the natural resonance frequency of the LC (inductance-capacitance) circuit.
To limit the fault current or power flow, one could just add a single reactance in
series with the transmission line. Such a scheme is sometimes used for industrial
applications. However, this has some disadvantages during steady-state operation
including an increase of power losses and voltage drop as a result of the increased
inductive line reactance. Although TCSCs also add losses to the power system, they
may be located and controlled in such a way as to decrease the overall losses, by
diverting the power flow to lines with lower power loss. The proper design of
a TCSC for current limiting applications is outside the scope of this chapter.
Simulation results are shown in Fig. 18, demonstrating the use of a TCSC as a fault
current limiter (Tenório 1995). The strategy used for detecting the fault current was
based on the rate of rise of the line current. The fault applied was a three-phase short
circuit that remains up to the end of the simulation. The power system simulated
consists of a 100 km, 230 kV transmission line that feeds three loads. The short circuit
capacity from the generation is 10 GVA. The fault started at 30 ms, and it was located
at the opposite end from the TCSC on the 230 kV transmission line.
Fig. 18 Fault currents for phases a, b, and c fault current amplitude (dotted green: with TCSC/solid
red: without TCSC)
Figure 18 clearly demonstrate the current limitation resulting from using a TCSC
in this power system
5.1.3 Damping Subsynchronous Torsional Oscillations

According to the IEEE Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR) Working Group (IEEE
1980), subsynchronous oscillation (SSO) is “an electric power system condition
where the electric network exchanges significant energy with a turbine-generator
at one or more of the natural frequencies of the combined system below the
synchronous frequency of the system following a disturbance from the equilibrium.”
The term subsynchronous resonance is a particular case and describes the electro-
mechanical subsynchronous oscillations associated with turbine-generator shafts
and a series capacitor compensated power system when the oscillatory energy
exchanged tends to grow. Figure 19 shows a simple power system that models the
IEEE first benchmark system for SSR studies (IEEE 1977).
For a simple power system such as that shown in Fig. 19, the natural electrical
frequency is given by equation:
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 XC
f e ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ f o (13)
2π LC XL
where f0 is the electrical frequency corresponding to the synchronous frequency

under ideal conditions), XC is the series capacitor reactance, and XL is the total
reactance of the power system. However, complex power systems often have more
than one resonant frequency and the analysis is more complex (Piwko et al. 1996).
When the power system resonance is excited, it causes oscillating currents
at electrical frequency fe in the stator, which give rise to rotor currents at sub-
synchronous ( fm=fofe) and supersynchronous ( fm=fo+fe) frequencies. If the
subsynchronous frequency is near a torsional mode of oscillation, SSR problems
may occur and could lead to the destruction of the generator shaft due to fatigue.
There are different ways of identifying interactions between the turbine-generator
shafts and power systems. These phenomena can be divided into self-excitation and
transient torques. The self-excitation phenomena can be divided further into two types:
induction generation effect and torsional interaction (Tenório 1995; Anderson et al. 1990).
The TCSC can be designed to produce an inductive equivalent impedance at
a range of subsynchronous frequencies. With this approach, the TCSC is neutral
from an SSR standpoint within this range (Tenório 1995).
Fig. 19 Single line diagram of the IEEE first benchmark system

In addition to the control system based on phase angle control, there is a control
method used by some TCSCs called SVR (Synchronous Voltage Reversal) scheme.
This control method has been proposed in (Ängquist et al. 1994). In this method
the TCSC is controlled in terms of equivalent instantaneous voltage reversals.
Instead of controlling directly the thyristor firing angle in order to set a determined
TCSC reactance, this method controls the instant when the capacitor voltage reverses
its polarity. At this instant the line current is at its maximum value. According to
Ängquist, the capability of accomplishing controllable voltage reversals can be
regarded as the main mechanism of interaction between the TCSC and the transmis-
sion system. Note that in this approach, it is assumed that the finite time in
which capacitor voltage reverses its polarity (during thyristor conduction) can be
approximated by an instantaneous voltage reversal (voltage boost) instead of
a voltage ramp, as can be seen in Fig. 20 (Ängquist et al. 1996).
To illustrate the capability of TCSCs of damping subsynchronous torsional
oscillations, some simulation results are shown in Figs. 21 and 22. Both results
were obtained by running a TCSC model developed in the ATP program (Tenório
1995 and Tenório et al. 1998).
A simulation was carried out considering a 50 Ω series capacitor, which meant
a compensation degree of approximately 35% in the power system shown in Fig. 19.
According to Equation 13, the theoretical resonant frequency excited due to the short
circuit is 27.7 Hz.
The complementary frequency, i.e., 32.3 Hz (60–27.7), coincides with the fourth
torsional mode of oscillation at 32.3 Hz. As a result there is a destabilization of this
mode of oscillation that leads to a torsional interaction.
Fig. 20 Instantaneous
LINE
voltage reversal in steady state
CURRENT
CAPACITOR
VOLTAGE
BOOST
t
40.00
TORQUE3 (PU)
0.00
-40.00
0.00 5.00 10.00
TIME(S)
60.00
TORQUE4 (PU)
0.00
-60.00
0.00 5.00 10.00
TIME(S)
Fig. 21 IEEE first benchmark with Xc=50 Ω – buildup of torsional oscillations
1.00
TORQUE3 (PU)
0.00
-1.00
0.00 5.00 10.00

TIME(S)
1.00
TORQUE4 (PU)
0.00
-1.00
0.00 5.00 10.00

TIME(S)
Fig. 22 IEEE first benchmark with TCSC reactance order at 50 Ω – slightly damped torsional
oscillations
If a TCSC is inserted in the power system with a reactance order equal to 50 Ω, no

SSR interaction is observed. Figure 22 shows torques 3 and 4 on the shaft which are
slightly damped. Spectral analysis shows that no resonant frequency is found below
60 Hz (fundamental frequency). This demonstrates that from the network standpoint,
at SSO frequencies, the TCSC does not behave as a capacitor; rather it develops
inductive-resistive behavior.
A properly designed TCSC will enhance power system stability and avoid the risk
of SSR problems. In addition, the transient torques can be decreased by action of the
TCSC, and this performance can be improved by using an SSDC (Subsynchronous
Damping Control).
5.1.4 Power Flow Control

Increasing the firing angle α toward the resonant point can only be used to dynam-
ically control the TCSC impedance. It is worth remembering that the increase of
TCSC impedance is a function of the current that passes through it. Figure 23 shows
a typical impedance-current chart for a TCSC rated at 1500 A. As can be seen, the
higher the TCSC current, the lower the TCSC impedance.
For a single-module TCSC, it is possible to vary the TCSC impedance in
accordance with its impedance-current characteristic, but at nominal current, the
boost factor (XTCSC/XC) is typically about 1.20 pu. Therefore, running the TCSC at
3 pu of impedance is only possible for a limited period of time, depending on the
operating line current (see Fig. 23). Controlling the active power flow using only
a single TCSC module per phase seems not to be possible due to natural constraints
of the capacitor bank and varistor rating.
XTCSC
(pu)
XC Continuous
3,0
30 min. Overload
10 sec. Overload
Capacitive
Xef
1,2
1,0
Xc
Nominal Current
Line Current (A)
0,0
X bypass 1500 1800 2700 3600
–0,5
Inductive
Fig. 23 Typical impedance-current capability characteristic (In = 1500 A)

Due to Eq. 1, it is not possible to change the sign of sine of δ; therefore, TCSCs
are not capable of reversing the active power flow. To control the power flow in
a transmission line, it would be necessary to install multi-module TCSCs and use
them in a stepwise strategy, which may result in high costs of the TCSC but might
still be a cost-effective approach if the power flow control capability can be used to
schedule the power flows through desired transmission corridors.
A more detailed technical description of the TCSC can be found in ▶ Chap. 8,
“Technical Description of Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC).” Appli-
cation examples of the TCSC can be found in ▶ Chap. 14, “Application Examples of
the Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor.”
6 Description and Functions of SSSCs
The Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) as described by CIGRE (CIGRE

TB 371 2009) comprises a VSC connected in series with a transmission line, as shown
in Fig. 24. It provides a voltage in series with the line that emulates either a capacitor or
a reactor, thus defining a degree of series compensation. Unlike the TCSCs, because
the SSSC injects a voltage in quadrature with the line current instead of modulating the
line’s impedance, SSSCs can operate in a wide reactive power range.
As a VSC it can provide a superior performance when compared to thyristor-
based series controllers. For instance, being a voltage source, it can provide series
compensation even at low but higher than zero line currents, i.e., the SSSC com-
pensates the line independently of the line current, but if the line current is zero, it
might need to have a source for charging of the DC side capacitor at startup.
One issue related to the series connection of the converter, via a series trans-
former, is the occurrence of disturbances, e.g., line faults, leading to high line
currents that cannot be handled by the semiconductor valve. Therefore, a fast bypass
of the SSSC, resulting in zero inserted voltage, is always required for protection of
the SSSC. The bypass function must operate with a very short delay requiring a
solid-state bypass switch using high power thyristors. Mechanical, high-speed
Fig. 24 Schematic diagram VC

of an SSSC (CIGRE TB 371)
l l
+ -
Vdo
Static Synchronous
Series Compensator
- SSSC -
bypass switches are also needed to protect the solid-state bypass switches from being
overloaded. Therefore, after a mechanical bypass operation, there will be some delay
before the SSSC can be put back into operation. Also, the coupling transformer adds
cost and introduces losses in the circuit. That is, there will be a cost and loss penalty
in the evaluation of the SSSC-type system, compared with a TCSC. However, an
SSSC does not require a platform, which reduces the visual impact.
The main functions of the SSSCs are similar to those of TCSCs. According to
CIGRE (CIGRE TB 371 2009), the main functions of SSSCs for a power system are
in many ways similar to the functional requirements of a TCSC system:
• Compensation of long transmission lines to increase power flows

• Control of power flow in lines, e.g., to prevent loop flows of real power or prevent
overloading of other lines
• Receiving end voltage regulation of a radial line
• Improvement of transient stability and dynamic stability (power oscillation damping)
A more detailed technical description of the SSSC can be found in ▶ Chap. 9,

“Technical Description of the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) and Its
Potential Variations.” Application examples of the SSSC can be found in ▶ Chap.
15, “Application Examples of UPFC and Its Variants.”
7 Description and Functions of UPFCs
Combined series-shunt compensation has the ability to decrease the apparent trans-
mission line length by using series compensation and at the same time to control the
line charging by using shunt compensation. In steady-state these compensations
increase the surge impedance loading (SIL) of the transmission line permitting an
increase in its transmission capacity, besides controlling the power flow (phase angle
control). In addition, series-shunt compensation can enhance the power systems in
different ways, e.g., by providing improvement of transient stability and damping of
power oscillations, reactive power and voltage control/supply, dynamic load-flow
control, etc.
Traditionally AC power systems have been designed making use of mechanically
switched series and shunt compensation in addition to voltage regulating equipment
and phase-shifting transformers to control power flows (CIGRE TB 160 2000).
Active and reactive power within an AC network are dependent on the voltages,
phase angle, and impedance of the sending and receiving ends, as shown in Eqs. 1
through 4. If one can control these quantities, then it is possible to develop
a universal controller for AC systems. These ideas have been pursued for a long
time. The UPFC stands for unified power flow controller, and it provides controlla-
bility and flexibility for AC power systems.
The UPFCs can act as STATCOMs and/or SSSCs in a joint control strategy and
can inject active power into the line from the shunt connected VSC in the STATCOM
into the series connected VSC. This can be used in both steady-state and dynamic
Fig. 25 Schematic diagram of a UPFC
mode to improve power system performance. In addition to this primary goal, other
functions can be added (CIGRE TB 160 2000):

• Power oscillation damping
• Voltage stability improvement
A schematic diagram of a UPFC can be seen in Fig. 25. The multi-compensating

functions of a UPFC are achieved by means of two “back-to-back” VSCs coupled to
a DC link capacitor, as indicated in Fig. 25.
Converter 2 injects a power frequency voltage in series with the transmission line.
The magnitude and phase angle of the injected positive sequence voltage are fully
controllable. Depending on the phase angle of the voltage, converter 2 can control
the level of series compensation or phase angle shifting. The series compensation
level is defined by the component of the injected voltage in quadrature with the
transmission line current. The component of injected voltage in quadrature with the
transmission line voltage defines the phase angle control.
The semiconductor switches used in converter 2 will be exposed to fault currents
flowing through the AC line in which the UPFC is connected. The short circuit duty
of these semiconductor switches might not be able to withstand the short circuit
duties and may require fast-acting bypass switches to be installed that shunts the
fault currents away from the converter (TB 160 2000). High power thyristor switches
can be used for this, in which case the series converter can be put back into operation
quickly after the cause of the short circuit currents have been eliminated (CIGRE TB
371 2009). Mechanical bypass switches might be used and will probably have to be
installed to protect the thyristor switches. However, the restoration of the UPFC’s
operation might then be delayed until the mechanical bypass switches have been
opened again.
Converter 1 has the basic function of supplying or absorbing the active power
demanded by converter 2. In addition, converter 1 can act as a STATCOM, i.e., it can
absorb or generate reactive power to the transmission system (Tenório 1995).
The UPFC is the most complete and versatile of all FACTS controllers analyzed.
It can use different control strategies, and it is able to control all quantities related
to the power transfer and active and reactive power equations in a unified manner.
That is, it can control the impedance of the line, the phase angles between the ends of
the line, and the voltage at the point where the UPFC is connected. However, for
long lines where distributed reactive compensation systems are needed and where
shunt and series compensation systems might not be needed at the same points of the
line, distributed UPFC systems might not be a practical, cost-effective approach.
A more detailed technical description of the UPFC can be found in ▶ Chap. 9,
“Technical Description of the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) and Its
Potential Variations.” Application examples of the UPFC can be found in ▶ Chap.
15, “Application Examples of UPFC and Its Variants.”
8 Power Losses in FACTS Controllers
The different FACTS controller options have different degrees of efficiency. Many
FACTS controllers operate with outputs that vary with the operation of the power
system. That is, there are daily, weekly, and seasonal duty cycles for these control-
lers. For these, both load and no load losses have to be considered. Some FACTS
controllers are used only for specific contingencies. In that case, only the no load
losses need to be considered.
Most FACTS controllers include a power transformer for connection to the AC
system. The no load and load losses in these transformers add to the losses in the
power electronic subsystems in the FACTS controllers. The only FACTS controller
that is not connected to the power system by means of a transformer is the TCSCs
since they are placed on insulated platforms at power line potential.
9 System Security and Reliability
The introduction of FACTS technologies has raised concerns for the continued
reliability of the power system. These questions are legitimate because FACTS
does increase the stress level in the systems. However, FACTS technologies are
not all new. Systems like HVDC behave in much the same way, and these systems
have been successfully applied for decades. We also have experience from applica-
tions of SVCs since the late 1970s. Although there have been some unexpected
problems resulting from installation of HVDC and static-var systems (an example is
subsynchronous interactions between HVDC systems and nearby located turbo
generators), all of these problems have been solved without many major problems.
Thus, there is a significant experience base from which to build when FACTS is
more widely introduced. The problems to consider are:
• Will a failure of a FACTS controller (N-1 case) lead to security problems (N-2+
case)? That is, will the system become unstable for an outage of a FACTS
controller itself or cause a cascading failure of the system?
• Will a system disturbance with the loss of some part of the system (N-1 situation)
also lead to an outage of the FACTS controllers (N-2+ situation)?
• Will an outage of the auxiliary power systems lead to a situation that disables the
entire FACTS controller and potentially cause equipment damage that prevents
restoration of the operation? For example, redundant cooling pumps is not
sufficient if the power to run the cooling pumps is lost or if a single source of
raw water to the heat exchanges is lost. That is, single points of failures in the
support systems must be considered when doing a system security study.
• Will FACTS controllers interact destructively with other FACTS controllers,
HVDC systems or PSSs, etc.?
These aspects of FACTS controller installations need to be carefully studied to

ensure that any potential system security issues are identified and that the operating
domains and needs for redundancies within the FACTS controllers are properly
included in the FACTS controller specifications.
The reliability of the available FACTS controllers discussed in this chapter are
proven from many years of use. Some of the controllers are modular and might
then be able to operate in a degraded mode, which might provide higher
availability. Also, FACTS controllers with lower complexity could also be an
advantage.
Based on comparisons with mature HVDC and SVC technologies, it can be
assumed that the failure rate of the semiconductor components will be low.
Semiconductor device redundancy is normally used to avoid forced outages for
replacement of semiconductor devices. Too much redundancy is not desirable
because it adds costs and losses. The coupling transformers used in FACTS control-
lers are similar to those used as generator step-up transformers or distribution step-
down transformers, which are based on proven technologies.
The control equipment used in FACTS controllers is in many respects similar to
the types of systems used in HVDC converter stations. The major issue is to have
a maintainable life for the expected useful operating life of the FACTS controllers.
This is an issue that affects all modern, digital control and protection systems
because the design life of this type of equipment is typically short.
In conclusion, the reliability of modern FACTS controllers can be expected to
be good.
10 Conclusions
The main emphasis in this chapter has been to describe the proven FACTS concepts,
their characteristics, and in principle their applications in power systems to meet
ever-changing needs of system operators and planners. Therefore, in this chapter,
other FACTS controllers that have been proposed or might be under development
have not been included.
In this chapter, the main performance characteristics of the proven FACTS
controllers have been provided to guide the readers, who might consider procure-
ment of FACTS controllers. However, it is not sufficient to consider only technical
performance aspects of FACTS controllers. In addition to the performance require-
ments, costs (including cost of losses), reliability, complexity, and the need for
distributed compensation in power systems must also be considered. When solutions
to system issues can be resolved using breaker-switched equipment, e.g., capacitors
or reactors, or by addition of power oscillation dampers in generators, then such
solutions are likely to provide the cheapest option. However, when these measures
cannot meet the required performance, then FACTS controllers should be considered
and may be able to achieve the required performance without the need for construc-
tion of additional generators, overhead lines or cables, or at least to defer these
investments.
References
Anderson, P.M., Farmer, R.G.: Series Compensation of Power System, p. 49. PUBLSH! Inc.,
Encinitas (1996)
Anderson, P.M., Agrawal, B.L., Van Ness, J.E.: Subsynchronous Resonance in Power Systems.
IEEE Press, New York (1990)
Ängquist, L.: Synchronous Voltage Reversal Control of Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor,
Ph.D. thesis. Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm (2002)
Ängquist, L., Gama, C.A.: Damping Algorithm Based on Phasor Estimation. IEEE WM, Columbus
(2001)
Ängquist, L., Ingeström, G., Othman, H.: Synchronous voltage reversal (SVR) scheme – a new
control method for thyristor controlled series capacitors, Flexible AC Transmission System
(FACTS 3): The Future in High-Voltage Transmission, 5–7 Oct. Baltimore (1994)
Ängquist, L., Ingeström, G., Jönsson, H-Å.: Dynamical Performance of TCSC Schemes, paper
14-302, CIGRÉ Session (1996)
CIGRE TB 144: Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM), WG 14.19, Cigre Technical
Brochure TB 144, Paris (1999)
CIGRE TB 160: Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC), Cigre Technical Brochure 160. Paris
(2000)
CIGRE TB 371: Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC), Cigre Technical Brochure
371, Paris (2009)
CIGRE TB 554: Performance Evaluation and Applications Review of Existing Thyristor Control
Series Capacitor Devices –TCSC; Technical Brochure 554. Cigre, Paris (2013)
CIGRE TB 663: Guidelines for the procurement and testing of STATCOMS, Cigre Technical
Brochure TB 663, Paris (2016)
CIGRE TB 78: Voltage and Current Stresses on Thyristor Valves for Static Var Compensators,
CIGRE Technical Brochure 78 (1993)
Edris, A.A.: Flexible AC Transmission Systems – The State of the Art, IV SEPOPE, paper IP17,
Foz do Iguaçu (1994)
Elgerd, O.L.: Electric Energy Systems Theory – An Introduction, chapter 2, Second edition,
International Student edition. McGraw-Hill International Company, Tokyo (1983)
Gama, C.A., Leoni, R.L., Gribel, J., Eiras, M.J., Ping, W., Ricardo, A., Cavalcanti, J., Tenório, R.:
Brazilian North-South Interconnection – Application Of Thyristor Controlled Series
Compensation (TCSC) To Damp Inter-Area Oscillation Mode, paper 14-101. Cigre, Paris (1998)
Gama, C., Ängquist, L., Ingeström, G., Noroozian, M.: Commissioning and Operative Experience
of TCSC for Damping Power Oscillation in the Brazilian North-South Interconnection, paper
14-104, CIGRÉ Session (2000)
Gyugyi, L., Schauder, C.D., Williams, S.L., Rietman, T.R., Torgerson, D.R., Edris, A.: The unified
power flow controller: a new approach to power transmission controller. IEEE Trans. Power
Delivery. 10(2), 1085–1097 (1995)
Halonen, M., Bostrom, A.: Hybrid STATCOM Systems Based on Multilevel VSC and SVC
Technology, HVDC and Power Electronics International Colloquium. Cigre, Agra (2015)
IEEE Subsynchronous Resonance Task Force: First benchmark model for computer simulation of
subsynchronous resonance. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. PAS-96(5), 1565–1572 (1977)
IEEE Subsynchronous Resonance Working Group: Proposed terms and definitions for sub-
synchronous oscillations. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. PAS-99(2), 506–511 (1980)
Kundur, P.: Power System Stability and Control. McGraw-Hill, Inc, New York (1994)
Larsen, E.V., Miller, N.W., Nilsson, S.L., Lindgren, S.R.: Benefits of GTO-based compensation
systems for electric utility applications. IEEE Trans. Power Delivery. 7(4), 2056 (1992)
Piwko, R.J., Wegner, C.A., Damsky, B.L., Furumasu, B.C., Eden, J.D.: The Slatt thyristor-
controlled series capacitor project – design, installation, commissioning and system testing,
CIGRE, paper 14-104, Paris (1994)
Piwko, R.J., Wegner, C.A., Kinney, S.J., Eden, J.D.: Subsynchronous resonance performance tests
of the slatt thyristor-controlled series capacitor. IEEE Trans. Power Delivery. 11(2), 1112 (1996)
Tenório, A.R.M.: A Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor Model for Electromagnetic Transient
Studies, MSc thesis, University of Manchester, UK (1995)
Tenório, A.R.M.: SVCs vs STATCOMs, Contribution to PS2/Q2.7, Cigre Session, Paris (2014)
Tenório, A.R.M., Carvalho, A.R., Ping, W.W.: Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor: A Means Of
Improving Power Systems Stability Without Impacting SSR Interactions, V SEPOPE, Salvador,
Brazil, 8–10 May (1998)
Tenório, A.R.M.T., Nohara, A.A., Aquino, A.F.C.: Brazilian Experience Regarding Interactions
between Series Capacitors and SVCs – Main Challenges of Tucuruí-Macapá-Manaus Intercon-
nection Project, Cigré, paper B4-201. Paris (2016)
Antonio Ricardo De Mattos Tenório received his BSc degree

with honors in Electrical Engineering from Federal University of
Pernambuco, Brazil, in 1982, and his MSc in Electrical Power
Engineering from University of Manchester, UK, in 1995. In
2010, he did an MBA at PUC-Rio (Pontifical Catholic University,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) in Energy Business. Mr. Tenório joined
CHESF (Brazil) in 1982 and in 2000 joined ABB Power Systems
in Sweden, moving back to join ONS in Brazil in 2004, where he
has been working since then. Mr. Tenório is an IEEE and CIGRE
Member. He has been serving the CIGRE Brazilian National
Committee as Secretary (2012–2016) and Charmain (since 2016)
of the Brazilian Study Committee B4, being the Brazilian regular
member of Study Committee B4 – DC systems and Power Elec-
tronics (since 2016). His area of interest includes HVDC links,
FACTS controllers, Electrical and EMT studies, and Power
Quality.
Part III
Technical Description of FACTS Controllers
Power Electronic Topologies for FACTS
5
Colin Davidson
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
2 Semiconductor Switching Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2.1 Semiconductor Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2.2 Devices of the Thyristor Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2.3 Devices of the Transistor Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3 Line-Commutated Thyristor Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3.1 Building Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4 Self-Commutated Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.1 Current-Sourced Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.2 Voltage-Sourced Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.3 Self-Commutated Converter Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Abstract
Several types of semiconductor device can be used in FACTS applications.
So-called line-commutated converter applications, such as SVCs, use inverse-
parallel-connected pairs of thyristors. The inability of such devices to turn off by
control action limits their applicability. More sophisticated semiconductor
devices can turn off by control action as well as turn on and allow self-
commutated converters, usually voltage-sourced converters (VSC), to be real-
ized. VSCs most commonly use insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) as the
switching devices. However, there are many ways of arranging switching devices
to form a high-power VSC, the choice being a compromise between power
ratings, harmonic performance, and complexity. For applications of relatively
C. Davidson (*)
GE Grid Solutions – Grid Integration, Stafford, UK
e-mail: colin.davidson1@ge.com

130 C. Davidson
low power, the well-known six-pulse Graetz bridge circuit, used with pulse width
modulation to give acceptable harmonic performance, is widely used. At higher
power levels, the modular multilevel converter (MMC) circuit using half- or full-
bridge submodules connected in series gives excellent scalability and waveform
quality.
1 Introduction
Since electric power transmission systems were developed, there has always been a
need to convert direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC) or vice versa.
Furthermore, the constant operating frequency of an AC system made it difficult
to create variable speed motor drives for applications in industrial processes, electric
locomotives, elevator drives, etc. This changed with the invention in the 1930s of the
grid-controlled mercury arc rectifier and in the 1950s of the so-called silicon-
controlled rectifier (SCR) or thyristor. These innovations enabled an efficient
means of converting AC to DC and vice versa at high power without using large
rotating converters.
A thyristor is a four-level semiconductor device with alternating p and n doping,
that is, a p-n-p-n-type device (Bardeen 1967). This type of device is based on
semiconductor technology that grew out of research at Bell Labs in the USA (Moll
et al. 1956). The thyristor devices were commercialized by General Electric
Co. (GE) at about the same time (semiconductors). The semiconductor-based tech-
nology that can be applied for power conversion in AC and DC systems has grown to
include many different devices, which enable high-voltage DC (HVDC) power
transmission as well as for FACTS systems used for reactive power compensation
and for control of power flow in AC systems (CIGRÉ TB 337).
The thyristor cannot be turned off by control action, and this limited its applica-
tion to so-called line-commutated converters, where the AC system creates the
conditions needed for the thyristor to turn off.
More sophisticated types of semiconductor devices, capable of being turned off as
well as on by control action, are needed to remove this dependence on the connected
AC system for commutation. Such “self-commutated converters” can be voltage-
sourced or current-sourced.
Switching devices used in voltage-sourced converter (VSC) applications need to
be able to block voltage or pass controllable current only in the forward direction
while passing uncontrolled current in the reverse direction. Such applications are
therefore usually implemented with an asymmetric switching device (i.e., one whose
reverse voltage withstand capability is significantly lower than its forward voltage
withstand capability) and an inverse-parallel “freewheel” diode.
Switching devices used in a current-sourced converter (CSC) need to be able to
block voltage of either polarity but are only required to pass current in the forward
direction.
This chapter gives an overview of the main semiconductor and converter building
blocks used to build FACTS controllers.
5 Power Electronic Topologies for FACTS 131
2 Semiconductor Switching Devices
2.1 Semiconductor Materials
Semiconductors are a class of materials with properties intermediate between those

of conductors and insulators. In their pure state, semiconductors are very poor
conductors of current, but their properties are dramatically altered by the addition
of tiny but carefully controlled amounts of certain impurities, a process known as
“doping.”
Semiconductor materials are normally found in Group IV of the periodic table
(silicon, germanium, etc.) or can be “compound semiconductors” consisting of a
combination of elements from groups (4 n) and (4+n), for example, gallium nitride
(gallium is in group III and nitrogen in group V) or silicon carbide (both silicon and
carbon being in group IV).
Suitable dopant materials normally come from groups III or V of the periodic
table. Dopants from group V of the periodic table, such as phosphorus or arsenic,
have more outer-shell electrons than the surrounding semiconductor material and
thus are able to contribute surplus electrons to increase the conductivity of the
semiconductor. Dopants based on group V elements are known as “donors” (because
they donate additional electrons), and semiconductor materials made from them are
known as “n-type” semiconductors. Dopants from group III, such as boron, alumi-
num, or gallium, have fewer outer-shell electrons than the surrounding semiconduc-
tor material and thus, in an analogous way, contribute “holes” to increase the
conductivity of the semiconductor. Dopants based on group III elements are
known as “acceptors,” and semiconductor materials made from these are known as
“p-type” semiconductors.
Some (unipolar) types of semiconductor device use only one type of material
(p-type or n-type but not both), while others (bipolar) use alternating layers of both.
The first transistors used germanium as the semiconductor material, but since the
1960s, silicon took over and has been the dominant semiconductor material for over
half a century. While silicon is the preferred choice in most applications, it is starting
to be challenged by two “wide-bandgap” materials: gallium nitride (GaN) for
voltages of up to 1000 V and silicon carbide (SiC) for voltages above 1000 V.
Silicon carbide might displace silicon in many high-power applications because of
its potential to achieve much higher blocking voltages than is possible with silicon,
although as of 2018 silicon carbide devices are still much more expensive than
comparable silicon devices and are only used in certain niche applications.
2.2 Devices of the Thyristor Family
Devices of the “thyristor” family are robust, efficient, and capable of high-power
handling capability. They are usually made from large-diameter single crystal silicon
slices operated under a high clamping pressure and, in the event of a failure, always
become a short circuit. They are latching devices, only being fully on or fully off and
132 C. Davidson
Fig. 1 The thyristor – Anode Anode

standard (left) and gate turn-
off (right)
Gate Gate
Cathode Cathode
Fig. 2 Symmetrical (reverse- Anode Anode

blocking) thyristor: vertical
structure and equivalent p
circuit
n
Gate p
n
Gate
Cathode
Cathode
without any stable intermediate state. Because of the latching behavior, thyristors
have a comparatively low forward voltage drop and therefore low conduction losses
and are able to sustain high-current surges lasting a relatively long time (cycles of
power frequency) without exceeding the allowable junction temperature. That is, the
thyristor can be used without damage where system short circuit currents are high,
allowing time for the normal AC short circuit protective devices to clear faults. The
same ruggedness in the face of surge currents also allows thyristors to be used as
protective “crowbar” devices in a number of power electronic applications, usually
to protect less rugged devices such as transistors from surge currents.
The basic thyristor (as used in SVCs, TCSCs, and line-commutated HVDC
converters) can only be turned on by gate action. Therefore, turning off the current
flow requires an external circuit to force the current in the device to zero.
The basic thyristor or silicon-controlled rectifier (Fig. 1) remains the most
efficient high-power semiconductor switching device available. It is constructed
from alternating layers of p-type and n-type semiconductor material (Fig. 2) and
can be considered as the connection of a complementary pair of bipolar junction
transistors (BJTs). It enabled the construction of current-sourced converters (CSC),
in which the thyristors need to block voltage of either polarity but are only required
to pass current in the forward direction. CSC converters used in HVDC converters
and put into service in about 2015 utilize thyristor device rated up to 9000 V and
5000 A. Thyristors can be built with either symmetrical or asymmetrical voltage
ratings. Symmetrical thyristors block (nearly) the same voltage in the positive and
negative polarities, while asymmetric thyristors have a very low voltage rating (tens
of volts) in the reverse direction.
The thyristor remains in the blocking state (passing almost no current) until a
pulse of current (typically a few amperes for a minimum of a few microseconds) is
injected into the gate terminal. Thereafter the thyristor conducts current until an
external circuit forces the current to zero. A certain minimum positive voltage is
needed to allow the thyristor to latch safely into the conducting state and for the
conduction area to spread over the entire device. However, since it has no capability
to be turned off by gate action, a conventional thyristor cannot be used in applica-
tions where the conducted current must be forcibly turned off, unless a complex
auxiliary circuit is provided that will force the current conducted through the device
to zero. After the current reaches zero, a period of reverse voltage (hundreds of
microseconds) across the thyristor is required for the charge carriers to recombine
before the thyristor is once more capable of supporting positive voltage.
However, thyristor devices that can be forced to turn off by means of gate control
signals have been developed. These types of devices are referred to as gate turn-off
thyristors (GTO). Applications in which GTOs have been used include motor drives
(Williams 1993).
The GTO, which first emerged with suitable power ratings in the 1980s, is a
derivative of the thyristor with a different and more complex gate structure. The
GTO is turned on in the same way as a thyristor but has the added feature that it
can be turned off by injecting a negative current pulse into the gate terminal
(i.e., extracting current from the gate). Complete turn-off takes some tens of micro-
seconds, and the turn-off gate pulse has a large amplitude: typically one third of the
anode current (i.e., the device has a turn-off gain of about 3). The gate drive circuit is
thus a sizeable power electronic converter in its own right. GTOs also require
snubber circuits (made up of diodes, inductors, resistors, and capacitor components)
to limit the rate of rise of current at turn on and rate of rise of voltage at turn off,
further adding to the complexity. A good treatment of thyristors and GTOs is given
by Taylor (1987).
Like conventional thyristors, GTOs can be either symmetrical, with blocking
capability across the device for both positive and negative applied voltages (Fig. 2),
or asymmetric (Fig. 3) in which case the device will only block current for voltages
of one polarity applied between the anode and the cathode. Therefore, asymmetrical
GTO devices cannot be used in CSC systems where symmetrical devices are needed.
Asymmetric thyristors incorporate so-called anode shorts across the main
reverse-blocking p-n junction. This measure reduces the reverse voltage withstand
Fig. 3 Asymmetrical (anode- Anode Anode

shorted) thyristor: vertical
structure and equivalent p p p p p p
circuit n
Gate p
n
Gate
Cathode
134 C. Davidson
capability in asymmetrical GTO devices to some tens of volts, but in voltage-sourced

converter (VSC) applications where a so-called freewheel diode (which conducts if
reverse voltage is applied across the thyristor) is always provided across the GTO,
this is not an important limitation. In VSC applications where the low reverse
voltage withstand capability can be accepted, anode shorts are highly beneficial
because of the improved switching performance they bring. Voltage-sourced con-
verters are an integral part of static synchronous compensators (STATCOM) and
unified power flow controllers (UPFC) (CIGRÉ TB 144; CIGRÉ TB 160).
A development of the GTO that appeared in the 1990s is the gate-commutated
thyristor, or GCT. The GCT is very similar to the conventional GTO but with some
modifications to the gate structure to allow operation with unity turn-off gain. Unity
turn-off gain means that to turn off an anode current of 2000 A, a gate current of
2000 A is briefly extracted from the gate, giving rise to the concept that the anode
current is “commutated” to the gate circuit. The motivation for making this change
was the realization that a much faster and more efficient turn off can be achieved with
unity turn-off gain than was possible with the higher turn-off gains typically used
with GTOs. The main factor influencing the performance achievable with a GCT is
the inductance of the connections between the device and its gate drive. That is, the
designers must minimize this inductance to achieve good performance from the
device.
The final evolutionary step in the thyristor family is the “integrated gate-
commutated thyristor” or IGCT. The IGCT addresses the problem mentioned
above for the GCT by redesigning the packaging of the device so that the gate
drive forms an inseparable part of the overall package and the gate connections
completely surround the power semiconductor device. This allows the gate induc-
tance to be extremely low, thus realizing the maximum benefits of the GCT.
IGCTs with ratings of up to 6500 V and 5000 A (maximum turn-off current) have
been produced. Because of the ruggedness of the IGCT, it has found an important
niche in large industrial motor drives. However, in most mainstream power elec-
tronic applications, the insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) discussed below has
gradually replaced GTO-type devices.
2.3 Devices of the Transistor Family
There are many different semiconductor devices classified as transistors. Compared

with devices of the thyristor family, transistors have lower voltage and current
ratings and are comparatively “fragile.” They are usually made from quite small
individual chips (connected in parallel where necessary to increase the current
rating) with soldered wire-bond connections between the chips and external termi-
nals. The normal failure mode of wire-bonded devices is an open circuit, which is not
always desirable in high-voltage applications where transistors typically would be
connected in series. In such applications, the total voltage across the whole stack is
so high that an open circuit across an individual device would not be able to block
the imposed voltage and would arc over, potentially leading to combustion of the
failed device. Transistors can however be put into packages in which the emitter and
collector surfaces are in contact with large plates. Where such packages are used, the
transistor would normally fail in a short circuit mode.
Transistors typically have a higher forward voltage drop than thyristors but have
many advantages over thyristors, notably their much lower switching losses (leading
to the ability to switch at faster rates) and the fact that they can be smoothly
controlled from fully on to fully off and at all points in between. Although operation
in these partly on regions must be limited to very short durations in order to avoid
excessive power dissipation, this extra controllability allows the switching speed to
be “tuned” in a way that is not possible with thyristors.
Many types of transistors have been proposed since Bardeen, Brattain, and
Shockley first demonstrated the idea in 1947 (Mohan et al. 1995). The most
important types can be summarized as:
• Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

• Junction field effect transistor (JFET)
• Metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET)
• Insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
One of the first types of transistor to find widespread use in high-power applica-
tions was the bipolar junction transistor, or BJT. BJTs are three-layer (p-n-p or n-p-n)
transistor devices where one side of the device is an emitter and the other is a
collector of charge carriers. The middle layer, called the “base”, is a control terminal
used to modulate the impedance of the device. The term “bipolar” arises from the
fact that carriers of both polarities participate in the conduction process.
Today, the most commonly used devices in power applications (Fig. 4) are
MOSFETs for lower voltages and powers (up to a few hundred volts) and IGBTs
for higher voltages and powers.
Since the early 2000s, silicon-based, high-current IGBT devices with voltage
ratings as high as 6500 V have been applied in many high-power FACTS and HVDC
systems. See Volke and Hornkamp for a comprehensive treatment of IGBTs (Volke
and Hornkamp 2011).
IGBTs are asymmetric devices; that is to say their reverse voltage rating is much
less than their forward voltage rating. However, in applications such as for voltage-
sourced converters (VSC), this limitation is of no importance because in such
applications, a “freewheel diode” is connected in inverse-parallel to the IGBT.
Usually, the freewheel diode is integrated into the same package as the IGBT itself
so as to minimize the inductance between the two devices.
IGBTs are turned on by applying a positive voltage, typically +15 V, to the gate
terminal. Returning the gate voltage to zero causes the device to turn off again,
although many IGBT gate drives use a negative gate bias (e.g., 15 V), while the
IGBT is intended to be off. This measure reduces the likelihood of unwanted turn on
of the IGBT.
The popularity of the IGBT is largely because it marries the relatively high-power
handling capability of the bipolar transistor with the low gate power consumption of
136 C. Davidson
Fig. 4 Two important types Drain

of transistor: the IGBT (left) Collector
and MOSFET (right)
Gate Gate
Emitter
Source
the MOSFET. A variant of the IGBT, called the “injection-enhanced gate transistor”
or IEGT, also exists (Okamura et al. 1998).
MOSFETs are less important than IGBTs in high-power applications but, if built
using silicon carbide material instead of silicon, have the potential to reach the power
ratings currently obtained with silicon IGBTs. An important difference between a
MOSFET and an IGBT is that a MOSFET inherently conducts current in both
directions. Thus when a MOSFET is turned on, the “channel” between its source
and drain terminals conducts current efficiently in either direction, and even when
switched off, a parasitic “body diode” (shown in dotted on Fig. 4) provides an
additional, less efficient, reverse current path. Some MOSFET applications are
therefore realized without separate freewheel diodes.
3 Line-Commutated Thyristor Switches
Line-commutated converters (LCC) rely on the presence of an AC system that

includes rotating synchronous machines (or other active AC voltage sources) to
which the converter is connected. This allows such converters to use switching
devices that can be turned on by control action but have no ability to turn off.
3.1 Building Blocks
Well before the IGBT made high-power self-commutated converters feasible for
power system applications, thyristors had become established as a cost-effective and
efficient power switching device and started to find applications in FACTS devices.
Conventional thyristors (as distinct from gate turn-off thyristors and their deriva-
tives, which came later) can be turned on by gate action but require an external
circuit to force the current to zero (“line commutation”) and allow the thyristor to
turn off again.
In AC system applications, natural current zeroes occur twice every power-
frequency cycle, making thyristors an inherently suitable device for AC switches.
Since thyristors conduct current only in one direction, the simplest building block for
a line-commutated AC switch is an inverse-parallel-connected pair of thyristors, as
illustrated on Fig. 5.
Fig. 5 Basic AC line-

commutated switch consisting
of an antiparallel-connected
pair of thyristors
Fig. 6 AC line-commutated
thyristor valve consisting of
series-connected antiparallel-
connected pairs of thyristors
Although thyristors are available with voltage ratings of nearly 10 kV, this is still
low compared with what is required to operate on most distribution grids, meaning
that the simple thyristor switch of Fig. 5 is suitable only for the lowest grid voltages.
To use a thyristor switch at higher voltages requires thyristor pairs to be connected in
series as shown in Fig. 6. The resulting assembly of series-connected thyristor pairs
is known as a thyristor valve. The series-connected thyristor pairs need additional
voltage grading components, typically arranged as resistor-capacitor (RC) grading
circuits as shown in Fig. 6.
Bidirectional thyristor valves such as those shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 can be used
in one of two ways. In the first, the valve is used only as a fast switch (Fig. 7),
regulating the current in the load only on a half cycle by half-cycle basis. The switch
can be turned on at any time (although with an inductive load, it is best to limit the
138 C. Davidson
Fig. 7 Bidirectional thyristor Resistive Load

valve used as a fast switch in Thyristor
integral half-cycle control
Gate
Inductive Load
Thyristor
Gate
Fig. 8 Bidirectional thyristor Resistive Load

valve used as a fast switch in Thyristor
phase control Gate
V
α
Inductive Load
Thyristor
Gate
V
α
I
turn on instant to certain regions of the cycle in order to avoid the creation of a highly
offset current), but turn off can occur only at one of the natural current zeroes that
occur twice every cycle. In this respect, the thyristor behaves rather like a circuit
breaker except that the operation is considerably faster, with a turn-off delay of a
maximum of half a cycle instead of typically 3–4 cycles.
Because this mode of control gives entire half cycles of current in the load, it is
sometimes referred to as integral half-cycle control.
The second mode of operation is called phase control and allows the current in
the load to be regulated continuously from a maximum value determined only by the
impedance of the load down to a minimum approaching zero.
In phase control (Fig. 8), the thyristor valve is turned on at a predetermined delay
after the zero crossing of the AC supply voltage. The delay angle is usually termed α.
For a resistive load, the permissible range of α is almost from zero to 180 ; for an
inductive load however, values of α below 90 result in an offset current; therefore
only the range from 90 to nearly 180 is used.
3.2 Applications
Bidirectional thyristor valves are an essential component of a static var compensator

(SVC), where they are used to switch or control the current in shunt-connected
reactors and capacitors (CIGRÉ TB 78; CIGRÉ TB 123). With shunt reactors, both
integral half-cycle control and phase control are possible, such systems being referred
to, respectively, as thyristor switched reactors (TSRs) and thyristor-controlled reactors
(TCRs). TCRs are, however, more common because for relatively little additional
cost, they give a continuously variable reactive power absorption capability.
With shunt capacitors, only integral half-cycle control is used, the
resulting system being referred to as a thyristor switched capacitor (TSC),
because attempts to operate shunt capacitors in phase control result in very large
transient currents every time the capacitor is switched. Nevertheless, a combination
of a TCR and one or more TSCs can be very effective at providing smoothly
controllable reactive power over a wide range. SVCs will be discussed in
greater detail in ▶ Chap. 6, “Technical Description of Static Var Compensators
(SVC).”
Another application is for control of power flows in high voltage, series compen-
sated AC transmission lines. Series compensation usually takes the form of a
large capacitor in series with the transmission line, but in some cases, a TCR
is connected in parallel with the series capacitor so that the degree of
series compensation can be varied. Such installations are known as thyristor-
controlled series capacitors (TCSC) and have been installed in transmission lines
with 25 kA short circuit current capacity (CIGRÉ TB 554). TCSCs are discussed in
detail in ▶ Chap. 8, “Technical Description of Thyristor Controlled Series Capaci-
tors (TCSC)”.
Thyristor switches are also used for solid-state transfer switch applications in
distribution systems.
140 C. Davidson
4 Self-Commutated Converters
Self-commutated converters avoid the limitations inherent to line-commutated con-

verters by using switching devices that can be both turned on and turned off by
control action. This means that self-commutated converters can be used in applica-
tions where the connected AC grid contains no synchronous machines or other
active sources.
Self-commutated converters can be either current-sourced or voltage-sourced. In
the first type, the direction and magnitude of DC current are held substantially
constant by a large DC-side inductor, while in a voltage-sourced converter, the
polarity and magnitude of DC voltage are maintained by a large DC capacitor.
However, although current-sourced self-commutated converters are possible, they
are uncommon compared with voltage-sourced converters.
4.1 Current-Sourced Converter
The basic current-sourced converter scheme is illustrated in Fig. 9 for a shunt-

connected reactive compensation application (STATCOM). From a DC input current
source, provided by inductor LS with current idc, the converter produces a set of
three-phase output currents at the fundamental frequency of the AC power system.
Theoretically, a 90 leading or lagging phase angle between the converter output
currents and the AC system voltages can be established by the appropriate operation
of the converter switches. A phase shift of 90 implies that only reactive power is
exchanged with the AC grid, but the exchange of real power is also possible if the
DC side of the converter contains a suitable source or sink of energy.
The conceptual problem with the current-sourced converter is that the DC
terminals of the converter are terminated by a current source (a charged inductor)
and thus the AC terminals must be terminated by a voltage source otherwise the
terminal voltages of the converter, and the voltage stress of the semiconductor
switches, becomes undefined. The AC output of the converter is terminated by an
inductive impedance resulting from the series connection of the source impedance of
the AC system (including the generator, transmission line, and transformer imped-
ances) and the leakage inductance of the coupling transformer used with the con-
verter. Therefore, the AC outputs of the converter must be shunted by an appropriate
capacitor or capacitive filter which can provide a voltage source-type termination to
satisfy the fundamental operating requirement of switching converters.
Coupling iDC
transformer
I
V Solid-State
DC-AC Ls vDC
Converter
Fig. 9 Reactive power generation by a current-sourced converter

ia Ta1 Tb1 Tc1 i dc

ea
ib
eb vdc Ls
ic
ec
Ta2 Tb2 Tc2
Fig. 10 Basic six-pulse current-sourced converter
The current-sourced converter produces a set of quasi-square wave output currents

(instead of voltages), and, in order to satisfy the required equality of the instantaneous
input and output powers, it must develop a balancing ripple voltage across the energy
storage inductor carrying a DC current. Simple CSC-type converters using regular
thyristor devices are used in most existing HVDC systems, but if used for reactive
power control, they can only produce lagging reactive power because leading reactive
power generation requires devices that can be turned off by control actions.
The basic six-pulse, three-phase, current-sourced converter, shown in Fig. 10,
uses six self-commutated semiconductor switches capable of conducting unidirec-
tional current and blocking bi-directional voltage. A suitable high-power semicon-
ductor switch for such a converter is a symmetrical GTO thyristor, which conducts
current only from anode to cathode, but blocks both positive and negative anode to
cathode voltages.
4.2 Voltage-Sourced Converter
A voltage-sourced converter (VSC), as the name implies, relies on a voltage source

(normally in the form of a capacitor) connected on the DC side of the converter and
is connected via inductances on the AC side to the AC network as shown in Fig. 11.
Some VSC systems may not have readily identifiable AC and DC sides, but the basic
principle still holds true.
The voltage source on the DC side of the converter is used to synthesize a voltage
at the AC terminals whose amplitude, phase, and wave shape can be controlled as
desired. The aim is usually to create a sinusoidal voltage at the AC terminals, thereby
minimizing the need for harmonic filtering. The amplitude and phase of the gener-
ated AC voltage, in relation to the voltage of the connected AC grid, govern the real
and reactive power exchanged between the converter and the grid. For example, the
STATCOM can be considered as a controllable voltage source connected to the AC
system via a coupling inductance as illustrated in Fig. 11.
The voltage-sourced converter (VSC) has almost completely replaced CSC
systems in industrial applications as well as in applications for motor drives in
electric propulsion applications. The major reason for this is the availability of
142 C. Davidson
Coupling Tie reactor i dc

transformer
I
V E Solid-State
DC-AC Cs vdc
Converter
Fig. 11 Voltage-sourced converter scheme for reactive power generation
suitable high-power asymmetric semiconductor devices operating with relatively

high switching frequencies that enables compact, relatively lightweight designs.
There are a great many different arrangements of voltage-sourced converter
(Arrillaga et al. 2007; Mohan et al. 1995). Some of the fundamental building blocks
of VSC systems are described below.
4.2.1 Two-Level Phase Leg

The simplest building block of any power electronic converter circuit is the so-called
“two-level” phase leg shown in Fig. 12. The two-level phase leg is the simplest
switching arrangement capable of producing AC output from a DC source in the
form of a simple square wave and is so-called because the output voltage (with
respect to the virtual neutral at the center of the capacitor) can be one of only two
discrete values. If the upper of the two transistors is turned on, the output voltage is
+1/2 Vdc, while if the lower of the two transistors is turned on, the output voltage is –
1/2 Vdc. The two transistors must never be turned on at the same time, as this would
lead to an uncontrolled discharge of the capacitor, or “shoot-through,” and usually to
an explosion of the transistors.
The two-level phase leg has been the traditional building block of most com-
mon types of power converters, usually in the so-called Graetz bridge configura-
tion shown for a voltage-sourced converter in Fig. 20 on page (148). Apart from
the square wave output voltage waveform, the main disadvantage of the two-level
phase leg is its inability to provide zero output to facilitate direct control of the
½ Vdc T1 D1 ½ Vdc
Virtual
neutral Vout
½ Vdc T2 D2
-½ Vdc
Fig. 12 Two-level phase leg and output voltage waveform (Because turn off devices currently are
so ubiquitous in high-power electronics, the symbol of a controllable switching semiconductor
device is shown in the figures included here as that of an IGBT. This should not, however, be
interpreted as a limitation since in principle, any of the following building blocks can be built with
any type of self-commutated semiconductor switches)
(a) Transfer from D1 to T2
T1 D1 T1 D1
T2 D2 T2 D2
(b) Transfer from D2 to T1
T1 D1 T1 D1
T2 D2 T2 D2
Fig. 13 Transfer from diode to IGBT conduction
amplitude of its fundamental output voltage without the application of pulse width
modulation (PWM) or some indirect techniques, e.g., control of the DC voltage.
PWM necessitates a considerable increase in the number of switch operations and
was therefore not widely used with GTOs, although it has now become common-
place with IGBTs.
In the two-level converter phase leg, current alternates between the upper and
lower IGBT-diode pairs. The process of transferring conduction from upper to lower
switches is known as commutation and is initiated either by turning on or turning off
a transistor.
Figure 13a shows what happens when the conduction is initially in diode D1 and
current is transferred to the lower switch. In this case the commutation process is
initiated by turning on T2. This temporarily creates a short circuit across the DC
capacitor, resulting in a very fast-changing current around the loop formed by D1, T2,
and the DC capacitor. This transient current drives the current in D1 to zero, and the
diode ceases conduction a short time later. Figure 13b shows the converse case with the
opposite direction of load current, where T1 turns on and forces D2 to turn off.
In Fig. 14, the opposite process is illustrated, where current passes from an IGBT to
the complementary diode. Figure 14a shows the transfer from T2 to D1, which is
initiated by turning off T2. The current then has nowhere to go except through D1.
Figure 14b shows the converse case where T1 turns off and transfers current to D2.
For the commutation process between the upper and lower switches to be efficient
and not excessively stressful for the semiconductor devices, it is important that the
stray inductance around the loop formed by the two switches and the DC capacitor
should be as small as possible.
4.2.2 Neutral Point Clamped (NPC) Multilevel Phase Leg

A larger number of output voltages can be obtained from a phase leg by using a more
complex circuit, such as the neutral point clamped or NPC circuit.
144 C. Davidson
(a) Transfer from T2 to D1
T1 D1 T1 D1
T2 D2 T2 D2
(b) Transfer from T1 to D2
T1 D1 T1 D1
T2 D2 T2 D2
Fig. 14 Transfer from IGBT to diode conduction
The three-level NPC phase leg, illustrated with its output voltage waveform in
Fig. 15, has three input terminals to connect to a split or center-tapped DC source. As
seen, there are twice as many transistors used as in the two-level phase leg, and
additional clamp diodes Dc1 and Dc2 are also required to connect to the DC supply
center tap which is the reference zero potential. However, with identical transistor
rating, the total DC supply voltage can also be doubled so that the output VA per
transistor remains the same.
As illustrated in Fig. 15, the output voltage of the three-level phase leg can be
positive, negative, or zero. Positive output is produced by gating on both upper
transistors (T1 and T2) in the phase leg, and negative output is produced by gating on
both lower transistors (T3 and T4). Zero output is produced when T2 and T3,
connecting the center tap of the DC supply via the two clamp diodes to the output,
are gated on. At zero output, positive current is conducted by T2 and Dc1 and
negative current by T3 and Dc2. As indicated in the figure, the relative duration of
the positive (and negative) output voltage with respect to the duration of the zero
output is a function of control parameter α, which defines the conduction interval of
the top upper and the bottom lower valves. Evidently, the magnitude of the funda-
mental component of the output voltage produced by the phase leg is a function of
parameter α. When α equals 0 , it is maximum, while at α equals 90 , it is zero. Thus,
one advantage of the three-level phase leg is that it has an inherent capability to
control the magnitude of the output voltage without changing the number of valve
switchings per cycle. The other advantage is that, with judicious choice of α, selected
harmonic components of the output waveform can be eliminated. However, these
advantages come at the price of greater complexity.
In order to further reduce the harmonic content of the AC output voltage, the basic
three-level neutral point clamped phase leg can be extended to a multilevel, 2n+1-
level (n = 1,2,3,. . .) configuration (Arrillaga 2007). In this case, 2n DC supplies,
T1 D1
½ Vdc ½ Vdc
Dc1 T2 D2
Neutral
Dc2 T3 D3 α
½ Vdc
-½ Vdc
T4 D4
Fig. 15 Three-level neutral point clamped phase leg and output voltage waveform
T1 D1
¼Vdc ½Vdc
Dc1 T2 D2
Dc2 T3 D3 ¼Vdc
¼Vdc
Dc3 T4 D4
Neutral Vout
α1
T5 D5
Dc4 α2
¼Vdc
Dc5 T6 D6
-¼Vdc
Dc6 T7 D7
¼Vdc
-½Vdc
T8 D8
Fig. 16 Five-level neutral point clamped phase leg and output voltage waveform
provided by 2n DC storage capacitors (which are common to all three-phase legs of a

complete three-phase converter), are connected in series, providing 2n+1 discrete
voltage levels. 4n transistors and freewheel diodes are required, along with 2.(2n 1)
clamp diode branches to selectively connect the 2n+1 voltage levels to the output.
The total voltage rating of the clamp diode branches also increases with n.
A five-level converter phase leg with the corresponding output voltage waveform,
in which the 3rd, 5th, and 7th harmonics can be eliminated by suitable choice of α, is
shown in Fig. 16. It is clear that the circuit complexity, control, and operational
146 C. Davidson
difficulties rapidly increase with the number of voltage levels. In addition to the
technical difficulties, the uneven utilization of the valves and the escalating voltage
ratings of the clamping diodes raise questions about economic viability.
4.2.3 Flying Capacitor Multilevel Phase Leg

Another multilevel topology, the so-called “flying capacitor” (or sometimes “floating
capacitor”) converter, is illustrated in Fig. 17 for its simplest (three-level) form. This
topology employs a ladder structure of DC capacitors where the voltage on the
capacitors is progressively increased from a selected lowest to a selected highest
value.
The size of the voltage increment between two capacitors defines the size of the
voltage steps in the output voltage waveform.
The simplest type of flying capacitor circuit, the three-level phase leg (Fig. 17),
has some similarities with the three-level NPC phase leg in that there are four
transistors connected between the positive and negative terminals of the main
capacitor. As with the NPC phase leg, the positive voltage (+ ½ Vdc) is obtained
by gating on T1 and T2, and negative voltage ( ½ Vdc) is obtained by gating on T3
and T4. However, the intermediate voltage is obtained not by gating on T2 and T3
(which would result in a shoot-through) but instead by gating either T1 and T3 or T2
and T4.
Like the NPC converter, the flying capacitor converter can be extended to higher
numbers of output levels, such as five, but also like the NPC converter, this is
achieved at considerable expense in terms of greater complexity. For these reasons,
few practical applications of either the neutral point clamped or flying capacitor
topologies have been built with more than three levels.
4.2.4 The Half-Bridge Submodule

The converter building blocks described in the preceding sections are not practical as
stand-alone circuits because, to complete the electrical circuit, a connection would
need to be made to the (virtual) neutral connection at the center of the capacitor.
T1 D1
½Vdc
T2 D2
Virtual
Neutral Vout
Vdc ½Vdc
T3 D3 α
-½Vdc
T4 D4
Fig. 17 Three-level “flying capacitor” phase leg

T1 D1
Vdc Vdc
T2 D2
Fig. 18 Half-bridge submodule (two-level)
One way to get round this problem is to make the return connection to one
terminal of the capacitor instead, as illustrated for a two-level converter in Fig. 18, to
form the “half-bridge submodule.” This circuit, first proposed by Marquardt, pro-
duces an asymmetric voltage waveform with values of either zero or Vdc (Lesnicar
and Marquardt 2003).
The half-bridge submodule has become very important in the modular multilevel
converter (MMC) for HVDC applications – which can also be used in FACTS
systems, although it may not be the most efficient building block for a purpose-
built STATCOM systems.
4.2.5 The H-Bridge

By combining two, two-level phase legs sharing a common DC capacitor, the “H-
bridge” or “full-bridge” circuit is obtained (Fig. 19). Although the line-to-neutral
output voltage of each terminal (with respect to neutral) has only two possible
voltage levels, the line-to-line output voltage of the H-bridge has three possible
levels: Vdc and 0.
The H-bridge concept can be extended to use three-level or five-level phase legs,
and in such a case, the line-to-line output voltages have, respectively, five and nine
output levels. In general, for an H-bridge based on n-level phase legs, the line-to-line
output voltage has (2n 1) possible output levels.
The H-bridge is widely used for low-power single-phase converter applications
and is a fundamental building block of the “chain circuit” or “full-bridge MMC”
topology that is now used in many high-power STATCOM applications.
Output voltage (line to line)

Vdc
Ta1 Da1 Tb1 Db1
ea
eb
Ta2 Da2 Tb2 Db2 α

-Vdc
Fig. 19 H-bridge or full-bridge (two-level)

148 C. Davidson
4.2.6 The Three-Phase (Graetz) Bridge

With three phase legs connected to one common capacitor instead of two, the classic
three-phase “Graetz” bridge is obtained (Fig. 20). This circuit is the most widely
used power electronic converter circuit for three-phase applications at all but the
highest power levels.
In common with the H-bridge, a Graetz bridge based on n-level phase legs has a
line-to-line output voltage with (2n 1) possible output levels.
In its simplest form, a Graetz bridge converter consists of six self-
commutated semiconductor switches, each composed of an active semiconductor
switch (here shown as an IGBT) in reverse parallel with a diode. This elemen-
tary arrangement is termed a two-level, six-pulse converter. This terminology
simply states that:
• Each of the three outputs can only be connected either to the positive or to the
negative terminal of the DC source by the upper or lower element of the
corresponding phase leg (hence, “two-level”).
• The converter employs six functional semiconductor switches to form three
phase legs.
If the three switch phase legs are operated at the desired fundamental frequency,
with 120 phase displacement, to connect the DC supply (capacitor) sequentially to
the three output terminals via the appropriate converter switches, then a balanced set
of three square waves (ea, eb, and ec) with respect to the hypothetical center of the DC
supply (capacitor), as shown in Fig. 21a, is produced. This set will combine into a
balanced set of quasi-square wave line-to-line voltage waveforms (eab, ebc, and eca)
as illustrated in Fig. 21a.
The currents through each semiconductor switch and diode forming a converter
switch (e.g., Da1 and Ta1) are shown by the unshaded and shaded segments of the
three output currents (ia, ib, and ic), together with the current through the DC storage
capacitor, for reactive power generation in Fig. 21b, and for reactive power absorp-
tion in Fig. 21c. For clarity, the output currents of the converter are assumed to be
free of harmonics. From these figures it can be observed that each semiconductor
switch and its antiparallel diode carry alternately a 90 segment of the output current
Output voltage (line to line)

Vdc
Ta1 Da1 Tb1 Db1 Tc1 Dc1
ia
ea
ib
eb
ic
ec
Ta2 Da2 Tb2 Db2 Tc2 Dc2 α
-Vdc
Fig. 20 Three-phase or “Graetz” bridge (two-level)

ea VDC
eb VDC
ec VDC
eab
[a]
ebc
eca
D Ta2
ia a1
Ta1 1 D Tb2
D a2
ib b1
Tb1 D Db2 Tc2 [b]
ic c1
Tc1 D
c2
i dc
D
a1 Ta2
ia
Db1 Da2 T
Tb2 a1
ib
D T
D b2 Tc2 b1
[c]
ic c1
D Tc1
c2
i dc
Fig. 21 Converter phase leg (line-to-neutral) and output (line-to-line) voltage waveforms (a),
converter switch (active switching device and diode) and DC capacitor currents during reactive
power generation (b), and reactive power absorption (c)
in each cycle, that is, the current rating of the semiconductor switches and diodes is
the same. It is also seen that the semiconductor switch has to be turned off
(commutated) at the peak of the current when the output is capacitive (VAr gener-
ation), but it commutates naturally when the output current is inductive (VAr
absorption).
An ideal Graetz bridge converter will generate sinusoidal output voltages and will
draw sinusoidal reactive currents from the AC system and zero average input current
from the DC capacitor. In practice, due to system unbalance and other imperfections,
as well as economic considerations, these ideal conditions are not achieved, but can
be approximated quite satisfactorily by converter structures of sufficiently high pulse
numbers (24 or higher).
150 C. Davidson
In a practical converter, the semiconductor switches are not lossless, and therefore
the energy stored in the DC capacitor would be used up by the internal losses.
However, these losses can be supplied from the AC system by making the output
voltages of the converter lag the AC system voltages by a small angle. In this way the
converter absorbs a small amount of real power from the AC system to replenish its
internal losses and keep the capacitor voltage at the desired level. The amount of real
power exchanged with the grid can also be varied temporarily to increase or decrease
the capacitor voltage. In some converter topologies, this is the only way to adjust the
amplitude of the output voltage produced by the converter and thereby the reactive
power exchanged with the AC grid (as the amplitude difference between the
converter output voltage and AC system voltage solely determines the magnitude
and direction of the reactive current flow and thus the reactive power generation or
absorption produced). The DC capacitor also has a vital function, even in the case of
a perfect converter, in establishing the necessary energy balance between the input
and output during the dynamic changes of the output power.
It is, of course, also possible to use the converter with a DC source (e.g., a battery)
or with an energy storage device of significant capacity (e.g., a large DC capacitor or
a superconducting inductor). In this case the converter can control both reactive and
real power exchange with the AC system. The capability of controlling real as well
as reactive power exchange is a significant feature which can be used effectively in
applications requiring power oscillation damping, leveling peak power demand, and
providing uninterrupted power for critical loads. This feature clearly distinguishes a
VSC system from the conventional thyristor-controlled SVC, to which no active
power source can be connected.
4.2.7 Pulse Width Modulation of a Three-Phase (Graetz) Bridge

The pulse width modulation (PWM) technique has been commonly employed for
several decades to generate high-quality output waveforms by relatively
low-power converters used in variable frequency AC motor drives and other
applications. With this technique, the output of each converter phase leg is
switched several times during a fundamental frequency cycle between the positive
and negative terminals of the DC source, and the time intervals between consec-
utive switching operations are controlled so that the average of the positive and
negative volt-second segments of the output waveform generated follows the
desired sine wave (Holmes and Lipo 2003). Typical output voltage waveforms
of two converter phase legs, generated by PWM, are shown in Fig. 22a, and the
resulting line-to-line output voltage (i.e., the voltage between these two phase legs
of the converter) is shown in Fig. 22b.
For early power electronics applications, for which the only force-commutated
devices available with suitable power ratings were thyristors or GTOs, the ability to
use PWM was more limited because of the high switching losses of such devices. In
such cases a more limited PWM technique can be used, requiring only modest
switching frequencies and aiming at the elimination of specific harmonics (such as
the 5th and 7th) from the output voltage waveform. Such a limited, so-called
“programmed” PWM technique is illustrated in Fig. 23 by the converter output
Fig. 22 Ideal PWM converter phase leg voltage: (a) and output voltage (b) waveforms
Fig. 23 Ideal PWM converter phase leg (a) and output (b) voltage waveforms with two “notches”
to eliminate the fifth and seventh harmonics
voltage waveform in which the 5th and 7th harmonics are eliminated by two
appropriate “notches.” (In general, an appropriately placed “notch” with a specific
width is required for the elimination of a given harmonic.) It should be noted that
harmonic elimination by the programmed PWM technique is not without penalty;
152 C. Davidson
the elimination of the selected (low order) harmonic(s) is associated with the
significant amplitude increase of the remaining (higher order) harmonics.
The advent of high-power IGBTs with much lower switching losses than GTOs
has made such techniques less relevant, but the high overall switching losses of
converters using PWM remain a significant disadvantage in grid-connected VSC
applications, where the in-service lifetime is long and the lifetime cost of power
losses can therefore be an important factor influencing the design.
PWM-type converters are typically scaled up to higher power ratings by either
connecting multiple IGBTs directly in series in each switch arm or by connecting
multiple bridges in parallel (Aho et al. 2010).
4.3 Self-Commutated Converter Applications
The self-commutated converter building blocks described above can be used in

several different types of FACTS application. In principle, either current-sourced
or voltage-sourced converters can be used, although the widespread availability of
IGBTs at high power ratings and the lower losses of a DC storage capacitor
compared to a DC storage inductor have made voltage-sourced converters far
more common, to the extent that “voltage-sourced converter” and “self-commutated
converter” have become almost synonymous in normal usage.
The most common self-commutated converter application in FACTS is the
static synchronous compensator or STATCOM. The STATCOM is a shunt reac-
tive compensation device that performs an analogous function to the Static Var
Compensator (SVC). The STATCOM consists of a shunt-connected self-commu-
tated (usually voltage-sourced) converter coupled to the AC grid via an induc-
tance. The reactive power absorption or generation is varied by altering the
magnitude of voltage produced by the converter. STATCOMs are described in
greater detail in ▶ Chap. 7, “Technical Description of Static Compensators
(STATCOM).”
Another use of a self-commutated converter is the static synchronous series
compensator or SSSC. The SSSC differs from the STATCOM in that the converter
is inserted in series with a transmission line and is used as a rapidly variable series
compensation device, primarily to regulate the impedance of the line and thus adjust
the flow of real power. As of 2017, few SSSCs had been installed, but one such plant
has been installed on a 220 kV AC line in Spain for Red Electrica de España
(Chivite-Zabalza et al. 2014).
The unified power flow controller (UPFC) combines the features of both
STATCOM and SSSC, using two voltage-sourced converters – one in shunt and
the other in series – coupled together in the DC side and via isolating transformers to
the line to be compensated (CIGRÉ TB 160). Although first introduced in 1998
(Renz 1998), as of 2018, the UPFC is still relatively uncommon. It is described in
greater detail in ▶ Chap. 9, “Technical Description of the Unified Power Flow
Controller (UPFC) and Its Potential Variations.”
In addition to these series and shunt compensation devices, self-commutated

switches (in the form of GTOs) have been used in some solid-state breaker and
fault current limiter demonstration systems where high current and device turn-off
capability is needed (CIGRÉ TB 337).
References
Aho, J. et al.: Description and evaluation of 3-level VSC topology based statcom for fast compen-
sation applications. In: 9th IET International Conference on AC and DC Power Transmission,
London (2010)
Arrillaga, J., Liu, Y.H., Watson, N.R.: Flexible Power Transmission; The HVDC Options. Wiley
(2007). John Wiley & Sons
Bardeen, J.: Flow of Electrons and holes in semiconductors (physics of transistor effects), Chapter 4
in Part 8, The Solid State; In: Handbook of Physics, Mc Graw Hill Book Company, Second
Edition (1967). ISBN: 07-012403-5
Chivite-Zabalza, F.J., Izurza, P., Calvo, G., Rodriguez, M.A.: Laboratory tests of the voltage
sourced converter for a 47 MVAr series static synchronous compensator for the Spanish high-
voltage transmission grid. In: 7th IET International Conference on Power Electronics, Machines
and Drives (PEMD 2014), pp. 1–6. Manchester (2014)
CIGRÉ TB 123.: Thyristor Controlled Series Compensation, (December 1997).
CIGRÉ TB 144.: Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM), (August 2000).
CIGRÉ TB 160.: Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC), (August 2000).
CIGRÉ TB 183.: FACTS Technology for Open Access, (April 2001).
CIGRÉ TB 337.: Increased System Efficiency by the use of New Generations of Power Semi-
conductors, (December 2007).
CIGRÉ TB 554.: Performance Evaluation and Applications Review of Existing Thyristor Control
Series Capacitor Devices –TCSC, (October 2013).
CIGRÉ TB 78.: Voltage and Current Stresses on Thyristor Valves for Static var Compensators,
(October 1993).
Holmes, D.G., Lipo, T.A.: Pulse Width Modulation for Power Converters. IEEE Press (2003). IEEE
Press, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
Lesnicar, A., Marquardt, R.: An innovative modular multilevel converter topology suitable for a
wide power range. In: Power Tech Conference Proceedings, vol. 3, p. 6 (2003)
Mohan, N., Undeland, T.M., Robbins, W.P.: Part 2, Chapter 8, switch mode DC-AC inverters.
In: Power Electronics, Converters, Applications and Design, 2nd edn. Wiley (1995).
ISBN: 0-471-58408-8. Taylor: John Wiley & Sons
Mohan, N., Undeland, T.M., Robbins, W.P.: Part 6, Semiconductor devices. In: Power Electronics,
Converters, Applications and Design, 2nd edn. Wiley. ISBN: 0-471-58408-8
Moll, J.L., Tanenbaum, M., Goldey, J.M., Holonyak, N.: P-N-P-N Transistor Switches.
In: Proceedings of the IRE (now IEEE), vol. 44(9), p. 1174–1182 (1956)
Okamura, K., Nakajima, N., Souda, M., Endo, F., Matsuda, H., Kaneko, E.: Sub-microsecond
pulse switching characteristics of a 4500-V IEGT. Conference Record of the Twenty-Third
International Power Modulator Symposium (Cat. No. 98CH36133) (1998)
Renz et al., Worlds First Unified Power Flow Controller on the AEP System, CIGRÉ paper 14–107,
(1998)
Semiconductors.: http://edisontechcenter.org/semiconductors.html. Accessed 21 Feb 2018
Taylor, P.D.: Thyristor Design and Realisation. Wiley (1987)
Volke, A., Hornkamp, M.: IGBT Modules – Technologies, Drivers and Applications. Infineon
Technologies AG, Munich (2011)
Williams, B.W.: Power Electronics – Devices, Drivers, Applications and Passive Components. The
Macmillan Press Ltd, Basingstoke & London (1993)
154 C. Davidson
Colin Davidson is Consulting Engineer, HVDC, at GE Grid

Solutions, HVDC Activity, whose Center of Excellence is in Stafford,
UK. He joined the company in January 1989, when it was part of
GEC, and progressed through the positions of trainee Thyristor Valve
Design engineer; manager, Thyristor Valves; engineering director and
R&D Director, to his current role. He is a Chartered Engineer and a
Fellow of the Institution of Engineering and Technology and has
served on several IEC standardization committees for HVDC and
FACTS. He has a degree in natural sciences, specializing in physics,
from the University of Cambridge.
Technical Description of Static Var
Compensators (SVC) 6
Manfredo Lima and Stig L. Nilsson
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
2 Main Circuit Components of an SVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
2.1 Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
2.2 Thyristor Switched Capacitors (TSC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
2.3 Thyristor Switched Reactors (TSRs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2.4 AC Harmonic Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2.5 SVC Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3 SVC Voltage Versus Current Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4 Combinations of SVC Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5 First Brazilian SVCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6 Later Brazilian SVCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7 Thyristor Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.1 TCR Thyristor Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.2 TSC Thyristor Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.3 SVCs Gate Power Drive Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.4 Thyristor Valve Cooling System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.5 Thyristor Valve Control and Protection Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
M. Lima (*)
S. L. Nilsson

156 M. Lima and S. L. Nilsson
8 SVC Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

8.1 Early SVC Analog Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.2 Digital Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
8.3 Additional Control Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
8.4 The Use of Series Reactor to Reduce Harmonics and Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
9 Coordinated Operation of SVCs Operating Electrically Close . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
10 SVC Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
10.1 SVC Transformers Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
10.2 SVC Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR) Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
10.3 SVC Thyristor Switched Capacitor Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
10.4 SVC Harmonic Filter Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
10.5 Control, Protection and Auxiliary Equipment Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Abstract
This chapter provides a technical description of the Static Var Compensators
(SVC) used in electrical power systems. It highlights the technological evolution
from the 1980s, when the first SVCs were installed in Brazil, until the later SVCs
installed in Brazil. Aspects of the control systems used in the two groups of SVCs
are described, highlighting the advantages of the use of adaptive control systems
in the later generation SVCs. The chapter also describes an innovative solution
that uses a series reactor to reduce the harmonic filtering requirements and to
avoid resonances with the power grid. This equipment is in operation in Brazilian
Electric Power Grid since December 2016. The chapter also provides details of a
control scheme used to coordinate the operation of two SVCs installed electrically
close in the Brazilian Electric Power Grid.
1 Introduction
Static Var Compensators (SVCs) use thyristors for the control of reactive power (Hingorani
and Gyugyi 2000). The SVC may consist of one or more of the following parts:
• Thyristor Controlled Reactors (TCR), the thyristor is used to control the reactor
output.
• Thyristor Switched Capacitors (TSC), the thyristor is used to switch the capacitor
in and out.
• Thyristor Switched Reactors (TSR), the thyristor is used to switch the reactor in
and out.
• AC harmonic filters, which can be switched in and out by circuit breakers as
necessary.
These components are usually connected to the high voltage (HV) AC system by
means of a SVC transformer. The connection point is typically called the point of
common connection (PCC).
The characteristics and the implementation of an SVC are described in the next
sections of this chapter.
6 Technical Description of Static Var Compensators (SVC) 157
2 Main Circuit Components of an SVC
2.1 Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR)
The TCR injects continuously varying inductive reactive power to the AC power
network.
TCRs are typically delta-connected air core reactors connected by bidirectional
thyristor valves. The TCR reactors are typically divided in two, with the thyristor
valve located between the two reactors. This arrangement limits the short circuit current
values through the valves, in the event of a short circuit to ground, as well as providing
some protection to the thyristor valve in the event of a lighting strike on the SVC busbar.
The thyristor valves consist of thyristors connected in antiparallel, which allow
current conduction in both AC voltage half-cycles. The TCR current is a function of
the thyristor valve firing angle (Fig. 1). The angle is measured from the zero crossing
of the AC voltage half-cycle at which the valves will be able to conduct. The TCR
valve firing angle is determined by the SVC control system. The reactive power
varies from its maximum value to zero, as the thyristor valve firing angle varies from
the minimum to the maximum value, respectively close to 90 and 180 (Miller
1982; Cigré TB 25 1968; Cigré TB 78 1993).
The SVC control system can be set to either control the AC system voltage or to
give a reactive power output which depends on the AC voltage. The SVC control
system is based on a signal representing the deviation between the voltage and the
reactive power measured at the electric power system point of common connection
(PCC) and the reference value set by the operator. See Sect. 3 of this chapter for more
information about the operation and control of the SVC system.
The delta connection of the TCR has as its main purpose the reduction of all third-
order (triplen) harmonics when operating in balanced conditions.
The maximum TCR root mean square (RMS) current is obtained for 90 firing
angles, i.e., with the thyristor valves in continuous conduction. In this case, purely
sinusoidal harmonic free AC current flows through the reactors and thyristors, as
shown in green in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 TCR current firing angle (Provided by GE)

For thyristor firing angles higher than 90 but smaller than 180 , AC periodic and
nonsinusoidal currents circulate through the TCR. Only odd order harmonics are
generated if the firing of the thyristors is symmetrical resulting in characteristic
harmonic currents of order 6n 1 (n = 1, 2, 3. . .). The RMS value of the
fundamental and the hth harmonic current components as a function of reactor
current are given by the following equations (CIGRE TB 25 1986):
I1 1
¼ ½2 ðπ αÞ þ sin 2α (1)
IL π
Ih 4
¼ ½ cos α sin hα h sin α cos hα (2)
I L hπ h2 1
where:
I1 is the fundamental frequency component.
Ih is the harmonic component of order h.
IL is the reactor current at continuous conduction.
α is the firing angle in radians varying between π/2 radians (90 degrees) for full
conduction and π radians (180 degrees) for no conduction.
h is the harmonic number equal to 6n 1 for six-pulse operation (three-phase
connection).
In 12-pulse connections the 5th, 7th, 17th, 19th, etc., harmonics are canceled in
the high voltage winding of the transformer.
The amplitudes of the harmonic currents depend on the TCR firing angle as
shown in Fig. 2 for 5th, 7th, 11th, and 13th harmonics. In red one can see the
fundamental frequency current RMS value in per unit as a function of the firing
angle. The harmonic currents must be adequately filtered to ensure compliance with
1.0 0.06
0.9
0.05
Fundamental current (pu)
0.8
Harmonic current (pu)
0.7 fund
0.04
0.6
5th
0.5 0.03
7th
0.4
0.02 11th
0.3
13th
0.2
0.01
0.1
0.0 0.00
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
Firing angle (°)
Fig. 2 TCR harmonic currents as a function of firing angle

Control
System
Harmonic
Filter (FC)
Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR)
Fig. 3 Delta connected thyristor controlled reactor
the specification requirements for harmonic voltage distortions at the SVC PCC
(Miller 1982; and Cigré TB 78 1993).
As mentioned above, for three-phase systems, the preferred arrangement for the
TCR is a delta connection (Fig. 3). In this case, when the power system is balanced,
all the triplen harmonic currents circulate in the closed delta and are absent from the
line currents. All the other harmonic currents previously mentioned are present in the
line current and harmonic filters will typically be needed. It is important to ensure
that the firing angles of the two antiparallel thyristors must be as equal as possible in
steady-state operation. Unequal firing angles would produce even harmonic currents
and DC components.
2.2 Thyristor Switched Capacitors (TSC)
The TSC injects a capacitive reactive power step change into the electric power
system as the thyristor valves are either fully conducting or fully blocked. Each
phase of the TSC consists of a capacitor, a bidirectional thyristor valve, and a small
surge current limiting air-cored reactor (Fig. 4). In some designs, the surge current
limiting reactors may be split in two, similarly to the TCR. The three phases are
usually connected in delta to reduce the thyristor valve rated current (Cigré TB
25 1968; Cigré TB 78 1993). The reactor is needed primarily to:
Fig. 4 Thyristor switched capacitor. (Photo by Permission of GE)
• Limit switching transients

• Damp inrush currents
• Filter harmonics coming from the power network or from any other SVC oper-
ating electrically close
• Limit the surge currents in the thyristor valves under abnormal operating condi-
tions such as control malfunction causing capacitor switching when transient-free
conditions are not satisfied and to avoid resonances with transmission systems at
particular frequencies (Hingorani and Gyugyi 2000)
The TSC can be switched off at any current zero crossing by removal of the thyristor
valve gate pulses. At the current zero crossing, the capacitor voltage is at its peak value
and the switched-off capacitor stays charged temporarily at this voltage. Binary combi-
nations of TSCs are sometimes used to reduce the steps when switching (e.g., 1, 2, 4. . .).
If the voltage across the capacitor remains unchanged, the TSC could be switched
in again without any transient at the appropriate peak of the applied AC voltage, as
showed in Fig. 5 for a positively (a) and a negatively (b) charged capacitor.
Figure 6 shows the switching transients obtained with a fully discharged (a) and a
partially discharged (b) capacitor.
The transients are caused by the nonzero dv/dt at the switching instant, which
without the series reactor would produce a very large instantaneous current in the
thyristor valve and the capacitor. The interaction between the capacitor and the series
reactor produces the oscillatory transients present in the current waveforms. Based
on that, the conditions for minimizing the switching transient in a TSC are:
Fig. 5 Transient-free Switching by a TSC with (a) Positively Charged Capacitor and (b) Nega-
tively Charged Capacitor
Fig. 6 Switching transients with the TSC capacitor fully (a) and partially discharged (b)
• If the residual capacitor voltage is lower than the peak AC voltage, the correct
switching instant is the one for which this voltage is equal to the capacitor voltage.
• If the residual capacitor voltage is equal or higher than the peak AC voltage, the
correct switching instant is at the peak of AC voltage, when the thyristor valve
voltage is at its minimum.
From the above, it can be concluded that, under normal conditions, the maximum
possible delay in switching in a TSC is one full cycle of the applied AC voltage. If,
however, the TSC modules have been disconnected as a result of severe overvoltage
conditions, a longer delay might be needed before they can be switched back on
again unless the equipment has been design for the resulting current stresses. This
also means that firing angle control cannot be applied to a TSC, as a means of
varying the output. The switching must take place at the specific instant at each cycle
at which the abovementioned conditions for minimum transients are satisfied. For
this reason, a TSC branch represents a single capacitive admittance that is either
connected to or disconnected from the SVC medium voltage busbar. Therefore, on
its own this device provides only a binary logic (ON/OFF) control for the reactive
power injected into the power system (Padyar 2007).
The TSC does not create harmonic currents, but it may magnify harmonics from
other sources, e.g., an adjacent TCR or the AC system background harmonics.
By using a coordinated operation strategy among TCRs and TSCs, a step free
reactive power control can be achieved. A high degree of flexibility and low power
loss operation can be achieved by the use of TSCs together with TCRs. Typically, the
rating of the TCR is larger than the largest reactive power step that can be caused by
the switching TSCs.
2.3 Thyristor Switched Reactors (TSRs)
If the TCR switching is restricted to fixed firing angles, usually 90 and 180 , then it
operates as a thyristor switched reactor (TSR). The TSR represents a fixed inductive
susceptance, and thus, when connected to the power system, it injects an inductive
current proportional to the applied voltage. Several TSRs operating in parallel can
provide an inductive equivalent susceptance variable in a step-like manner. If the TSR
operates at 90 , its steady-state current will be purely sinusoidal and harmonics free.
A combination of TSCs and TSRs can provide useful compensation with low
power losses. Sometimes TCRs are also operated in some selected conditions as
TSRs, e.g., if there are parallel TCRs, as described Sect. 7 of this chapter. This is a
strategy to reduce the harmonic contribution of the overall SVC.
2.4 AC Harmonic Filters
AC harmonic filters are usually required for SVCs using TCRs but may not be required
if only TSCs and TSRs are used, as in this case, only sinusoidal currents will flow.
AC harmonic filters are designed using series and parallel combinations of

inductors, capacitors, and resistors. They inject into the power grid capacitive
reactive power the value of which depends on the filter design. They are typically
connected at all times, but if redundant AC harmonic filters are used, they may be
switched in and out by dedicated circuit breakers or by the main SVC circuit breaker,
depending on the design used for these elements.
The filter design depends on harmonic analysis studies carried out during the
SVC design stage. For this, the harmonic impedance geometrical loci at the PCC are
determined for the electrical network configurations defined in the specification, and
in addition, the harmonic contributions from the SVC are calculated.
Harmonic performance studies are performed to determine the effect of the
harmonic currents generated by the SVC on the power network and to design
the characteristics of the AC harmonic filters. Typically, this study must also
consider the existing harmonic levels at the PCC.
The filters are dimensioned so that the specified maximum harmonic distortion at
the PCC is not exceeded and to achieve performance and ratings criteria (Pilz et al.
2013). Part of the capacitive reactive power supplied to the power grid by the SVC
comes from the harmonic filters.
Since harmonic voltage distortions in the power grid result from the interaction
between it and the SVC, all system contingencies which may affect power system
frequency response should be evaluated. Any tolerances in the power system
parameters should be considered to assure that system parallel resonance points do
not coincide with any of the SVC characteristic harmonics. As the harmonics
generated by the SVC are strongly dependent on the operating point, a conservative
approach is to consider the maximum values of the harmonics generated by the SVC
equipment irrespective of its actual operation point.
Thus, the objective of SVC harmonic performance studies can be summarized as
the determination of:
• The network harmonic characteristic impedance versus frequency required for

filter design.
• The effect of SVC harmonics on the power system.
• The overall filter requirements and additional countermeasures to reduce har-
monic distortions at the PCC to acceptable levels.
• The contribution of the filters to the overall rating of the SVC.
2.5 SVC Transformer
Typically, the SVC thyristor controlled elements and filters operate at a different
voltage to the voltage at the PCC, because the SVC design is optimized to provide
the specified range of reactive power compensation at the lowest overall evaluated
cost. Therefore, a SVC transformer is likely to be required.
The typical SVC transformer impedance varies between 10% and 15% of the
transformer’s rating. The impedance of the transformer, which is inductive at
fundamental frequency, needs to be taken into account in the design of the overall
SVC. When the SVC is in inductive output mode, the presence of the transformer
reactance will decrease the SVC bus voltage so that the TCRs will generate less
inductive reactive power than it would if the transformer had no reactance. Similarly,
in capacitive mode, the presence of the transformer reactance will boost the SVC bus
voltage meaning that TSCs and filters will generate more reactive capacitive power
than it would if the transformer had no reactance. The transformer impedance also
needs to be considered in the design of AC harmonic filters, if any.
The secondary nominal voltage of the transformer is defined to optimize the TCR
and TSC thyristor valve designs and varies according to the technology employed by
each manufacturer. Some of the relevant requirements to be considered in the design
of this equipment are the presence of harmonic currents produced by the TCRs and
the power losses evaluation requirements specified for the SVC.
Another consideration is whether to use single-phase or three-phase transformers.
The decision may depend on the rating of the transformer, transport limits for the
transformer, and the specified availability requirements, which may make a spare
unit necessary or compulsory to achieve the specified reliability and availability
requirements (Pilz et al. 2013).
3 SVC Voltage Versus Current Characteristic
The relationships between voltages, currents, impedances, and reactive power in a

power system have been described in the ▶ Chap. 2, “AC System Characteristics” of
this book. These relationships depend on several factors such as load condition and
characteristic, network topology, and short-circuit levels at the studied point, and can
be highly nonlinear for large changes. However, for small disturbance analysis at a
steady-state operating point, it is possible to approximate the voltage versus current
characteristic of a typical electric power system by a straight line with negative
slope. Consider as an example an SVC consisting of a TCR and a fixed capacitive
filter. The SVC steady-state operating point will then be given by the intersection
between the characteristic curves of the electrical power system and the SVC, as
shown in Fig. 7.
The black line in Fig. 7 shows the SVC voltage versus current (V I) operating
characteristic. The control system will produce a current output which is dependent
on the voltage at the PCC. The dependency is typically a slope or droop, which is
expressed in percentage of the SVC rated power. This parameter can be set to
different levels and is used to provide the desired steady-state load distribution
when two or more SVCs or reactive power controlling devices with different ratings
operate electrically close to each other.
In Fig. 7, the SVC performance is analyzed considering three power system
operating conditions, represented by the lines Load1, Load2, and Load3. The
Load2 line intersects the SVC V I characteristic at point A, where its terminal
voltage VT is equal to the reference voltage set by the operator (VREF). In this
condition, the SVC injects 0 Mvar in the electric power grid. If due to a load
reduction, the electric power system operates along the Load1 line, the SVC
Load 1
D
V1
Load 2
V2
VT = Vref B
Load 3 SVC OFF SVC ON
A
V4
C
V3
E
Icmax Ic2 0 IL.2 ILmax
Fig. 7 Operating voltage/current characteristic of an SVC
terminal voltage VT changes to V1, giving rise to an error signal ΔU = V1 VREF,

which indicates to the SVC control system the existence of overvoltage in the
electrical power system. The control system then acts by shifting the SVC operating
point from point A to point B, where the SVC will inject the inductive current IL2
into the power system with a voltage error defined by the slope value used.
Similarly, if due to a load increase, the electric power system starts operating
along the Load3 line, the SVC terminal voltage VT moves to V3, giving rise to an
error signal ΔU = V3 VREF, which indicates to the SVC control system the
existence of undervoltage in the electric power system. The control system then
moves the SVC operating point from point A to point C by switching in TSC
modules, where this equipment injects into the power grid capacitive current IC2
with the voltage error defined by the slope value.
Figure 7 shows in red the system voltage variation from Load1 to Load3 if the
SVC had not changed its output (SVC OFF). Similarly the blue line shows the
reduced voltage change with the SVC reactive power change.
The SVC will control its terminal voltage according to the set slope for current
values between its maximum capacitive limit ICMAX and its maximum inductive
limit ILMAX. Once these limits are reached, the SVC will behave as a fixed,
inductive, or capacitive shunt device, for which the reactive power injected into
the electric power grid will vary with the square of its terminal voltage VT.
Due to the capability of fast variations of its reactive power output, SVCs can
respond very quickly to dynamic changes in the power grid, and other devices
present in the network, such as generators and transformer tap changers may
not react to the dynamic changes, as would have happened in a network
without SVCs.
Therefore, the SVC’s operating characteristics need to be coordinated with other
existing reactive power sources through the slope, such that the other devices can
react as required, allowing the SVC to gradually reduce its output as the other
devices react. In this way, the SVC can regain the operating margins in readiness
for any future event (Cigré TB 25 1968). If this coordination was not provided, the
SVC would tend to operate at the extreme of its capability range due to its fast
response. The consequence would be that the SVC would respond to normal
network disturbances leaving little or no reserve for counteracting major system
disturbances.
4 Combinations of SVC Components
As previously mentioned in this chapter, the active elements that can be integrated in
an SVC are:
• Thyristor controlled reactors (TCR), which provide continuously varying induc-

tive reactive power according to the firing angle of the thyristors.
• Thyristor switched capacitors (TSC), which provide capacitive reactive power
changed in discrete mode (ON/OFF), when thyristor valves are fully conducting
or totally blocking the current flow.
• Thyristor switched reactors (TSR), which provide inductive reactive power
changed in discrete mode (ON/OFF), when thyristor valves are fully conducting
or totally blocking the current flow.
AC single- or double-tuned filters are also used to provide part of the capacitive
reactive power injected into the network by the SVC and to filter the TCR harmonic
currents.
As previously mentioned in this chapter, the connection of these elements to the
high voltage bus is made through a SVC transformer, which may have two or three
windings.
The use of three-winding transformers produces the so-called 12-pulse configu-
ration, where one of the secondary windings is star-connected and the other is delta-
connected. This configuration results in 12-pulse operation leaving harmonics of
order (12n 1) and results in costs reduction of the SVC harmonic filters. However,
this effect disappears if one SVC section is switched off, producing a six-pulse mode
of operation that may not meet the specified harmonic requirements.
The use of a two-winding transformer as described in Sect. 5 of this chapter,
produces the so-called six-pulse configuration. This configuration might offer some
operating flexibility but requires larger AC harmonic filters.
Combinations of elements that integrate an SVC with inductive and capacitive

fixed shunt elements produce the following possible configurations:
• Single TCR – 6 pulse.

• Single TCR with AC harmonic filter – 6 pulse.
• Single TCR with AC harmonic filter and TSC – 6 pulse.
• Double TCR and 3-winding transformer – 12 pulse.
• Double TCR and 3-winding transformer with AC harmonic filters – 12 pulse.
• Double TCR and 3-winding transformer with AC harmonic filters and TSCs –
12 pulse.
• Combinations of TCRs and binary switched TSCs with AC harmonic filters.
• Combinations of binary switched TSRs and TSCs (no AC harmonic filter).
• Addition of breaker switched capacitors and reactors for offsetting and extension
of the operating range.
Splitting the capacitive range of a SVC between TSCs and fixed or breaker
switched capacitive elements (tuned or not tuned) allows loss reduction and increase
of operative flexibility. Simpler configurations that have only TCRs are capable of
supplying to the electrical power system only inductive reactive power. Configura-
tions that do not use TCRs are able to provide step-wise changed reactive power
values, producing more limited voltage control than those using TCRs. The choice
of each of the configurations presented here depends on the performance require-
ments and associated costs, as each one has some advantages and disadvantages.
5 First Brazilian SVCs
Static Var Compensators (SVCs) have been successfully used for voltage control and
to improve dynamic stability of electrical power systems since the 1980s. In the
Brazilian power grid, the first equipment of this kind were installed in Fortaleza
(140 to 200 Mvar/230 kV), Milagres (70 to 100 Mvar/230 kV) and Campina
Grande (0 to 200 Mvar/230 kV) substations, all of them in Northeast region of Brazil
(Lima 2013). Examples of SVC applications around the world that were put in
service at that time are described by Lindström and Grainger (Lindström et al. 1984
and Grainger et al. 1986).
These SVCs had two first-order single-tuned harmonic filters and two thyristor
controlled reactors, which together with a three-winding SVC transformer, formed a
12-pulse system, dimensioned to supply continuously varied reactive power values
between SVC nominal inductive and capacitive limits.
As described in Cigré TB 25 (1968), elimination of harmonics can be achieved by
using two TCRs of equal rating, fed from two secondary windings of a SVC
transformer, one connected in star and the other one in delta, forming a 12-pulse
system (Cigré TB 25 1968). In this case, both TCRs are controlled with equal firing
angles. Since the applied voltages have a 30 degrees phase difference, the (6n 1, n
being an odd number) order harmonic currents will be cancelled in the SVC
Fig. 8 Campina Grande SVC 12-pulse configuration
transformer. In this case, the characteristic current harmonics injected in the power
system are of the order (12n 1), i. e., 11, 13, 23, 25, . . . etc.
Figure 8 shows a simplified single-line diagram of a 12-pulse SVC installed in
Campina Grande substation. This arrangement is similar to the converters used in
High Voltage DC (HVDC) transmission systems and has as its main purpose the
elimination of some of the harmonics produced by the TCRs, especially the fifth and
seventh order as mentioned before. Typically, such equipment has circuit breakers at
the high- and medium-voltage transformer connections such that in case of
unavailability of one section, the SVC is able to provide half of its nominal power
to the power grid. However, in this mode of operation, there would be much higher
harmonic distortion particularly at the fifth and seventh harmonic, as these would no
longer be cancelled.
The absence of TSCs results in high current values in the TCRs for SVC
operation at values close to 0 Mvar at the PCC and results in higher power losses
when compared to those SVCs using TSCs combined with fixed capacitive filters.
The reactive power values calculated considering rated voltage (26 kV) at
Campina Grande SVC medium voltage busbar are 114 Mvar inductive for each
TCR branch and 97 Mvar capacitive for each filter branch.
It should be noted that in most cases where the 12-pulse configuration is used, the
harmonic distortion at the fifth and seventh harmonics would be unacceptable if one
of the six-pulse sides is disconnected. If one of the AC harmonic filters is discon-
nected, the 11th and 13th harmonic distortion may be also unacceptable.
In first Brazilian SVCs, the thyristor valves are ETT (electrically triggered
thyristor) type. These thyristors require minimum off period in each half-cycle for
powering the gate drive circuits, which can be provided in different ways as
explained in Sect. 7.3. If the power for the gate unit is taken from the power circuit,
there may be constraints on the minimum firing angle of the thyristors and therefore
may not allow full utilization of the maximum TCR inductive capacity (Lima 2013).
As fixed capacitor banks are used by first-generation SVCs, the equipment losses
are not optimized, since a small output inductive reactive power results in high
current values for the TCRs.
A current limitation strategy is implemented in the first-generation SVCs as
follows. In the event of thyristor valve overcurrent, a signal that reduces the SVC
main control loop inductive limit is produced increasing the value of the minimum
firing angle defined at valve design. Since the TCR maximum current is obtained
when its firing angle reaches the minimum value, increasing this minimum angle will
reduce the RMS current of the thyristor valves (Lima 2013). For the later generation
SVCs described in Sect. 6, during an overcurrent condition, the TCRs should be
forced to full condition or be blocked (nonconducting state) to protect the thyristors
from damage.
6 Later Brazilian SVCs
In 2001, the next generation of SVC was installed in the Brazilian Electric Power
System at Funil Substation, in the Brazil Northeast region. This equipment has two
sequentially controlled thyristor controlled reactors (TCR), two thyristor switched
capacitors (TSC), and two redundant double-tuned harmonic third- and fifth-order
filters, which together with the 230/13.5 kV – 200MVA SVC transformer form a
six-pulse system, able to supply to the electric power grid a continuously varying
reactive power output from 100 Mvar inductive to 200 Mvar capacitive at PCC
(Lima 2013).
When using two six-pulse sequentially controlled TCR units of half-rated output
to achieve the same overall reactive power output then the harmonic currents are
reduced to 50% compared with a single TCR with the full rated capacity.
Funil SVC has circuit breakers at its high and medium voltage busbars as shown
in Fig. 9. This gives a high degree of flexibility and availability, due to the possibility
of operation in the so-called degraded modes, when one or more of its elements are
out of service. A valid degraded mode means an SVC configuration where, although
the output power limits are reduced, it is possible to continuously vary its reactive
power output within a reduced range, while keeping the harmonic distortion pro-
duced by the SVC within the specified limits. A valid degraded mode requires at least
the presence of one TCR and one filter. The selection of valid degraded modes is
performed automatically by the SVC control system. If an invalid degraded mode is
produced, SVC auto reclosing is automatically blocked by the protection.
The reactive power values calculated considering rated voltage (13.5 kV) at SVC
medium voltage busbar are 86.4 Mvar inductive for each TCR branch, 72.4 Mvar
230/13.5kV - 200MVA
X = 15%
VCES
ICES
Δ 13.5kV
8.4mH 1.35mH 0.96mH 0.96mH 1.35mH 8.4mH

0.096mH
0.096mH
7620μF
7620μF
8.4mH 329μF 329μF 329μF 329μF 8.4mH
Fig. 9 Funil SVC (100 to +200 Mvar, 230 kV)
capacitive for each TSC branch, and 23.8 Mvar capacitive for each double-tuned
filter branch.
As the Brazilian electrical power system short circuit levels have increased
substantially, the switching of large transformers is not a problem. Therefore,
motorized circuit switches are used instead of circuit breakers at the medium voltage
Silves SVC busbar as shown in Fig. 10.
In the event of a fault in the SVC, the HV circuit breaker is tripped. Then the
appropriate medium voltage interrupters open to enable continued operation with the
optimum degraded mode. The control system checks if the resulting degraded mode
is valid and if it is, the HV circuit breaker is reclosed and the SVC is connected to the
network with a reduction in its range corresponding to the disconnected branch.
The capacitive to inductive ranges excursion for the SVCs presented in
Figs. 9 and 10 is described below and is shown in Fig. 11.
• At the SVC capacitive limit (point I), the two TSCs are connected and the two
TCRs operate at their maximum firing angles, close to 165 , with very small
inductive current values. The two harmonic filters, as fixed shunt elements, are
always connected.
• When required by the electric power system, the excursion in the inductive
direction starts with the use of TCR1 (TCR2 remains at its maximum firing
angle). At point II, TCR1 firing angle is changed to αc,1 which represents the
special condition where TCR1 has its inductive admittance value equal to the
1
αc is the TCR firing angle that produces TCR admittance equal in magnitude to the TSC value
(B [TCR (αc)] = B(TSC).
500 kV
Y 300 MVA
ek = 15%
Δ
Included in ABB’s scope of supply
20 kV
TCR TSC TSC TCR

th
5 Harmonic 5th Harmonic
147.6 Mvar 129.4 Mvar 129.4 Mvar 147.6 Mvar Filter – 36.8 Mvar Filter – 36.8 Mvar
Fig. 10 Silves SVC (200 to +300 Mvar, 500 kV)
TSC2 capacitive admittance. At this point, the SVC control system is able to
switch off TSC2, while simultaneously changing the TCR1 firing angle to
provide a voltage variation free switching (60 Hz) for TSC2.
• From this point, TCR1 returns to be the control element until point III, when
TCR1 is fired at αc, so that its equivalent admittance equals TSC1 one. The point
III condition is similar to that of point II when TSC1 is switched off and TCR1 is
controlled to provide voltage variation free switching for TSC1.
• From point III, TCR2 remains operating at its maximum firing angle and the SVC
operating point control is performed by using TCR1. When TCR1, on the
excursion into the inductive direction, reaches its minimum firing angle, it is
fixed in this condition and operates as TSR1 (Thyristor Switched Reactor)
continuously triggered at its minimum angle.
• From this condition on, the SVC operating point control is accomplished by using
TCR2 until it reaches its minimum firing angle, when the SVC operates at its
inductive limit.
SVC excursion in the capacitive range is done in a similar way to the inductive
range described above but in the reverse order. In this case, TSC1 is inserted before
TSC2. Suitable hysteresis values are used to avoid instability in the TSCs switching
process. The strategy described here allows the electric power system to see the SVC
operating in steady state as a continuously varying susceptance between its inductive
Fig. 11 Capacitive to inductive limit excursion for the Funil and Silves SVCs
and capacitive nominal limits connected to PCC. The fixed capacitive filters, not
mentioned in Fig. 11, are present in all operating points described here.
In practice, most designs include a maximum firing angle limit for phase control,
typically in the range of 165–170 degrees.
7 Thyristor Valves
Thyristor valves are used in SVCs to control the reactive power contribution from
reactive power elements, such as reactors and capacitors.
Thyristors used in some later Brazilian SVC valves were light triggered thyristors
(LTT) where there is no need to convert optical signals into electrical signals at the
thyristor valve potential as is required for the conventional strategy, which uses
electrically triggered thyristors (ETT). Some LTT devices have integrated voltage
break-over (VBO) protection that functions to turn on the devices if they are exposed
to overvoltages (Schultz et al. 1996). VBO protection is also used for ETT devices
(Lawatsch and Vitins 1988) but normally requires external circuitry.
Light triggered thyristors (LTT) do not require gate power to be developed from
circuits that are connected across the thyristor devices because the turn on signal is
derived from photons injected from ground-based electronic systems directly into
the gate area (Temple 1983). However, even LTT devices need to have some
blocking voltage developed across the LTT devices prior to injecting the turn on
pulse to achieve good current spreading in the thyristor wafers. If the conduction
current is slow to develop, the thyristors might fail in case of a high current surge
with a high current rate of change (di/dt).
The use of LTT allows the operation at very small firing angles close to 90 for
TCRs, and it is not necessary to supply power to the thyristor electronics during the
firing process (Lima 2013). With ETTs, operation close to 90 is not possible if the
thyristor electronics are supplied with power only from the snubber circuit. How-
ever, as discussed in Sect. 7.3, other solutions for supplying power to the thyristors
electronics are possible and can allow continuous operation at a firing angle very
close to 90 , one example provides power for the thyristor electronics from an
independent external source.
The overvoltage cycle specified for the SVCs is typically defined by the Grid
Codes for the AC network. The requirements presented below are for the
Brazilian AC network. The design of the SVC needs to consider the maximum
voltage at the PCC and the most severe contingencies in the electric power
system. The SVC has to ride through the overvoltage levels as specified, without
tripping. The overvoltages are converted to overcurrents that are applied to the
thyristor valves.
• First step: 1.80 pu for 50 ms.

• Second step: 1.40 pu for 200 ms.
• Third step: 1.30 pu for 1 s.
• Fourth step: 1.20 pu for 10 s.
• Fifth step: 1.10 pu continuous (inductive).
• Sixth step: 1.05 pu continuous (capacitive).
For SVCs connected to the 500 kV Brazilian power system, 1.10 pu instead of
1.05 pu is used for the overvoltage cycle’s sixth step.
Some relevant thyristor issues to be considered in the SVC valve design are
discussed by Krishnayya (1984). These include:
• Transient voltage withstand of devices when exposed to overvoltages causing

reverse avalanche
• On-state voltage and holding current device tolerances
• Single cycle, multicycle, and subcycle surge current capabilities and recovery
characteristics
• Critical stresses on valves regarding their di/dt, dv/dt, surge current, and forward
recovery capabilities
A detailed description of TCR and TSC thyristor valves together with the most
relevant stresses applied to these valves are provided in Cigré TB 78 (1993).
The following information about TCR and TSC thyristor valves can be found in
Cigré TB 78 (1993):
• The use of reactors to reduce current stresses on TCR valves.

• Details about firing and monitoring circuits of TCR and TSC valves.
• Details about TCR and TSC valve overvoltage and overcurrent protection
schemes.
• Thermal models used for TCR and TSC thyristor valves.
• Influence of the AC system and SVC main components such as fixed capacitors,
TSCs, and filters.
• Stresses on TCR and TSC valves resulting from switching and system faults as
well as the ones associated with steady-state operation.
• Stresses under system disturbance conditions as AC system faults, temporary
overvoltages in the AC network, switching overvoltages, insulation failures
within the SVC, and control malfunctioning.
7.1 TCR Thyristor Valves
A TCR thyristor valve can be defined as an electrical and mechanical assembly of

series-connected thyristor levels used to control the current through a thyristor
controlled reactor in an SVC. A thyristor level consists of two antiparallel thyristors
and a parallel connected RC circuit, also known as a snubber circuit, used to damp
switching transients and reduce the voltage stresses of the series-connected thyris-
tors. Thyristor valves in SVCs normally comply with the requirements of IEC and
IEEE standards, as for example IEC 61954:2011 (Static Var Compensators – Testing
of Thyristor Valves) and IEEE Standard 1031–2011 (IEEE Guide for the Functional
Specification of Static Var Compensators). See also ▶ Chap. 21, “FACTS Equip-
ment Design and Testing” for more information.
The TCR valve assembly has several series-connected thyristor levels, including
redundant levels according to the design criteria for each project. Most high power
thyristor valves are fluid cooled using deionized water mixed with an antifreeze
liquid to prevent freezing of the cooling fluid, if required. In addition to thyristor
heatsinks, the snubber circuit resistors also require liquid cooling.
Thyristors used in SVCs are normally of the so-called press pack construction as
shown in Fig. 12, where the two opposing sides of the package are cooper pole
pieces used as current contacts. These thyristors need to be compressed in operation
in order to obtain adequately low electrical and thermal resistance. Commonly a
series-connected stack of thyristors shares a common clamping system.
Thyristor valves can be assembled in steel or aluminum frames which react
against the clamping force of the thyristor stack. Alternatively, the thyristor stack
might be held together using insulating tensioning rods or bands. A compression
spring assembly is used to compress the thyristor and heat sinks in a stack with a
Fig. 12 Thyristor and heatsink series connections in a thyristor valve. (Photo by permission of GE)
specified force or the clamping force can be applied via insulating tension rods or
bands such that there does not need to be a steel or aluminum frame. For example,
the minimum clamping force for a 100 mm diameter thyristor would typically be
close to 100 kilo Newtons. Thyristors are stacked alternately with liquid cooled
heatsinks. Each thyristor is assembled between two heatsinks, and each heatsink
cools two thyristors, except the outermost heatsinks, which only have thyristors on
one side (Fig. 12).
The connections from the valve in the valve hall to the outdoors SVC equipment
are made using wall bushings located behind each valve.
The connections between the valve electronics cards and the valve base electron-
ics (VBE) are typically made by optical fibers that bring the firing commands to the
valve and sends signals to the VBE concerning the status of the thyristors, reporting
if the firing process was done successfully or not.
The number of TCR thyristor levels depends on multiple factors, such as the
secondary voltage value, the chosen overvoltage protection strategy, the valve
extinction overshoot, the spread in recovery voltage, the voltage break-over protec-
tion level (VBO), and component tolerances. The extinction overshoot depends on
operating conditions such as di/dt and thyristor junction temperature, but it also
depends on the series arrangement of thyristor levels and the characteristics of the
thyristors and snubber circuit components.
A typical arrangement of a TCR thyristor valve used in SVCs for power systems
application is shown in Fig. 13.
Each thyristor valve consists of a number of thyristor modules. A brief descrip-
tion of the major parts of a typical thyristor module is summarized as follows. More
details about the thyristor module are provided in Cao et al. (2010).
Gate Electronics: Electronic cards that are responsible for supplying the gate
pulse to the thyristor when required, in addition to the exchange of signals among the
thyristors and the valve base electronics.
Fig. 13 TCR thyristor valve

for power systems application.
(Photo by permission of GE)
Snubber Resistors (Water-Cooled) and Snubber Capacitors: Snubber circuit

resistors connected in series with snubber capacitors, which are connected in parallel
with the thyristors at each thyristor level, are used to damp switching transients and
balance the recovery voltage stresses of the series-connected thyristors.
Auxiliary Supply CT Stick: Current transformer used in some valve designs to
feed electric power to the thyristor electronics from an external auxiliary source
called ground level power supply (GLPS).
Fast Grading Capacitors: Each thyristor along with its snubber circuit has a
stray capacitance to ground. These capacitances are different for each location within
the thyristor valve. The valve can be depicted as a capacitive ladder network, causing
a potentially nonlinear voltage distribution for steep fronted surges. This effect can
be mitigated by compensating the ground capacitances through suitably sized
discrete capacitors connected in parallel to each thyristor level, known as fast
grading capacitors.
di/dt Reactors: Reactors connected in series with the valve in some valve designs
are used to protect the thyristors against high di/dt arising from the discharge of stray
capacitances, e.g., from wall bushings, at turn-on.
Voltage Dividers: Thyristor devices exhibit leakage currents both in the forward
and reverse applied voltage polarities. To ensure proper voltage sharing between
devices in the blocked (nonconducting) state, resistive dividers may be needed
across the antiparallel thyristors to equalize the voltage sharing between the series-
connected thyristors to prevent overstressing the devices.
During external faults on the SVC high voltage side, its current will be interrupted
by high voltage breakers. If at the moment of the fault there is current in the TCR and
the voltage applied to it is zero, the current continues to circulate. This is the
so-called DC trapped current, whose amplitude and duration is a function of several
factors, such as fault resistance and point of application at the voltage wave.
This effect occurs because the current in the inductor is proportional to the
integral of its terminal voltage and if the voltage during the fault is zero, a DC
current appears in the TCR and only disappears at the first current zero crossing after
the voltage recovery on fault clearing.
In this condition, the thyristor valve will continue to conduct in only one
direction, until the current reaches the zero crossing and extinguishes. The effect
of the DC trapped current is to increase the junction temperature of the conducting
thyristors.
For valve design purposes, studies are performed during the design stages to
calculate valve stresses associated to the worst condition for DC trapped currents and
this condition corresponds to a symmetrical three phase fault on SVC high voltage
busbar at the same time as the valve current reaches its peak value. As an example,
the calculation of the DC trapped current values for Tauá SVC (45 to 90 Mvar,
230 kV) TCR thyristor valves, in operation in the Brazilian transmission system
since 2016 (Aho et al. 2016) is presented in the next paragraphs.
The calculation is based on continuous operation with worst case continuous
current before a fault application at the SVC high voltage busbar. This will give high
initial thyristor temperature for the DC trapped current calculation. The cooling
system performance is calculated with a maximum ambient temperature of 40 C
and with the redundant heat exchanger fans out of service. The calculated worst case
initial thyristor junction mean temperature prior to the fault is about 80 C in the
example case here presented (point A in Fig. 14). During the DC trapped current
period, the TCR current decays but the thyristor junction temperature rises. The rate
of decay of the TCR current depends on the L/R time constant of the equivalent
circuit. The TCR reactor, thyristor valve resistances, and inductances are considered
in the calculation. The transformer losses are not considered, which gives slightly
slower decay for the DC trapped current and calculated stresses that are slightly
higher than the actual ones.
The fault is assumed to be cleared as soon as the worst case thyristor junction
temperature during DC trapped current circulation reaches its maximum peak (Point
B in Fig. 14) which is found to be 87 C for this project.
Assuming that the fault is cleared at point B, the worst case thyristor junction
temperature post fault clearing is dependent upon the assumed magnitude of the
recovery voltage. In the presented case, a short-term overvoltage of 1.3 pu is used for
the calculation, which gives the peak junction temperature of 91.1 C (point C in
Fig. 14). This is much lower than the maximum allowed 125 C thyristor junction
temperature. Furthermore, the DC trapped current scenario could only occur when
there is a true short circuit fault on the SVC high voltage busbar with zero voltage at
one TCR delta branch.
178
95.000
C
90.000
B
85.000
80.000 A
Thyristor temp. (degC)
95.000
99.950 100.000 100.050 100.100 100.150 100.200 100.240
T (Secs)
6.000K
4.000K
2.000K
Thyristor current (A)

0.000K
-1.000K
99.950 100.000 100.050 100.100 100.150 100.200 100.240
T (Secs)
Fig. 14 Thyristor junction temperature and DC trapped current for a TCR thyristor valve. (Provided by GE)
M. Lima and S. L. Nilsson
The thyristor will turn off at the first current zero crossing and its temperature will
then start to decrease. According to this analysis, the thyristor valve can withstand
the worst possible current stresses associated with a DC trapped current due to a fault
at the HV side of the SVC transformer.
7.2 TSC Thyristor Valves
In general, one can say that the thyristor valve for a TSC is very similar to that of a
TCR, but for a given AC voltage, the TSC valve has more thyristors connected in
series because of the need to withstand both the maximum AC voltage and the
maximum trapped capacitor voltage after blocking. As the voltage is proportional to
the integral of the current for a capacitor and as remarked in Sect. 2.2 of this chapter,
TSCs are able only to perform an ON/OFF control of their current.
The TSC valves are protected against overvoltages by metal oxide varistors
(MOVs) connected directly between the main valve terminals to limit the voltage
across the TSC valve. The MOV arresters are rated considering the most severe fault
cases such as ground faults during overvoltages and misfiring, as well as normal
operating conditions.
During system overvoltage, the TSC valve may be blocked, and this may happen
at higher than normal voltage, trapping high voltage on the capacitors. The valve
protection may then prevent the reinsertion of the TSC when the voltage drops to
normal, unless the TSC valve has been designed for the higher in-rush current that
will result from the higher trapped voltage on the capacitor bank.
TSC valves also need to be protected against capacitor overvoltages, which may
cause high inrush currents in the valve. The capacitor overvoltage protection (COVP)
is primarily a capacitor bank protection but also has an important part in controlling
valve stresses. In one way of implementing this protection, the capacitor bank voltage
is monitored and if the capacitor bank is charged to a voltage exceeding COVP level
for the thyristor valves, triggering pulses will be generated to the valve for as long as
the overvoltage condition persists. COVP will thus prevent the TSC valve from being
switched out, reducing the voltage stresses over the valve. However, this might
increase the duration and magnitude of the AC system overvoltage. An alternative is
to allow the TSC to block during the overvoltage and then include an interlock system
to prevent the valve from deblocking at a voltage that would be unsafe; however, this
can lead to a delay in being able to resume operation after an overvoltage.
The response of the TSC valves during system overvoltage events need to be
studied and appropriate requirements should be included in the system specification
to obtain the best solution.
7.3 SVCs Gate Power Drive Issues
RC snubber circuits are connected in parallel with each thyristor level to damp
voltage transients and balance the voltage stresses between thyristor levels.
For ETT (electrically triggered thyristor) valves, one strategy used to supply
the energy necessary to the thyristors firing process is to use the energy stored in
the snubber circuits when the valve is blocked as described below. In this case, the
minimum TCR firing angle is typically not less than 93.0 degrees so that the snubber
circuits can store enough energy to assure a safe firing process.
At the thyristor level, there might, for example, be rectifiers or DC/DC
converters to power the gate drive modules. This strategy is design dependent
as there are several ways of converting energy to a suitable level for the thyristor
electronics. These so-called energy stepdown (EC) units are fed by the snubber
circuit current and they feed the thyristor valve electronics (TVE) that needs a DC
supply to generate firing pulses and to handle the required monitoring functions.
In case of total voltage collapse, the power supply is lost after a delay. The power
supply snubber capacitors are recharged in half a cycle when the SVC is ener-
gized again.
Another strategy to get energy for powering ETT thyristor gate driver units
is to use an insulated current transformer called a CT Stick, mounted on the
valve module frame. The CT Stick assembly is located in the same relative
position for both TCR and TSC modules. This assembly receives power from a
ground level power supply (GLPS) and provides the gate driver units power
continuously.
The GLPS unit is installed inside the valve room and its chassis is connected to
ground potential. To enhance availability, the GLPS operates from a choice of AC
supply and DC supply.
Typically, the GLPS generates a high frequency current loop (for example,
800 Hz power source) that flows through the power supply loop, also known as
CT loop which is effectively a single-turn primary winding that can power many
thyristors.
The main differences between LTTs (light triggered thyristors) and ETTs are the
way of triggering and the LTT internal integrated protection functions.
Some important protection functions can be integrated in the LTT such as
BOD (break-over diode) and dv/dt protections (Temple 1983; Katoh et al. 2001).
Therefore, the electronic components which are necessary for the external
protection of ETTs might not be necessary for LTTs. For monitoring purposes,
the LTT may require a simple circuit at the thyristor level to detect whether or
not the thyristor blocks in the nonconductive state and trigger when ordered to
do so.
To use a LTT, it is only necessary to fix the optical fiber (Ruff et al. 1999) into the
housing and connect this light pipe to a laser diode. The optical fiber performs the
insulation between the main circuit (closed loop control and valve base electronics)
and the thyristor firing circuit. This way, for LTTs, firing pulses are available
independent of AC system voltage and no auxiliary energy is required within the
valve except possibly for device monitoring purposes. Figure 15 shows a LTT and its
optical fiber.
Fig. 15 Direct light triggered thyristor
7.4 Thyristor Valve Cooling System
The thyristor valves’ cooling system is typically a closed single circuit deionized
water cooling system. If the system can be exposed to freezing conditions, an
antifreeze agent would be added to the water. In cold countries, some cooling
systems have two circuits. The valve cooling circuit uses pure deionized water and
the other uses water and glycol, with a heat exchanger between the two circuits. The
valve heat sinks located on each side of the thyristors are cooled by a flow of
deionized water that is also distributed to the TCR and TSC snubber circuits.
Dry air coolers placed outdoors provide heat exchange between the cooling
medium and the air. Fans are automatically started if the cooling medium tempera-
ture exceeds a certain level. One circulation pump with one redundant pump at
standby maintains the cooling liquid circulation in the system.
The valve losses, which are the sum of thyristor losses and the TCR and TSC
snubber losses (and the losses in the di/dt reactors, if provided) during worst case
operating conditions, determine the size of the cooling system. A typical cooling
system used for a power system SVC is shown in Fig. 16.
Redundant pumps, cooling radiators, and fans are typically provided to mini-
mize the risk of the cooling system causing a shutdown of the SVC. A secure
power source for the cooling system will be needed to avoid shutting down the
SVC during temporary AC system disturbances since loss of power to the cooling
system would be a common mode failure that would lead to a loss of the
complete SVC.
Fig. 16 Power system’s SVC cooling system. (Photo by permission of ABB)
7.5 Thyristor Valve Control and Protection Systems
The thyristor valve control consists of thyristor control units (TCU) and valve base
electronics units (VBE) in which the thyristor monitoring system (TMS) is an
integrated part. The VBE is located in the control cubicle and the TCUs are located
on the valve itself. All communication between the control equipment and the valve
equipment is carried out via fiber-optic light guides.
Each ETT-based thyristor level requires gate drivers; this can be implemented in
different ways, as follows:
• Two separate gate drives per level.

• One gate drive per level, driving both thyristors via an isolation circuit.
• One gate drive per level, driving a common-cathode-connected pair of thyristors.
In this case, one extra gate drive is needed at the end of the valve.
There are several ways to design the TCUs for triggering and monitoring of the
thyristors. The basic function of the TCU for ETT devices is to convert incoming
light pulses to thyristor firing orders and to send back thyristor status to the TMS.
When the TCU is energized and the voltage across the thyristor is forward, a signal is
sent back to the VBE enabling the TCU to send a gate pulse to the thyristor.
The TCR TCU contains a thyristor overvoltage protection providing protective
firing if the voltage across the thyristor exceeds the protection level.
Failure of individual thyristors generates an alarm. A failed thyristor is typically
detected by sensing the voltage across the thyristor when the thyristor is in the off
state. If there is no voltage, the thyristor is short circuited. This kind of information is
easily communicated back to the control system by means of a laser diode and a
fiber-optic link. The position of the failed thyristor will be indicated on the SVC
Human Machine Interface (HMI) screen.
8 SVC Control System
8.1 Early SVC Analog Control
The first SVCs installed in the 1980s used purely analog and nonadaptive control
systems as shown in Fig. 17. For these SVCs, the three-phase voltages and currents
measured at the SVC high voltage side are used to calculate the UMED measured
voltage which is compared with the reference voltage (set by the operator) to
produce the error signal ΔU, which is the input to two control channels. The SVC
control action is determined by either:
• The normal channel, which is based on a proportional-integral controller (PI), that

operates continuously and represents the main controller.
• Or by a fast channel which acts based on a proportional-derivative controller (PD)
and operates only during major disturbances due to the presence of a dead band.
Because of its nonadaptive characteristics, a single gain value had to be used by

the early SVC analog controls for all planned network operating conditions. The
need to design for the lowest specified short circuit level determines the speed of
response of the analogue controller, and the lower the level is the slower the
response. In case of degraded network operation resulting in short-circuit levels
lower than the minimum specified for the design at PCC, SVC operation could
Fig. 17 Analogue closed loop control

become unstable. Therefore in such conditions, manual Var control mode might be
required to avoid oscillatory or even unstable behavior. However, in manual mode of
operation, the SVC is not able to control its terminal voltage, as it operates as a fixed
susceptance whose value is defined by the operator. This problem is overcome
through the use of adaptive control schemes in the newer SVCs as described in the
next sections of this chapter.
8.2 Digital Control Systems
The closed loop control of a typical SVC that uses digital technology is based on the
positive sequence voltage and the reactive current component measurements. Instan-
taneous voltage and current signals are filtered with a sequence of discrete infinite
impulse response (IIR) filters tuned for 3rd, 5th,and seventh harmonics. According to
Clarke (1943), these signals are then converted to alpha beta domain from which
the voltage signal is processed to positive and negative sequence components, and the
SVC current signal (ISVC) is converted to D and Q components (rotating coordina-
tion), as defined by Park (1929). The positive sequence voltage vector length is passed
through averaging and second harmonic filters as well as the SVC current. The current
component is scaled with the slope and subtracted from the measured voltage along
with the reference set-point. This forms the signal to be fed to the voltage controller.
The function blocks and connections are shown in Fig. 18 (Aho et al. 2016).
To avoid SVC control system instability or poor performance in terms of response
times, and the associated system voltage control problems, an automatic gain
controller can be included in the SVC closed loop control. The main purpose of
this control feature is to adjust the SVCs main closed loop control gain over a wide
range of power system operation conditions, such that the specified performance
parameters for the step response test can be obtained (Belanger et al. 1984; Gutman
et al. 1985).
T
ABC αβ
x
Vsystem to to + + VERROR
- -
T
αβ v+/v- ∫ X ( Δt ) dt
Y= 0
6 N 6
Filtering Sliding Filtering
3H, 5H, 7H average 2H
Reference
T
ABC αβ
x
ISVC to to T
X
αβ DQ ∫ X ( Δt ) dt
Y= 0
6 N 6
Filtering Sliding Filtering
3H, 5H, 7H average 2H
Slope
Fig. 18 Digital main controller input signal calculation

PI controller
Valves
KP BTCR
BSVC BTCR to αTCR
+ αTCR
VERROR SCL KGC BSVC to
+ BTCR BTSC
1 BTSC BTSC to TSC ON/OFF
sT FPTSC
Gain optimization
Gain supervision
Under voltage
strategy
Fig. 19 Digital SVC closed loop control: adaptive loop
In its simplest form, the automatic gain control can be implemented as a gain
switching control that applies to the SVC main control loop with a number of preset
gain values, calculated, for example, according to the PCC short circuit level (SCL)
measurement.
In addition, an automatic device able to detect control system instability should be
installed to assure stable behavior during, for example, operating conditions not
considered during the design stages.
Such features are implemented as shown in Fig. 19.
The set of gains described below are applied to the signal VERROR. The SCL gain
controller corrects the VERROR signal, shown in Fig. 18, based on the dynamic short-
circuit level measured at SVC PCC, as described below. Performance parameters
related to SVC step response should be achieved as follows, in compliance with the
definitions established by IEEE (IEEE Standard 1031 2011).
• Maximum percent overshoot (MPO) of 30%.

• Maximum rise time (Tr) of 33 ms.
• Maximum settling time (Ts) of 100 ms.
The gain optimization (GO) algorithm is based on the scheduled application of a

small disturbance of the SVC output and the measurement of the relationship between
the voltage change and the reactive power error corresponding to this disturbance, the
so-called gain test. Based on the SVC output signal magnitude and polarity measured
during the gain test application, the SCL gain value will be increased or reduced (Lima
et al. 2017). The second control loop, called gain supervisor (GS), aims to preserve
stable operation of the SVC if oscillations are detected in its output signal. This is done
by reducing the KGC gain value from its present value until such oscillations are
satisfactorily damped. The main control loop is based on a proportional-integral
(PI) controller action, with parameters adjustable through the values of SCL and
KGC gains. This controller is bypassed if the SVC terminal voltage at SVC PCC
Fig. 20 Closed loop control: general block diagram
falls below a value defined by studies, forcing this equipment to operate with 0 Mvar
output, constituting the so-called undervoltage blocking scheme.
As shown in Fig. 19, the required SVC susceptance (BSVC) is distributed to the
available controllable elements (TCRs and TSCs). The TSCs susceptances are
determined based on the switching limits defined for these elements, which have a
binary control strategy (ON/OFF). The TCRs currents are continuously controlled
between their maximum and minimum limits, based on the thyristor firing angle
defined by the SVC closed loop control system. These elements are responsible for
the continuous control of the reactive power injected by the SVC into the power grid.
This equipment control system consists of two fully redundant control units, pro-
ducing a 100% redundancy level.
Figure 20 shows a simplified block diagram of a typical SVC closed-loop control
system. The adaptive control loop is inside the block “voltage control” (Lima et al.
2017).
In Fig. 20, IO means input/output, POD means power oscillations damper, and
Iorder is the current order defined for the TCRs.
8.3 Additional Control Loops
8.3.1 Undervoltage Blocking Scheme

This control scheme is designed to avoid the SVC increasing the AC overvoltage
after the recovery from a close up fault. It forces the SVC to operate at 0 Mvar if its
terminal voltage drops below a preset value for a predetermined time. For example,
in case of an SVC having two TCRs, two TSCs and filters (Fig. 10), this corresponds
to blocking two TSCs and one TCR, the remaining TCR being used to compensate
the filters susceptance, resulting in 0 Mvar at PCC.
This function aims to prevent the SVC operating at strongly capacitive points,
generally associated with electrically close faults, when this operating mode could
increase the overvoltage level on fault clearing. Detection of this scheme operating
condition is based on the mean RMS values of the three phases of the PCC voltage
for balanced three phase faults and the minimum RMS value of this voltage for
unbalanced faults. The SVC is released to voltage control when this signal reaches a
value higher than the blocking level plus a hysteresis defined during the system
design. This undervoltage blocking scheme is able to operate for local and remote,
balanced and unbalanced faults. The aforementioned blocking and unblocking levels
can be modified based on the short circuit level (SCL) measured at PCC. This control
loop could be activated or not depending on the power system voltage characteristics
at PCC and on the level of overvoltages associated with faults clearing in the SVC
influence area.
8.3.2 Degraded Mode Operation

Some SVCs offer the possibility of automatic operation in degraded mode if
components such as harmonic filters, TCRs or TSCs become unavailable. Enabling
degraded operation provides a higher degree of flexibility and availability for the
SVC equipment.
To achieve the increasing SVC availability required by the Brazilian National
Operator Grid Codes, Brazilian SVC specifications require valid degraded operating
modes corresponding to configurations that, although the output reactive power
compensation limits are reduced, provide continuously varying SVC output power
while keeping SVC harmonic levels below the specified limits. Therefore, a valid
degraded mode typically requires the presence of at least one TCR and filters as
necessary or one TCR, one TSC and one filter for the configuration presented in
Fig. 10, as an example.
The selection of valid degraded modes is performed automatically by the SVC
control system based on the status of the various elements, using medium voltage
motorized switches. If an invalid degraded mode is produced, the SVC automatic
reclosing function is blocked. This function can be activated or deactivated via the
SVC human machine interface (HMI).
8.4 The Use of Series Reactor to Reduce Harmonics and Losses
Usually a utility SVC is connected to the selected point of a transmission grid

using a SVC transformer. The transformer typically has a reactance value in the
range of 12% to 20% and secondary (MV) voltage between 10 and 35 kV (Aho
et al. 2016).
As explained in Sect. 2 of this chapter, a TCR in operation produces harmonics
due to the control of reactor current. The order of harmonics also depends on the
firing angle of the thyristors. The harmonics generated by the TCR cannot be fully
Fig. 21 Tauá SVC and the blocking series reactor
filtered, so a TCR increases harmonic levels at the SVC PCC. Furthermore, the
network will include harmonic sources (background distortion) which may be
magnified through resonance with the impedance of the SVC.
One method to reduce the harmonics at PCC caused by the TCR is to increase the
impedance between the SVC busbar and the PCC. The SVC transformer has built in
impedance, so adding reactance in series with this transformer increases the overall
impedance. The transformer reactance can be increased by increasing the distance
between the windings around the same poles but the size of the transformer is
smaller if an external additional reactor is used. This external reactor is called a
blocking reactor (Aho et al. 2016). Figure 21 shows the configuration of the Tauá
SVC, which has been in operation in the Brazilian power grid since 2016 and which
uses this strategy. This concept was successfully implemented for the first time as
reported in Aho et al. (2014).
The abovementioned blocking reactor is connected between SVC BUS 1 and SVC
BUS 2. Single-tuned filter banks FC1 and FC2 are tuned to filter fifth and seventh
harmonic currents respectively generated by the TCR. TSC1 and TSC2 are not tuned
and do not participate in filtering of TCR harmonics and therefore are connected to
SVC BUS 1. In the presented case, the reactance of the blocking reactor is selected to
be in the same range as the reactance of the SVC transformer (Aho et al. 2016).
As detailed in Aho et al. (2016), the introduction of the series reactor produces the
following advantages regarding the SVC main circuit design:
• Reduction of the number of series-connected thyristors used in the TCR valves.

• Reduction of short-circuit requirements at SVC BUS 2.
• Reduction of total losses of the SVC.
• Avoidance of resonances among SVC filters and the power network in abnormal
configurations.
For these reasons, the use of the series reactor allows the use of simple SVC
technology in projects associated with high short circuit levels at PCC and where strict
requirements for low power losses cannot be met by the use of equipment based on
Voltage Source Converters (VSC) technology, as in the reported case of Tauá SVC.
9 Coordinated Operation of SVCs Operating Electrically

Close
When there are two or more SVCs operating electrically close, the settings and gains
of their closed loop control systems must be coordinated considering the dynamics
of the power grid and the interactions among the SVCs. (These issues can also arise
if an SVC system is close to another FACTS controller or an HVDC system.) Thus,
studies and measurements of power grid voltage sensitivity at various reactive power
operation levels should be made to define the appropriate gains.
As mentioned in Sect. 8.2 of this chapter, the gain optimizer (GO) control loop
depends on the measurement of the sensitivity of the electric power grid to the
injection by the SVC of a susceptance pulse. However, if a second SVC operates
electrically close to the one whose GO is active the apparent power network response
will be masked by the response of the second SVC to the disturbance. As a result, the
measurements made will be inaccurate, resulting in an incorrect gain adjustment.
Lima and Lajoie discuss real cases related to SVCs operating electrically close in the
Brazilian and the Hydro Quebec Power grids and proposed solutions to overcome
the challenges that involve their coordinated operation (Lima et al. 2014 and Lajoie
et al. 1990).
The strategy to address this issue in the Brazilian case is based on the implemen-
tation of a control scheme and a fast telecommunication link between the electrically
close SVCs. In general, the states of the different high gain, rapid response control-
lers need to be communicated to the other near-by controllers. Other communication
technologies could be applied so the example given here is not the only viable
solution. A signal inhibits the main control loop of the SVC that is not performing its
gain test (the passive SVC) from reacting during the test period, i.e., the passive SVC
is forced to operate with a constant output for a very short period. This scheme can
be implemented as described as follows (Lima et al. 2017).
• A signal is sent from the SVC that will perform the test (which will be referred to
as the active SVC) to the passive one, indicating that the active SVC will apply
the gain test.
• Upon receiving the warning signal, the passive SVC applies a deadband to its
control system and informs the active SVC that the gain test can be applied.
• The active SVC receives this confirmation from the passive SVC and performs its
gain test.
• At the end of the gain test, the active SVC informs the passive one that the dead
band can be removed.
• The passive SVC removes the dead band and resumes its normal operation
(automatic mode).
If a major disturbance is applied in the electric power grid at this time, the dead
band is deactivated and the passive SVC immediately resumes operation in voltage
control mode, without waiting for the gain test performed by the active SVC to be
completed. In that case, the gain test should be rescheduled.
The main features of the abovementioned implemented scheme to provide the
interchange of information between the electrically close SVCs are distributed
algorithm, hardwired connection for the essential communication signals, and addi-
tional information transmitted via Distributed Network Protocol 3 (DNP3). This
protocol is an open and public protocol being administered by the Distributed
Network Protocol Users Group (DNP 2018).
If the electric distance between the SVCs is small, it is possible to assume the
same short-circuit levels for both equipment high voltage busbars. Then, the active
SVC, when performing its gain test, informs the passive SVC of the short circuit
level resulting from this test. The passive SVC then uses this value to determine its
gain value. Even considering that both SVCs are supplied by different manufac-
turers, the approach described can be implemented without sharing any specific gain
calculation strategies of each SVC, safeguarding the confidentiality and intellectual
property aspects associated with each project.
10 SVC Losses
SVC total power losses are calculated at specified operation points, and SVCs will
have been designed in order to optimize their total evaluated costs including
equipment, engineering, and losses. The purpose of this section is to present the
loss calculation principles. As sometimes it is difficult to measure the power losses at
the site accurately, the loss evaluation is mainly based on the factory test results and
theoretical calculations.
The total SVC power loss is composed of different components considered in
different ways. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the loss calculation methods
separately for each SVC component as described below.
A power system SVC is composed of the following equipment:
• SVC transformer.
• Thyristor controlled reactors.
• Thyristor switched capacitors.
• Harmonic filters.
• Auxiliary services.
• Valves cooling systems.
• Control and protection systems.
• AC supply, cooling and heating systems for SVC cubicles and valve buildings.
10.1 SVC Transformers Losses
The SVC transformer is typically procured by the SVC contractor from another
company, either within or external from the SVC contractor’s company. In this
section, the SVC contractor will be referred to as the purchaser. The SVC contractor
typically remains responsible for the SVC transformer, whether or not it is sourced
from its own or another company.
Transformers used for connecting SVCs to the AC grid dissipate energy in their
conductor resistance, magnetic core flux heating, and heating as a result of induced
currents in tank walls and other metallic components. The lost energy has a cost,
because it requires power to be generated but not delivered to the ultimate users of
the electric energy (Heathcote 2007). In order to be able to estimate the cost of this
lost energy, the losses have to be known. Also, in order to compare the true cost of
different transformer designs and of different manufacturers, the purchaser should, if
possible, in the procurement documents state the capitalized value of losses to be
used for the evaluation of proposals. The purchaser also has the responsibility of
specifying the background harmonics and the harmonics from the SVC to which the
transformer will be subjected, while the transformer manufacturer has the responsi-
bility of designing the transformer, taking into account these specified harmonics
(CIGRE TB 529 2013). This procedure is not unique to transformer losses but
applies to all SVC losses.
A small amount of DC current might also flow through the SVC side windings if
the power semiconductor switching is not balanced between the positive and neg-
ative half cycles. The purchaser must also include the maximum value of DC current
that the SVC transformer should be capable of handling without any component
exceeding its specified temperature limits. DC currents will bias the transformer
magnetizing characteristic causing the magnetizing current to be asymmetric and
create noncharacteristic current harmonics as well as sending the core towards
saturation. The potential for these aspects also have to be considered.
Losses caused by harmonics may be highly localized eddy or circulating currents
within parts of the windings. Also cores and tanks will contribute significant losses.
Losses in service associated with harmonics, however, cannot be measured during
the factory acceptance tests and therefore, must be calculated. The manufacturer
should provide these calculations for the total service losses as per applicable
standards and indicate these losses for different ratings. In addition to the total
services losses (inclusive of harmonic effects) at various loads, the manufacturer

should provide, prior to factory testing, the calculated value of eddy current losses at
fundamental and harmonic frequency, which should be declared and with the client’s
and the purchaser’s agreement, will be used to correct measured values. The
fundamental frequency losses are normally covered in the guarantees subject to
tolerance as specified in standards (IEEE C57.12 2015). The assessment may entail
using calculating tools such as finite element methods (FEM). Manufacturers calcu-
lated and expected test values should be compared to the values derived from test
measurements.
The calculated losses and their distribution are used not only to assess if the
transformer design will meet the requirements of the procurement specification but
also for thermal modeling of the transformer to ensure that the hottest spot in the
transformer does not violate the standard. There are, however, practical limits to the
accuracy that can be obtained with models because transformer manufacturing
involves not only an analytical design process but also tolerances in materials,
manufacturing tolerances, dimensional creepages in cellulosic materials, etc. Con-
sequently, even models that are based on the best mathematical descriptions of the
underlying physical processes will always need to incorporate a certain degree of
empiricism and tuning factors (CIGRE TB 659 2016).
Calculation of the eddy current losses in windings, cores, and structural compo-
nents is based on determining the amplitude and distribution of the magnetic stray
flux. To simulate the loss distribution in the structural metal parts of a transformer
requires first a nonlinear magnetic AC calculation using a FEM model with a very
large number of mesh elements. The validity of the result will be highly dependent
on the mesh size and placement and computer power to ensure numeric stability.
The accuracy of loss calculations may depend on the level of details used in the
modelling approach. To calculate the magnetic field distribution is, however, a straight-
forward mathematical procedure if the magnetic field due to eddy currents in all the
conducting parts can be neglected. These conducting parts primarily consist of the
copper (or aluminum) in the windings, the metallic frames that secure the core and
winding assembly, the core material, and the tank including the magnetic shunts or
aluminum/copper shields. It is, however, not possible to formally validate the simula-
tion results using load-loss test data because eddy-current losses in the windings cannot
be separated easily from stray losses in other metallic parts such as tank, core clamps,
etc. (CIGRÉ TB 659 2016). There are, however, simplified mathematical methods
usable for fundamental frequency domain calculations. These are published in stan-
dards and in some textbooks, which can be used to approximately estimate transformer
losses (IEEE Standard C57.18.10; IEEE Standard C57.110– 1998; IEEE Standard
1158– 1991; Fitzgerald et al. 2003). For SVC transformer applications, it will be
necessary to calculate the harmonic currents for each harmonic order and operating
point to obtain an estimate for the annual cost of the losses dissipated in the transformer.
Transformer losses are divided into no load losses and load losses. Both the no
load and load losses for fundamental frequency currents and voltages are measured
as part of the transformer tests prior to shipment from the factory.
Essential inputs for transformer losses estimates are:
• Transformer nominal MVA.

• Transformer actual load in MVA.
• Transformer rated primary voltage.
• Transformer rated secondary voltage.
• Actual primary voltage applying to the load condition considered.
• Transformer no load losses across the range of excitation (viz. system voltage
divided by system frequency).
• Transformer load losses at fundamental frequency and standard reference
temperature.
• Harmonic current spectra for transformer current at various loads to be
considered.
• Primary and secondary resistances and temperature at which they apply.
• Ambient temperature – usually maximum daily average, average annual, maxi-
mum and minimum temperatures are sufficient.
• Winding temperature at Standard reference temperature.
• Fan and pump power requirements as applicable to the various loads considered.
10.1.1 No Load Losses

No load losses are mainly hysteresis and eddy current losses in the transformer core
steel but will also include losses in the transformer’s dielectric system and a small
component of winding losses. The core losses are the result of magnetic excitation
and occur even when load current is not flowing through the transformer windings.
The core losses are hysteresis losses, which are proportional to frequency, and eddy
current losses, which are proportional to the square of the frequency. However, the
core losses can vary significantly for different core designs and core material
selection. Also, the design flux level in the cores will strongly affect the core losses.
Harmonic currents have no effect on the no load losses, unless the excitation voltage
is distorted, in which case the eddy current losses in the core will increase.
The no load losses are measured during the factory tests by supplying rated
voltage to the low voltage winding that is as distortion free as possible. The losses
are temperature sensitive so it is preferred to have the no load test performed with the
core as close to the specified operating temperature as possible. No correction for
temperature need to be made if the top oil temperature is within 10 C of the
reference temperature and if the temperature difference is not more than 5 C
between the top and bottom temperature of the transformer (IEEE C57.12.90 2015).
It should be noted that transformer standards make no prevision for temperature
correction of no load losses, nor do they stipulate a range of temperatures for
performance of the measurement. The hysteresis losses are a function of the chem-
ical composition and manufacturing method of core steel production and should not
be affected by temperature. Eddy losses, on the other hand, would theoretically
reduce with increasing temperature, so measuring them as close as possible to the
maximum daily average ambient temperature would appear to give the best optimi-
zation. In any case, it is uneconomical to raise the temperature of the core by raising
the oil temperature to the reference temperature of 85 C, and it is impractical to raise
the laboratory ambient temperature to that level.
10.1.2 Load Losses

The issue of interest for SVC transformers is how much the harmonic current flows
will add to the measured fundamental frequency load losses. Therefore, the calcu-
lations need to consider the higher winding resistance and eddy current-related
losses caused by the higher frequency harmonic currents as compared with the
fundamental frequency losses measured as a part of the factory tests.
The dominating component of the load losses are the DC resistance losses,
since they consist of losses produced in the winding resistances by the load
current. The second component is the stray flux losses, as discussed above,
which are caused by the electromagnetic flux that originate from the transformer
windings and induce losses in the core, core clamps, magnetic shields, tanks, and
other transformer components. Stray losses can be further divided into winding
stray losses and other stray losses. The winding stray losses are a combination of
winding conductor strand eddy current losses and losses due to circulating
currents between strands of parallel winding circuits. These losses may be
considered as winding eddy current losses. Thus, the total fundamental frequency
transformer load losses are given by:
PLL ¼ PI 2 R þ PEC þ POSL (3)
where:
PLL is the total transformer load loss.
PI2R is the summated winding DC resistance losses.
PEC is the winding eddy current losses.
POSL is the other stray losses.
Transformer load losses are proportional to the square of load current, which as
stated above, for an SVC normally contains a significant amount of harmonics.
The RMS value of the current is given by:
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Xh¼hmax
I RMS ¼ h¼1
I 2h (4)
where:
IRMS is the RMS current value at the actual operating point for the transformer.
Ih is the harmonic current of order h with h = 1 equal to the fundamental
frequency component.
To calculate the load losses, the winding resistance measured at a uniform oil
temperature during factory tests is used. The rated transformer current should then be
used to estimate the IRMS2R losses at the resistance measurement temperature. The
winding resistance used in this equation is the measured DC resistance. The additional
losses at this temperature are obtained by subtracting this calculated value of I2R losses
from the measured load losses appropriate to the measurement temperature.
The power transformer total resistive winding losses under rated conditions at the
measurement temperature can then be calculated for a two winding transformer as
follows:
h i
PI 2 R ¼ k ðI 1R Þ2 R1 þ ðI 2R Þ2 R2 (5)
where:
k is 1.0 for single-phase transformers and 1.5 for three-phase transformers.
I1-R is the high voltage fundamental frequency line current under rated
conditions.
I2-R is the low voltage fundamental frequency line current under rated conditions.
R1 is the average DC resistance per phase of the high voltage winding(s).
R2 is the average DC resistance per phase of each low voltage winding.
Equation 5 is valid for a two-winding transformer but can be extended for three-
winding transformers. These calculations assume fundamental frequency currents
and voltages. Three-winding transformers for SVCs will have different harmonic
current content in the windings since these transformers are used for 12-pulse SVC
systems in which the 5th, 7th, 17th, 19th, etc. harmonic currents are cancelled out
inside the transformer and only the (12n 1) harmonics flow in the high voltage
winding. The IEEE and IEC standards for rectifier transformers cover the issues for
more complex transformer configurations in detail (IEEE C57.18.10 1998; IEC
60076–57-129 2017).
Proportioning of stray losses for ambient conditions for a regular AC transformer
should be made separately for the eddy current and other stray losses. The winding
eddy current losses are proportional to the square of load current and the square of
the harmonic order and are given by:
Ph¼hmax Xh¼hmax I h 2
I 2h h2
PEC ¼ PECO Ph¼1
h¼hmax 2
¼ PECO h2 (6)
h¼1 Ih h¼1 I RMS
where:
PEC is the winding eddy current losses with nonsinusoidal load currents at the
actual operating point. Because the losses were measured during the factory test of
the transformer with continuous load current, the rated transformer current must be
used in the loss equation.
Ih is the harmonic component current.
h is the harmonic number.
PEC-O is the calculated winding eddy current losses calculated from the test
data.
The same calculation can be made for the other stray losses. If the two eddy current
and other stray loss components are not possible to separate from each other, then the
other stray loss component should be assumed to be 40% and the eddy current losses
to be 60% of the stray loss component (IEEE C57.18.10 1998). Some manufacturers
have found that the stray flux fields impinging on busbars and connections do not
have the same effect on the losses as eddy current losses. Therefore, the IEEE
standard for rectifier transformers uses an exponent of 0.8 when calculating the
power losses for the other stray losses instead of 2 in the loss calculation in Eq. 6
(IEEE C57.18.10 1998). That is, in that case, the eddy current loss component will
be significantly larger than the other stray loss component.2
The eddy-current multiplier can be converted into a harmonic loss factor by
dividing the numerator and the denominator of (6) by the fundamental current.
This is the so-called harmonic loss factor for winding current losses (FHL) and is
given by PEC/PEC-O.
The other stray losses at the actual operating point are given by:
Ph¼hmax Xh¼hmax 2
I 2h h2 Ih
POST ¼ ðPOST O Þ h¼1
¼ POSTO h2 (7)
I RMSRated 2 h¼1 I RMSRated
where:
POST is the other stray loss at the actual operating point.
POST-O is the other stray loss with rated current based on factory test.
10.1.3 Total Transformer Losses

The total transformer losses can now be estimated as follows for any operating point:
PTL ¼ PNLL þ PI 2 R þ PEC þ POSL þ PPF (8)
where:
PTL is the total transformer losses for the specific operating point.
PNLL is the transformer no load losses.
PI2R is the transformer I2R losses for the specific operating point.
PEC is the winding eddy current losses for the specific operating point.
POSL is the other stray losses for the specific operating point.
PPF is the pumps and fans losses for the specific operating point.
10.2 SVC Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR) Losses
The TCRs inject harmonics into the electric power system due to their nonsinusoidal
waveforms. The influence of these harmonic currents has an impact on the power
loss calculation procedures of many other SVC components.
10.2.1 TCR Thyristor Valves

Total TCR thyristor valve losses can be subdivided into four different loss catego-
ries. These are voltage divider losses, thyristor valve conduction losses, thyristor
switching losses (ON/OFF), and reactor losses.
When calculating thyristor valve losses, the most relevant factor is the TCR current.
The current through the reactor when the thyristor valve is in continuous con-
duction mode is ITCR = V/ωL (Hingorani and Gyugyi 2000) where:
2
Note that in the IEEE standard C57.110 for regular power transformers, the eddy current and stray
losses are given the same weight.
V is the RMS value of the purely sinusoidal voltage applied to the TCR.
L is the TCR reactor inductance.
ω is the system angular frequency (2πf where f is the power system frequency).
The average TCR thyristor current is then given by (IEEE standard 1031 2011):
pffiffiffi
2
I TAV ¼ I TCR ½ sin ðπ αÞ ðπ αÞ cos ðπ αÞ (9)
π
where:
ITAV is the average thyristor current.
ITCR is the fundamental RMS current component for fully conducting thyristor
valve.
α is the thyristor firing angle in radians (from π/2 to π).
This way, the true ITRMS thyristor current can be calculated by multiplying ITCR by
a factor function of thyristor valve firing angle given by:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
ðπ αÞ ½1 þ 2 cos2 π α 1:5 sin ½2ðπ αÞ
I TRMS ¼ I TCR (10)
π
10.2.2 TCR Thyristor Valve Conduction Losses

The most significant losses in a TCR thyristor valve are the thyristor valve conduc-
tion losses, which are due to the threshold voltage and the thyristor conduction
resistance. Conduction losses for one single thyristor are given by:
Pcthyristor ¼ U TH I TAV þ rT I 2TRMS (11)
where:
Pcthyristor are the conduction losses for one thyristor.
UTH is the threshold thyristor voltage.
rT is the thyristor conduction resistance.
The TCR is a three-phase equipment where each phase has antiparallel connected
thyristor pairs. The number of series-connected thyristor levels depends on the
connection voltage and the number of redundant thyristors. Therefore, the losses
calculated for one thyristor need to be multiplied by 3 2 number of series-
connected thyristors to give the total thyristor valve conduction losses. In addition,
there are some losses dissipated in busbars, etc. that might have to be considered.
10.2.3 Snubber Circuit Losses

Snubber circuit capacitors are discharged at the time the thyristors are fired, which
occurs twice per fundamental frequency cycle. Thus, the power loss calculated over
1 s is given by (IEEE standard 1031 2011):
C sn U 2α C sn hpffiffiffi i2
PSN ¼ 3 2 ¼ 3fn 2 U 1 sin ðαÞ 2 (12)
n n
where:
PSN are the snubber circuit losses.
CSN is the snubber circuit capacitance per level.
Uα is the instantaneous voltage across the snubber capacitors at the firing angle α.
U1 is the fundamental valve connection voltage.
n is the number of series-connected thyristors per phase of the valve.
fn is the system fundamental frequency.
α is the thyristor firing angle.
10.2.4 Thyristor Switching Losses

Thyristors do not reach full conduction immediately upon the application of a turn-
on pulse to the gate. There is a finite time for the current to begin to flow around the
gate area of the thyristor wafer. During the turn-on time, the voltage decays over a
few microseconds (μs) as the current increases. The integral of the current times the
voltage across the wafer represents energy dissipated in the wafer. This is the turn-
on loss.
Similarly, when the gate pulse is removed from the device and the current is
commutated from the device into circuits surrounding the device, the conduction
current through the wafer does not instantaneously go to zero but reverses for a short
period of time as the voltage transiently increases because the plasma that developed
during the conduction interval needs to be removed before the wafer enters a
nonconducting state. This is called the reverse recovery charge, Qrr. For the same
reasons as there are losses dissipated in the wafer during turn on, there are losses
dissipated in the device during the turn-off interval during this time interval.
The time for devices to turn on and for the reverse recovery charge to be removed
depends on the applied voltage, the current being switched, the diameter of the
device, its gate structure, and a number of other device parameters. Therefore, the
device and the specific application duties have to be known before an estimate of the
turn on and turn off losses can be made. For large devices, these losses can be several
joules per pulse.3 However, once the devices have been selected, the losses can be
estimated as follows (IEEE standard 1031 2011):
PTsoff ¼ 3 2 Qrr √2 U 1 sin ðαÞ f n (13)
where:
PTsoff are the turn-off losses for the TCR thyristor valve.
Qrr is the thyristor recovery charge.
n is the number of series-connected thyristors per phase of the valve.
3
See, for example, data sheet for a device 5STP 42 U6500. https://library.e.abb.com/public/
c92a9062c3392b1f83257c63004dbb1d/5STP%2042U6500_5SYA1043-07%20Mar%2014.pdf,
accessed November 11, 2018.

U1 is the total fundamental valve voltage across the valve.
A standard turn-on loss is assumed to be 0.2 Joule per pulse (IEEE standard 1031
2011). According to this, the turn-on losses are given by:
PTswon ¼ 3 2 n 0:2 f n (14)
10.2.5 Voltage Divider Losses

Thyristors devices in the off-state (nonconducting) have a finite resistance. That is, if
a voltage is applied across the device, when it is turned off, a small amount of current
will flow through the device. The resistance of the thyristors in the off-state is
temperature dependent and also varies from device to device. Thus, if a string of
devices are connected in series, a leakage current will flow through the string but the
voltage across each individual device will not be identical. Therefore, a resistor
might be connected across each of the devices in the string forming a voltage divider
to equalize the voltage division among the devices. This voltage divider will
dissipate some power and should therefore be included in the overall loss estimate.
The losses are present during the intervals when the devices are in the off-state.
The voltage across the thyristors is:
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
s
2 π sin 2α
U 1a ¼ U1 α (15)
π 2 2
where:
U1 is the applied voltage.
U1α is the RMS value of the thyristor blocking voltage.
α is the thyristor firing angle in radians.
The power dissipated in the voltage divider is then:
3 U 21α
Pvd ¼ (16)
n Rvd
Where.
Pvd is the voltage divider loss.
n is the number of series-connected thyristor levels.
Rvd is the voltage divider resistance per thyristor level.
10.2.6 Miscellaneous Other Loss Components

Thyristor valves include fans and pumps for valve cooling. These auxiliary systems
require power for their operation. The power demand of these systems should be
categorized as either no-load or load losses, depending on the number of fans
required to run at no load and at different load points.
10.2.7 TCR Reactor Losses

TCR reactor is one of the other major sources of power losses in an SVC. As the
SVC secondary voltage is typically between 10 and 25 kV, the magnitude of
the TCR current may be kilo amperes. The size and modularity of the TCR
components of the SVC are determined through system studies and availability
considerations.
The resistance of the TCR modules can be estimated based on the quality factor of
the manufactured reactors. This is defined as the ratio of reactance and resistance.
That is the theoretical quality factor defined by QF = X/R.
The resistance value that appears on the denominator of the quality factor formula
defines the DC resistance of a specific reactor at a specific frequency. According to
Mohan et al. (1995), the AC resistance is a combination of a constant DC resistance
and a frequency related skin effect and eddy current resistance, given by

REC
RAC ¼ F R RDC ¼ 1þ RDC (17)
RDC
where:
RAC is the AC resistance.
FR is the resistance factor.
RDC is the DC resistance.
REC is the skin effect and eddy current resistance.
As established in this chapter, TCR current is AC, periodic, and nonsinusoidal for
firing angle values different from 90 . According to Cigré, the TCR harmonic
currents are given by Cigré TB 25 (1968) in per unit of the TCR current for
90 degrees firing angle:
4
I h ðpuÞ ¼ ½ cos α sin ðhαÞ h sin α cos ðhαÞ (18)
πh h2 1
where:
Ih is the harmonic current of hth order (h = 3, 5, 7, etc.).
h is the harmonic order.
α is the TCR firing angle.
The TCR characteristic harmonics are those with h equal to 6n 1, n = 1, 2, 3. . .
(Hingorani and Gyugyi 2000). The triplen harmonics (h = 3, 9, 15, 21, etc.) must
also be considered in the loss calculations. Out of these, the third harmonic is
probably the most significant.
Fundamental and harmonic current values are taken into account in TCR reactor
loss calculation. Total TCR reactor losses are given by:
Xh¼49 I 2 X h F Rh
PTCreactor ¼ 3 h
(19)
h¼1 QF h
where:
PTC-reactor are the total losses for a three phase TCR reactor under rated
conditions.
Ih is the harmonic current of hth order.
Xh is the TCR reactor inductive reactance of hth order.
QFh is the quality factor of hth order.
FRh is the resistance factor.
10.3 SVC Thyristor Switched Capacitor Losses
TSC does not generate harmonic currents in steady state since its thyristor valves are
either in fully conducting mode or in fully blocking mode if it is switched in with the
capacitor voltage at its right level. The transients arising from switching of the TSC
module occur infrequently, and therefore, these switching transients can be ignored
when evaluating the TSC losses. This makes the loss calculation simple when
compared to TCR losses.
10.3.1 TSC Thyristor Valve Losses

When the TSC is in nonconducting mode, there will be losses dissipated in the
snubber circuits and in voltage divider circuits as described in Sect. 7 with α equal
to 180 degrees (π radians). When one TSC is switched in, the closed loop control
changes TCR firing angle in a way that the total SVC reactive power changes
slightly as described on Sect. 7 of this chapter. After that, actual SVC capacitive
reactive power rise is accomplished by TCR firing angle increasing and decreas-
ing its inductive reactive power. Thus TSC conduction losses are given by:
Pcthyristor ¼ U TH I TAV þ rT I 2TRMS (20)
where:
UTH is the threshold thyristor voltage.
rT is the thyristor conduction resistance.
ITAV is the average thyristor current.
The RMS TSC thyristor valve current is given by:
pffiffiffi
2 U2
I TRMS ¼ (21)
2 Z TSC
where:
U is the single phase RMS voltage applied to TSC.
ZTSC is TSC impedance per phase.
The average TSC thyristor valve current is given by:

pffiffiffi
2 U2
I TAV ¼ (22)
π Z TSC
where:
U is the single phase RMS voltage applied to TSC.
ZTSC is TSC impedance per phase.
Other losses present in the TSC valve are small and can be neglected (IEEE
Standard 1031 2011).
10.3.2 TSC Capacitor Losses

In an ideal dielectric capacitor, the current should lead the applied voltage by
90 degrees. In the real world, every capacitor has impurity of dielectric materials.
This causes a phenomenon where the capacitor current leads the applied voltage by
less than 90 degrees as shown in Fig. 22.
The dissipation factor or tan δ quantifies the ratio of equivalent series resistance to
capacitive reactance and is given by:
Rs
DF ¼ tan δ ¼ ¼ 2πfCRS (23)
Xc
where:
Xc is the capacitive reactance.
RS is the equivalent series resistance.
Ideal Real
current current
d
Voltage
Fig. 22 Current voltage phase relationship of a dielectric capacitor

f is the system frequency.

C is the capacitor capacitance.
Capacitor losses are proportional to the square of capacitor current and to the
equivalent parallel resistance that can be solved by using Eq. 24. Thus total TSC
capacitor losses are given by, where I is the RMS capacitor current:
I 2RMS
PC ¼ I 2 Rs ¼ DF ¼ Q DF (24)
2πfC
where:
IRMS is the capacitor current with due consideration of possible harmonic currents
injected from the TCR.
10.3.3 TSC Damping Reactor Losses

TSC damping reactor losses should be calculated using the same method as used for
the TCR reactor losses. Harmonic frequency losses should be considered if the TCR
injects harmonic current into the reactor otherwise only fundamental frequency
losses are to be considered.
10.4 SVC Harmonic Filter Losses
The power loss calculation process for SVC harmonic filters is developed in a
different way for each filter type (high pass, double tuned, single tuned, for instance).
The main concern is the current division between the parallel connected elements,
for example, in double-tuned filters.
Every filter includes capacitors that are divided in two equal sized parts. This
division is made for protection reasons. A current transformer is assembled
between the capacitances which detects the fault current in case of a damaged
capacitor. However, it does not affect the losses calculation since the equivalent
capacitance of two parallel connected capacitors is the sum of the individual
capacitances.
Resistance of a single tuned filter is due to reactor and capacitor resistances.
Actual resistors may also be used in the filter to provide broader harmonic filtering.
Reactor resistances are calculated by multiplying its quality factor by the fundamen-
tal frequency inductive reactance. Equivalent series capacitor reactance is calculated
by multiplying dissipation factor by capacitive reactance.
The filter impedance varies as a function of frequency because of the frequency
related reactances and apparent or actual resistances. Filter impedances must be
calculated differently for each harmonic order.
The real part of the filter impedance represents the filter resistance which causes filter
losses. Fundamental filter current can be calculated by dividing SVC secondary voltage
by the filter impedance. Filter losses can be calculated by multiplying filter resistances
by the square of the RMS filter currents. These losses vary with the operating point of
the SVC since the harmonic spectrum is different for each operating point.
10.5 Control, Protection and Auxiliary Equipment Losses
According to IEEE (IEEE Standard 1031 2011), control and protection systems contrib-
ute only to a slight share of total SVC losses. SVC characteristic variation has only little
impact on the control and protection system loss, so it is possible to use one fixed power
loss for the SVC control and protection system. The power loss of the protection and
control systems can be measured at site and can be assumed to be constant for the whole
operating range. A typical power loss for the protection and control equipment is about
3.5 kW. The power loss for the control and protection system will be a no-load loss.
Fans and pumps for the thyristor valve cooling system as well as heating and/or
air conditioning systems of control and protection control rooms are the most
intensive auxiliary power consumers. Heating and air conditioning power values
are determined separately for each individual SVC.
The thyristor valve cooling power is likely to be dependent on the SVC reactive
output power.
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Mohan, N., Undeland, T., Robbins, W.: Power Electronics: Converters, Applications and Design,
2nd edn. Wiley, New York. ISBN 0-471-58408-8 (1995)
Padyar, K.R.: FACTS Controllers in Power Transmission and Distribution. New Age International
Publishers, New Delhi. ISBN 978-81-224-2541-3 (2007)
Park, R.H.: Two reaction theory of synchronous machines. AIEE Trans. 48, 716–730 (1929)
Pilz, G., Langner, D., Battermann, M., Schmitt, H.: Line – or Self Commutated Static VAr
Compensators (SVc) – Comparison and Application with Respect to Changed System Condi-
tions, Cigré Paper B4–03, HVDC and Power Electronics to Boost Network Performance
Colloquium, Study Committee B4, Brasilia, 2–3 Oct 2013
Ruff, M., Schulze, H.J., Kellner, U.: Progress in the development of an 8-kV light-triggered
thyristor with integrated protection functions. IEEE Electronic Devices (ED). 46(8),
1768–1774 (1999)
Schultz, H.J., Ruff, M., Baur, B.: Light triggered 8 kV thyristor with a new integrated breakover
diode. In: Proceedings from ISPSD, pp. 197–200 (1996)
Temple, V.A.K.: Controlled turn-on thyristor. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices. ED-30, 816–824
(1983)
Manfredo Lima was born in Recife, Brazil in 1957, received

the BsC degree in Electrical Engineering from Pernambuco Fed-
eral University (UFPE) in 1979, the MsC degree in Electrical
Engineering from the same University in 1997 and the PhD degree
in Mechanical Engineering with emphasis on automation systems
from Paraíba Federal University (UFPB) in 2005. He joined Chesf
in 1978, where develops activities in the areas of power electron-
ics, FACTS devices, power quality, control systems, electromag-
netic transients and HVDC transmission. In 1992 he joined
Nowadays he is Chesf representative on Cigré Brazil SC B4
(HVDC and Power Electronics) and is a founding member of the
Brazilian Electric Power Quality Society (SBQEE).
with EPRI in USA he initiated in 1979 the development of digital
protective relaying system developments and in 1986 EPRI’s
FACTS initiative. In 1991 he was awarded a patent on Apparatus
for Controlling the Reactive Impedance of a Transmission Line.
Stig Nilsson is a Life Fellow of IEEE. He has chaired the IEEE
PES T&D Committee, the IEEE Herman Halperin Electric Trans-
mission and Distribution Award Committee, the IEEE PES Nari
Hingorani Facts and Custom Power Awards Committee, several
IEEE Fellow nomination review committees, been a member of
the IEEE Standards Board, IEEE PES subcommittees and working
groups. Stig Nilsson has been the US Representative and Secretary
of CIGRE Study Committee B4 on HVDC and Power Electronics.
He is the recipient of the 2012 IEEE PES Nari Hingorani Facts and
Custom Power Awards. He received the CIGRE U.S. National
Committee Philip Sporn Award and the CIGRE Technical Com-
mittee Award in 2012. He has also received the CIGRE Distin-
guished Member Award for active participation in CIGRE Study
Committees and the USNC of CIGRE (2006); and the CIGRE
USNC Attwood Associate Award in 2003. Stig Nilsson is a
registered Professional Engineer in the state of California, USA.
Technical Description of Static
Compensators (STATCOM) 7
Colin Davidson and Marcio M. de Oliveira
Contents
1 STATCOM Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
1.2 Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
1.3 V-I Characteristics of a STATCOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
1.4 Voltage-Sourced Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
1.5 Limitations and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
2 Multi-pulse Circuits with Magnetic Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
3 Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC)-Based STATCOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
3.1 The Chain Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
3.2 Half-Bridge MMC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
4 Other Primary Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
4.1 STATCOM Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
4.2 STATCOM Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
4.3 DC Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
4.4 AC Harmonic Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
4.5 High-Precision Current Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
5 Layout Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
6 Control Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
6.2 Space Vector Control Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
6.3 Application Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
6.4 Converter Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
6.5 Special Control Considerations for Electric Arc Furnace Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
7 Losses and Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
8 Hybrid STATCOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
C. Davidson (*)
e-mail: Colin.Davidson@ge.com
M. M. de Oliveira
ABB FACTS, Västerås, Sweden
e-mail: marcio.oliveira@se.abb.com

208 C. Davidson and M. M. de Oliveira
Abstract
The static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) is a shunt-connected reactive
power compensation device using a self-commutated converter, usually a
voltage-sourced converter (VSC). Its name arose from its conceptual similarity
to a traditional (rotating) synchronous compensator or condenser. A STATCOM
can perform a similar function to an SVC but has better speed of response and
better reactive power support capability during AC system voltage dips and is
more compact. This chapter describes the main technological aspects of a
STATCOM, including the topologies suitable for the converter and architecture
of the controls. Two main converter topologies are considered – the type using
magnetic combination of multiple six-pulse converter bridges (with thyristors or
GTOs) and the modular multilevel converter type of STATCOM which is now
becoming common. Descriptions of the other main items of primary equipment,
along with layout and performance aspects, are also given.
1 STATCOM Fundamentals
1.1 Introduction
This chapter provides a brief overview of the technology of the static synchronous
compensator (STATCOM). The performance characteristics which distinguish
STATCOM from other shunt-connected reactive power compensation devices such
as SVCs and rotating synchronous compensators are briefly discussed. Typical
STATCOM applications are discussed later in the ▶ Chap. 13, “Application Exam-
ples of STATCOM” of this book.
The static synchronous compensator (STATCOM), previously referred to as the
static condenser (STATCON) or advanced static var compensator (ASVC) or self-
commutated static var compensator, is a shunt-connected reactive power compensa-
tion equipment which is capable of generating and/or absorbing reactive power
whose output can be varied so as to maintain control of specific parameters of the
electric power system to which it is connected (CIGRÉ TB144).
The basic characteristic behavior of the STATCOM is equivalent to a voltage
source whose magnitude can be controlled in a rapid manner, behind a reactance.
This is inherently different from the characteristics of an SVC whose behavior is
equivalent to a voltage-controlled shunt susceptance dependent upon the system
voltage at the connection point. The SVC is described in detail in ▶ Chap. 6,
“Technical Description of Static Var Compensators (SVC)” of this book.
The term “static” is used to indicate that it is based on solid-state power
electronic switching devices with no moving or rotating components. The terms
“synchronous” and “compensator” indicate that it is analogous to an ideal syn-
chronous machine generating a balanced set of three sinusoidal phase voltages at
fundamental frequency. Thus, the STATCOM typically consists of a voltage-
sourced power electronic converter (VSC) employing solid-state power electronic
7 Technical Description of Static Compensators (STATCOM) 209
AC POWER SYSTEM
V
CONVERTER POWER SYSTEM

I SIGNALS SIGNALS
COUPLING
TRANSFORMER
SOLID STATE
DC-AC CONVERTER AND POWER
CONVERTER SWITCHING SYSTEM CONTROLS
CONTROL
SIGNALS
vdc
DC CAPACITOR
Fig. 1 Typical STATCOM overview
switching devices and a set of converter controls varying the STATCOM output
voltage as shown in Fig. 1.
The STATCOM provides operating characteristics similar to a rotating synchro-
nous compensator (condenser) as illustrated on Fig. 2, but without the mechanical
inertia since it has no rotating components. Furthermore, the power electronic
character of the equipment provides rapid controllability of the three-phase voltages,
both in magnitude and phase angle, in relation to the power system voltage at the
point of connection.
Whereas the output current of the STATCOM is substantially independent of the
power system voltage and the equivalent impedance at the point of connection, the
SVC output current is highly dependent upon the voltage and the equivalent
impedance at the same point. This means that the SVC voltage regulator controlling
the output needs to be designed to provide stable regulation under a wide range of
power system equivalent impedance conditions representing system contingencies.
This can only be achieved by reducing the response rate of the SVC. The indepen-
dence of STATCOM output from equivalent system impedance means that the
voltage regulator controlling the STATCOM output can be designed for a faster
response rate than the SVC while providing stable regulation over the range of
system contingencies.
Fig. 2 Reactive power

generation by rotating
System Busbar V
synchronous compensator
Coupling
Transformer
I
Machine Transformer
X Synchronous + Leakage
Reactance Reactance
E
Exciter
The ability to deliver rated current over the full voltage range is the essential
feature which makes the STATCOM resemble a rotating synchronous compensator
in terms of performance. The rotating synchronous compensator will transiently
deliver reactive current approximately in proportion to the change in voltage.
Although the machine excitation system can rapidly respond to a change in power
system voltage, the delivery of the reactive power output is relatively slow, when
compared with SVC and STATCOM. However, due to the excitation voltage that can
be applied and the energy stored in the rotor winding, the rotating synchronous
compensator is capable of delivering higher short-term transient output compared
with an SVC or STATCOM.
The primary benefits of the STATCOM are the rapid response and strong output at
reduced AC voltage which are paramount in terms of reducing the impact of a power
system disturbance. In power system applications where reactive power can be
varied slowly, STATCOMs are not intended to replace conventional solutions such
as mechanically switched capacitors (MSCs) or reactors (MSRs). However, in
applications where rapid controllable action, robust output, and utilization of
short-term overload capability of the network are required, the STATCOM presents
a unique solution which can be utilized either on its own or in combination with
other equipment including conventional SVCs and rotating synchronous
compensators.
Typical applications of STATCOM are the same as those of the SVC, namely, to
achieve:
• Effective voltage regulation and control

• Reduction of temporary overvoltages
• Improvement of steady-state power transfer capacity
• Improvement of transient stability margin
• Damping of power system oscillations

• Damping of subsynchronous power system oscillations
• Balanced loading of individual phases
• Reactive power compensation of AC-DC converters and HVDC links
• Reduction in rapid voltage fluctuations (flicker control)
• Distribution system applications
Throughout this chapter the STATCOM is treated like a load, with positive
reactive power output (Q>0) indicating that the STATCOM is behaving like an
inductor and negative reactive power output (Q<0) indicating that the STATCOM is
behaving like a capacitor.
1.2 Historical Perspective
The possibility of generating controllable reactive power directly, by various

switching power converters without the use of shunt-connected capacitors or reac-
tors, had been realized in the 1970s (Gyugyi 1979). These converters, operated as
voltage and current sources, produce reactive power essentially without reactive
power energy storage components by circulating alternating current among the
phases of the AC system.
In order to be able to provide leading as well as lagging reactive power, the
semiconductor switches of the power converters employed in a compensator must
have an intrinsic turn-off capability to achieve “self-commutation,” or where con-
ventional thyristors are used, an auxiliary circuit has to be used to provide “forced
commutation.” The unavailability of gate-controlled devices with self-commutation
capability at sufficient power ratings, and the complex circuitry for achieving forced
commutation, hindered the development of practical “all solid-state” var compensa-
tors until gate turn-off thyristors started to become mature in the 1980s. Following
the demonstration of laboratory models, implemented with the then new (and low
power) GTO thyristors (Gyugyi 1979), in 1981 a 20 Mvar experimental installa-
tion, using force-commutated thyristors in a DC to AC converter scheme, was
reported (Sumi et al. 1981). In the 1980s there were dramatic advances in GTO
thyristor development, and the voltage and current ratings of the available devices
increased rapidly. To demonstrate the practical feasibility of a new generation of
reactive power compensators using GTO thyristors, in 1986 an experimental 1
Mvar installation employing devices with a voltage rating of 2500 volts and current
rating of 2000 amperes (peak turn-off) in a 12-pulse DC to AC converter configu-
ration was completed (Edwards et al. 1988). Further extensive development efforts
in the areas of converter power circuit configurations, high voltage gate turn-off
valves, and advanced control techniques together with applications were reported in
Gyugyi et al. (1990), Larsen et al. (1991), and Schauder and Mehta (1993). In 1992 a
number of large installations using 4500 volt, 3000 ampere (peak turn-off) and 6000
volt, 2500 ampere GTO thyristors in different multi-pulse DC to AC converter
configurations were reported from Japan in Mori et al. (1992), Ichikawa et al. (1993),
Suzuki et al. (1993), and Nakajima (1996). In the mid-1990s, Schauder reported a
major installation of 100 Mvar (120 Mvar peak), using 4500 volt, 4000 ampere
GTO thyristors in a 48-pulse converter structure in the USA (Schauder et al. 1995,
1996; Schauder and Gyugyi 1995). In 1998 the first commercial modular multilevel,
or “chain circuit,” STATCOM using 4500 volt, 3000 A GTOs was published (Knight
et al. 1998).
GTOs went on to be developed with even higher voltage ratings of up to 6000
volts and current turn-off capabilities of up to 6000 amperes and when combined
with a low-inductance, unity turn-off-gain gate drive to form an integrated gate-
commutated thyristor (IGCT), represented the pinnacle of development for thyristor-
type devices.
However, from the late 1990s onward, insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs)
started to reach maturity and, although by 2018 had still not become available in
power ratings as high as GTOs or IGCTs, have displaced those devices in nearly
every mainstream power electronics application because of the ease of driving and
ability to switch at high speeds. Their high-speed switching ability led to widespread
use of pulse-width modulation (PWM) as a cost-effective way of achieving good
harmonic performance, something that was nearly impossible with GTOs or IGCTs.
As of 2018, the next major technological change could be the adoption of
switching devices using silicon carbide instead of silicon as the base semiconductor
material. The adoption of silicon carbide may also involve a move away from
IGBTs, toward a different type of transistor, the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-
effect transistor (MOSFET). Silicon carbide MOSFETs have much lower switching
losses even than IGBTs and promise higher efficiencies and more compact solutions
than are possible with IGBTs.
In the following sections, the fundamental concepts and basic operating princi-
ples of solid-state switching converters configured primarily for controllable reactive
power generation are summarized. This is followed by a more detailed discussion
of the power circuit arrangement, control, and output characteristics of the approach
employing voltage-sourced DC to AC converters developed for practical
applications.
1.3 V-I Characteristics of a STATCOM
The typical voltage-current characteristics of the STATCOM are shown in Fig. 3 in

comparison with an SVC. By generating and absorbing reactive power within its
working output range, the STATCOM is able to maintain virtually constant voltage
at its point of connection to the power system. As seen from Fig. 3 the STATCOM
can provide capacitive and inductive output current up to its inherent-rated current,
independently of the system voltage. This is in contrast to an SVC, whose output
current diminishes linearly with decreasing system voltage as determined by the
maximum equivalent capacitive admittance.
Fig. 3 Typical voltage vs current characteristics of the STATCOM (a) and of the SVC (b), on a per
unit basis
Fig. 4 Typical voltage vs reactive power characteristics of the STATCOM (a) and of the SVC (b),
on a per unit basis
The abovementioned inherent characteristic makes the STATCOM more robust and
effective than an SVC in providing transmission voltage support and in controlling
specific parameters of the electric power system to enhance stability performance.
Figure 4 also illustrates that the STATCOM, depending on its specification and the
characteristics of the power electronic components used, may have an increased tran-
sient rating in both capacitive and inductive operating regions. This capability further
enhances the dynamic performance of the STATCOM in comparison with a conven-
tional SVC. The conventional SVC cannot provide increased capacitive output current
since this is strictly determined by the capacitive admittance and the magnitude of the
system voltage. The conventional SVC is only capable of increased transient rating in
the inductive output range, and even then it is limited by the design of the thyristor-
controlled reactor (TCR); specifically, how close the minimum steady-state firing angle
(α) is to 90 .
In a STATCOM application, controllable reactive power can be generated by
several types of power electronic converter, including voltage-sourced converters
(VSC) and current-sourced converters (CSC). Various types of AC to AC converters
can also be used, although these are beyond the scope of this publication and the
reader is referred to (CIGRÉ TB144) for a detailed discussion of such converters.
Voltage-sourced converters are much more common than current-sourced converters
in STATCOM applications, and the remainder of this chapter will be based on VSC
technology.
1.4 Voltage-Sourced Converters
The basic principle of reactive power generation by a voltage-sourced converter is akin

to that of the conventional rotating synchronous condenser (compensator), shown
schematically in Fig. 2. For purely reactive power flow, the three-phase induced
electromotive forces (EMFs), ea, eb, and ec, of the synchronous rotating machine are
in phase with the system voltages, va, vb, and vc. The scalar reactive current IL drawn
by the synchronous compensator is determined by the magnitude of the system
voltage V, the machine internal voltage E, and the total circuit reactance (synchronous
reactance of the machine plus transformer leakage reactance) X:
V E
IL ¼
X
The corresponding reactive power Q drawn from the system bus can be expressed
as follows:

E
1
V
Q ¼ V2
X
Thus, by controlling the excitation of the machine, and hence the amplitude E of
its internal voltage relative to the amplitude V of the system voltage, the reactive
power flow can be controlled. Increasing E above V (i.e., operating overexcited)
results in a leading current, that is, the machine is “seen” as a capacitor by the AC
system. Decreasing E below V (i.e., operating under-excited) produces a lagging
current, that is, the machine is “seen” as a reactor (inductor) by the AC system.
Under either operating condition a small amount of real power flows from the AC
system to the machine to supply its mechanical and electrical losses.
The basic voltage-sourced converter scheme for a STATCOM application is
shown schematically in Fig. 5.
Coupling Tie reactor idc

transformer
I E
V Solid-State
DC-AC Cs Vdc
Converter
Fig. 5 Voltage-sourced converter scheme for reactive power generation
I
V jX.I
Capacitive Operation
Inductive Operation
E jX.I
I
Fig. 6 Phasor diagrams for voltage-sourced converter schemes
From a DC input voltage source, provided by the charged capacitor Cs, the
converter produces a set of controllable three-phase output voltages (E) at the
fundamental frequency of the AC power system. Each output voltage is in phase
with and coupled to the corresponding AC system voltage (V) via a relatively small
reactance, part of which is usually contributed by the per phase leakage inductance
of the coupling transformer. By varying the amplitude of the output voltages
produced, the reactive power exchange between the converter and the AC system
can be controlled in a manner similar to that of the rotating synchronous compen-
sator as illustrated in Fig. 6.
That is, if the amplitude E of the output voltage phasor (E) is increased above the
amplitude V of the AC system voltage phasor (V), then the current phasor leads the
voltage phasor and current flows from the converter to the AC system, and the
converter generates (or supplies) reactive power (capacitive) to the AC system. If the
amplitude of the output voltage phasor is decreased below that of the AC system
voltage phasor, then the reactive current flows from the AC system to the converter,
and the converter absorbs reactive power (inductive) from the AC system. If the
amplitude of the output voltage is equal to that of the AC system voltage, the reactive
power exchange is zero.
Not all types of voltage-sourced converter rely on a single large DC capacitor
as shown in Fig. 5 or have a readily identifiable “AC side” and “DC side,” but the
basic principle still holds true – that the STATCOM can be considered as a
½ Vdc Ta1 Da1 Tb1 Db1 Tc1 Dc1

ia
ea
Virtual ib
eb
neutral ic
ec
Fig. 7 Basic six-pulse, two-level, voltage-sourced converter
controllable voltage source connected to the AC system via a coupling

inductance.
In its simplest form, the converter consists of six self-commutated semiconductor
switches, each composed of an active semiconductor switch (here shown as an
IGBT) in reverse parallel with a diode, as shown in Fig. 7. This elementary
arrangement is termed a two-level, six-pulse converter.
1.5 Limitations and Challenges
Several different building blocks (described in ▶ Chap. 5, “Power Electronic Topol-

ogies for FACTS” of this book) can be used to construct a VSC for a STATCOM
application. The challenge is to achieve a high Mvar output rating while giving
acceptable waveform quality at the point of connection to the AC system.
Both challenges (which are interrelated) have to be addressed in order to realize a
high-power STATCOM.1
Two basic techniques for the reduction of harmonics in the output voltage of the
converter are summarized in the following sections. One technique is pulse-width
modulation (PWM), and the other one is the combination of the output waveforms
of individual building blocks into an overall multi-pulse waveform.
For increasing the Mvar rating, there are two basic techniques that can be used
separately or in combination:
1. Retaining a simple overall converter structure but connecting multiple semicon-

ductor devices in series and/or parallel
2. Connecting multiple converter building blocks in series/parallel (which can also
assist with harmonic reduction).
Connecting semiconductor devices directly in parallel can be an effective tech-

nique up to a certain point but, if extended too far, results in very high busbar current
ratings, which become inefficient and impractical. Connecting semiconductor devices
in series is a very well-established technique in HVDC systems utilizing line-
1
Some of the same limitations also apply to HVDC systems.
commutated converters and also used in IGBT-equipped VSC systems for HVDC
transmission as well as in GTO-based VSC systems used in var control applications.
2 Multi-pulse Circuits with Magnetic Coupling
One way of improving both the total var rating and harmonic performance of power
electronic converters in high-power applications is to take several elementary building
blocks, such as the three-phase Graetz bridge (Fig. 7), and combine them together via
an electromagnetic phase-shifting network so that most of the lower-order harmonics
are cancelled. This technique has been common in line-commutated applications such
as industrial rectifiers and HVDC for many decades, although its use with voltage-
sourced converters has been more limited. Nevertheless, before the advent of the
“chain circuit” (Ainsworth et al. 1998; Knight et al. 1998), variations of this technique
were used in several early STATCOM applications (CIGRÉ TB144).
The arrangements used for the summation of the AC and DC terminals must not
violate the termination requirements of the basic converter building blocks. Voltage-
sourced converters act as ripple current sources at their DC terminals. Hence, all
six-pulse converters with appropriate phase displacements may be directly parallel-
connected to the common DC voltage source, i.e., input capacitor. At their AC
terminals, however, the voltage-sourced converters manifest their output distortion
as harmonic voltage sources. Thus, they cannot be connected directly to a common
transformer with phase-shifting secondary windings (as is done with current-sourced
converters used, e.g., in HVDC transmission systems) because large circulating
harmonic currents between windings would be established.
Two variants of the technique are possible: the so-called harmonic neutralization
and quasi-harmonic neutralization techniques.
The elementary six-pulse bridge converter shown on Fig. 7 can be considered as a
basic building block of three-phase, multi-pulse converter structures. The AC output
voltage waveform of this converter contains harmonic components with frequencies
of (6k1)f, and its DC side current in steady-state is composed of components with
frequencies of 6kf, where f is the fundamental output frequency (in the present case f
is also the AC system frequency) and k = 1,2,3,. . ..
With n such converters combined to form a 6n-pulse converter, the harmonic
frequencies present in the output voltage and DC side current are (6nk1)f and 6nkf,
respectively. As can be seen, the harmonic spectrum improves rapidly with increas-
ing pulse number, since the order number of the lowest harmonic present in the AC
output voltage is equal to the pulse number minus one, and that for the lowest
harmonic in the DC side current is equal to the pulse number itself.
The basic principle of harmonic neutralization is to combine the inputs and outputs
of the basic six-pulse converters, which are operated with an appropriate phase-
displacement in the 6n multi-pulse structure, so as to cancel all harmonics except
those which are multiples of (6nk1) at the AC terminal and 6nk at the DC terminal.
This can be accomplished by operating successive converters with angular displace-
ments of 2π/6n radians between them. Then, each of the generated output voltage
waveforms is phase shifted by a transformer with an appropriate secondary winding
configuration to cancel the angular displacement of the converter. Finally, the trans-
formed outputs of all converters (the fundamental components of which are in phase)
are summed at the primary windings. Variations of this technique have been reported
in Sumi et al. (1981), Mori et al. (1992), and Schauder et al. (1995).
One solution is to use an individual transformer for each converter, providing
appropriate phase shift, and then use interphase transformers between the trans-
former primaries which would provide the actual output. Another solution is to
connect the individual transformer primaries in series. In both cases, the transformer
arrangement is more complex and expensive than a standard SVC transformer. An
example for a 24-pulse converter structure, using four basic 6-pulse converters with
series-connected transformer primaries, is shown in Fig. 8a and the generated output
voltage waveform in Fig. 8b. An advantage of the topology shown is that the DC
Fig. 8 A 24-pulse harmonic

neutralized converter
arrangement (a) and
associated voltage
waveform (b)
capacitor may be shared between the separate converter units, reducing the total
capacitor cost. However, the 6n-pulse converter structure requires n different trans-
formers, each rated for (1/n) of the total VA output, which is unattractive from the
design, cost, and application viewpoints.
Transformers with more standard wye to wye and wye to delta windings can be
used in “quasi”-harmonic neutralized, multi-pulse configurations, in which the pulse
number is a multiple of 12. In these configurations, identical 12-pulse building blocks
(modules) are used. One module incorporates two six-pulse bridge converters, one
operated from a wye to wye and the other from a wye to delta transformer. The
Fig. 9 A 24-pulse quasi-

harmonic neutralized
converter arrangement (a) and
associated output voltage
waveform (b)
converters in a module are operated with (π/6) radians angular displacement. A

number, m, (m = 2,3,4. . .) of these 12-pulse modules can be combined into a quasi
12m-pulse arrangement by connecting the corresponding primary windings of all
transformers in series and operating each 12-pulse module with a successive π/6m
radians angular displacement. A quasi 24-pulse converter arrangement is shown in
Fig. 9a, and its output voltage waveform is shown in Fig. 9b.
In contrast to the “true” multi-pulse arrangements shown in Fig. 8, the quasi
multi-pulse configurations do not provide perfect cancellation for the dominant
harmonics generated by the constituent 12-pulse modules. For comparison,
the normalized amplitudes of the harmonic components present in the output voltage
waveform of (i) a 12-pulse converter module, (ii) an ideal 24-pulse converter, and
(iii) a quasi 24-pulse converter are shown in Fig. 10a, b, and c, respectively. It can be
observed that the residual harmonics in the output of the quasi 24-pulse converter are
relatively small and, in many practical cases, may not require filtering.
The harmonic neutralized and quasi-harmonic neutralized, multi-pulse converter
can be implemented by a variety of circuit arrangements, using different magnetic
devices and different multilevel converter structures. However, the complexity of the
Fig. 10 Harmonic spectrum a

produced by: (a) a 12-pulse .1
P.U. Amplitude
harmonic neutralized 12-Pulse

converter, (b) a 24-pulse
harmonic neutralized
converter, (c) a 24-pulse .05
quasi-harmonic neutralized
converter
0
0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 12n±1
b
.1
P.U. Amplitude
24-Pulse
.05
0
0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 24n±1
c .1
Quasi 24-Pulse
P.U. Amplitude
.05
0
0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 12n±1
special transformer arrangements needed by such structures has limited their com-
mercial uptake, and such circuits have increasingly been displaced by variants of the
modular multilevel converter.
3 Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC)-Based STATCOM
In the previous sections, the techniques used to create a high-power converter

with low harmonic content have involved either using PWM with conventional
low-pulse-number converters or by combining several conventional six-pulse con-
verters together with a complex magnetic circuit. In both cases, series-connected
semiconductor devices are needed to reach the very high Mvar levels demanded for
utility STATCOM applications.
An alternative approach for realizing a high-power multilevel converter is
to connect elementary bridges in series. Such converters form part of a family of
“modular multilevel converters” (MMC).
3.1 The Chain Circuit
The first MMC-type application to enter commercial service was the so-called chain
circuit, illustrated in Fig. 11, based on series-connected full-bridge submodules or
“chain-links” in a wye (Y) or delta (Δ) connection. In the earliest applications, GTOs
were used, but as of 2018 the chain circuit, using IGBTs and other devices (e.g., GCT
and IGCT), has become one of the most common solutions for high-power STATCOMs.
Each phase of the converter consists of a number of links, each link being a
single-phase voltage-sourced bridge converter, connected in series on their AC side
to form a chain. There is a separate, isolated DC capacitor associated with each link.
An important feature of the chain circuit is that it allows very high Mvar ratings to be
achieved by simply connecting more full-bridge submodules in series. As the
number of submodules increases, so does the harmonic performance. The circuit
also avoids the need for directly connecting transistors in series.
Each of the two phase legs in each link operates as a two-way switch as illustrated
in the circuit analogy shown in Fig. 12. At any instance, the switches can be
2 Vdc
D1 T1 T3 D3 D1 T1 T3 D3
Vdc
D2 T2 T4 D4 D2 T2 T4 D4
Vout
–Vdc
–2 Vdc
Fig. 11 Five level chain circuit

connected to the positive or negative terminal of its associated capacitor, and

therefore each link can produce an output voltage of +Vdc, 0V (capacitor bypassed)
or -Vdc. With n links connected in the series, the circuit synthesizes a voltage
waveform with (2n + 1) voltage levels, which with sufficient links can give a
good approximation to a sine wave.
Usually, in practical arrangements, several tens of links are connected in series in
each phase, in a wye (Y) or delta (Δ) connection as illustrated in Figs. 13 or 14,
respectively.
+ V + V
- -
AC
terminals
Fig. 12 Switching analogy of five level chain circuit
STATCOM
reactors
Connection
transformer
AC
system
Fig. 13 Practical three-phase, wye-connected STATCOM
Connection
transformer
AC
system
Fig. 14 Practical three-phase, delta-connected STATCOM

The chain circuit represents a straightforward approach for realizing a multi-

level converter, which can be used for high-power applications, without the need
for magnetic combining circuits and/or complex transformers. Also, it provides a
well-defined operating environment for the power semiconductors, within a sub-
stantially isolated single-phase bridge circuit. The number of single-phase bridges
in series is not limited by factors such as the escalating voltage rating of the tap
diodes required for neutral-point-clamped converters described in ▶ Chap. 5,
“Power Electronic Topologies for FACTS” of this book. The single-phase con-
verter structure can readily provide single-phase compensation when required by
system conditions.
However, the chain circuit does have some drawbacks, notably the increased
control complexity and the larger rating of DC capacitors. Each of the DC capacitors
in the chain circuit has to be sized for the large (1 p.u.), dominantly second harmonic
ripple current (which is the consequence of the single-phase inverter structure) so as
to maintain a substantially ripple-free DC voltage. This makes the total DC capacitor
significantly (several times) larger than that required for the majority of other circuits
which use three-phase inverter structures (which largely cancel the second harmonic
ripple in the DC capacitor).
The chain circuit as well as other multilevel circuits can be designed to produce a
quasi-harmonic neutralized waveform by selecting appropriate angles for α1, α2, . . ., αn.
This is achieved without the need for magnetic combining circuits and/or
complex transformers. However, the multilevel circuits generally require complex
control to maintain proper DC voltage levels and output waveform quality, partic-
ularly under system disturbances. Suitable switching combinations can be used to
synthesize the desired quasi-harmonic neutralized voltage waveform and also
address other circuit requirements, such as the maintenance of capacitor voltages
at their preselected value, usually via the use of appropriate closed-control loops.
As the capability of real-time computing hardware has improved dramatically
since the first chain circuit STATCOMs appeared over 20 years ago, more sophis-
ticated control algorithms are now possible.
3.2 Half-Bridge MMC
Another type of MMC, which has become very important in HVDC transmission
(Lesnicar and Marquardt 2003), uses the half-bridge submodule illustrated in
▶ Chap. 5, “Power Electronic Topologies for FACTS” of this book. Six series
arrays of such submodules are connected in an arrangement that resembles a
classic Graetz bridge converter, and the DC transmission lines are connected to
the two DC terminals (Fig. 15). Such HVDC schemes can be, and frequently are,
operated in “STATCOM mode” – a special operating case where the real power is
zero and it is technically possible to realize a purpose-built STATCOM from this
topology.
Connection
DC Voltage
transformer
AC
system
Fig. 15 Half-bridge MMC
However, if a purpose-built STATCOM (with no DC transmission capability) is

required, the half-bridge MMC is not the most cost-effective option. A more cost-
effective and compact solution is obtained with full-bridge submodules as discussed
in the previous section.
4 Other Primary Equipment
Apart from the converter itself, there are several other types of major primary
equipment typically found in a STATCOM:
• The STATCOM transformer

• STATCOM reactors (which may in some cases be combined with the transformer)
• DC capacitor(s), either a single lumped capacitor or distributed capacitors in the

case of MMC-type STATCOMs
• AC harmonic filters (not always required)
• High-precision current transducers
These are discussed in the following sections.
4.1 STATCOM Transformer
The STATCOM transformer is one of the largest and most expensive items of
equipment in the complete installation. It performs two major roles:
• Adapting the connection voltage of the grid to a voltage that is suitable for the
power electronic converter
• Together with the STATCOM reactors, forming the connection reactance between
the converter and the AC system
In designs that use magnetic coupling between converter groups for harmonic
cancellation, the STATCOM transformer (which may consist of a bank of trans-
formers or one very complex transformer) has a third role in providing the
necessary phase shifts and series connection of primary windings as discussed in
Sect. 2.
The first main function of the transformer is simply to adapt the connection
voltage of the grid (which is often quite high, e.g., 230 kV or 400 kV) to a level
that is suitable for the power electronic converter (typically a few tens of kV). In
some circumstances, there may already exist a suitable medium-voltage busbar (e.g.,
industrial applications at 24 and 33 kV) to which the STATCOM may be connected
directly. Where this is possible, a considerable cost (and space) saving can be
achieved, although in such cases the STATCOM reactors discussed in the next
section take on a greater importance.
The second main function is to act as part of the coupling reactance between
the converter and AC system. As discussed in Sect. 1, a voltage-sourced
converter-based STATCOM can be considered as a controllable voltage source
connected to the AC system via a coupling reactance. The coupling reactance,
in most practical STATCOM installations, is provided by the combination
of the leakage reactance of the transformer and the reactance of the STATCOM
reactors.
The coupling reactance is necessary so that the STATCOM controller can stably
regulate the reactive power generated or absorbed by the STATCOM. In addition, the
coupling reactance helps with minimizing the penetration of converter-generated
harmonics onto the AC system.
If the coupling reactance is too small, a very small change of grid voltage could
result in an unacceptably large change in the reactive current drawn by the
STATCOM, leading to difficulties in obtaining stable control and the risk of
exceeding the current rating of the converter. On the other hand, if the coupling
reactance is too large, the voltage rise at the STATCOM terminals under capacitive
output conditions could become excessive, requiring greater equipment ratings.
A typical overall optimum figure for the STATCOM reactance is between 0.2 and
0.3 p.u. (based on the STATCOM Mvar rating). The STATCOM transformer itself
will generally be at its most cost-effective for a lower leakage reactance around
0.12–0.15 p.u. (depending on several factors such as loss capitalization and sound
mitigation), so the STATCOM reactors must supply the difference.
The design of STATCOM transformer depends to a considerable extent on the
design of the power electronic converter. When the converter is based on an
MMC-type structure or a six-pulse converter with PWM, the transformer may be
relatively conventional in design. In such cases, typically the main constraints are
that the secondary (converter-side) voltage might be a nonstandard voltage class and
the current spectrum in the transformer windings may have a higher harmonic
content than usual. Similarly to SVC applications, the transformer core must not
saturate for the larger variations on the secondary voltage compared to conventional
transformers. Issues related to loss capitalization and audible noise may need to be
considered in the design.
However, where magnetic cancellation is used as discussed in Sect. 2, the
transformer design becomes much more complex since it has to accommodate
multiple different vector groups on the secondary side, with primary windings
connected in series (see Fig. 8). The series-connected primary windings also
increase the insulation requirements on the primary windings, which is why
some installations of this type used a two-stage transformer arrangement with a
first stage comprising a simple step-down transformer with a medium-voltage
secondary, and the second stage including the more complex magnetic cancella-
tion windings.
Needless to say, these measures added considerable cost to the STATCOM
transformer and limited the number of transformer factories capable of designing
and manufacturing such transformers, which is why the technique of magnetic
cancellation has rarely been used since the late 1990s.
4.2 STATCOM Reactors
The STATCOM reactors, together with the STATCOM transformer, provide the
coupling reactance between the converter and the AC system. In addition, the
STATCOM reactors provide protection for the converter valves against the short-
circuit currents that would arise from an insulation failure on the secondary side of
the transformer.
The STATCOM reactors can, in principle, be either air-cored or iron-cored,
although most practical STATCOMs use dry-type air-cored reactors.
In some STATCOM applications where there are no other reactive power com-
ponents such as filter banks or TCR/TSC branches connected to the same MV bus as
the STATCOM itself, it may be possible to omit the STATCOM reactors if the
transformer can provide the necessary reactance. However, the STATCOM reactors
also play a role in limiting the fault current in the event of a secondary side insulation
failure. With no STATCOM reactors to limit this fault current, the converter valves
would very likely be destroyed by such a fault current.
To provide further protection, some MMC-type STATCOM installations have
split the STATCOM reactors into two halves, one at each end of each converter
valve (Knight et al. 1998), which confers additional protection to the STATCOM
valves in the event of a direct lightning strike onto the secondary bus voltage.
This measure becomes more important if the STATCOM is directly connected to
an existing MV bus, with no separate STATCOM transformer – both for protec-
tion from lightning strikes and for mitigation of harmonic injection into the AC
system.
4.3 DC Capacitors
The design of the DC capacitors is very strongly influenced by the design of the
power electronic converter, and the two cannot be fully separated. In respect of the
DC capacitor, there is an important distinction to be made between converters based
on one or more six-pulse bridges (with PWM or magnetic cancellation) and
MMC-type converters.
In STATCOMs based on the six-pulse bridge circuit, there is normally just one,
relatively large DC capacitor. This capacitor represents the “DC source” in the
converter, and its DC voltage rating is directly proportional to the AC voltage of
the STATCOM secondary winding.
In contrast, MMC-type STATCOMs lack a readily identifiable “DC side” and use
a multitude of separate, isolated DC capacitors as the source of stored energy. Each
individual capacitor may be considerably smaller than the DC capacitor of a
six-pulse STATCOM, but because there are so many such capacitors in an
MMC-type STATCOM, the total stored energy rating (½ CV2) is many times larger
for an MMC-type STATCOM than for a six-pulse STATCOM.
A figure-of-merit that can be used to quantify the total rating of the DC
capacitors is the ratio of stored energy (in Joules) to rated power (in MVA). The
result is a quantity with the dimensions of time, analogous to the “inertia constant”
of an electrical machine. For 2-level converters, this ratio is small, typically a few
milliseconds, although for MMC-type converters it can be an order of magnitude
larger.
The rated voltage of the DC capacitors in an MMC-type STATCOM application
is normally determined by reference to the rated voltage of the semiconductor
switches used to connect and disconnect them to the circuit. Typically, the rated
DC voltage of the capacitor is around 60% of the nameplate rated voltage of the
semiconductor device, but this mostly depends on the valve voltage coordination
criteria adopted by the STATCOM manufacturers.
The capacitor technology usually used for the STATCOM DC capacitor is
metallized polypropylene film. This dielectric material gives very low dielectric
losses and high stability, and it can be designed to be “self-healing” so that small
punctures through the dielectric film lead only to a small amount of dielectric
material being burnt away (and hence to a very slight reduction of capacitance)
and not to a complete failure of the capacitor unit. The DC capacitors are designed
for power electronic applications, capable of operating continuously under sinusoi-
dal and non-sinusoidal voltages and currents characterized by very high rates of
change, the voltage also including a DC component. Typical requirements are found
in IEC 61071.
4.4 AC Harmonic Filters
The need for AC harmonic filters depends on a number of factors, including the
design of the converter itself, the permissible voltage, and current distortions and
telephone interference limits of the AC system to which the STATCOM is
connected, and the characteristics of that AC system (in particular, its effective
impedance at harmonic frequencies and the level of pre-existing “background”
harmonics). Low-damped resonances at higher frequencies (above 20th harmonic)
should also be avoided as the control system generally does not have sufficient
bandwidth to damp these resonances. In such cases, a high-pass filter is the natural
choice for mitigating this resonance phenomenon.
Naturally, the design of the converter plays a very important role. STATCOM
installations employing magnetic cancellation circuits (Sect. 2) use a complex trans-
former arrangement to eliminate lower-order harmonics such as the typical charac-
teristic harmonics of 6-pulse or 12-pulse converters. The design choice is then a
trade-off between the cost and complexity of the transformer and the level of
harmonic distortion that remains. 36-pulse (Sumi et al. 1981) or 48-pulse (Mori
et al. 1992) operation is possible (with very complex transformers), but in many grid
systems, this would still result in an unacceptable level of residual harmonic
distortion, requiring the addition of filters.
In PWM-type converters, the harmonic spectrum of the converter has a different
character, being dominated by sidebands of the PWM frequency modulated by the
grid frequency. This generally results in a shift toward higher harmonic frequencies
which are usually easier to filter.
The harmonic spectrum produced by MMC-type converters is different again.
Such converters tend to produce a broadband voltage distortion, similar to white
noise. Depending on the modulation strategy employed, there may still be
identifiable peaks associated with the PWM carrier frequency, but these peaks are
less distinct. These characteristics make the resulting harmonic spectrum harder to
filter, but in many MMC-type converters, the level of residual harmonic voltage
distortion may be low enough for harmonic filters not to be required. Where
harmonic filters are provided for MMC-type converters, it is often to prevent
amplifying existing background harmonics on the AC system rather than specif-
ically to clean up the voltage harmonics produced by the converter. By way of
example, the first commercial MMC-type STATCOM (Knight et al. 1998), which
had 16 “links” per phase, used a small harmonic filter, mainly to avoid amplifying
background harmonics on the 400 kV system to which it was connected, while the
second (Scarfone 2003), which had 15 “links” per phase, did not require any
filters.
Where AC harmonic filters are required, their design is generally similar to
harmonic filters for other large-scale power electronic converters such as HVDC
stations or SVCs. IEC 62001 gives a comprehensive coverage of the design
criteria for AC harmonic filters for line-commutated converter (LCC) HVDC
stations. Much of the content of IEC 62001 is transferrable to STATCOM appli-
cations except for the different harmonic spectra produced by the converter,
considering also the voltage-source characteristics of the STATCOM harmonic
generation.
4.5 High-Precision Current Transducers
A special type of current transducer may be required to measure converter currents

with high precision, containing both AC and DC components and high-frequency
components. Fast response time, low offset and low linearity error are
required for achieving fast, stable, and low harmonic emission from the VSC current
control.
5 Layout Considerations
The most important layout consideration in the design of a STATCOM is in relation

to the positioning of the DC capacitor(s) with respect to the power
electronic switches. As illustrated in ▶ Chap. 5, “Power Electronic Topologies for
FACTS” of this book, the transition of conduction between one switch and another is
accompanied by rapid changes of current and voltage, and to avoid excessively over-
stressing the power semiconductor switches, the semiconductor switches need to be
closely coupled to the DC capacitor such that the stray inductance around the
commutating loop is as low as possible.
Fig. 16 Layout of the East Claydon “chainlink” STATCOM (Knight et al. 1998)
In MMC-type converters, the physical size of each submodule or “link” is

relatively low, and its voltage rating is typically of the order of 2–3 kV, making it
comparable with a typical converter used in an industrial drive or railway traction.
The same techniques used in such converters can be applied for MMC-type
STATCOMs.
In contrast, in larger converters based on six-pulse converters with series-
connected semiconductor switches, the larger physical size of the semiconductor
switches, and their surrounding air clearances can make the achievement of suitably
low inductance more challenging.
Other layout aspects, related to the placement of the other primary equipment,
depend more on the converter technology chosen. When multiple converter modules
are connected to a common DC bus (as used in some projects where magnetic
cancellation was used), the placement of the converter modules is still the most
important consideration.
In MMC-type converters, there is more flexibility regarding the placement of the
other primary equipment. Figure 16 shows the layout for one MMC-type STATCOM
(Knight et al. 1998), where the three STATCOM converter phases are mounted
in relocatable containers. The two (split) STATCOM reactors (or “buffer” reactors) are
Fig. 17 Layout of the three-level converter-based STATCOM reported in Aho et al. (2010).
(Reproduced with permission from GE’s Grid Solutions Business)
placed at one end of each STATCOM container. Also included in that project were a
TSC and a fixed filter.
A quite different layout was used in the system reported in Aho et al. (2010). In that
project, the STATCOM was made up from small, three-phase, three-level converter
modules, each with a rating of 2 Mvar, connected in parallel to a 2 kV AC busbar.
The installation was subdivided into three blocks of 12 modules to give an overall
STATCOM rating of 72 Mvar. Figure 17 shows a plan view of the overall layout,
while Fig. 18 shows an isometric view of one containerized block of 12 modules. The
STATCOM reactors were built in to the converter modules, and the installation,
designed for flicker suppression in an electric arc furnace, was completed by a
72 Mvar fixed capacitor bank.
Fig. 18 Expanded view of one STATCOM container for Fig. 17. (Reproduced with permission
from GE’s Grid Solutions Business)
6 Control Principles
6.1 Introduction
The control functions for a STATCOM can be subdivided into a number of hierar-
chical levels, generally as shown on Fig. 19. IEEE 1676 defines these, from highest
to lowest, as:
• System control – usually for the complete AC network, not just the STATCOM.
• Application control – the highest level of control for the STATCOM itself
• Converter control
• Switching control
• Hardware control
System control is out of the scope of this chapter, while switching control and
hardware control are very vendor-specific, so this section will concentrate mainly on
application control and converter control.
Application control contains the necessary circuitry for derivation of the reference
reactive power (QREF) or converter current (IREF) value and a number of closed-loop
controls for controlling the appropriate power system quantities. For transmission
network (utility) applications, the most important function, in common with trans-
mission SVCs, is usually voltage droop control, where the reactive current to be
provided by the STATCOM is proportional to the difference between the network
voltage and a preset voltage reference.
Part of
System Control >10ms
>10ms overall grid
Operating mode determination control
Coordination with other devices on network
Application Control ~1ms-1s

~1ms-1s
Control
Over-riding control and measurements dedicated to
STATCOM
Converter Control ~10μs-1ms

~10μs-1ms
PLL Synchronisation
αβ-dq transformation
id and iq current control
Switching/hardware Control <1μs

<1μs
Fig. 19 Typical hierarchical control levels for a STATCOM
Converter control utilizes a set of triggering signals to accomplish appropriate

gating of the power electronic switches within the converter in order to provide the
required reactive power.
Certain other control functions may also be provided in some applications and are
described in more detail in the following sections.
In some installations, additional coordination functions may be needed in the
application control layer if the installation involves several reactive power compen-
sators, e.g., STATCOM, conventional SVC, thyristor, or mechanically switched
capacitors or reactors.
STATCOM installations designed to compensate for fluctuating industrial loads,
for example, electric arc furnaces, have special control requirements and are covered
in Sect. 6.5.
6.2 Space Vector Control Concepts
In describing the STATCOM control system, it is convenient to use space vector

notation. The use of space vector notation decreases the number of mathematical
operations in control algorithms and simplifies the understanding especially
of transient performance of STATCOM (Schauder and Mehta 1993;
Hirakawa et al. 1996; Erinmez 1986; Povh and Weinhold 1995). The space vector
is defined by two coordinates which at any instant of time accurately reflect three-
phase quantities of the power system. The two coordinates can be polar (magni-
tude and phase) or rectangular (e.g., d-axis and q-axis). Their track curves
can therefore be depicted in a plane and can clearly reflect the steady-state
and transient performance of the controlled STATCOM output and the control
vector.
One drawback of space vector representation is that in order to project a three-
phase system into a two-dimensional plane, the information of a zero sequence
voltages or currents is lost. Therefore, in applications which may require zero
sequence voltages and current, a special treatment of the zero sequence system
quantities will be necessary. Fortunately this is not the case in most STATCOM
applications, since the STATCOM is normally connected to the network via three
conductors and hence the zero sequence quantities are always zero. For MMC
STATCOMs, it can be shown that circulation of zero-sequence voltage or current
through the phases of the converter might be required for balancing the capacitor
voltages in all phases (Betz et al. 2006). This time dependency of the three-phase
quantities (i.e., voltages and current) can have any characteristic, such that also
non-sinusoidal transient conditions and harmonic distortion arising from nonlinear
characteristics of power system components can be analyzed.
As described earlier in this chapter, the STATCOM acts in principle as a controlled
three-phase voltage source interfaced to the network via an impedance (Fig. 20).
In a stationary reference frame and with a steady balanced sinusoidal signal, the
space vectors of V, I, and E rotate smoothly in a circle. For the converter output voltage
E, its space vector e will rotate in a discontinuous manner according to the switching
state of the power electronic devices within the converters, with its amplitude
depending on the actual value of the DC capacitor(s). Figure 21 shows the values of
the output space vector arising from a single six-pulse two-level bridge (Fig. 7). The
plus and minus symbols denote the switching states of the three respective phase legs.
I X=wL
ZS
ES
POWER
SYSTEM
EQUIVALENT V E STATCOM
Fig. 20 STATCOM vectors for voltage space vector control

Fig. 21 Source voltage space

vectors for a six-pulse +-- e
two-level bridge
++- +-+
-+- --+
-++
A+ indicates that the upper switch is turned on and the lower switch is turned off, and a
– denotes the converse case. Thus, for example, the + state means that in the
converter schematic of Fig. 7, Ta1, Tb2, and Tc2 are turned on.
Transforming the space vectors into a synchronous rotating reference frame, as first
proposed by Park (1929), results in constant space vector components under steady-
state balanced conditions. The rotating reference frame can be chosen with any arbitrary
phase angle with respect to voltage and current, and in converter applications, a phase-
locked loop (PLL) is usually used to regulate the phase angle to a desired value. For
STATCOM control, a special case of the synchronous rotating reference frame, the “P-
Q synchronously rotating reference frame,” is sometimes adopted, in which the Q
component of voltage is regulated to zero and the system terminal busbar voltage space
vector V defines the frame phase reference:
V ¼ VP þ j VQ ¼ V þ j 0
I ¼ IP þ j IQ
E ¼ EP þ j EQ ¼ E ejξ ; ξ ¼ ∠ðV, EÞ
In this reference frame, the current component IQ carries the instantaneous

reactive power q(t), and the current component IP carries the instantaneous real
power p(t), flowing from the system terminal bus toward the STATCOM:
Real component p(t) = V ∙ IP
• p(t) > 0: STATCOM draws real power from the power system (P load)
• p(t) < 0: STATCOM returns real power to the power system (P generation)
Reactive power component q(t) = V ∙ IQ
• q(t) > 0: STATCOM absorbs reactive power from the power system
• q(t) < 0: STATCOM generates reactive power to the power system
Thus,
pðtÞ þ j qðtÞ ¼ V ðIP j IQ Þ ¼ V I
where the * operator denotes the complex conjugate.

Corresponding current and voltage vectors for STATCOM operating in capacitive
and inductive modes are shown below in Fig. 22.
In practice, three-phase voltages and current measurements are filtered prior to
passing them to the control system. A phase-locked loop is employed in the control
system in order to obtain the phase angle and frequency of the fundamental portion
of the voltage space vector at the point of connection of STATCOM to the power
system. A fast and stable PLL response is of utmost importance at large disturbances
so that active power through the converter is transiently minimized thus avoiding
large variations of the DC capacitor voltages.
The values of IP and IQ can be derived directly from the terminal voltage space
vector v and the current space vector i without coordinate transformation:
I ¼ ðv iÞ=V
Q-axis
I
P-axis
V
Capacitive Operation jX.I
(arg(E) = ξ)
E
Q-axis
V P-axis
Inductive Operation
(arg(E) = ξ) E jX.I
I
Fig. 22 Vector diagram allowing for losses in the STATCOM converter

6.3 Application Control
This section describes the part of the STATCOM control system which is specific to
the requirements of the power transmission system and defines the purpose of the
STATCOM in enhancing power system performance. Many of the application
control features that need to be incorporated are well-known from conventional
SVCs, but new possibilities such as active power exchange during system oscilla-
tions can be provided as long as they are coordinated with the DC voltage variations
that the converter needs to be designed for.
The main application control functions attainable through reactive power control
of a STATCOM include:
• Power system voltage control

• Power oscillation damping control
• System power factor control
• Reactive power control
The “application control” also includes:
• Measurement functions which measure the actual power system quantities and
provides appropriate signals to various control modules
• Control parameter adjustment functions which provide for changes in control
parameters under varying power system conditions
• A start-up/shut-down function which provides control at the start-up and shut-
down phases
6.3.1 Power System Voltage Control

In STATCOM installations for transmission network applications, the most
important control mode, similarly to the case of a transmission SVC, is
usually power system voltage control. The voltage controller regulates the mag-
nitude of the three-phase AC system voltages to minimize voltage swings,
improve voltage stability, and assist voltage recovery after system faults, espe-
cially in the events of fault-induced delayed voltage recovery (FIDVR) (WECC
2012).
The typical V-I and V-Q characteristics for such a control mode are illustrated on
Figs. 3 and 4. The input to the voltage controller, which is usually a proportional plus
integral (PI) type regulator, is an error signal (ΔV) calculated from the voltage
reference VREF, the actual value V, and the STATCOM slope characteristic expressed
as a voltage VSL as shown in Fig. 23.
ΔV ¼ VREF V VSL
The actual voltage value is derived from the measurement module. The slope
voltage value VSL is proportional to the actual or demanded STATCOM current
ICmax limit
_ DV QREF or IQ,REF
VREF + PI
REGULATOR
_
VSL
-ILmax limit
SLOPE I, IQ,REF ,Q or QREF

XSL
Fig. 23 Power system voltage control
(IQ or IQ,REF) or to the reactive power output Q or QREF, which thus provides the
required steady-state control characteristic.
VSL ¼ XSL I=Irated or XSL Q=Qrated
The value XSL is an operator-adjusted control parameter and defines the slope
(droop) of the voltage control characteristic, i.e., the total p.u. voltage deviation per
1 p.u. generated/absorbed reactive power. The PI regulator output signal QREF repre-
sents the required STATCOM reactive power to correct the voltage error signal ΔV.
The regulator gain and integrator time constant are normally adjusted to obtain stable
operation with a fast response time at the highest possible equivalent system impedance
(lowest system fault level). The regulator parameters can be calculated online to ensure
a constant dynamic behavior independent of various system conditions.
6.3.2 Power Oscillation Damping Control

This control, used on some transmission STATCOMs, is used for damping of power
oscillations and for increasing the transmission capability of the power system.
Power oscillations occur as an interaction between power generators, groups of
generators or different areas of a synchronous AC system, typically with oscillation
frequencies of 0.1–5 Hz, and may cause stability problems limiting the transmission
capability of the power system. Grund et al. (1990) describes a study to design a
similar damping controller for an HVDC link in the USA in order to damp an inter-
area oscillatory mode at 0.8 Hz, although it should be noted that HVDC links are
more powerful than STATCOMs for damping such oscillatory modes because they
can act on real power transmission.
The power oscillation damping controller detects the occurrence of oscillations,
enables the control circuit, and generates the modulation signal VPOD, which is added to
the voltage reference value VREF and determines the STATCOM reactive power output.
After sufficient damping of the power oscillations is achieved, the modulation signal
returns to zero leaving the STATCOM output to be determined by the power system
voltage control (Tiyono et al. 2017). This principle is similarly utilized in SVCs.
If the particular STATCOM application includes appropriate energy storage capac-
ity, more powerful oscillation damping can be achieved through the modulation of the
active power (current) output, based on similar principles and control circuitry.
6.3.3 Reactive Power Reserve Control

The reactive power reserve controller may be installed to achieve regulation of the
reactive power output of the STATCOM slowly over a set time period to restore the var
reserve. The measured reactive power output of the STATCOM is compared with the
reference value QREG, and the error signal ΔQ is passed to an integral control circuit
whose output shifts the voltage reference set point VREF by adding the signal ΔVQ:
k
ΔV Q ¼ ðQREG QÞ
s
The var reference set point QREG is usually selected to maintain the steady-state
operating point in the middle of the available STATCOM control range (i.e., at zero
reactive power output) to ensure availability of sufficient dynamic reactive power
compensation. This means that at all times the full range of STATCOM output is
available to dynamically respond to any system contingency causing a voltage
change.
In this mode of operation, the system voltage can be controlled within a voltage
range defined by the adjustable values Vmax and Vmin. If the voltage limits are
exceeded, then limits are applied to the reactive power controller output to keep
the actual system voltage within the defined range.
This principle can be similarly utilized in SVCs.
6.3.4 Power Factor Control

Power factor control is not usually applied to STATCOMs installed in HV transmis-
sion systems. However, this mode of control is more often utilized in STATCOM
applications on distribution systems in the medium- and low-voltage range. The
power factor controller regulates the power factor (cosφ) of the system at the point of
connection of the STATCOM, with a slower response.
Active and reactive power of the connected load (PL, QL) at the point of
connection to the system are calculated from voltage and current measurements,
and the required STATCOM output to achieve constant power factor at that point
compensation is determined by:
QREF ¼ PL tan φREF QL
where φREF is the required power factor angle.

This principle can be similarly utilized in SVCs.
6.3.5 Negative Phase Sequence Control

Negative sequence components in the AC voltage at the point of STATCOM
connection can result from unbalanced loads and unsymmetrical network
impedances within the power system. They will also appear during power system
fault conditions. The STATCOM can be controlled such that it reduces the
negative sequence component in the AC voltages passively, actively, or such that
the STATCOM draws only positive sequence currents from the power system.
The priority between negative- and positive-sequence voltage control needs to be
predefined for larger unsymmetrical disturbances when operation at full converter
current is expected.
6.4 Converter Control
The converter control shown in Fig. 24 utilizes the reference values of reactive
power (QREF) or reactive current (IREF), provided by the application control and
the measured converter phase currents (I), system voltage (V), and DC capac-
itor voltage (vdc) to synthesize the required three-phase converter output volt-
age (E).
E Solid-state +
Network DC-AC vdc
Converter
switching
signals (to
gate units)
I
measured
quantities: V
Gate
Converter Gating
vdc Pulse
Control Control Generator
QREF or IREF Signals
Fig. 24 Converter control for a two-level converter

6.4.1 Voltage Space Vector Control

Adopting space vector notation, the output voltage space vector e of E may be
expressed as:
e ¼ M vdc e j ψ ; ω ¼ dψ=dt
where ω and ψ are the angular frequency and phase angle of the converter output
voltage and M is the modulation index, defined as the ratio between the converter
output voltage modulus E and the DC capacitor voltage vdc.
Converting from a stationary reference frame to a rotating reference frame,
e becomes E = EP + j∙EQ.
Generally, two main control principles have been utilized with voltage space
vector control, namely:
• Control of modulation depth and phase angle of the converter voltage space
vector E
• Control of only the phase angle of the converter voltage space vector E
Control of modulation depth and phase angle of the converter voltage space
vector E enables independent control of real and reactive power (P and Q) and
requires a converter which can vary the magnitude of the fundamental output voltage
independently of the DC capacitor voltage, up to the limit of the DC capacitor
voltage. Most converter architectures available as at 2018 can achieve this.
However, with some early types of converter utilizing two-level converter archi-
tectures with GTOs as the semiconductor devices being switched at fundamental
frequency, it was difficult to achieve the necessary control of fundamental output
voltage independently of the DC capacitor voltage. Hence, an option for controlling
such converters was to control only the phase angle of the converter voltage space
vector E. This involves indirect control of the DC capacitor voltage and the modulus
of E and permits only the independent control of reactive power Q. Since this control
mode is generally not required with modern converters, it is not described in detail
here; however, CIGRÉ TB144 provides a full explanation.
Figure 25 depicts the top-level control structure for space vector control provid-
ing both modulation depth and phase angle based control. Schauder and Mehta
(1993) provides details of possible basic structures for this type of control. The
current space vector I is formed from measurements of the terminal voltage V and
current I. Regulation of IP forms the basis of active power exchange, while regula-
tion of IQ forms the basis of reactive power exchange. Thus, regulation of IP enables
the STATCOM DC capacitor voltage to be controlled to a set point independent of
the reactive power output of the STATCOM.
In addition, auxiliary control signals, EP,aux and EQ,aux, for capacitor voltage
balancing (in the case of a multilevel converter) and DC current control are generally
added to the output of the space vector control as shown in Fig. 25.
Iq_ref
from Application control EP_aux, EQ_aux Vdc
Vdc Id_ref
Vdc regulator
Vdc_ref
+ + EP Calculation of
Formation of M To
- Current Space 3-phase
current space + converter
I Vector converter
vector (IP and + Regulator + EQ voltage
gate pattern
ψ
IQ) - + logic
reference
V Phase locked θ
loop
Fig. 25 Modulation depth and phase angle control
6.4.2 Supplementary Control Functions

Depending on the specific requirements of the STATCOM installation, certain
other control functions may be required at the converter control level. These functions
are not required in SVCs. Robustness of these functions for different system strengths
and disturbances is essential for the proper and expected behavior of the converter;
otherwise, converter block and STATCOM trip may occur.
• Control of System Side DC Current (Transformer Saturation Control): Owing

to nonideal characteristics of the STATCOM components, a DC current on the
output (AC system side) of the converter may exist. This may lead to saturation of
the STATCOM magnetics resulting in a high STATCOM current distortion. The DC
components in the converter currents therefore may have to be detected and
controlled to an acceptable minimum level. This detection requires other trans-
ducers than a conventional CT.
• Voltage Balancing Control: In the case of a multilevel converter, care must be
taken that the individual voltages of the capacitors on each individual H-bridge as
well as the total energies in all three phases are balanced. Otherwise
capacitor overvoltage and current distortion may result. If the voltages differ beyond
a certain limit, the switching is modified such that the capacitors with the higher
voltages inject energy to the network and capacitors with the lower voltages receive
energy at the same time and an equalization is thus affected.
• DC Capacitor Voltage Limit Control: In controlling the converter, it is impor-
tant that the DC capacitor voltage limit is not exceeded in order to avoid damage
to converter components and the DC capacitor. This is achieved through control
of the reference value of vdc in cases where both modulation depth and phase
angle of space vector is controlled, and through application of limits to the
capacitive output of STATCOM in cases where only the phase angle of the
space vector is controlled.
• Converter Current Limit Control: The current limit of a converter is based on

instantaneous and root-sum-of-squares currents and voltages or through utilizing a
thermal model taking into account the semiconductor currents and ambient temper-
ature. The maximum current of a converter is determined by the converter control
through applying limits to the reactive power or current requirement assigned to the
converter. The current protection of the converter should also take into account the
safe operating area (SOA) of the semiconductor device.
• Control of a STATCOM with Energy Storage: In cases where energy storage
equipment is connected to the DC capacitors, the control of a STATCOM will be
dependent on the characteristics of this equipment and would require control of
both modulation depth and phase angle in order to obtain independent control of
active and reactive power.
6.5 Special Control Considerations for Electric Arc Furnace

Applications
Certain types of high-power industrial load can result in large fluctuations of the real
and reactive power drawn by the load, leading to power quality problems affecting
consumers connected to the same grid. Electric arc furnaces can cause particular
problems in this respect because of the rapid and unpredictable fluctuations of real
and reactive load current, which, if not adequately mitigated, can lead to problems of
“flicker” in lighting equipment. STATCOMs can be a very effective way of mitigat-
ing flicker problems from arc furnaces (Fig. 26); however, they need to be controlled
Fig. 26 Example of
connection of arc furnace
plant with compensation for
the power system
Fig. 27 Simplified circuit for modelling arc furnace compensation strategies
in a slightly different way (compared with transmission STATCOMs) in order to

achieve their best performance (CIGRÉ TB237).
There is a fundamental difference between a STATCOM (or SVC) designed to
compensate for grid voltage disturbances and one designed to compensate for fluctu-
ating loads. For grid voltage control applications, the control inherently has to be
reactive (i.e., a feedback control is used, waiting for conditions to change, then acting)
because the controller cannot know in advance what the source of a disturbance might
be. However, for compensating industrial loads, it is possible to measure directly the
current drawn by the load and use this as a feed-forward signal into the controls, thus
achieving a faster response to disturbances. This is an important consideration because
of the different operating duty of an arc furnace STATCOM compared with a trans-
mission STATCOM. The transmission STATCOM exchanges mainly fundamental
reactive current in quasi-periodic time dependency whereas the STATCOM for flicker
mitigation mainly injects non-periodic currents.
Figure 27 shows a simplified circuit for investigation of arc furnace compensation
control strategies. The system impedance is modelled by the resistance R and reactance X.
The impedance of the arc furnace transformer is modelled by the reactance XT.
In principle there are two basic control approaches for mitigating the voltage
fluctuation at the PCC:
One basic control approach is to compensate the reactive power of the arc furnace and
to smooth the fluctuations in active power consumption. This requires energy storage
capability (higher DC capacitance) in the compensator. As a consequence of applying
this approach in full, the arc furnace and the compensator appear as a purely ohmic load,
which changes its resistance only very slowly. However, in order to achieve this, the
compensator must be able to instantaneously provide energy when the power consump-
tion of the arc furnace changes. This means that the compensator in the short term tries to
maintain constant P and Q and only refines its calculation slowly to adjust its output in
order to accommodate power balance between the network and the arc furnace.
The alternative control approach is to let the compensator inject only reactive
power such that the voltage fluctuations at the PCC are eliminated. The voltage
fluctuation at the PCC resulting from changing active power consumption of the
furnace is cancelled by reactive current injection of the compensator. The advantage
of such a control scheme is that the compensator does not require large energy
storage equipment, which may result in smaller overall investment cost. However,
reduction on the flicker level is limited.
In general, the arc furnace current will cause both amplitude and phase fluctuations
of the PCC voltage. Since the flicker meters have a very low sensitivity to phase
fluctuations, it is sufficient for the compensator to cancel only the amplitude fluctua-
tions. In Larsson (1998) it is shown that these amplitude fluctuations of the voltage at
the PCC can be compensated by injecting a purely reactive current which corresponds
to the second control approach. Here the voltage deviations due to active power
fluctuation are taken care of by overcompensation of the reactive current.
The flicker control block creates the current reference signals for controlling the
flicker. These signals are then passed on to the current controller which results in the
STATCOM injecting the appropriate current into the network (power system),
thereby resulting in the mitigation of the flicker.
The first step in this process is to determine the fluctuations of the currents around
their average fundamental component. This is best achieved by converting the current
into the direct and quadrature axis equivalents. The direct or “d” component of the
current can be described as that component which causes the flow of real power into
the STATCOM (at the point of common coupling), and the quadrature or “q” compo-
nent is the component that causes the flow of reactive power. The d and q components
can be, respectively, determined by resolving the phase currents into their projections
along the positive sequence voltage phasor and on an axis perpendicular to it. If the
current waveform is smooth, balanced, and harmonic-free, then the resulting d and
q quantities are thus transformed into non-time varying DC quantities. In reality,
however, the d and q components would not be smooth. Subtracting the DC compo-
nent of d and q from their instantaneous values is thus a convenient mechanism for
determining the variation of current around its average value.
The current controller could be a vector controller similar to that used in a
transmission STATCOM. However, since the primary requirement of a controller
for an arc furnace STATCOM is the ability to respond quickly to sudden changes of
real or reactive power load with a current reference signal that may not be sinusoidal,
other control concepts are sometimes used as an alternative. Often these involve a
trade-off between speed of response (which is more important with an arc furnace
STATCOM) and the switching losses of the converter (which are generally less
important than in a transmission STATCOM).
7 Losses and Efficiency
The efficiency of high-power converters used in applications such as STATCOMs is very

good (of the order of 98–99% at full current), but nevertheless such converters incur power
losses when running, and the lifetime energy cost of these power losses is not negligible.
Fig. 28 Power losses versus reactive power for a STATCOM versus an SVC
STATCOMs intended for utility (power transmission) applications are often

designed for an operating life of 20–25 years or even longer, and the power losses
in the STATCOM equate to lost revenue for the utility in question. The net present
value (NPV) of the power losses over the lifetime of the equipment, brought forward
to the time of purchasing the STATCOM, can be comparable to the capital expen-
diture (CAPEX) cost of the STATCOM equipment. No load losses are often much
more important than load losses if the STATCOM normally operates in the middle of
its operating range. Hence, great care needs to be taken in the design of the
STATCOM to arrive not only at a design with adequately low CAPEX cost but
also a design with low power losses. However, the subject is complex, depending on
many factors including energy costs, local regulations, and accounting practices.
There is little published data available on actual values of power losses for real
STATCOM installations, but it is possible to indicate some general trends.
Figure 28 shows qualitatively how the power losses in a STATCOM vary over its
operating range in comparison with those of a typical SVC consisting of a TCR,
TSC, and fixed filter.
The most important point to note about Fig. 28 is its shape. The characteristic of a
STATCOM is inherently (nearly) symmetrical, with the lowest losses occurring at
0 Mvar. For applications where the STATCOM is intended to be used for the majority
of its life at 0 Mvar, this gives the STATCOM an advantage. By comparison, a typical
SVC may result in comparable or slightly higher losses near 0 Mvar, but then when the
TSC is switched in (and needs to be “backed off” by the TCR), the losses abruptly
jump upward. However, at full capacitive output, an SVC may have lower power
losses than a STATCOM. Hence, when the primary purpose is to provide capacitive
var support for slow voltage variations in the power system, an SVC consisting of
multiple TSCs may be more cost-effective than a STATCOM (but mechanically
switched capacitor banks will be more cost-effective still). Hybrid installations
including both TSCs and STATCOMs (Knight et al. 1998) may be a way of combining
the best of both types of technology, as discussed in the next section.
There are three major elements making up the power losses of a STATCOM: the
STATCOM transformer, the STATCOM reactors, and the power electronic converter.
The power consumption of auxiliary equipment (e.g., the cooling plant) may also be
important, especially when losses are evaluated at high temperature and many cooling
fans are in operation. However, losses in the DC capacitors of the converter are
generally quite small when modern, polypropylene film capacitors are used.
Because the power losses are relatively low in relation to the var output in
STATCOMs and SVCs, direct measurement of the power losses is difficult with
any useful level of accuracy. It is therefore common to evaluate power losses by a
combination of calculation and measurement, using routine test data obtained under
factory conditions and applying correction factors to reflect how the power losses
would differ under service conditions.
For STATCOM applications, there are currently no international standards
governing how the power losses should be determined. However, for HVDC there
are several IEC standards providing useful guidance that could be partly transferra-
ble to STATCOM applications.
For the STATCOM transformer and reactors, power losses can be determined
similarly to the process described in IEC 61803 for HVDC installations. The main
respect in which STATCOM (or HVDC) transformers and reactors differ from conven-
tional AC equipment is that the winding currents generally contain a higher harmonic
content. This needs to be allowed for by determining the winding resistance as a function
of frequency and then extracting the frequency spectrum of the winding current.
For the STATCOM converter, the situation is more complex and depends to a
great extent on the type of converter technology used. IEC 62751 covers the method
for determining power losses in the converter valves of a VSC-based HVDC system
and is thus useful in providing general guidance for a STATCOM, but cannot be
applied directly without some modification.
The power losses in a voltage-sourced converter can be generally subdivided into
two main categories: conduction losses and switching losses. Conduction losses
occur as a result of the voltage drop occurring in a component caused by current
flowing through it. This could include Joule losses (I2R) in elements such as busbars,
but conduction losses in a STATCOM come primarily from the conducting voltage
drop of the power semiconductor devices – which is current dependent but typically
of the order of 2–3 V at rated current. The instantaneous conduction loss is simply the
voltage drop multiplied by the instantaneous current, and the average power loss
over a cycle is obtained by integration.
The second category, switching losses, represents energy lost as heat each time one
of the semiconductor devices makes a transition from conducting to nonconducting or
vice versa. Switching losses can include the energy lost in the snubber components
which were necessary with GTO-type devices; however, with IGBTs it is less common
to use snubbers and with such devices, the switching losses are mainly those of the
device itself. In general, each time an IGBT turns on or off, it incurs an energy loss of
Eon or Eoff, respectively, and each time a diode turns off, it incurs a “recovery loss” Erec
(the turn-on losses of diodes can be neglected). As shown earlier in ▶ Chap. 5, “Power
Electronic Topologies for FACTS” of this book, every time an IGBT turns on, a diode
turns off somewhere else, and vice versa: so each transition from IGBT conduction to
diode conduction incurs an energy loss of Eoff, and each transition from diode
conduction to IGBT conduction incurs an energy loss of (Eon + Erec). The total
switching losses, in watts, are evaluated by summing all the switching energies that
occur over a defined time period (such as 1 s).
In PWM-type converters with (silicon) IGBTs, the switching losses
were generally dominant as of 2018 because of the relatively high PWM
carrier frequency – typically 1–2 kHz; however, in MMC-type converters the
mean switching frequencies can be much lower, in the 100–200 Hz range,
and as a result conduction losses tend to dominate with such converters. Looking
into the future, with silicon carbide devices, we can expect to see the switching
losses even of PWM-type converters becoming small compared with conduction
losses.
8 Hybrid STATCOM
A STATCOM has improved characteristics compared to a SVC, especially for

handling undervoltages. This is simply because it is capable of injecting full reactive
power current independently of the voltage magnitude. On the other hand, SVCs, in
contrast to STATCOMs, have a reactive power output proportional to the square of
the voltage magnitude. This means a reduced reactive power support when the
voltage drops, i.e., SVCs give less support to the network when they are needed
most in applications to prevent system voltage collapse and motor stalling condi-
tions. Conventional SVCs are however superior at suppressing temporary over-
voltages since its reactive power absorption capability is higher without any major
impact on the design.
The hybrid STATCOM, based on combining both SVC and STATCOM technol-
ogies, is a favorable approach for utility applications when there is usually a need to
incorporate some offset elements (capacitive and/or inductive) to achieve a larger
required operating range, usually unsymmetrical (Knight et al. 1998; Halonen and
Bostrom 2015). Using a STATCOM to cover the whole dynamic swing range would
lead to an overdesign on either capacitive or inductive Mvar output sides.
An example of a hybrid STATCOM solutions is shown in Fig. 29. It consists of a
VSC (STATCOM), a thyristor switched capacitor (TSC), and a thyristor switched
reactor (TSR). The V/I characteristics comprise a mixture of both the SVC and the
STATCOM characteristics, where the VSC is responsible for the vernier reactive
power control. One of the characteristics may dominate the other, i.e., either the
STATCOM characteristics or the thyristor switched offset element characteristics,
but the choice merely depends on the performance and the operational requirements.
The hybrid STATCOM solution can be regarded as an upgraded SVC where the
TCR is replaced by a VSC.
Vdc Vdc
VSC TSR TSC

VSC VSC + TSR
V
Vov D
VSC + TSC VSC
Vmaxcont
Vrefmax
A
Vnom B
G
Vrefmin
Vmin
C
I
Capacitive Inductive
Fig. 29 Example of hybrid STATCOM topology and its VI characteristic
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Colin Davidson is Consulting Engineer (HVDC) at GE Grid

Solutions, HVDC Activity, whose Centre of Excellence is in
Stafford, UK. He joined the company in January 1989, when it
was part of GEC, and progressed through the positions of Trainee
Thyristor Valve Design Engineer; Manager, Thyristor Valves;
Engineering Director; and R&D Director to his current role. He
is a Chartered Engineer and a Fellow of the Institution of Engi-
neering and Technology and has served on several IEC standard-
ization committees for HVDC and FACTS, winning the IEC 1906
award in 2012. He has a degree in natural sciences, specializing in
physics, from the University of Cambridge.
Marcio M. de Oliveira was born in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in

1967 and received the M.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. He obtained
the Technical Licentiate and Ph.D. degrees in 1996 and 2000,
respectively, in the field of High Power Electronics from The
Royal Institute of Technology in Sweden. He joined ABB FACTS
in 2000, where he has worked in several technical areas such as
power system design, real-time simulator studies, control system
design and implementation, and R&D projects. Marcio currently
holds a System Lead Engineer position, primarily driving technical
marketing and sales activities of FACTS technology worldwide. He
participated on CIGRÉ SC B4 WG53 “Guidelines for procurement
and testing of STATCOMs,” and he is member of IEC TC22, being
convenor of IEC 61954 maintenance team, related to testing of SVC
thyristor valves. He received the 1906 IEC award in 2017.
Technical Description of Thyristor
Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC) 8
Stig L. Nilsson and Marcio M de Oliveira
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
2 TCSC Principles of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
3 Operating Range of TCSC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
4 Power-Transmission Characteristic Controlled by TCSC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
5 Cost Benefit of TCSC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
6 TCSC Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
6.1 TCSC Static Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
6.2 TCSC Dynamic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
6.3 TCSC Modeling Considerations for Long-Term Planning Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
6.4 Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
7 TCSC Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
7.1 TCSC Platform Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
7.2 TCSC Thyristor Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
7.3 Valve Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
8 Insulation Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
9 TCSC Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
9.1 No-Load Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
9.2 Load Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
10 Harmonic Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
11 Torsional Interactions Between Turbo-Generators and TCSC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
11.1 Series Capacitor Bank Interactions with Turbo-Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
11.2 Subsynchronous Damping Performance of TCSC Compensated Lines . . . . . . . . . . 289
S. L. Nilsson (*)
e-mail: snilsson@exponent.com; stig_nilsson@verizon.net
M. M. de Oliveira

254 S. L. Nilsson and M. M. de Oliveira
12 Stability Improvement and Power Oscillation Damping with TCSC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 292
12.1 Transient Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
12.2 System Damping Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
13 Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Abstract
Thyristor-controlled series compensation (TCSC) systems and thyristor switched
series compensation (TSSC) systems are power electronic systems developed in
the late 1980s and early 1990s in response to the anticipated need for better
utilization of existing high voltage overhead transmission lines because of the
difficulties in getting approval for building new lines. The actual experience has
been that TCSC systems are primarily being applied in areas with high growth
rates where there is a need for long, high voltage AC transmission lines. However,
even in areas with existing high power lines imbedded in the AC power system,
the load carrying capacity of the lines can be improved by using fixed or switched
series capacitor compensation systems. The inherent risks associated with
increased loading of existing lines is that if the power system were to be subjected
to severe disturbances, there might be a widespread blackout. TCSC systems
represent a tool to manage disturbances and to avoid blackouts by quickly
rerouting the power flows from the high stressed lines to lines with the ability
to carry higher loads and thereby avoiding blackouts. TCSC systems have been
applied to enable construction of long AC lines, which would be unstable if the
TCSC systems were not installed. That is, TCSC systems have been proven to be
a powerful tool to enhance the stability of the AC systems and even to provide
damping of subsynchronous oscillations where the use of fixed series capacitor
(FSC) installation could have caused subsynchronous resonance endangering the
reliability of large steam turbine generators.
The design requirements for the TCSC FACTS controller are discussed in this
chapter. The fundamental operating principles of TCSC systems, the key TCSC
design aspects, standards, and other documents, which would be useful to have by
those who procure, maintain, or operate a TCSC system are also discussed in this
chapter.
1 Introduction
When active power flows through a transmission line, a voltage drop between the
sending and receiving ends of the line primarily because of the inductance in the line.
If the resistance in the line and the capacitive shunt reactance between the conductors
and ground are ignored, the active power sent is equal to the power received as
described by Eq. 1. However, as described in the ▶ Chap. 1, “Introduction to
Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) Controllers: A Chronology,” the active
power flow also causes magnetic energy to be absorbed in the inductive reactance of
an overhead transmission line. Assuming that the sending and receiving end voltages
8 Technical Description of Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC) 255
are the same, then the reactive power required to be supplied from the sending and
receiving ends of the line is described by Eq. 2. That is, the more active power that
flows through the overhead line, the greater is the reactive power demand.
V sV r V sV r
jP S j ¼ jP r j ¼ sin ðδs δr Þ ¼ sin ðδÞ (1)
X X
V2
jQS j ¼ jQr j ¼ ð1 cos δÞ (2)
X
where
Vs is the sending end voltage with an amplitude equal to Vs and an angle equal to δs.
Vr is the receiving end voltage with an amplitude equal to Vr and an angle equal to δr.
X is the line’s reactance.
δ is the electric angle between the sending and receiving ends of the line
(δ = δs δr).
Ps is the active power sent from the sending end.
Qs is the reactive power demand at the sending end.
Pr is active power received at the receiving end.
Qr is the reactive power demand at the receiving end.
If the sending end is located in a strong system, with small voltage variations for
different power flow levels but the receiving end is a located in a weak system, then
the receiving end voltage can be described by Eq. 3, where Iline is the current flowing
in the line.
V r ¼ V s X I line (3)
Figure 1 shows that if the power system at the receiving end of an overhead line is
not able to provide reactive power, then the receiving end voltage will be reduced at
Voltage in p.u. of rated voltage
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Actual power in p.u. of rated power
Fig. 1 Voltage collapse example

high power transfer levels until it collapses. (This is referred to as the nose curve
because the graph has the appearance of a nose). To avoid this, the voltage along the
line has to be increased, which is accomplished by inserting equipment that provides
capacitive reactive power as the load increases although the opposite can be needed
under low load conditions. That is, when the line loading is very low, because of the
Ferranti effect (Steinmetz 1971), reactive power might have to be absorbed along the
line instead of added. Reactive power control can be accomplished by means of
shunt compensation using capacitor banks/FACTS controllers or by means of series
compensation by inserting capacitor in series with the line. For long overhead lines,
series capacitors inserted into the overhead line is normally the preferred alternative.
The compensation can be switched in or out depending on the line loading.
FACTS controllers used for reactive power control enables continuous, often
step-less control of the reactive power flows. This performance advantage can be
used to optimize the reactive power compensation in the power system, to enable
dynamic support to damp oscillatory modes and can be used to improve the transient
stability of the power systems. One of the FACTS controller options used often in
conjunction with fixed series capacitor (FSC) banks is the thyristor-controlled series
compensation (TCSC) system (CIGRÉ TB 123 1997).
TCSC systems are used to modulate the impedance of the series capacitors. These
systems utilize large, high power thyristors as described in ▶ Chap. 5, “Power
Electronic Topologies for FACTS.” The thyristor is the preferred semiconductor
device for a controlled series compensation based on power electronics (TCSC and
TSSC type systems) because of the short circuit performance of thyristor devices is
superior to other semiconductors. Thyristor switched series capacitor (TSSC) type
systems can also be applied since they enable rapid insertion or bypass of series
capacitor banks. A prototype TSSC system was the AEP – ABB Kanawha River
system installed into operation in 1991 (Keri et al. 1992). The Slatt multimodular
TCSC system can also be used as a combination of switched and controlled series
capacitor system (Larsen et al. 1992).
Standards have been developed to assist power system planners and engineers
about what is required when specifying a TCSC system and the IEEE has produced a
recommended practice for specifying thyristor-controlled series capacitors (IEEE
Standard 1534 2009). This standard provides information about design issues,
information needed when procuring a TCSC system, as well as recommendations
for factory and commissioning tests. IEC has also developed standards for series
capacitor installations, which can be used in applicable portions for the specification
of TCSC systems (IEC standard 60143-4 2010).
2 TCSC Principles of Operation
All of the installed TCSC systems were built using a reactor in series with a
controllable thyristor valve and a metal oxide varistor (MOV) in parallel with a
series capacitor as shown in Fig. 1 (CIGRÉ TB 554 2013). The MOV is used for
overvoltage protection of the capacitors as well as the thyristors. The main reason for
using thyristor devices is that when there are short circuits on the compensated line,
the capacitors and the MOV bank are bypassed by switching the thyristors to full
conduction mode. In that case, the thyristors will have to carry the full fault currents
until the line breakers are opened or the TCSC system is bypassed by means of a
spark gap (or any fast protective device) or mechanical bypass switches. Further-
more, during a power system disturbance, the TCSC systems are often required to
operate by switching the TCSC system to the maximum compensation mode thereby
providing synchronizing torque to stabilize the connected generators. The high
current rating that can be achieved using large diameter, high voltage thyristors
therefore make thyristors the device of choice for TCSC systems.
Figure 2 illustrates that when the thyristors are not conducting, the system
operates as a conventional series capacitor module. When the thyristors are
conducting continuously as shown in Fig. 3, the module can be characterized as a
small inductance in parallel with a capacitor (CIGRÉ TB 123). That is, in this
operating mode, the impedance of the TCSC is primarily inductive.
Figure 4 shows the state of the TCSC system when in the vernier control mode
with the thyristors conducting for a fraction of a cycle. In that mode, in addition to
the line current, currents are also circulating between the capacitor and reactor as
shown in Fig. 5.
In the capacitive modulation mode, shown in Fig. 5, the thyristor valve is turned
on for a short period of time just prior to the voltage zero crossing at the 180 electrical
degree point of the capacitor voltage (shortly before the maximum current through
Fig. 2 Thyristor-controlled
series capacitor module with
thyristors turned off
thyristors conducting
continuously
thyristors in the vernier
conduction mode
TCSC Waveforms
1.5 Conduction angle (σ)
1
Firing angle (α)
0.5
Amplitude
-0.5
-1
-1.5 Angle
Current
Capacitor Voltage w/o Thyristor Switching
Capacitor Voltage with Thyristor Switching
Thyristor Current
Fig. 5 Capacitor voltage and thyristor currents in the vernier control mode
the capacitor). The capacitor will then discharge through the thyristors and the
reactor. The effect of this is that the capacitor will appear to be smaller, i.e., it will
have a higher impedance. This increases the apparent degree of series compensation
for the line thereby boosting the current flow through the line. When operating in this
mode, the apparent impedance of the TCSC (X), the average thyristor current (ITAV)
and root mean square (RMS) current (ITRMS) in steady state can be calculated as
follows (IEEE 1534):
X ðα Þ
2 0 σ 13
kσ
B k tan tan
j 6
61 k σ þ sin ðσ Þ þ 4k cos2 σ B
2 2
2 2 C 7
C7
¼ 4
ωC k 1
2 π k 1
2 2 2 @ π A5
(4)
σ
k2 I^L 1 σ kσ
I TAV ¼ cos tan sin (5)
k2 1 π k 2 2 2
k2
I TRMS ¼ I^L A (6)
k2 1
where A equals:
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u 8 σ 9
u > > >
>
uσ < sin σ 1 þ cos σ sin ðkσ Þ cos =
u B2
A¼u 1þ þ 1þ 4
t4π > > σ 1 þ cos ðkσ Þ kσ kσ >
>
: cos ;
2
where B equals:
2 3
ðk þ 1Þσ ðk 1Þσ
sin sin
6 2 2 7
B¼6
4 þ 7
5
ðk þ 1Þσ ðk 1Þσ
where
σ is 2 (π – α), the thyristor conduction angle.

α is the control (firing) angle from capacitor voltage zero.
k is λ/ω.
ω is 2πf.
f is the power frequency.
λ ¼ p1ffiffiffiffiffi :
LC
L is the inductance.
C is the capacitance.
I^L is the peak value of the power frequency component of the line current.
As shown in Fig. 6, the degree of compensation using this so-called vernier

control mode can be increased up to a maximum advance angle beyond which the
firing would be too close to the resonance point for the module. If the firing of the
Fig. 6 Control range for a single TCSC module assuming k = 2.5 in Eq. 4. The vertical axis uses
the capacitor bank reactance amplitude as base, i.e., the impedance is equal to 1.0 when the
thyristors are blocked
thyristors valve is delayed for some time when the thyristors are in the continuous
conduction mode, the effect is similar. In this mode, as shown in Fig. 6, the thyristors
are triggered at 90 with reference to the capacitor voltage zero. If in this mode, the
triggering of the thyristors is delayed, the thyristor circuit will operate as a thyristor-
controlled reactor. That is, the inductive impedance can be modulated in a way that
can be used to buck (oppose) the current flow through the line; a function typically
reserved for phase angle regulators. Thus, the vernier control mode for the thyristors
valve can be used to increase as well as decrease the current flow through the
compensated line (CIGRÉ TB 123 1997).
3 Operating Range of TCSC Systems
The operating range for a single TCSC module is shown in Fig. 7.

Typically, a series compensation system can be overloaded using the long-term
and short-term overload capability of the capacitors. (IEEE Standard 824 2005; IEC
60143-1 to 2015), as shown in the figure. The short-term emergency rating is used
during and after a short circuit event in the system where the TCSC is installed. This
requires very powerful thyristor valves because the capacitors are assumed to be
bypassed by the thyristors during the time it takes for the breakers to clear the fault.
When the fault is cleared, the TCSC system must provide maximum reactive
compensation to provide the needed synchronizing torque across the line where
Fig. 7 TCSC capability for a single module controller
the TCSC system is installed. During this phase, the TCSC system could be operated
and overloaded using its long-term overload rated current shown in Fig. 7.
This requires the following:
• The TCSC system should preferably not be bypassed during an AC system short
circuit except on a line in which the TCSC system is installed but if bypassing is
needed it must recover immediately after the short circuit is cleared.
• The TCSC system must not fail or be permanently bypassed as a result of the AC
system short circuit event. That is, failures requiring bypass of the TCSC system
must be an independent event not associated with any system short circuit or other
overload events for which the TCSC system is required to operate.
For these reasons, as shown in Fig. 7, the TCSC system specifications would
normally include a 30-min long-term overload rating and a 10 s emergency overload
rating. The 30 min overload rating is typically specified for a 35–50% overcurrent
and the 10 s rating is typically for 70–100% overcurrent, usually denoted “swing
current” as shown in Fig. 8 (IEEE 1534 2009).
The long-term overload rating is needed to redispatch the power flows after
some major AC system disturbance, and the short-term overload rating is needed
to manage the transient power swings during and immediately after an AC system
fault.
TCSC systems are typically combined with fixed or switched conventional series
compensation systems (Gama et al. 1998). In some cases, a fully controllable TCSC,
i.e., without any fixed series capacitor, is specified depending on planning studies.
Impedance control of the high voltage lines using TCSC technologies can be used to
Fig. 8 TCSC performance map
Fig. 9 Single line diagram of a six-module TCSC system
fine-tune the loading of parallel lines. Connecting several series connected TCSC
modules together as shown in Fig. 9 is one way of achieving a large control range.
The control range for a system consisting of four TCSC controllers is illustrated in
Fig. 10.
By using vernier control in combination with switching in and out of the series
connected modules, a large and almost continuous control range can be obtained as
shown in Fig. 11. The system illustrated in Fig. 11, can be considered as a combi-
nation of TSSC and TCSC systems. That is, it can offer a stepwise change in the
overall transmission line impedance as well as impedance modulation control. This
capability should make it possible to schedule the power flow on the TCSC com-
pensated line; a capability which might be useful in a deregulated transmission
Fig. 10 TCSC transient Four Modules

capability curves for a four 2
module multimodule TCSC Three Modules
controller
Voltage (pu)
Two Modules
0 One Module
Modules Bypassed
–2
0 1 2
Line Current (pu)
TCSC impedance CSC impedance - actual
4xTSSC + TCSC
3xTSSC + TCSC
capacitive
operating
area
3xTSSC
π/2 Firing angle α
Compensation impedance - requested
2xTSSC
inductive 1xTSSC
operating
area
no compensation CSC impedance - requested
Fig. 11 TCSC and TSSC impedance characteristics
system1. This capability is, however, associated with a higher cost since each TCSC
module will have to include its own reactor and the bus work on the platform
becomes more extensive. However, the benefit would be an increased power flow
control range.
The vernier control method can be applied on each phase independently of the
other phases. Therefore, it could be used to balance the impedance between phases in
an untransposed system (Nolasco et al. 2014). It could also be used to increase the
power flow across two healthy phases in a system with a single phase to ground fault
using single pole trip-reclose schemes. In this way, it could provide synchronizing
1
The stated objective of EPRI’s FACTS initiative was to provide utilities in the USA with methods
for systems analysis, design, and operation that would enable better utilization of the existing
transmission facilities and improve the operational flexibility (EPRI EL-6943 1991).
torque even during a single-phase system short circuit event to improve the transient
stability between sending and receiving ends connected by means of a single line.
All TCSC systems can be controlled to add damping to the AC system. This has
been the major reason for installing TCSC systems around the world (TB 554 2013).
However, the modularity shown in Fig. 9 might not be needed where system
damping is the major objective for the use of a TCSC system, which might be the
case for a TCSC installation in a long radial line. In that case, a single TCSC system
as shown in Fig. 7 would be the most economical solution.
Other TCSC requirements are:
• No DC component should be injected into the line by having asymmetrical firing

between the two antiparallel connected thyristors. Therefore, in the system shown
in Fig. 9, one module will normally have to be left with the thyristors in the
nonconducting mode (capacitor module continuously inserted) to avoid passing
small amounts of DC currents through the line. If, however, the line is also
equipped with fixed series capacitors any DC component generated by the
TCSC will be blocked by the fixed series capacitor.
• Short circuit current through the TCSC system will be limited by the line
impedance. However, if high short circuit currents are encountered that will
overstress the capacitors or the overvoltage protection provided by MOV
banks, then the thyristors of the TCSC system can be turned on and bypass the
capacitors and the MOV bank. When the thermal limit of the thyristors is reached,
a protective gap can be triggered or a mechanical bypass switch in parallel with
the capacitors must be closed.
• If the bypass breaker shown in Fig. 9 is closed at the peak of the through-fault
current with a fully offset fault current and with the thyristors in the full conduc-
tion mode, the current through the thyristors will continue to circulate by free-
wheeling in the thyristor branch and the bypass switch (McDonald et al., 1994).
Since the resistance in the circuit with the bypass breaker closed is very low and
the inductance is relatively high, the time constant of this circuit (L/R) is long and
therefore, the decay of the current will be slow. This scenario could well impose
the highest thermal stress on the thyristors. The critical design issue for this high
stress event is that the maximum junction temperature in the thyristors must be
kept below the maximum allowable junction temperature or the thyristors
might fail.
4 Power-Transmission Characteristic Controlled by TCSC

Systems
As the TCSC device, as shown in Fig. 12, is a serially connected device and acts like
a controlled reactance XTCSC, it affects the transmission line reactance directly. The
extreme modes of operation for a TCSC module are with the thyristor path either
blocked, in which case it is a conventional capacitor (net reactance of XC), or
continuously gated where it appears as a small inductance (net reactance of Xbypass).
U2
UC1∠δC1 UC2∠δC2
UC2
U1∠δ jXTCSC U2∠0
jX1 jX2 δ
I1 = I2
I US
P1 UC P2
UC1
X1 + X2 = X12
U1
Fig. 12 Power system model including TCSC (left), the corresponding voltage-phasor diagram
(right)
Between these two extremes, partial-conduction or “vernier” control can be used to

increase the reactance in either the capacitive or inductive direction (Larsen et al.
1994).
It is rather straightforward to write the equation for active power transmission, as
the location of the TCSC along the transmission line does not have any effect on
transmitted fundamental frequency power2. Therefore:
U 1U 2 U 1U 2
P1 ¼ P 2 ¼ P ¼ sin δ ¼ sin δ (7)
X 12 þ X CSC X 12 ð1 K CSC Þ
where KCSC shown in Fig. 13 represents the so-called series-compensation rate or

compensation degree (KCSC = XTCSC/X12).
In the inductive regime of operation, device’s reactance XCSC in Eq. 7 exhibits
positive reactance value, whereas in capacitive regime it is negative. The power
transmission characteristics for several values of KCSC are depicted in Fig. 13. It is
clear that only the characteristic amplitude of the power curve is modified by the
series compensation.
5 Cost Benefit of TCSC Systems
As is shown in Fig. 13, the thyristor-controlled series compensation (TCSC) can

provide improved stability for interconnected power systems, allowing higher power
transfer levels and directing flows on desired transmission paths (EPRI EL-6943
1991; Larsen et al. 1992; Nyati et al. 1993; Christl et al. 1992).
To ensure a reasonably accurate assessment of benefits and costs, it is important to
have simulation models, which closely approximate the behavior of a TCSC. Such a
2
In the same way as for a fixed series capacitor bank, the voltages on either side of the TCSC system
will, however, need to be considered to avoid creating line voltages that will overstress the
insulation of the line.
Fig. 13 Power transmission P/PMAX

characteristic modification
imposed by TCSC
KCSC = 0.4
KCSC = 0.2
KCSC = 0
1
KCSC = -0.2
KCSC = -0.4
0 90 180
δ [deg]
model must represent the physical constraints on operation of the TCSC, as they
relate to voltage and current ratings of the equipment (CIGRÉ TB 145; Mittelstadt
et al. 1992). Study results can then be used with confidence to specify the parameters
of the TCSC, which most closely relate cost to the performance benefit seen in the
system studies. For further information about the costs and benefits of TCSC
systems, see ▶ Chap. 16, “Economic Appraisal and Cost-Benefit Analysis.”
6 TCSC Models
Many different mathematical models are used for study of electric power systems.
Models are used by planners to study the effect of the power flows and voltage
profiles in the power systems, for study of the stability of the system, and for
engineering design of equipment under consideration. Numerous computer models
have been developed also for TCSC controllers. CIGRÉ has published some theo-
retical application studies summarized below that illustrate various performance
aspects of TCSC systems (CIGRÉ TB 145 1999)3. TCSC application studies and
computer models are also described by IEEE (IEEE 1534 2009).
3
A comprehensive treatise specifically for the TCSC but also for some aspects of FACTS technol-
ogy applications in general can be found in Ängquist 2002.
6.1 TCSC Static Models
The reactance limits of the TCSC must be considered for static modeling as well as
for dynamics (CIGRÉ TB 145 1999). These limits are relatively complex and time
dependent. The characteristic limits are shown in Fig. 14, which shows the limits
enforced in very short (one to tens of seconds) time frame. As implied by Fig. 14,
these limits become progressively more restrictive in longer time frames.
The TCSC controller’s operating limitations at very low line currents are not
shown in Fig. 14 or any of the other figures shown in this section. That is, it is not
possible for the TCSC to control the line impedance if the line current is below a
certain threshold level. The main reasons for the low current operating limit are:
• If the power for the thyristor gate drives is derived from the AC line current
through the line, the power needed for the gate drives might also be insufficient to
generate gate drive currents sufficient to turn on the thyristors. This might be one
reason to transfer gate drive power from ground up to the energized platform or to
use light triggered thyristors with built in self-protection.
• The measuring systems used for the control system need to produce measure-
ments with a sufficiently high signal to noise ratio and with a sufficient resolution
to for example, enable synchronization of the thyristor valve firing, which relies
on measurement of the capacitor voltages.
Fig. 14 Block diagram for the TCSC model for typical stability studies; line current is inferred on
the horizontal axis in the figure
• At low current levels, the voltage across the series capacitors is also very low and
may not be high enough to cause current spreading across the entire thyristor
surface area, which can cause current crowding on the thyristors’ surface area if
the device is subjected to a high current rate of rise (di/dt) and lead to a device
short circuit failure (Kinney et al. 1995).
The low current operating limit could be at around 10% of the rated line current
(IEEE 1534 2009). The minimum TCSC current limit needs to be considered in all of
the model studies since it can affect the applicability and operation of the TCSC
especially if SSR damping is one of the requirements.
6.2 TCSC Dynamic Models
Development of dynamic models is intrinsically related to the specific TCSC

application. Power flow control, SSR mitigation, and power oscillation damping
control have different model needs and representations.
6.2.1 Block Diagram

Figure 14 shows a block diagram for a TCSC model for a typical stability study. The
sign convention for this model is positive reactance in ohms for capacitive compen-
sation and negative reactance in ohms for inductive compensation. The model has
provisions for an open-loop auxiliary signal (Xauxiliary), which could be, for example,
the input from an external power flow controller. The model also has provisions for a
small-signal modulation input (Xmodulation). The reference (Xreference) is the initial
operating point of the TCSC.
These inputs sum to Xdesired, which is put through signal conditioning into a lag
block. This lag is associated with the firing controls and the natural response of the
TCSC and is represented by a single time constant (TTCSC). The time constant is
application specific and may vary considerably.
The output of the lag block is called XTCSC, which should have non-windup limits
associated with the integration function. These limits are variable limits based on the
TCSC reactance capability curve and equations as shown in Fig. 14. This value is
added to the value of the fixed compensation (Xfixed), if used in a specific application,
to obtain a total compensation value called Xtotal. For the network interface, care
must be exercised to assure compatible signs and per-unit basis with the system
equations used in the calculations.
6.2.2 Dynamic Reactance Limits

Referring to the limits shown in Fig. 15, the TCSC model should permit operation
anywhere within the enclosed region except for the area close to the zero line current
where triggering of the thyristors is not possible. The boundaries are due to a number
of constraints, as subsequently described. (All reactances are in per unit on XC except
Fig. 15 Transient reactance limits; the horizontal axis is the line current
as noted, all voltages in per unit on ILrated*XC, and all currents are in, or converted to,
amperes.)
In the capacitive region, the constraints are due to:
1. Limit on firing angle, expressed as a constant reactance limit (Xmax0).

2. Limit on voltage across the TCSC which is a function of the current and the
capacitive reactance. The maximum voltage limit is used during system transients
when the maximum boos level is needed.
3. Limit on line current during short-term transient events at which point the TCSC
will go into a protective bypass mode.
Once the TCSC is bypassed on this overcurrent constraint, it is subject to a time

delay on reinsertion after line current falls back below current limit. In a multi-
module TCSC, it is possible that only some of the modules will bypass, since once
one module bypasses the line current will drop, which in turn may allow the
remaining modules to stay in capacitive mode. For simplicity in typical stability
studies, it is suggested that this nuance be neglected.
There is also a minimum current operating limit for both the capacitive and
inductive operating range (not shown in Fig. 15).
On the inductive side similar constraints apply:
1. Limit on firing angle, expressed as a constant reactance limit (Xmin0).

2. Limit on harmonic currents circulating between the thyristor branch and the
capacitor, approximated as a constant voltage across the TCSC. (See 9.2.2.1 for
calculation of the harmonic currents.)
3. Limit on thyristor current. As an approximation, the fundamental frequency

component of thyristor current is limited to that at which the TCSC can operate
in thyristor bypass for the duration of the transient.
See CIGRE TB 145 for a detailed description of these limits (CIGRÉ TB

145 1999).
6.2.3 TCSC Model Performance

TCSC models used for system stability studies have been developed and tested in
large-scale power system stability analysis programs (Price et al. 1992; Sanchez-
Gasca et al. 1993; Paserba et al. 1994). The simulation results described below show
examples of the TCSC model performance (CIGRE TB 145 1999). The CIGRE
TCSC stability model was tested on a 25-machine, 100 bus test system. This system
included several interconnected areas, and therefore, several interarea modes of
oscillation. In this study, the TCSC was located in a circuit between two of the
areas which experience multiple swing modes for certain system disturbances. The
TCSC for this system had a RMS line-to-line voltage rating of 500 kV, RMS line
current rating of 2900 amperes, and a reactance rating (XC) of 8 Ω.
Further demonstration of this stability model is included in Mittelstadt
(Mittelstadt et al. 1992).
6.2.4 TCSC Model Alternatives

The TCSC model defined above can be called a “voltage limited” model, because for
most of the interesting performance scenarios, the limits on the TCSC reactance are
determined from the maximum voltage capability of the TCSC equipment. Without
having such a constraint included in the simulation model, the next best approxima-
tion is with fixed reactance limits. The following sections compare performance of a
“fixed reactance limit” model with a “voltage-limited” model and demonstrate that
the system performance is sufficiently different to warrant proper modeling.
Three simulation cases are presented here for the CIGRE test system (CIGRE TB
145 1999):
Case A – TCSC with 8 Ω XC nominal, voltage-limited model

Case B – TCSC with +14/4 Ω fixed impedance limit model
Case C – TCSC with +8/2 Ω, fixed impedance limit model
For all three cases, the disturbance was a severe system fault between two areas,
followed by line clearing. The remaining line between the areas, which includes the
TCSC, picks up the additional current and the TCSC modulates its reactance to damp
the power swings.
The simulation results are presented in Figs. 16 and 17. In Fig. 16, the results of
Cases A and B are plotted. The solid curve is the benchmark and shows performance
with an 8 Ω TCSC represented with a voltage-limited model. The dashed curve
shows performance with a 14 Ω TCSC represented with fixed reactance limits. On
the first swing, the voltage-limited model is more reactance constrained due to the
Fig. 16 Comparison of
system dynamic performance
with 8 Ω nominal voltage
limited TCSC model (solid
curves) and +14/4 Ω fixed
reactance TCSC model
(dashed curves)
large increase in line current. On subsequent swings, neither model is limited but
performance differs due to the different behavior of the first swing.
In Fig. 17, the solid curve shows the same benchmark case and the dashed curve
shows performance with an 8 Ω TCSC represented with fixed reactance limits. On
the first swing where line current is very high, the two models encounter roughly the
same reactance limit, although the voltage-limited model allows the reactance to be
over 8 Ω for a short time. In subsequent swings where line current is lower, however,
the difference between the two models is more pronounced. The model with fixed
Fig. 17 Comparison of
system performance with
voltage limited TCSC model
(solid curves) and +8/2 Ω
fixed reactance TCSC model
(dashed curves)
reactance limits hits the 8 Ω maximum limit several times while the voltage-limited
model shows that the TCSC reactance can exceed 8 Ω and provide greater modu-
lation capability.
In planning studies, the objective is to determine the TCSC rating required to
satisfy specific system performance criteria. The examples illustrated in Figs. 16 and
17 show that the dynamic response of the system subject to voltage-limited modeling
can be substantially different than those obtained with fixed reactance limits. Thus,
by using a voltage-limited model, planning studies can more accurately determine

the correct TCSC rating required to meet system performance requirements.
6.2.5 Operating Studies

In operating studies, the objective is to accurately determine system performance
with an existing TCSC. The voltage-limited TCSC model accurately represents the
performance of the actual equipment while the model with fixed reactance limits
does not. Consider again the simulations in Figs. 16 and 17 as examples, with the
solid curves showing performance of the actual equipment. If constant reactance
limit models (dashed curves) were used to represent the actual equipment, overall
system performance is significantly different. Figure 16 shows that if the TCSC is
represented by a 14 Ω fixed limit model, the big difference in the first swing
performance of the TCSC causes all subsequent swings to be significantly different.
Figure 17 shows that if the TCSC is represented by a 8 Ω fixed limit model, the
TCSC’s modulation capability is incorrectly restricted.
These cases illustrate the dilemma faced when using a simple fixed-reactance-
limit model for the TCSC. It may not be possible to achieve simulation results which
are a reasonable representation of the expected TCSC behavior, and even selecting
the proper TCSC rating will be subject to some uncertainty.
Regardless of the model used, the engineer should monitor the magnitude of
terminal voltages to be certain that other system equipment is not subjected to
unacceptable voltages during power swings and other operating considerations.
6.2.6 Modeling Exclusions

The model described here is not suitable for analysis of harmonics, torsional
interactions, high frequency transients, or unbalance problems. Each of these prob-
lems requires more detailed modeling of the TCSC and the host system.
Electromagnetic transients programs are needed for study of high voltage tran-
sients imposed on the TCSC controller modules if a short circuit to ground occurs on
the line at either side of the installed TCSC controller. Such transient events require a
detailed high frequency model of the TCSC capacitor banks, reactors, thyristor
valves, and bus structures. This need to take into account the facts that the capac-
itance of an AC power capacitor becomes inductive at high frequencies and that the
winding capacitances of reactors dominate the high frequency impedance of the
reactors. Also, the stray inductances of the bus work surrounding the thyristor
structures of the TCSC controllers need to be included in a high frequency time-
domain simulation model.
Models for study of the TCSC systems during line short circuit events also need
to include the non-linearity of metal oxide varistor (MOV) blocks. A simple model,
which can be used if specific data about the nonlinear characteristics are not known,
is as follows:
/
I V
¼ (8)
I0 V0
where
I is the current at voltage V.

Io and Vo is typically chosen as the 1 mA knee point and the maximum continuous
voltage rating of the material.
α is an exponent, which varies with the composition and manufacturing of the MOV
material and the applied current.
The simplified model is useful for planning studies but not for TCSC design
because the exponent α varies from the knee point to the maximum useful surge
current through the MOV. It can be established through tests of MOV blocks
(Sakshaug et al. 1988). A value for α equal to 33 has been used for simulation
purposes (Anderson and Framer 1996a). Nowadays, electromagnetic transient sim-
ulation software allows for the direct representation of the MOV blocks by their
voltage-current characteristics provided by the manufacturers.
The trade-off when designing the MOV bank for overvoltage protection of
series capacitors is between the knee point of the MOV material and the funda-
mental frequency overvoltage impressed on the capacitors at the maximum fault
current in the transmission line in which the TCSC system is installed. CIGRÉ has
developed basic information about the performance of MOV-based arresters for
various applications including energy absorption capability of MOV arresters
(TB 544 2013). The maximum allowable power frequency voltage across the
capacitors is according to standards at least twice the rated capacitor voltage
(IEEE Standard 1726 and IEC Standard, 143-1). The critical energy dissipation
in the MOV material occurs during the 10 s swing current of the TCSC. After
having been exposed to the energy injection during a power system external fault,
and the corresponding temperature increase, the MOV shall be thermally stable
against the swing voltage caused by the power system oscillation. Therefore, the
MOV bank must not be bypassed during this interval. The swing voltage will
appear as an overload voltage stress on the MOV for the specified duration (usually
10 s). In TCSC systems, the thyristor valves are typically used for thermal
protection of the MOV banks.
The compensated line might be reclosed into the fault adding energy dissipa-
tion in the MOV bank, which is made up of a number of parallel connected
columns, unless the bank is bypassed. This makes it difficult to obtain uniform
loss distribution among the MOV columns since with a nonlinearity index α of
around 30, a very small difference between the nonlinearity of the several parallel
columns will lead to large differences in energy dissipated in the different col-
umns. Therefore, each of the parallel columns must be built to have close
characteristics, which are verified during the current distribution test (IEC
60099-4). That is, the MOV blocks in each of the parallel columns must be closely
matched. Because aging of the MOV blocks will change the voltage versus
current characteristics of the blocks, it is not possible to replace a failed MOV
column with another new or spare column and to get even energy absorption. This
requires that redundant MOV columns must be installed when the MOV bank is
first built and installed (IEC 60143-2 2012).
6.3 TCSC Modeling Considerations for Long-Term Planning

Studies
For long-term dynamic stability studies, the time limited overload capability must
also be considered. Figures 10 and 11 illustrate the capability curves for a multi-
module TCSC. Figure 18 shows typical capability curves for TCSC modules
including the time-overload limits for both capacitive and inductive vernier
operation.
Fig. 18 Reactance versus line current characteristics for multimodule TCSC including time
overload capability
6.4 Validation
Detailed digital and analog simulations, including those used in the design and
commissioning of TCSC hardware must eventually be validated through system
tests. The study results shown above have been used for positive sequence, funda-
mental frequency analysis of TCSC in electric power systems (Nyati et al. 1993;
Mittelstadt et al. 1992; Urbanek et al. 1993). Validation of the study assumptions
normally takes place during system acceptance testing typically including staged
fault testing (Kinney et al. 1995), whenever staged fault tests are accepted by the
transmission system operator.
7 TCSC Design
7.1 TCSC Platform Equipment
Platforms insulated from ground are used for series compensation systems on which
the capacitors with their associated protection equipment are placed. One platform is
used for each AC system phase. The platform for the controller and its equipment
placed on the platform has to withstand wind, snow, ice, and seismic stresses (IEC
Standard, 143-1; IEEE Standard 1726 2013). The protection systems used for a
conventional series compensation system are typically comprised of bypass switches
and MOV columns for overvoltage protection and a spark gap (or any Fast Protec-
tive Device) for protection of the MOV bank from overload. Information about the
status of the series capacitors, switches, etc. is typically transmitted to ground level
via fiber-optic data links. Bypass switches can be controlled from the ground level if
the operating mechanism is placed at the ground level. Alternatively, the operating
mechanisms can be placed on the platform level if power to operate the switches is
brought up to the platform level. Most of these types of equipment are also used for
TCSC systems (IEEE Standard 1534 2009).
For TCSC controllers, thyristor valves with antiparallel connected thyristors as
shown in Fig. 2 and their triggering system plus the reactors are added to the
equipment on the platform. However, there exist possibilities for cost and size
reductions of the capacitor protection systems since the thyristors can act to bypass
the capacitors and the MOV columns during line short circuit events (CIGRÉ TB
123). The thyristor valves are placed outdoors on the capacitor platform and
therefore, need to be housed in a weatherproof enclosure. This enclosure must also
provide protection for electromagnetic interference (EMI) from outside of the
enclosure as well as prevent the thyristor housing being an EMI source to external
equipment (CIGRÉ TB 123 1997 and IEEE Standard 1534 2009).
Some protection and control systems are also placed on the platform, depending
on the manufacturer’s design philosophy. Typically, these systems will communicate
through fiber-optic links with the control and protection systems located at ground
levels. These systems need auxiliary power to operate. The thyristors also require
power to turn on and for monitoring of the devices. If the thyristors are electrically
gated, this power must be provided to the thyristors at the platform level or from the
triggering circuit itself.
Cooling fluids needs to be pumped up to and from the platform level from the
ground level. The fluid is typically deionized water with glycol added to avoid
freezing of the fluid. The electric field stress on the cooling fluid is a dielectric stress
due to the AC applied voltage. The insulating pipes through which the fluid is
pumped need to have sufficient creepage distance to avoid surface discharges.
Also, these pipes will be exposed to solar radiation and pollutions, which have to
be taken into account when selecting material for the cooling pipes and when the
surface stresses on the pipes are considered. Furthermore, ethylene glycol might be
considered as an environmentally hazardous fluid, which might require leak con-
tainment around the pipes.
Fiber-optic links for control and protection systems can be similar to those
already in use and proven for FSC banks.
7.2 TCSC Thyristor Valves
The thyristor valves are made up from several series connected antiparallel
connected thyristors in order to achieve the voltage rating required for the valves
(CIGRÉ TB 123 1997 and IEEE Standard 1534 2009). The valve design is similar to
those used for SVC systems; see ▶ Chap. 6, “Technical Description of Static Var
Compensators (SVC)” for information about typical valve designs. However, the
high surge current requirements for TCSC valves differ from those of SVC valves
because the thyristors in TCSC systems must be able to ride through line short circuit
events without being bypassed by a mechanical switch or a spark gap in order to be
quickly returned to the vernier control mode to provide transient stability support of
the AC system and to provide system damping to prevent unstable oscillations to
arise. Thus, there is a trade-off to consider in the design of the valves between the
electrical and thermal ratings of the thyristor devices. The design of the thyristor
valves has to be verified through tests. IEC has issued a standard for the electrical
testing of thyristor valves specifically for TCSC applications (IEC 62823 2015).
7.2.1 Thyristor Devices

The voltage rating of thyristors can be increased by making the thyristor devices
thicker but this causes higher bulk resistivity of the devices leading to higher losses
and potentially higher junction temperatures in the devices, which is detrimental to
short circuit current survivability. Larger diameter devices can be used, which
reduces the current density in the thyristor devices leading to lower device losses.
Therefore, TCSC valves typically used custom thyristor devices in order to meet the
short circuit current duties. For example, the Slatt TCSC system uses 100 mm
diameter thyristors rated at 3.3 kV (Urbanek et al. 1992). The forward voltage
drop of these thyristors was typically less than 1.4 V when conducting for 8 ms
and at a device temperature of 105 C. This design was required to meet the 20.3 kA
short circuit current duty and 60 kA crest asymmetrical fault current duty. Larger
diameter devices and lower short circuit current duties would enable the use of
higher voltage devices.
Thyristors have limitations on the rate of current rise (di/dt) upon turning on and
also for the rate of voltage rise (dV/dt) when the thyristors are blocked (Mohan et al.
1995). In a TCSC system, the inductance in series with the thyristor valves normally
limits the di/dt when the thyristors are turned on (Mohan et al. 1995). However, the
di/dt which results from the transfer of current from one thyristor into the antiparallel
device during the recovery phase after a high current transient event can be very
large (McDonald et al. 1994). The di/dt stress in thyristors occurs along the turn-on
line (the edge of the gate towards the bulk of the wafer) on the thyristor wafer. That
is, the gate should have a long turn-on line to be able to sustain a high di/dt.
One way to achieve a long gate line is to use an amplifying gate as shown in Fig. 19.
The center of this wafer is the electrical gate contact. An electric current injected into
the center of this wafer will induce larger current flows in the surrounding regions that
turns on a second gate area, etc. Finally, the current is flowing through the conductors
out to the six three-legged islands clearly visible in Fig. 19. The current flow from the
edges of the long gate legs will then cause current flowing through the main thyristor.
Because the gate length is substantial, this device can be subjected to a high di/dt
without failing. If light were to be injected into the center of the thyristor wafer instead
of an electric current, the electron flow resulting from injection of photons into the gate
area will result in the turn on of the device in essentially the same way as the electron
injection caused by an electric signal injected into the center gate.
Thyristors can also be overstressed if the di/dt on turn on of the devices is too low
because then the current will not spread over the entire thyristor wafer. This current
spreading requires a defined voltage across the thyristor wafer when the turn on pulse
is applied. A weak turn on of the thyristor device will also be the consequence of a
weak turn on pulse to the gate of the thyristor device. This can be an issue when the
TCSC controller is operating with low line currents and if the gate drivers for the
thyristors are fed from current transformers (CTs) sensing the line current because
then the voltage fed to the gate drivers is low. If power is fed to the gate drivers from
a constant voltage source (requiring power from ground), then the risk for weak gate
turn on pulses can be eliminated. The thyristors also have to conduct a sufficiently
high current after the gate pulse is delivered to latch in the on-state.
Fig. 19 Thyristor wafer

design (courtesy of the Silicon
Power Corporation)
Thyristors also have dV/dt limits because a high capacitive current flow through
the semiconductor wafers can cause an uncontrolled turn on of the thyristor devices.
The current channels arising through the wafers for such a turn on will cause the
device to fail. Therefore, emitter shorts are included in the wafer to limit the
sensitivity for capacitive turn on and snubber circuits (resistor – capacitor network)
are connected across each thyristor device to limit the dV/dt to which the thyristors
can be exposed.
The gate drivers typically also include a so-called voltage break-over (VBO)
operation function, which will cause the thyristor device to be turned on even if a
gate pulse is absent. This is used to turn on the device if a device is exposed to an
excessive voltage, which can arise if the gate driver for one device in a string of
devices fails and does not deliver a gate turn-on pulse. It can also retrigger the
thyristors if the device current drops below zero temporarily. However, it will also
turn on all the series connected thyristor devices if the valve is exposed to an
excessive overvoltage.
Thyristors can fail if the device is in the process of turning off and a forward
voltage is applied across the valve. This forward voltage might be unevenly imposed
on one device in a string of devices. Protective firing (turning on) of the devices is
then required to avoid device failure during the recovery period, i.e., during the time
from the zero crossing of the thyristor current at turn off until the thyristor can block
full forward voltage again. This might be accomplished by the VBO function.
The thyristor valve typically also incorporates various monitoring functions with
information constantly transmitted via fiber-optic links to the station ground level.
This includes the operational status of the thyristor devices so that failures of
individual thyristors are known as soon as they occur.
7.2.2 Gate Driver Power Issues

There are options to bring power via isolation transformers or capacitive dividers
from ground up to the platform to power the platform control and protection systems.
However, if the line to ground voltage is used to power the gate drivers, then this
power source will be lost, if a line short circuit occurs that reduces the line to ground
voltage, unless the gate drivers have built-in energy storage. Gate drivers can also be
powered by using currents transformers (CTs) in series with the line current. The
drawback with gate power derived from the CTs is that the power that can be pulled
from the platform circuits varies with the load current flowing through the line. That
is, when the line current is very low, it would not be possible to trigger the thyristors.
7.3 Valve Cooling
The thyristor devices need to be cooled to remove the switching and conduction
power losses dissipated in the devices and their snubber circuits. Liquid cooling is
the preferred cooling method. The objective of the cooling system is to keep the
junction temperature in the thyristor devices as low as required for the application.
That is, the temperature rise over the ambient temperature has to be controlled to
prevent the junction temperature in the thyristor devices to rise to an unacceptable
level during line short circuit events for which most of the thermal stresses will
remain in the thyristor wafer and device package since the device heating will not be
dissipated by the cooling media during such short-term events (<1 s). Also, if the
thyristors are subjected to “freewheeling” current flows in case the capacitors are
bypassed at the peak of the line fault currents, the thyristor devices could be
destroyed if the heat dissipated in the devices is not removed. This may require
designing the cooling system to have sufficient liquid flow rates in order to keep the
temperature rise of the device heat sinks low.
The power electronic systems used for TCSC systems are placed on the capacitor
platform but the cooling system is placed at ground potential. The cooling fluid is
pumped from the ground level up to the platform and back down using hollow
insulator columns. The cooling fluid has to sustain the voltage stresses imposed on
the capacitor platform, i.e., it has to be a good dielectric. Deionized water is typically
used as the cooling media. If the TCSC will be exposed to freezing temperatures then
the water is typically mixed with glycol.
Where high ambient temperatures are encountered, forced air cooling or air condi-
tioning of the thyristor compartment might also be needed. In addition, if excessive
humidity levels can be experienced, dehumidifiers might be needed to prevent con-
densation of moisture in the valve enclosure and control cabinets. In these situations,
the demand for auxiliary power at the platform level might be significant.
8 Insulation Coordination
The insulation between the platform and ground for a TCSC system is the same as
for conventional series compensation systems except there are more connections
between ground and the platform. The insulation requirements, however, are the
same for TCSC and conventional series compensations systems (IEC 60071 and
IEEE 1726, latest editions). The additional requirements relate to the insulation
requirements for the thyristor valves, reactors, and controls.
The basic limitation that establishes the maximum voltage across the series
capacitors, reactors, and the thyristors is the voltage limiting characteristics of the
MOV columns, which have to be protected from being thermally overloaded during
the specified emergency overvoltage operation periods.
Capacitors are typically required to operate under short-term overload conditions
at between 1.3 and 1.5 pu of the rated capacitor voltage so the 30-min rating at 1.5 pu
of the TCSC system is in line with normal capacitor operating duties. The 10 s rating
of the thyristor branch of the TCSC system at 100% current brings the capacitor
voltage up to 2 pu of the rated capacitor voltage (IEEE 824 2004). The instantaneous
overvoltage stress for the thyristor with its series reactor would be a lightning surge
across the TCSC (IEC 60071-1 2015). For such fast transients, the equivalent
impedance of the capacitors and the capacitor bank will then be inductive. That is,
there will be a transient overvoltage impressed upon the thyristor valves because the
capacitor bank is not acting as a short circuit for transient current flows. A similar
transient overvoltage would arise if the TCSC system suffers a short circuit to
ground since that will expose the thyristor/reactor combination to a stress up to the
peak phase to ground voltage. The transient short circuit duty stresses have to be
addressed in the system specification.
9 TCSC Losses
Estimation of the losses in a TCSC system requires calculation of the losses in

individual TCSC subsystems (IEEE Standard 1534 2002). The losses in TCSC
systems are similar to those dissipated in SVC systems; see also ▶ Chap. 6,
“Technical Description of Static Var Compensators (SVC)” for an information
about losses in thyristors switched reactors. The evaluation of such losses for
comparison of different investment options is fraught with uncertainties.
Compared to a shunt compensator, where a transformer is needed for connecting
the compensator branches to the high voltage system, the TCSC has much lower
losses.
Losses are typically differentiated into two categories. One is heat dissipated
continuously, which for TCSC systems is when the TCSC equipment is energized
but not carrying any load. That is the thyristors are blocked and not conducting any load
current. In this mode, there will only be a small current through the thyristors’ snubber
circuits. These are the so-called no-load-losses. The other category is losses dissipated
when the thyristor valves are carrying load current. These are the load losses. The
losses in a TCSC system are different if the TCSC valves are in the continuous
conduction or in the vernier control mode. When the TCSC system is in vernier control
mode, the losses will vary depending on the operating point. This complicates further
the process of estimating the likely power losses over the expected operating time for
the TCSC system. That is, the application of a TCSC system for damping purposes that
might be operating almost all the time at a defined boost level versus a possible
application of a TCSC system for power flow control might be significantly different.
The electrical power required to operate the TCSC auxiliary systems should be
included in the loss evaluation. The valve cooling system is the major contributor for
the auxiliary losses, which are dependent on the ambient temperature specified for
evaluation and the TCSC operating point. The auxiliary power losses might be
considered as no-load losses unless the cooling system is controlled as a function
of the TCSC system loading.
Because the losses are typically capitalized and added to the evaluated direct cost
of the installed TCSC at the time when the TCSC system is procured, the expected
operating times in the three different states have to be estimated before the economic
penalty of the loss evaluation can be estimated. The conversion of the estimated
losses can be prescribed in regulations but if not, a net present value (NPV)
calculation can be used (Weston and Brigham 1981).
9.1 No-Load Losses
The no-load losses in a TCSC system are calculated assuming that the TCSC is
energized and connected to the AC line in parallel with the series capacitor in the
system but with the thyristors in the TCSC valves blocked, that is in the not
conducting operating mode. In this stand-by operating mode, the losses originate
from the auxiliary services and the capacitor units.
The snubber circuits connected across the thyristors will be conducting a very low
current. However, these losses are typically small enough to be ignored. The losses
in the series inductance of the TCSC system in this stand-by operating mode will
also be insignificant. The losses in the series capacitors themselves are also typically
small but an IEEE standard can be used to evaluate these losses if it is deemed
desirable (IEEE 824 2005). Because the voltage applied across the MOV bank is
well below the knee-point of the MOV blocks, the losses in the MOV racks can also
be disregarded.
Thyristor valves and valve housings may also include fans for cooling and air
conditioning. These auxiliary systems require power for their operation. The power
demand of these systems should be categorized as no-load and load losses as
relevant, depending on the number of fans that are required to run at no-load and
at different load points. The power demanded by the cooling system pump is usually
constant for all operating points because the thyristor junction temperatures need to
be sufficiently low at all steady-state operating points to enable the thyristors to ride
through line fault currents when the junction temperatures will be the highest.
9.2 Load Losses
The load losses can be divided into valve and reactor losses when the thyristors are
fired in the continuous current mode (Larsen et al. 1994). That is, the series capacitor
is short circuited by the thyristor calves. This is the bypass operating mode. The
other operating mode is when the thyristor valves are operating in the vernier control
mode. The no-load losses are also dissipated when the TCSC system is operating
with load, but are not included in the load losses. However, if the cooling system
duty varies with the operating point for the TCSC system, the additional cooling
system power demand might have to be estimated based on the TCSC load current.
9.2.1 Bypass Operating Mode
Reactor Losses
In the bypass operating mode, losses are dissipated in the resistance of the induc-
tance in series with the thyristor valves. Also, conduction losses in the thyristors
themselves are dissipated. This operating mode will be very rarely used so the losses
dissipated in the operating mode might be disregarded unless the TCSC is config-
ured as a multimodule controller in which some modules might be bypassed and
other modules operated in the vernier control mode.
The current flowing through the inductance is a continuous fundamental fre-
quency current. However, it is amplified slightly because in this operating mode
there will be a current circulating between the series capacitor and the parallel
inductance as follows (IEEE 1534 2002):
k 2 I Line
I TRMS ¼ pffiffiffi and (9)
k2 1 2
k 2 I^Line
I TAV ¼ (10)
k2 1 π
where
k ¼ ωλ and λ ¼ p1ffiffiffiffiffi.
LC
L is the TCSC inductance.
C is the TCSC capacitance.
The losses in the inductance are an ohmic loss. That is, the loss dissipation PRLoad
is proportional to the square of the current. That is, the reactor losses in one phase
are:
PR,load ¼ rR I 2TRMS (11)
where rR is the resistance in the TCSC reactor.
Thyristor Losses
In this operating mode, there are no thyristor switching losses. However, the
conduction loss dissipation in the thyristors is complex because the voltage drop
across thyristors is almost constant across a large current range. That is, the thyristor
losses can be approximated by a constant voltage times the conduction current
(McDonald et al. 1994). However, a more accurate loss estimate is usually adopted
by using a two-parameter loss evaluation function for each thyristor (IEEE 1534):

PT ,cond ¼ uT 0 I TAV þ rT I 2TRMS (12)
where
PT,cond is the power loss in one thyristor.

uT0 is the thyristor threshold voltage, given in the thyristor datasheet.
ITAV is the average current flowing through the thyristors, given in Eq. (9).
rT is the thyristor slope resistance, given in the thyristor datasheet.
ITRMS is the RMS current flowing through the thyristors, given in Eq. (10).
That is, the total losses for the three phases are:

PT ,cond,total ¼ 3 2 N PT ,cond uT0 I TAV þ rT I 2TRMS (13)
where N is the total number of thyristor levels in the valves, including the
redundancy.
9.2.2 Vernier Control Operating Mode

In this operating mode, the thyristors conduct for a portion of the
fundamental frequency voltage. The vernier control mode can be used to modulate
the inductance value in the inductive mode or the series capacitance in the
capacitance mode as shown in Fig. 6. In this operating mode, the following
takes place:
• Each thyristor branch of the antiparallel connected thyristor pairs is conducting

only for a fraction of the power cycle. In other words, as shown in Fig. 5, the
thyristors are blocked for a portion of the AC cycle.
• During the interval when the thyristors are blocked, power losses are dissipated in
the voltage divider circuits of the thyristor valves and in the series capacitors but
the snubber circuit and inductance losses are insignificant.
The calculation of the power losses in the TCSC reactor is shown in section
“Reactor Losses” and those in the valve during the conduction period are shown in
section “Valve Losses”.
Reactor Losses
The losses in the inductance (reactor) of the TCSC should consider both the
fundamental frequency component and the harmonic currents through the reactor.
The power frequency and harmonic currents in the thyristor reactors can be calcu-
lated while the impedance of the reactor at the power frequency and the X/R ratio at
the power and harmonic frequencies should be measured during the factory routine
tests. Fundamental frequency and harmonic current values must be considered in the
reactor loss calculation. The reactor losses in the three phases of a TCSC are thus
calculated as (IEEE 1534 2009):
hX
¼49
I 2h h X L1
PTCreactor ¼ 3 (14)
h¼1
Qh
where:
PTC-reactor are the total three phase losses for a reactor under rated conditions.
Ih is the calculated harmonic current of the hth order.
XL1 is the reactor inductive reactance at the fundamental frequency.
Qh is the quality factor at the hth harmonic, i.e., the ratio of reactance to effective
resistance.
The harmonic currents can be calculated as follows (Ängquist 2002):
I vh 2 k2
¼ 2 A (15)
IL π k 1
where A equals:
h σi h σi
sin ð1 hÞ∙ sin ð1 þ hÞ∙
A¼ 2 þ 2
1h 1þh
σ 8 h σi h σ i9
cos < sin ðk hÞ∙ sin ðk þ hÞ∙ =
2 ∙ 2 þ 2 (16)
kσ : kh kþh ;
cos
2
where
IL is the peak value of the power frequency component of the line current.
Ivh is the peak value of the harmonic frequency component of the valve current.
σ is equal to the conduction angle.
ω is 2πf
λ ¼ p1ffiffiffiffiffi :
LC
L is the inductance.
C is the capacitance.
k is λ /ω.
For the fundamental frequency component (h = 1), the first term in A will be
equal to half of the conduction angle. That is, for the fundamental component,
A equals:
σ
2 cos2
σ sin ðσ Þ 2 k tan k σ tan σ
Aðh ¼ 1Þ ¼ þ (17)
2 2 k2 1 2 2
Valve Losses
Snubber Circuit Losses

Although not being mentioned in IEEE 1534, losses in the valve snubber circuits
should also be considered since they are not negligible in vernier control mode.
When the thyristor is turned off, the snubber capacitor is charged to a voltage equal
to the amplitude of the AC voltage at turn off. The stored energy in the snubber
capacitors is dissipated in the resistance of the snubber circuit and the thyristor wafer
at next turn on of the device. Since the snubber circuit is usually common to a pair of
antiparallel thyristors, this process occurs twice per cycle, the overall losses dissi-
pated in the snubber circuit of the three-phase valve is equal to:
C sn U 2α C sn hpffiffiffi i2
Psn ¼ 3 f n 2 ¼ 3fn 2 U 1 sin ðαÞ 2 (18)
n n
where:
PSN is the snubber circuit losses.

CSN is the snubber circuit capacitance per level.
Uα is the instantaneous voltage across the snubber capacitors at the firing angle α;
note that this voltage is a function of the firing angle as illustrated in Fig. 6.
U1 is the RMS fundamental frequency valve connection voltage.
n is the number of series connected thyristors per phase of the valve.
The equation above is the same as the one derived in IEEE 1031, applicable to a
TCR valve although the conduction current and blocking transient voltage across the
thyristor valve are different in a TCSC application.
Voltage Divider Losses

Thyristors devices in the off-state (nonconducting) have a finite resistance. That is, if
a voltage is applied across the device, when the device is turned off, a small amount
of current will flow through the device. The resistance of the thyristors in the
off-state is temperature dependent and varies from device to device. Thus, if a string
of devices is connected in series, a leakage current will flow through the string but
the voltage across each individual device will not be identical. Therefore, a resistor is
connected across each of the devices in the string to equalize the voltage division
between the devices. This voltage divider will dissipate some power and should
therefore be included in the overall loss estimate. The losses are present during the
intervals when the devices are in the off-state. The estimated power dissipation is then:
The power dissipated in the voltage divider is then:
3 U 21α
Pvd ¼ (19)
n Rvd
where
Pvd is the voltage divider losses.

U1α is the RMS of the thyristor blocking voltage; note that this voltage is a function
of the firing angle as illustrated in Fig. 6.
n is the number of series connected thyristor levels.
Rvd is the voltage divider resistance per thyristor level.
Thyristor Conduction Losses

Equations (12) and (13) are still applicable to the losses of one thyristor but the average
current (ITAV) and RMS current (ITRMS) are given by Eqs. (5) and (6), respectively.
Thyristor Switching Losses

Thyristors do not reach full conduction immediately upon the application of a turn-on
pulse to the gate. There is a finite time for the current to begin to flow around the gate
area of the thyristor wafer. During the turn-on time, the voltage decays over a few
microseconds (μs) as the current increases. The integral of the current times the voltage
across the wafer represents energy dissipated in the wafer. This is the turn-on loss.
Similarly, when the current is commutated from the device into circuits surround-
ing the device, the conduction current through the wafer does not instantaneously go
to zero but reverses for a short period of time as the voltage transiently increases
because the plasma that developed during the conduction interval needs to be
removed before the wafer enters a nonconducting state. The turn-off process is
usually represented by the so-called reverse recovery charge, Qrr. For the same
reasons, as there are losses dissipated in the wafer during turn on, there are losses
dissipated in the device during the turn-off interval during this time interval.
The time for devices to turn on and for the reverse recovery charge to be removed
depends on the applied voltage, the current being switched, the diameter of the
device, its gate structure, and a number of other device parameters. Therefore, the
device and the specific application duties have to be known before an estimate of the
turn on and turn off losses can be made. For large devices, these losses can be several
joules per pulse.4 However, once the devices have been selected, the losses can be
estimated as follows (IEEE Standard 1031 2011):
pffiffiffi
PTsoff ¼ 3 2 Qrr 2 U 1 sin ðαÞ f n (20)
where:
PTsoff are the turn-off losses for the TCR thyristor valve.
Qrr is the thyristor recovery charge.
n is the number of series connected thyristors per phase of the valve.
If it is assumed that the energy loss is 0.2 J for each turn off, then the power losses
will be (IEEE 1031 2011):
PTswon ¼ 3 2 n 0:2 f n (21)
Although IEEE 1534 recommends the calculation of switching losses using a

similar approach to the one described above for a TCR valve, it should be considered
that the voltages applied to the thyristor valve have a different waveform and
amplitude in a TCSC application. For instance, the recovery charge is dependent
on the current derivative at turn off, which has a higher slope for a TCSC application.
This means that the real switching losses of a TCSC valve can be higher than those
calculated using the equations directly taken from IEEE 1031.
4
See, for example, data sheet for a device 5STP 42U6500. https://library.e.abb.com/public/c92a90
62c3392b1f83257c63004dbb1d/5STP%2042U6500_5SYA1043-07%20Mar%2014.pdf, accessed
November 11, 2018.
Capacitor Losses
When evaluating the capacitor losses in vernier control, it is important to consider
that the capacitor current is not equal to the line current, since it is also dependent on
the thyristor firing angle.
10 Harmonic Injection
TCSC operation with partial conduction will cause some energy to be injected into
the power system at harmonics of the fundamental frequency. The TCSC will
generate all odd harmonics of fundamental frequency, with the triplens being zero-
sequence when the line currents are balanced (Larsen et al. 1994). However, most of
the harmonic current flows when the TCSC operates in the capacitive vernier mode
stay within the TCSC system because the series capacitor acts as a high pass filter
(Kinney et al. 1995). The harmonic losses dissipated in the TCSC compensated line
are therefore negligible in most cases.
11 Torsional Interactions Between Turbo-Generators

and TCSC Systems
11.1 Series Capacitor Bank Interactions with Turbo-Generators
Capacitor series compensation systems for long overhead transmission lines evolved
early in the twentieth century (Shelton 1928; Alimansky 1930). It was recognized
early that there could be undesirable torsional interactions (TI) between capacitor
compensated lines and the connected high speed, steam-turbine synchronous genera-
tors (Concordia and Carter 1941; Bodine et al. 1943).5 Butler and Concordia con-
cluded that in the case of a single synchronous generator connected to an infinite bus,
as was shown by Nickle and Pierce (Butler and Concordia 1937; Nickle and Pierce
1930; Wagner 1930), the ratio of line resistance to line reactance determines whether
or not there is negative damping, and that if all rotor circuits except the field winding
are neglected, there is a critical operating angle determined by this ratio above per
which the machine is unstable. One consequence of this is that if a series capacitor is
used in the line, the ratio of line resistance to line reactance is increased, since the
reactance has been reduced. Consequently, the tendency toward negative damping is
increased. However, as stated by Butler and Concordia, this oversimplifies the situa-
tion because hunting among a group of generators and self-excitation phenomena can
also lead to dangerous generator shaft stresses although the inherent damping of the
system is usually sufficient to prevent severe hunting. In cases of multiple machines
and if the existence of shunt loads is taken into account, the resistance to the reactance
5
Hydrogenerators and turbines are less susceptible to subsynchronous generators because of the
high inertia of these systems and the inherent damping provided by the waterwheel Kundur (1994).
components of the transfer impedance between the synchronous machines have to be

considered. In certain cases, the damping may be either too small to be effective or
may actually be negative, i.e., the rotor oscillations may be amplified rather than
damped out. While self-excitation can be damped by adding line resistance, this might
enhance TI effects. That is, TI, self-excitation phenomena and hunting may exist at the
same time, addressing only one of the issues and may lead to solutions that exacerbate
one or more of the other phenomena (Butler and Concordia 1937).
Analysis of the subsynchronous characteristics of the power system is complex.
In the 1930s, the tools available for identifying SSR risks were limited. Kilgore
published some fundamental equations which can be used to show the buildup in
resonance that can lead to dangerous torque levels if the applied torque has a
component at the resonant frequency (Kilgore et al. 1977). These equations also
show that the electrical time constant, mechanical frequency, modal inertia, and
mode shape are all important factors in determining peak shaft torques.
After the subsynchronous resonance incidents in 1970 and 1971 involving
generators in the Navajo and Mohave power plants in the USA, the understanding
of TI phenomena was greatly improved (Anderson and Framer 1996b). Specifically,
during the Mohave investigation, the potential for a so-called induction generator
effect (IGE) and torque amplification (TA) were discovered.
As shown by Kilgore, the IGE effect is if the equivalent negative resistance
during a subsynchronous current flow in the armature circuity of a generator as
seen from the power system is lower than the positive resistance at one of the natural
modes of the electric circuit (Kilgore et al. 1977). Under these conditions, a self-
sustaining subsynchronous oscillation will arise in the system that can cause gener-
ator damage.
Torque amplification (TA) arises after clearing a fault on a series compensated
power system if trapped charges in the series capacitors discharge through the
generators and if the oscillatory frequency of the discharge transient happens to be
coincident with one of the torsional modes of the turbo-generator. There is a large
amount of published papers on SSR issues leading IEEE to publish a guide for how to
study the published documents (IEEE Committee Report 1992). The real issue for
those who consider TCSC systems is how the TCSC technology fares regarding SSR.
11.2 Subsynchronous Damping Performance of TCSC

Compensated Lines
It was anticipated early during the development of the TCSC systems that modulating
the impedance of the series capacitor banks using thyristor switches might not
completely eliminate the risk for subsynchronous resonance (SSR) between series
compensated lines and generators, but would at least reduce the risk for such events. It
was also anticipated that in order to guarantee the elimination of SSR risk in the line
where series compensation is planned, all or most of the series capacitor banks in the
line might have to be equipped with a TCSC branch. Therefore, the potential for use of
TCSC systems for SSR damping was a part of the initial EPRI project scoping study.
Fundamentally, torsional vibrations in a generator results in amplitude modula-

tion of the output voltage of the generator because the output voltage is proportional
to the rotor velocity. Furthermore, it results in a frequency modulation of the output
voltage where the fundamental frequency (50 or 60 Hz) output from the generator
acts as a carrier. That is, if the frequency of the torsional vibration is f1 and the
fundamental frequency of the power system generator is f0, two sidebands are
formed: f0 f1 and f0 + f1. That is, if the thyristor switches in the TCSC could
be modulated to counteract the subsynchronous f0 f1 mode, this might be
sufficient to prevent SSR. As had already been demonstrated by the development
and testing of the so-called NGH SSR damping system, adding a thyristor switch in
series with a resistor connected in parallel with the series capacitors could provide
damping of subsynchronous oscillations (SSO) (Hingorani et al. 1987). Extending
this concept to TCSC systems seemed to be a realistic expectation. Therefore, the
potential for use of TCSC systems for SSR damping was a part of the initial EPRI
project scoping study.
As a part of the EPRI project, General Electric (GE), the contractor selected by
EPRI for the TCSC development, first reviewed the available SSR mitigation
methods (EPRI EL-6943 1991). This was followed by further studies specifically
to assess how to use TCSC systems for SSR damping (Bowler et al. 1992; Bowler
1992). The potential for using TCSC systems for damping of SSR in more complex
systems was also assessed (Hill et al. 1997). The concept for this study was to
investigate if TCSC systems, added to a select subset of fixed series capacitor banks
in a complex power system, might be used to damp local torsional modes. A few
conclusions were drawn from these studies as follows:
• The TCSC controller could be built to appear as an inductive reactance in the

subsynchronous frequency range.
• The TCSC might be a suitable tool to combat SSR effects. The Slatt TCSC
project produced an SSR control scheme that offered greater security with
respect to SSR. However, the effectiveness depended on the selection of
suitable design criteria, which must include all turbine generators with risk
for TI simultaneously.
• If other fixed series compensation systems are installed in the AC system, then
adding the TCSC power electronic package across these fixed series compensa-
tion systems might be needed to prevent SSO arising from the uncontrolled, fixed
series compensation systems (Bowler 1992).
• In a complex power system, there could be other installed series capacitor systems
that might cause unstable TI. These risks should be eliminated independently.
• A TCSC can quickly discharge the series capacitors after a power system short
circuit event thereby eliminating the TA effect caused by the TCSC equipped
series capacitors.
• Although SSR mitigation using TCSC or other FACTS controllers might be
possible, there will be a need to provide SSR protective relaying systems on the
potentially affected generators because there could well exist unusual or
unforeseen system situations where SSR could arise.
SSR studies were also performed as a part of the developments of the Kayenta
project built by Siemens and WAPA. During these studies, it was shown that the
TCSC system performed as an inductor in the subsynchronous region (Hedin et al.
1992, 1997). The study results indicated specifically for this TCSC installation that
the damping was sufficient to prevent SSR in adjacent generators. The study results
were compared with actual transient response measurement from the Kayenta
installation.
The control scheme selected for the TCSC installation has an impact on the ability
of the TCSC systems to provide damping of the TI modes. One control mode is the
constant reactance control scheme. Another possibility is to inject a special modu-
lation signal to counteract the measured TI. The former method was studied and used
for the Slatt system. This demonstrated that the TCSC by itself did not excite the
torsional modes.
Injection of a measurement to actively counteract torsional modes requires
measurements of subsynchronous power flows. This might require a few to many
critical measurements, each of which has the potential to fail and thereby potentially
making SSR more likely. However, it might be possible to make such measurements
fail-safe, but this has yet to be demonstrated.
Another TCSC control scheme has been proposed by Ängquist et al. 1996, 1997;
Ängquist 2002. This scheme also make the TCSC appear as resistor/inductor
impedance at subsynchronous frequencies. It has been shown through simulations
that by using appropriate controls for the TCSC systems they can contribute
damping of subsynchronous oscillations (SSO). Such controls have been
implemented in some TCSC installations (Holmberg et al. 1998).
The IEEE standard for specification of a TCSC controller states that an advantage
of TCSC technology is that at subsynchronous frequencies, the TCSC will provide a
degree of SSR mitigation if the TCSC valves are fired on a continuous basis (IEEE
1534). In this mode, the TCSC is operating in the vernier control mode. When the
line current is below the level where the thyristor valves cannot be reliably triggered,
and it may be necessary to bypass the TCSC, and the TCSC then equivalent to a
fixed capacitor.
However, the standard also cautions the potential users of TCSC systems that
detailed studies of the power system are required to determine an appropriate design
for the SSR mitigation. Such studies should be made using detailed models of the
power system, the nearby turbine generators, and the TCSC. When there are fixed
series capacitors installed in the network, a detailed SSR study is critical. However,
the IEEE standard does not provide any guidance for how to design the TCSC
system for SSR damping, if possible, in the intended application.
It is clear from what is known about SSR that it must be seriously considered as a
possibility in capacitor series compensated power systems. It is also clear that proven
analytical models to use for TI analysis are available (Anderson and Farmer 1996b).
The approach proposed for study of SSR risks is to first do a frequency screening
study (Agrawal and Farmer 1979). This technique provides the resistance and
reactance from the neutral of the generator under study. If the scans show a potential
for SSR, then a time domain program such as the electromagnetic transients program
(EMTP) will have to be used to study any torque amplification and fatigue issues.
Torsional interactions (TI) and induction generator effects can be studies in a linear
frequency domain program used for eigenvalue analysis (Anderson and Farmer
1996b).
The control strategies used in TCSC systems as discussed above can be used to
avoid exciting the torsional modes. It can be used to avoid inducing torsional
amplification by short circuiting the capacitors during and after an AC system
fault. Both time domain and eigenvalue analysis methods have been used and proven
in real-time simulations studies to assess how TCSC systems will perform in regards
to SSR and TI (Hill et al. 1997). However, a thorough and detailed analysis of the
power system would be needed to determine if a TCSC system can be used to
provide damping of SSR in a system with distributed series capacitor installation.
For insurance, SSR protective relaying systems can be installed in the critical
generator plants to mitigate the risk (Anderson and Farmer 1996b).
12 Stability Improvement and Power Oscillation Damping

with TCSC Systems
12.1 Transient Stability
Series compensation can improve the transient stability of a power system if located
on appropriate transmission lines. Series compensation makes the compensated
transmission line appear electrically shorter. This results in increased synchronizing
torques between the generators and thus increases the transient stability margin of
the power system. However, careful analysis should also be made of the effect on the
parallel uncompensated lines and the overall system in case of outage of the
compensated lines.
The TCSC can increase the transient stability margin of the power system beyond
the level achieved by a comparably rated fixed series capacitor. With a TCSC, the
short-time overvoltage rating of the series capacitor elements may be utilized to
provide a higher compensation level for the immediate post-fault period (Gama et al.
1998). This further reduces the tie-reactance and improves synchronizing torques.
The TCSC is also able to yield additional stability benefits by providing a period of
maximum inductive compensation during the subsequent return swing. These con-
trol objectives can be achieved using a bang-bang style transient stability control
loop which is active for a short period following the fault.
12.2 System Damping Improvement
Power systems often experience undamped low frequency interarea oscillations

when the power transfer between two regions in the system exceeds a threshold,
e.g., due to a fault in the system. The threshold depends, among other things, on the
strength of the interconnecting transmission systems. TCSC topology offers the
possibility of improving the damping of power oscillations and in this way allow
increased levels of stable power transfer between two regions.
The interarea low frequency oscillation phenomenon is a well-known interaction
between distinct groups of machines, which are interconnected by a weak or heavily
loaded AC tie lines. The interarea mode is typically in the range of 0.1–1 Hz
depending on the power system’s characteristics (CIGRÉ TB 111 1996). The
characteristics of interarea modes of oscillation are complex and, in some respects,
significantly differ from the characteristics of local modes, also called local plant
modes. Local plant mode oscillations are associated with the swinging of units at a
generating station with respect to the rest of the system. However, care should be
exercised since some “local” problems may also be associated with oscillations
between the rotors of a few generators in the same area. These oscillations are
termed intermachine or interplant mode oscillations. The local plant mode and
interplant mode typically have frequencies in the range of 0.7–2.0 Hz.
The TCSC is a robust and efficient means of providing damping for interarea
oscillation modes. By means of thyristor firing control, the TCSC reactance is
modulated and a controlled variation that is 90 out of phase with the power swings
is performed. This controlled variation damps the power oscillations.
A sudden change of the average power occurs at the onset of the power oscillation
and a high-level power control system slowly restores the average power towards a
new equilibrium level by intervention of the power dispatch control. For power
system damping control applications, the TCSC is supposed to react only to the
oscillation. In order to control the TCSC for damping power oscillations, it is crucial
that the oscillation part of the measured line power signal can be extracted as fast as
possible and separated from the change in average power (Gama et al. 2000). A
further requirement is that the correct phase-shift shall be preserved even when the
reactance command is being limited to respect the maximum permitted main circuit
stress in the TCSC, avoiding also operation close to the resonance frequency
according to Fig. 6.
Any implementation of FACTS controllers includes some maximum permitted
stress levels when the power swing amplitude and/or the gain is sufficiently high. Its
command signal then must be limited accordingly but it is important that the phase of
the reactance control signal is not compromised by such limiting actions.
Although the frequencies of low damped power oscillations are usually well-
known in a power system, some variations are caused by changes of the network
configurations, loading conditions, etc. In order to obtain maximum available
damping performance of the installed TCSC, the desired phase-shift between the
power oscillation and the reactance modulation signal shall be sustained despite
small variations of the interarea mode frequency.
In summary, the TCSC control for damping power system oscillations should
accomplish two major tasks:
• To detect the initiation of the power oscillation

• To generate a reference signal for the TCSC reactance with the correct phase
relationship regarding the measured power oscillation
Issues related to the utilization of controlled series compensation for damping of

power system oscillations involve the size of the controlled segment and the choice
of controlling signals. While both issues are system dependent, a small segment of
the series capacitor (e.g., 10–20%) could be sufficient for power oscillation damping
(Grünbaum et al. 2006). Local feedback measurements involving line current or
power are effective means of detecting oscillations and controlling the TCSC to
enhance the damping of power oscillations.
13 Cross-References
▶ Economic Appraisal and Cost-Benefit Analysis

▶ Introduction to Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) Controllers: A
Chronology
▶ Power Electronic Topologies for FACTS
▶ Technical Description of Static Var Compensators (SVC)
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Stig L. Nilsson, Principal Engineer, Exponent, Inc., USA.

20 years with EPRI in the USA, he initiated in 1979 the develop-
ment of digital protective relaying system developments and in
1986 EPRI’s FACTS initiative. In 1991, he was awarded a patent
on Apparatus for Controlling the Reactive Impedance of a Trans-
mission Line. Stig Nilsson is a Life Fellow of IEEE. He has
tee, the IEEE PES Nari Hingorani Facts and Custom Power
Awards Committee, several IEEE Fellow nomination review com-
mittees, been a member of the IEEE Standards Board, IEEE PES
subcommittees, and working groups. Stig Nilsson has been the US
Representative and Secretary of CIGRE Study Committee B4 on
HVDC and Power Electronics. He is the recipient of the 2012
IEEE PES Nari Hingorani Facts and Custom Power Awards. He
received the CIGRE U.S. National Committee Philip Sporn Award
and the CIGRE Technical Committee Award in 2012. He has also
received the CIGRE Distinguished Member Award for active
participation in CIGRE Study Committees and the USNC of
CIGRE (2006), and the CIGRE USNC Attwood Associate
Award in 2003. Stig Nilsson is a registered Professional Engineer
in the state of California, USA.
Mr. Marcio M. de Oliveira, System Lead Engineer, ABB
(Sweden)
Marcio M. de Oliveira was born in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1967
and received the M.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from Fed-
eral University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. He obtained the
Technical Licentiate and Ph.D. degrees in 1996 and 2000, respec-
tively, in the field of High Power Electronics from The Royal
Institute of Technology in Sweden. He joined ABB FACTS in
2000, where he has worked in several technical areas such as
power system design, real-time simulator studies, control system
design and implementation, and R&D projects. Marcio currently
holds a System Lead Engineer position, primarily driving technical
marketing and sales activities of FACTS technology worldwide. He
participated on CIGRÉ SC B4 WG53 “Guidelines for procurement
and testing of STATCOMs” and he is member of IEC TC22, being
convenor of IEC 61954 maintenance team, related to testing of
SVC thyristor valves. He received the 1906 IEC award in 2017.
Technical Description of the Unified Power
Flow Controller (UPFC) and Its Potential 9
Variations
Ram Adapa, Stig L. Nilsson, Bjarne R. Andersen, and Yi Yang
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
2 UPFC Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
2.1 AC Power Flow Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
2.2 UPFC Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
2.3 Power Flows with an UPFC Installed in a Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
2.4 Operating Principles (Functions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
3 UPFC Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
3.1 Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
4 UPFC Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
4.1 Overvoltage Protection and System Starts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
4.2 VSC System Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
4.3 Converter Valve Protection Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
4.4 UPFC Impact on the Protective Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
5 UPFC Converter System Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
5.1 VSC Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
5.2 STATCOM Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
5.3 SSSC Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
5.4 UPFC Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
R. Adapa (*)
Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, USA
e-mail: RADAPA@epri.com
S. L. Nilsson
B. R. Andersen
Andersen Power Electronic Solutions Ltd, Bexhill-on-Sea, East Sussex, UK
e-mail: bjarne@andersenpes.com
Y. Yang
State Grid Jiangsu Electric Power Research Institute, Nanjing, China
e-mail: yang_yi_ee@163.com

300 R. Adapa et al.
6 Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
6.2 Possible Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
6.3 The SSSC Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
7 Interline Power Flow Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
7.1 Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Abstract
The unified power flow controller (UPFC) is a powerful power flow and reactive
compensation FACTS controller. It consists of two voltage source converters
connected back-to-back with a common DC bus. One of the VSC converters is
shunt connected to the AC power system. It is equivalent to a STATCOM, which
injects a current into the power system at the point of connection (POC). The other
is what is referred to as a Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC), which
injects a voltage in series with the transmission line. The injected series voltage
can be at any angle with respect to the line current. The injected currents have two
parts. First, when the two converters share the same DC bus capacitor, the real
power part, which is in phase with the line voltage, delivers or absorbs real power
into/from the line. The real power also compensates for the losses in the UPFC.
Second, the reactive part, which is in quadrature with the line voltage, emulates an
inductive reactance or a capacitive reactance at the point of connection. That is, in
an UPFC, the STATCOM can regulate the shunt reactive power at the line
connection and also inject or absorb real power to control the DC bus capacitor
voltage, thereby facilitating real power transfer between the two converters.
The first installed UPFCs were built with the use of relatively slow switching
gate turn-off (GTO) thyristor devices, which were switched at fundamental
frequency. This arrangement required the use of harmonically neutralized
voltage-sourced converters (HN-VSC) to achieve harmonic cancellation and
eliminate or reduce the need for harmonic filters. Currently built VSCs use
Modular Multilevel Converters (MMC) that use insulated gate bipolar transistors
(IGBTs), which enable design of higher voltage converter valves that eliminate
the need for parallel connection of converter modules.
The chapter also provides information about two variations of the UPFC: the
Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) and the Interline Power Flow
Controller (IPFC).
1 Introduction
UPFC is the abbreviation of united power flow controller (Gyugyi 1992). This
controller consists of two voltage-sourced converters (VSCs), which share a DC
bus and a DC capacitor. The most important characteristic of the UPFC is that it can
rapidly and simultaneously control all the parameters affecting power flow in the
circuit to which it is connected (i.e., voltage, impedance, and phase angle).
9 Technical Description of the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) and Its. . . 301
Alternatively, when the two converters are disconnected from each other, the two
VSCs can control reactive power flow independently of each other. It is, therefore,
potentially a very powerful tool to assist increased utilization and dynamic compen-
sation of power transmission systems by operating a line flexibly.
The UPFC consists of two three-phase VSCs, as described in ▶ Chap. 5, “Power
Electronic Topologies for FACTS,” connected to a common DC bus. One is basi-
cally a Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM), which, as described in the
▶ Chap. 7, “Technical Description of Static Compensators (STATCOM)” chapter,
on its AC side is connected to a transformer, which is the interface between the
STATCOM and the AC system. The other VSC is a so-called Static Synchronous
Series Compensator (SSSC), which is connected on its DC side to the DC bus of the
STATCOM and the other side feeds a transformer, which on its line side has three
separate windings that are connected in series with the AC line’s phase conductors
(CIGRE TB 160 2000; CIGRE TB 371 2009).
The primary function of the UPFC is active and reactive power flow control. It
can be used in steady state or it can dynamically react to a disturbance. The UPFC is
also appropriate for carrying out the following functions simultaneously, although an
appropriate control system would need to be designed:

• Power swing damping
• Voltage stability improvement
Both the STATCOM and the SSSC are, as mentioned above, so-called voltage-
sourced converters (VSCs). The shunt-connected STATCOM can absorb or gen-
erate reactive power and thereby control the voltage at the point of connection.
When the STATCOM and SSSC modules are connected together on the DC bus
side, active power can also be transferred from the STATCOM module to the SSSC
module or vice versa. That is, the SSSC can inject or divert active power into or
from the AC line. In that way, the series-connected SSSC can act as a phase shifter
with voltage regulation capability. That is, it has the capability to insert a voltage
that can act as a combination of resistance and reactance, thereby controlling both
real and reactive power flows independently. In fact, by control actions, the UPFC
can rapidly and simultaneously control all the parameters affecting power flow in
the circuit to which it is connected (i.e., voltage, impedance, and phase angle). It is,
therefore, potentially a very powerful tool to increase the utilization of power
transmission systems.
When the SSSC is disconnected from the STATCOM, its functionality is limited
to injecting a voltage in phase with or in opposite phase with the current flowing on
the line. This will change the voltage at the point of connection of the SSSC module,
which changes the reactive power flows on the line.
This chapter also briefly describes the following variations of the UPFC:
• The SSSC
• The Interline Power Flow Controller
• The Generalized Power Flow Controller
302 R. Adapa et al.
2 UPFC Fundamentals
2.1 AC Power Flow Theories
As described in ▶ Chap. 4, “AC Network Control Using FACTS (Flexible AC

Transmission Systems) Controllers,” the power flow in an AC transmission line
depends on (1) line impedance, (2) magnitudes of sending- and receiving-end
voltages, and (3) phase angle between these voltages. Figure 1 shows a simple
transmission line inserted between two machines. It is assumed that the line is
relatively short so that the capacitive shunt impedance between the conductors and
ground and between the conductors themselves can be ignored. The symbols shown
in the figure are:
• Vs is the sending-end voltage phasor whose amplitude is equal to Vs with an angle

equal to δs.
• Vr is the receiving-end voltage phasor whose amplitude is equal to Vr with an
angle equal to δr.
• Vx is the voltage drop across the line’s reactance equal to IX.
• VR is the voltage drop across the line’s resistance equal to IR.
• I is the current through the line.
• Ps is the active power sent from the sending end.
• Qs is the reactive power demand at the sending end.
• Pr is the active power received at the receiving end.
• Qr is the reactive power demand at the receiving end.
The equations for the active power flows through the line and the reactive power
demands at the sending and receiving ends of the line are described by the following
well-known equations, which are described in numerous textbooks (CIGRE TB
51 1996; CIGRE TB 504 2012) and in ▶ Chap. 5, “Power Electronic Topologies
for FACTS.”
The active power flow at the sending end of the transmission line is given as
RV s 2 V sV r
Ps ¼ þ ½R cos ðδs δr Þ þ X sin ðδs δr Þ (1)
R þ X 2 R2 þ X 2
2
The reactive power flow at the sending end of the transmission line is given as
Fig. 1 Simple single transmission line between sending and receiving ends
XV s 2 V sV r
Qs ¼ þ 2 ½R sin ðδs δr Þ X cos ðδs δr Þ (2)
R þX
2 2
R þ X2
The active power flow at the receiving end is given as
RV r 2 V sV r
Pr ¼ þ ½R cos ðδs δr Þ þ X sin ðδs δr Þ (3)
R þ X 2 R2 þ X 2
2
The reactive power flow at the receiving end is given as
XV r 2 V sV r
Qr ¼ þ 2 ½R sin ðδs δr Þ þ X cos ðδs δr Þ (4)
R þX
2 2
R þ X2
For simplicity, because the resistance of high-voltage transmission line conduc-
tors is typically very low, it is normally ignored, in which case, as has been described
in ▶ Chap. 4, “AC Network Control Using FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission
Systems) Controllers,” the equations revert to the typical equations for a relatively
short lossless line as follows.
V sV r V sV r
Ps ¼ Pr ¼ sin ðδs δr Þ ¼ sin ðδsr Þ (5)
X X
In addition, assuming that the sending- and receiving-end voltages are the same,
the reactive power demand at each end of the line will then be
V2
Qs ¼ Qr ¼ ð1 cos δsr Þ (6)
X
2.2 UPFC Basics
The UPFC, as shown in Fig. 2, requires two VSCs connected back-to-back with a
common DC link capacitor. The two VSCs are connected to the same transmission
line through two interface transformers: one is shunt connected to the AC system and
the other has three isolated output windings each of which is connected in series with
an AC line conductor.
The UPFC is typically connected to the sending end of a line as shown in Fig. 3.
The series winding will insert a voltage, Vs’s, in series with the line conductors. The
inserted voltage is a voltage phasor with the amplitude Vs’s and a phase angle of
δs + β (denoted as ∠δs + β), where β is the angle of the injected voltage as shown in
Fig. 4.
An UPFC has three controllable parameters. These are (1) the magnitude of the
voltage injected in series with the line, (2) the phase angle of the injected voltage,
and (3) the reactive component current flowing through the shunt-connected con-
verter. Note that the active power component flowing through the shunt converter
304
Fig. 2 Conceptual design of an UPFC controller

R. Adapa et al.
Fig. 3 Simple transmission line with series voltage injection
β
VS’S
I
VX
Vr
VS
VS’
δ’
ψ
δS’
δ δS
δr
Fig. 4 UPFC phasor diagram
into the AC system is a function of the phase angle of the injected series voltage
since the active power injected or removed from the line via the series transformer
has to be matched by an equal amount of power flowing through the shunt converter
such that the net power flowing through the DC link into the DC bus capacitors
is zero.
In the examples discussed here, the UPFC is connected to an assumed strong AC
bus, where the voltage is not affected by the line current. If the UPFC is inserted into
the line at some point distant from the line termination, then according to CIGRE TB
51 1996, the assumption that the reactive power component will not influence the
306 R. Adapa et al.
voltage seen by the shunt converter is invalid. In this case, numerical methods might
have to be used since a closed form solution might not easily be found (CIGRE TB
51 1996).
As stated above, the series-connected compensating voltage (Vs’s = Vs’ – Vs) is
controllable and can vary between zero and a maximum value at any phase angle
between 0 and 360 . It is independent of the line current since the charging of the DC
bus capacitor is supplied from the shunt converter. Thus, if the inserted voltage is in
phase with or out of phase with the line current, the series-connected converter will
generate or absorb reactive power. At other voltage insertion angles, if the two
converters are connected back-to-back with a common DC link, the UPFC can
also inject or remove active power to and from the line. The exchanged active
power (Pexchange) is then transferred across the shared DC capacitor link. When the
injected voltage Vs’s is added to the sending-end voltage, Vs (i.e., Vs ∠δs), as is
shown in Fig. 4, the sending-end voltage on the line side after the series converter
becomes Vs’ (i.e., Vs’ ∠δs’).
The changed angle between the modified sending- (Vs’) and receiving-end Vr
(i.e., Vr ∠δr) voltages now determines the current flow through the line and conse-
quently the active (P) power flow through the line and reactive power flow (Q) at
each end of the line.
2.3 Power Flows with an UPFC Installed in a Line
The power flow (Eqs. 5 and 6) for the transmission line needs to be modified after the
insertion of the UPFC. The new equations for the active power Ps’ and reactive
power Qs’ using the new δ’ angle after the insertion of the UPFC can be written as
shown in Eqs. 7 through 9. These equations still describe a system in which the series
resistance is zero and where the line’s shunt capacitances can be ignored, that is, a
relatively short line.
V s0 V r
Ps0 ¼ Pr ¼ sin δ0 (7)
X

’ V s0 V r V s0 0
Qs ¼ cos δ (8)
X Vr

V s0 V r Vr
Qr ¼ cos δ0 (9)
X V s0
where δ' = δs' δr is the difference in phase angle between the sending- and
receiving-end voltage phase angles after installation of the UPFC.
The circle, shown in Fig. 4, defines the voltage injection limits of the UPFC and
defines the rating of the series converter. The rating of the shunt converter is the
vectorial sum of the reactive power to be absorbed or generated by the converter plus
the active power that will flow to and from the series converter. Equations 7 and 9
show that for a given active power (Pr) coupled with the reactive power demand (Qr)
at the receiving end, the UPFC has to modify the sending-end voltage Vs’ (i.e., Vs’
∠δs’), as shown in Eq. 10 below:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
V S0 ¼ V 2S þ V 2S0S 2V S V S 0 S cos ψ ¼ V 2S þ V 2S0S þ 2V S V S 0 S cos β (10)
The UPFC injects a voltage Vs’s (i.e., Vs’s ∠δs + β), such that Vs’ = Vs + Vs’s or
V s0 ∠ψ ¼ V s þ V s0 s ∠β (11)
where the phase shift angle ψ shown in Fig. 4 is ψ = δ' δ = δs' δs.
The magnitude (Vs’s) and the angle (β) of the injected series voltage are given by
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
V s0 s ¼ V s0 2 þ V s 2 2V s0 V s cos ψ (12)
V s0 sin ψ
β ¼ tan 1 (13)
V s0 cos ψ V s
CIGRE developed similar equations based on the angle between VS’S and Vr
equal to β plus δ (CIGRE TB 51 1996). That is, the equations are referenced to the
receiving-end bus instead of the sending-end bus.
2.4 Operating Principles (Functions)
A voltage (Vs’s) injected in series with the line, as shown in Figs. 3 and 4, modifies
the magnitude and phase angle of the transmission line voltage independently of the
current. The amount of active and reactive power flows in the line is therefore
controllable by injecting a voltage with a specific magnitude (Vs’s) and phase angle
(β) with respect to the line voltage.
The voltage injected into the line from the series converter can be viewed as made
up by two orthogonal voltages: one that regulates the magnitude of the line voltage
and the other regulates the phase angle of the line voltage. This could be done using
regular transformer technologies where one voltage regulating transformer (VRT)
controls the line voltage and a phase angle regulator (PAR) controls the phase angle.
The UPFC can combine both functions of the VRT and PAR in a single unit.
Consider Fig. 3 where the simple power system of Fig. 1 is expanded to include
the UPFC. The UPFC is represented by a controllable voltage source in series with
the line which can generate or absorb the reactive power that it exchanges with the
line, but the active power it exchanges must be supplied to it, or absorbed from it,
through the shunt-connected converter as shown in Fig. 2 from the sending-end bus.
The voltage injected by the UPFC in series with the line is represented by phasor
VS’S having magnitude VS’S between zero and a maximum output voltage with an
angle that can vary between 0 and 360 electrical degrees as illustrated in Fig. 4. The
308 R. Adapa et al.
line current, represented by phasor I, flows through the series voltage source VS’S
and results in both reactive and active power exchange. In order to represent the
UPFC properly, the series voltage source is controlled to only generate or absorb the
reactive power it exchanges with the line. Thus, the active power it exchanges with
the line is assumed to be transferred to the sending-end bus via the shunt-connected
converter. This is in agreement with the UPFC circuit structure shown in Fig. 2 in
which the DC link between the two converters establishes a bi-directional coupling
for active power flow between the injected series voltage source and the sending-end
bus. As Fig. 3 implies, in the present discussion, it is further assumed for clarity that
the shunt reactive compensation capability of the UPFC is not utilized. That is, the
UPFC shunt converter is assumed to be operated at unity power factor, its sole
function being to transfer the active power demand of the series converter to the
sending-end generator. With these assumptions, the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 4
is an accurate representation of the basic UPFC (CIGRE TB 160 2000).
Figure 5 shows a simple representation of a UPFC placed at the sending end of a
transmission line. The UPFC is shown as a voltage source inserted in series with the
line. The shunt section of the UPFC is not shown since it is assumed that it can
transfer any active power transferred from the series section with no change in the
sending-end voltage and phase angle.
Figure 6 illustrates the steady-state operating limits of the series converter. The
UPFC can inject a voltage phasor that can be controlled from 0 to 360 with a
magnitude from zero to a maximum output voltage. The first two limits to consider are
the maximum and minimum allowable operating voltages as shown in Fig. 6. These
limits have to be specified for each application, but the steady-state voltage limits
might typically be 10%, and the allowable low-voltage dynamic limits during
voltage sags might be as low as 20%. (Of course, during a line fault, the voltage
will go lower perhaps even to zero.) When VS’S is in phase with VS (ψ shown in Fig. 6
is equal to zero), only the terminal voltage is changed, but this will cause both active
and reactive power flows to change. That is, both Vd and Vq, shown in Fig. 5, are
non-zero. Any active power must of course flow through the shunt converter back into
the AC system at the VS bus. If VS’S is in quadrature with the current, the Vd shown in
Fig. 5 Transmission line with an UPFC at the sending end

Vmax
Vmin
b Vs’s
I
Vx
Vr
Vs
Vs’
d’
Y
ds’
d ds
dr
Fig. 6 UPFC’s steady-state operating limits
Fig. 5 is zero, so only reactive power is flowing through the series converter. Finally, if
VS’S is moving the phase of the voltage phasor VS with constant magnitude, Vq shown
in Fig. 5 is zero, so only active power flows through the series converter, which has to
flow through the shunt converter and back into the power system at the VS bus. At any
other operating points, within the control space, voltage, reactive power, and active
power are all changed simultaneously.
It can be readily observed in Fig. 6 that the transmission line “sees” VS + VS’S,
i.e., VS’ as the effective sending-end voltage. Thus, it is clear that the UPFC affects
the voltage (both its magnitude and angle) across the transmission line and, there-
fore, it is reasonable to expect that it is able to control, by varying the magnitude and
angle of VS’S, the transmittable active power, as well as the reactive power demand
of the line at any given transmission angle between the sending-end and the
receiving-end voltages (CIGRE TB 160 2000).
310 R. Adapa et al.
Gyugyi has shown that the UPFC can control the reactive power demand of the
line at either end voltage source (bus) (Gyugyi et al. 1995).1 Of course, the
minimization of the reactive power demand at one end does not, in general, result
in minimum reactive power at the other end. This is inherent in AC power systems
since the line voltage phasor (VX), which defines the line current, can be aligned to
have an optimal angle (e.g., 90 ) with respect to either the sending-end or the
receiving-end voltage phasor but not both. The receiving-end reactive power
demand is usually an important factor because it significantly influences the varia-
tion of the line voltage with load demand, the overvoltage at load rejection, and the
steady-state losses (CIGRE TB 160 2000).
The series-connected converter is similar to the converters used in STATCOM
systems as described in the ▶ Chap. 7, “Technical Description of Static Compensa-
tors (STATCOM)”. However, an in-line application of converters is subjected to
different stresses than a shunt-connected device, since it is exposed to the large
changes in the current flows through the line as well as the line’s normal voltage
variation. The converter rating must, therefore, be adjusted for different stresses such
as fault currents and high transient currents associated with fault recovery which are
not present to the same degree in shunt-connected converter applications.
The required steady-state rating of the series converter in an UPFC has to be
adapted to the specific application. In an application for control of loop flows, rapid
power boost or buck (opposing power flows) might determine the range of the
required angle (ψ) control range. For a large control range, the required output
voltage could be large, which would lead to a relatively high converter output
voltage. For optimum performance, the reactive power increase associated with a
power boost should also be controlled. Also, the voltage variations on the AC line
will have to be taken into account because at higher AC system voltages, the
effective change in the line flows will be less at the maximum output voltage from
the converter than at lower AC voltage levels. The maximum output voltage from
the series converter would then be a function of the critical operating point with the
worst case line voltage tolerances. However, the maximum voltage to be injected
might be required when the DC bus voltage connecting the shunt and series
converters together, as shown in Fig. 2, is at a minimum, which will determine
the ratio between the converter-side transformer winding and the AC lineside
winding.
The current rating would be the highest when the line power needs a boost
because this would represent the maximum power flow through the line. At this
operating point, the reactive power control demand would also be the highest.
The power electronic subsystem of the series segment of the UPFC would thus have
to be designed for the maximum steady-state injection voltage into the line with the
maximum DC bus voltage, since this determines the maximum steady-state voltage
stress on the valves, at the maximum current operating point. Note that there will be no
1
While controlling the receiving-end reactive power demand might be feasible for short AC lines, it
would not be applicable to long AC lines.
DC current flow from the shunt inverter to the series inverter or vice versa except for
compensating for the power losses in the UPFC converters. Thus, the shunt converter
only has to be designed for the active power flow from and to the series converter.
However, the shunt converter is typically designed to provide reactive power compen-
sation of the sending-end power system, too, which has to be considered in the
STATCOM converter rating. While there might be some cost advantages from having
the same ratings of the shunt and series converters, this is not required. The application
requirements should therefore be used to determine the ratings of the converters.
3 UPFC Components
3.1 Configurations
The first UPFC system was built using two VSCs built by paralleling four six-pulse
converters (CIGRE TB 160 2000; Bian et al. 1997). As described in ▶ Chap. 7,
“Technical Description of Static Compensators (STATCOM),” an alternative design
approach for realizing a high-power multilevel converter has evolved that enables
connection of converter bridges in series. Such converters are referred to as Modular
Multilevel Converters (MMC) or chain circuit converters (Ainsworth et al. 1998).
However, the lessons learned from the first few installed UPFC systems using
parallel-connected VSCs are also applicable to the MMC systems. Furthermore,
newer semiconductor device technologies might emerge that will make parallel
connection of converters viable again. Therefore, the earliest UPFC system designed
are discussed in some detail below.
3.1.1 Parallel-Connected VSC Modules for UPFC

At the time when these systems were developed, the only viable power electronic
semiconductor device that could be used for high-voltage and high-power voltage
source converter applications, requiring both device turn-on and turn-off capability,
was the gate turn-off thyristor (GTO), shown in Fig. 7 (Mohan et al. 1995a).
However, series-connected GTO semiconductor devices require very precise turn-
off characteristics in order to share the recovery voltage evenly when a valve branch
is switched off. Careful matching of GTO devices, careful design of the thyristor
circuits including careful component layout to avoid excessive stray inductance, and
adaptive turn-off time control are necessary in order to achieve sufficiently uniform
turn-off performance. All or most of these design features were used in the 100 Mvar
STATCOM installed in Tennessee Valley Authority’s (TVA) system in the early
1990s in the USA as well as in the UPFC built for the American Electric Power
(Schauder et al. 1995; Renz 1998). This makes it difficult to connect many GTO
devices in series. The alternatives were then to either parallel or series connection of
converter modules in order to archive the high power levels required for UPFC
applications. At the time, parallel connection of the required number of VSCs was
chosen.
312 R. Adapa et al.
Fig. 7 High-voltage GTO in

a press pack

ia
ea
Virtual ib
eb
neutral ic
ec
Fig. 8 Basic six-pulse, two-level, voltage-sourced converter (switches shown as IGBT devices)
The first high-power VSC systems were built using three phase Graetz bridges as
shown in Figs. 2 and 8 with two-level switching which is described in detail in
▶ Chap. 5, “Power Electronic Topologies for FACTS.” Two-level switching just
means that each of the three outputs from the three-phase bridge can only be
connected either to the positive or to the negative terminal of the DC source by the
upper or lower element of the corresponding phase leg (hence, “two-level”). When
each phase leg is switched only twice a cycle, this becomes a six-pulse bridge.
As discussed in ▶ Chap. 7, “Technical Description of Static Compensators
(STATCOM),” VSCs act as ripple-current sources at their DC terminals. Hence, all
six-pulse converters with appropriate phase displacements may be directly parallel-
connected to the common DC voltage source, i.e., a DC bus capacitor. At their AC
terminals, however, the VSCs manifest their output distortion as harmonic-voltage
sources. Thus, they cannot be connected directly to a common transformer with phase-
shifting secondary windings (as is done with current-sourced converters used, e.g., in
HVDC transmission systems) because large circulating harmonic currents between
windings would be established. Therefore, these VSC converters have to be arranged
in such a way that the harmonic voltages on the AC side are inserted in series and not
in parallel. In order to reduce the ripple voltages on the AC side of a multi-converter
arrangement, special phase-shifting transformers were used. High-voltage trans-
formers with the complex winding arrangements required for harmonic voltage
cancellation are, however, very costly to build. Therefore, the harmonic cancellation
transformers are often placed on the lower voltage converter side of the VSCs.
In a two-level converter, the AC output voltage magnitude can be made propor-
tional to the DC bus voltage, as described by Eq. 14. This equation states that the
output amplitudes of the fundamental phase to neutral components normalized to the
DC capacitor voltage (gain of the VSC) from this type of converter are proportional to
the DC bus voltage. This poses a problem in a UPFC application because in a UPFC,
the series converter has to be able to inject a voltage of varying magnitude in order to
adjust the degree of reactive power compensation of the line based on varying line
loading as well as the amount of active power injected or removed from the line. Also,
the shunt-connected VSC has to match the active power transferred to or from the
series-connected VSC as well as absorb or generate reactive power independent of the
series-connected VSC. These requirements cannot be met if the simple two-level,
six-pulse VSC converter, shown in Fig. 8, were to be used for both converters.
ean,1 ebn,1 ecn,1 2

¼ ¼ ¼ (14)
V dc V dc V dc π
The synthesized variable AC output voltage magnitude can be provided by a three-
level converter as shown in Fig. 9. In such a converter, the angle α shown in Fig. 9 can be
varied to between 0 and 90 to adjust the output voltage amplitude from the converter.
The fundamental frequency AC output voltage can be calculated from Eq. 15
(Mohan 1995a).
4 Vd
V an ¼ sin β (15)
π 2
where β = 90 – α.
T1 D1
½ Vdc ½ Vdc
Dc1 T2 D2
Neutral
Dc2 T3 D3 α
½ Vdc
-½ Vdc
T4 D4
Fig. 9 Three-level neutral-point-clamped phase-leg and output voltage waveform (switches shown
as IGBT devices)
314 R. Adapa et al.
That is, if α is set to zero, the converter becomes a two-level converter, and if α is
set to 90 , the output voltage is zero. Thus, the AC output voltage can be varied
between a maximum value determined by the DC bus voltage and zero.
The three-level converter technology was selected for the first UPFC built for
American Electric Power (AEP) (Renz et al. 1998). To achieve the required
160 MVA power ratings for AEP’s UPFC, multiple VSC modules are connected in
parallel. Furthermore, in order to reduce the magnitude of the low frequency
harmonics injected into the AC system and to avoid installing large harmonic filters,
a 24-pulse quasi-harmonic neutralized (QHN inverter) consisting of 4 6-pulse
inverters operated from a common DC capacitor bus was built (CIGRE TB
160 2000). That is, the 24-pulse QHN-VSC generates 4 3-phase sets of square
wave voltages with a displacement angle between two consecutive 6-pulse VSCs
in the multi-pulse VSC configuration of 15 .2 Since a 3-level converter has three
voltage levels for each “pulse,” the 24-pulse harmonics will be reduced. This has
been called a quasi-48-pulse converter. However, this will create very costly and
difficult to build AC transformers like the one shown in Fig. 10.
In the AEP UPFC, the outputs from the four inverters are connected to interme-
diate transformers and reactors on the converter side to avoid building a complex
high-voltage transformer for harmonic cancellation (Renz et al. 1998). An example
of such a transformer arrangement is shown in Fig. 11.
The solution shown in Fig. 11, is a detailed view of the interface magnetic
structures used for the Convertible Static Compensator system installed in
New York Power Authority’s Marcy substation in 2003 (EPRI Report 1001809,
2003). Each of the converter groups consists of three GTO-based three-level con-
verter legs as shown in Fig. 9. Each of the valve legs is connected in parallel on the
DC side to the plus, neutral, and negative poles of the converters as indicated in
Fig. 11. The AC connections for Group #1 are fed to three reactors, and Groups
2 through 4 are connected to the transformer windings as shown in Fig. 11. This
magnetic circuit arrangement includes a delta-connected AC system side, which
blocks zero-sequence voltages from the AC system side. The intermediate trans-
former also includes a delta winding that short-circuits the zero-sequence voltages
on the converter side. In addition to the delta winding, the intermediate transformer
is made up of an open Y-winding section and a zigzag section to obtain the needed
phase shifts between the converter groups. There are also two zero-sequence
blockers not shown in Fig. 11, with series windings from each phase on a common
core (EPRI 2003). One of these is in series with the A2, B2, and C2 phases, and the
other is placed in series with the D2, E2, and F2 phases.
The series transformer-winding arrangement is shown in Fig. 12. The high-
voltage side series windings are shown on the right side in Fig. 12. The transformer
has a delta winding to short-circuit the zero-sequence components in the line
2
If 2 2-level converters are phase shifted by 30 , the combination produces 12-pulse harmonics. To
achieve 24-pulse operations with 2-level converters requires a second set of 12-pulse converters
with a phase shift of 15 , that is, the 30 phase shift split in half.
Fig. 10 A 24-pulse harmonic neutralized converter arrangement (a) and associated voltage
waveform (b)
316 R. Adapa et al.
Shunt
Transformer
A1 LA
H1 A
X1
B1 LB
X2
Group #1 H2
C1 LC H3 B
X3
C
A2
AH
Group #2 B2 BH
CH
C2
U0dc
-Udc +Udc
Intermediate
Transformer
D1
E1
Group #3
F1
U0dc
D2
E2
Group #4
F
Fig. 11 Main circuit topology used in the NYPA UPFC application. (Courtesy of EPRI)
currents, which works as long as the breakers at both ends of the line are closed.3 The
three connections marked LA, LB, and LC shown in Fig. 12 are connected to one of
the VSCs as shown in Fig. 11. The transformer connections marked A11, B11, and
3
If any breaker pole opens at one end of the line, there will be no path for current injection into the
circuit in which a breaker pole is opened. In that case, there is an ampere-turns unbalance in the leg
of the delta winding that is connected to the open line phase and the winding has to saturate before
zero-sequence current will flow in the delta winding.
Series Transformer
Ain Bin Cin
LA Aout
X1
LB
X2
LC
Bout
X3
Cout
AH BH CH
Fig. 12 Series transformer connections
C11 shown in Fig. 12 are connected to the intermediate transformer terminals as

shown in Fig. 11. In other respects, the converter connections are the same as those
shown in Fig. 11.
3.1.2 GTO-Based UPFC Station Design

The main circuit components in an UPFC are in principle the same if parallel or
series connection of converters is used. There are basically two transformer bays for
connection of the converters to the line and station. One is shunt connected and the
other is connected in series with the line. When disconnected the series transformer
lineside windings have to be short-circuited, whereas the shunt-connected trans-
former is disconnected by a circuit breaker in the same manner as is used for regular
substation transformers.
The main circuit components in a GTO-based UPFC design consisted of the
following major components:
• A shunt coupling transformer for connection of the STATCOM converter to the

AC network.
• A series coupling transformer for connection of the SSSC into the AC line.
• Two harmonic neutralized converters similar to the STATCOM developed in
the mid-1990s (Schauder et al. 1995). Each of these requires their own
magnetic circuits for harmonic current cancellation. These magnetic circuits
consist of low-voltage, relatively high-current transformers and air-core
reactors.
• A breaker and disconnect switches for connection of the shunt transformer to the
AC network.
• A series disconnect switch for isolation of the SSSC from the series transformer.
• A fast-acting electronic switch to bypass and protect the converter valves in the
SSSC from overcurrents until a bypass breaker on the line side of the series
transformer closes. The electronic switch would be a thyristor switch since it can
318 R. Adapa et al.
conduct high fault currents for a relatively long time. This is referred to as a
thyristor bypass switch or TBS.
• A DC link switch to separate the two DC capacitors such that when the switch is
open, the STATCOM and the SSSC have their own DC bus capacitors. This will
enable the two converter systems to operate independently of each other.
When the DC line switch (DCLS) is open, and the STATCOM module is
disconnected from the SSSC module, the two VSCs can only generate or absorb
reactive power.
3.1.3 Series transformer considerations

The high-voltage interface transformer windings inserted in series with the AC line
conductors are significantly different from conventional shunt-connected trans-
formers. Series windings such as those used in phase-shifting transformers and
for the top winding in an auto transformer are exposed to transient overvoltages and
fault currents during line short-circuit events (Heathcote 2007). The windings have
to be able to withstand short-circuit currents, which are limited only by the system
short-circuit level at the point of connection. That is, the short-circuit duty can be
very high and in particular if a phase-to-phase short circuit were to occur. Because
both ends of the series windings can be exposed to switching and lightning surges,
the insulation level for the insulation withstand to ground must be the same for both
ends of the windings. In addition, a lightning surge impinging on one or the other
ends of the windings will impose a dielectric stress between the two winding ends.
Thus, the insulation between winding turns will have to be built for this series
voltage stress. A lightning arrester across the series winding and arresters from each
side of the series winding to ground might indeed be required. Some of the surge
voltages will also be transferred to the converter side of the transformer.
Because the rated voltage for the series windings might be a fraction of the system
voltage at the point of connection, it is likely that the magnetic cores used for the
series windings will frequently saturate. This will bring the impedance of the
winding down to the air-core impedance level and reduce the switching reactance
for the converter valves. This has to be considered in the design of the converter
valves and in the control and protection system for the converters. A series reactor
might be needed in the converter’s output conductors to limit the di/dt if the
transformer core saturates.
Transient overvoltages arising from the line side of the series transformer wind-
ings will be transferred to the converter-side windings and the systems connected to
those windings. This requires that the converter valves are designed to withstand the
transient overvoltages that can originate from the line side of the transformer. This
includes short-circuit current stresses since a short-circuit current on the line side of
the series windings will lead to high short-circuit currents flowing through the
converter valves and into the DC bus unless the currents are shunted away from
the DC bus by suitable control of the semiconductor switches.
As is shown in Fig. 13, the three series windings will also be exposed to short-
circuit currents during power system short-circuit events. If the transformer
Fig. 13 Three single-phase to delta-connected transformers
windings are arranged as single phase modules on the high-voltage side and
connected to a delta on converter side, as shown in Fig. 13, then a part of the single
phase to ground current, the zero-sequence set as defined by Fortescue, will lead to
circulating currents in the low-voltage side delta, while the balanced, orthogonal
sets, the positive- and negative-sequence components, will induce voltages on the
converter side of the transformer (Fortescue 1918).4 In that situation, by turning on
the switching devices in the converter, the positive and negative short-circuit
current components can be short-circuited and prevented from flowing into the
DC bus. This requires that the switching devices can absorb the power dissipation
associated with overcurrents until the series winding can be short-circuited by other
means. If there is no short-circuit path enabled by the converter control system, then
the induced voltages will charge the DC link capacitor through the converter leg
diodes. This can lead to capacitor overvoltage, which must be controlled. A DC bus
so-called crowbar can be inserted in parallel with the DC bus capacitors to shunt
excess energy flowing into the capacitors. This crowbar is most likely a
GTO-switched resistance (CIGRE TB 144 2000). A turn-off device has to be
used in the crowbar circuit since otherwise; the current through the crowbar device
cannot be extinguished. In a three-level converter, a crowbar is needed for each of
the capacitor half sections.
If the transformer connections are as shown in Fig. 14, and a short-circuit current
flows through one high side series winding, there will be no path for the short-circuit
current to flow on the low side, but a voltage will be induced into phase a (as shown
in the figure) on the low-voltage side of the transformer. In that case, the current can
only flow through the converter circuits if the converter valves are turned on and
after the b- and c-phase windings have saturated. However, a delta winding can and
should be added to the series transformer, which will provide a short-circuit path to
the zero-sequence current component but also enable positive and negative current
flows into the converter if the AC sideline breaker poles are closed. If there is no
short-circuit path enabled by the converter control system, the induced voltage will
4
The zero-sequence currents will be short-circuited through the delta winding for as long as currents
can be induced in the AC line. However, if single-pole trip-reclose is used for the line or when one
end of the line opens up, the path for zero-sequence current flow is broken.
320 R. Adapa et al.
Fig. 14 Three single-phase to Y-connected transformers
Meili-Mudu double-circuit lines High Voltage Bypass Breaker

Mudu Meili
~ ~
Low Voltage Breaker Series Transformer 1
Series Transformer 2
Low Voltage
Shunt Transformer Start-up Resistor
Bypass Breaker
High Voltage TBS TBS
Breaker
Converter Converter Converter

2 1 3
Fig. 15 The structure of the Southern Suzhou UPFC Project
stress the winding insulation system. Irrespective of the transformer connections as

shown in Fig. 13 or Fig. 14, fast-acting, solid-state thyristor switches should be
placed across the windings on the low-voltage converter side to protect the converter
side from overvoltages and overcurrents (CIGRE TB 160 2000).
Fast-acting thyristor bypass switches (TBSs) placed across the windings on the
converter side, as shown in Fig. 15, will only allow for short-circuit currents to flow
through the converter-side windings, but it will not protect the lineside windings from
the forces associated with the short-circuit current flows. As is indicated in Fig. 15,
there could be bypass breakers placed across the series winding to shunt the short-
circuit currents from the series winding on the line side of the transformer. However,
unless very fast, special breakers are used, it will take time for the breakers to close,
and therefore, the series windings should be designed to sustain short-circuit currents
for at least for a couple of cycles. Furthermore, unless a set of redundant breakers are
installed, it is not inconceivable that the protective breakers will fail to close, which
would require the AC line breakers to open to clear the fault. The possibility of having
breaker failures will therefore also have to be considered.
3.1.4 GTO-Based UPFC System Losses

The power losses dissipated in VSC converter systems are not often published.
However, losses have been published for the 100 Mvar STATCOM installed in
TVA’s system (CIGRE TB144 2000). Since the converters in most UPFC installa-
tions uses almost the same converter technologies, the TVA STATCOM losses might
provide a useful data point. The loss curve shown for the TVA STATCOM is
therefore reproduced here. However, the UPFC controllers use three-level con-
verters, so the TVA STATCOM losses might be somewhat higher than the losses
in the UPFC converters because the switching losses should be lower in a three-level
converter than in a two-level converter. Further information about the power losses
in STATCOM controllers can be found in ▶ Chap. 7, “Technical Description of
Static Compensators (STATCOM).”
The converter losses are due to semiconductor conduction and switching losses,
as well as due to “snubber” losses (consumed by dv/dt and di/dt limiting circuits).
These losses are greatly dependent on the characteristics of the power semi-
conductors employed in the converter and the number of switching operations
they have to execute during each fundamental cycle. The loss characteristic
shown in Fig. 16 represents a GTO-based converter, employing devices with a
voltage rating of 4.5 kV and a peak turn-off current capability of 4 kA,
operated at 60 Hz switching frequency with 6 μF snubber capacitor. Due to
the low switching frequency, only about one third of the converter losses are
due to (semiconductor and snubber) switching losses; the other two thirds are
due to conduction losses. Schauder states that the converter losses for the
TVA STATCOM at full load were approximately 600 kW (Schauder et al.
1996). Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that the losses in the GTO-based,
parallel GTO-type UPFC converters are about 1% for each of the two
converters.
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
–1 –0.5 0 0.5 1
Interface magnetic Transformer Converter Total
Fig. 16 Approximate losses for a GTO-based 48-pulse parallel VSC 100 Mvar STATCOM.
(Reproduced from CIGRE TB 144 2000)
322 R. Adapa et al.
3.1.5 MMC-Based UPFC Converters

The UPFCs built from 2010 onward used the MMC technology, which makes it
possible to build high-power, high-voltage converters in which the switching
modules are connected in series instead of in parallel with low harmonic ripple
in the AC output voltage. The MMC evolved rapidly after the introduction of the
high-power, high-voltage IGBT devices, which displaced the GTOs because it
enabled series connection of many more devices than is possible with GTO-type
devices (Fig. 7).5
The IGBT (Fig. 17), the equivalent circuit of which is shown in Fig. 18, was
invented in 1982 (CIGRE TB 269 2005). The IGBT chip is designed only to have
forward blocking capability, since in reverse direction there is always an antiparallel
diode for protection. The IGBT and the diode must have the same voltage
capabilities.
Although substantial progress in the area of IGBTs for lower voltages
(600–1200 V) was made in the 1980s, it was not until the beginning of the 1990s
that it was realized that this concept was also feasible for higher voltages (2.5 kV,
then 3.3 kV in 1997, and 6.5 kV in 2002). Lately, a new type of IGBT has become
available that takes advantage of the effect of electron injection from the emitter to
achieve a low saturation voltage similar to that of a GTO. This type of IGBT is
called IEGT.
An important aspect of IGBTs is their capability to turn-off current, while forward
voltage is applied. This capability is defined in the safe switching operating area
(SSOA) shown in Fig. 19 (CIGRE TB 269 2005).
Fig. 17 High-voltage IGBT

placed in a press pack
5
The power semiconductor technologies are still evolving. So it is not impossible for new types of
GTO devices to emerge based on wide bandgap devices (e.g., the silicon carbide technology).
Fig. 18 IGBT and Collector

antiparallel freewheeling
diode (FWD)
Gate
Emitter
Fig. 19 Typical SSOA for

the IGBT
During switching the IGBT must be able to turn off the peak current, including
ripple. Additionally, a margin is added to handle current control regulation and
protection actions during transient conditions. The valve must also be capable of
turning off the current, should a short circuit occur close to the valve. If it is not able
to do so, then it must be able to conduct safely until the AC circuit breaker has
opened. The IGBT’s short-circuit operation capability is defined by the SCSOA
(short-circuit safe operating area), which is slightly different from the SSOA under
normal operation.
At the end of 2004, most FACTS VSC valves used IGBT semiconductor switches
in forward direction with the capability to both turn on and turn off the current. To
obtain the rated current capability, as is shown in Fig. 17, the IGBT is made of a
number of chips connected in parallel in the same package. There may be an
antiparallel freewheeling diode (FWD) integrated in the same semiconductor pack-
age to ensure current capability in the opposite (reverse) direction and to prevent the
application of reverse voltage. The FWD normally also consists of a number of chips
in parallel, in the same way as the IGBT. It is also possible to have the FWD in a
separate package in parallel with the IGBT.
The IGBT has lower gate power requirements and can sustain high frequency
switching (Mohan 1995b). Initially, it was used in high-voltage, high-power con-
verters using pulse width modulation (PWM) techniques, which is still used exten-
sively for industrial and lower-power converters (Holmes and Lipo 2003). The
MMC-type converters have displaced pulse width modulated (PMW)-type
324 R. Adapa et al.
Fig. 20 Half-bridge MMC
converters because the MMC converters have significantly lower losses than
PWM-type converters. This was the major reason for the MMC’s rapid acceptance
in the FACTS market even though the MMC converters require more components
and are therefore more costly to produce.
The UPFCs and SSSCs built since 2010 have therefore been based on IGBTs
using the MMC half-bridge circuit configuration shown in Fig. 20 as described in
▶ Chap. 5, “Power Electronic Topologies for FACTS.” The half-bridge converter
requires fewer components than a full-bridge converter but will pass short-circuit
currents from the AC to the DC side in case of a DC bus short circuit.
In a half-bridge converter with a sufficient number of bridges connected in series,
the AC harmonic output from the converter may be acceptable to the connected AC
system without the use of additional AC harmonic filters.
The switching of the individual half-bridges in an MMC converter can be
arranged in different ways. Below is a brief description of two different ways for
switching of the sub-modules. One is a carrier phase shift sinusoidal pulse width
modulation (CPS-SPWM) scheme, and the other is referred to as the nearest voltage-
level modulation (NLM) technology.
The CPS-SPWM is one modulation strategy that can be used in multilevel
converters. The technical features of CPS-SPWM are as follows:
SPWM with low switching frequency is adopted in all of the M sub-modules. It
has the same frequency modulation ratio, the same amplitude modulation ratio, and
the same sinusoidal modulation signal. The phase of a triangular carrier waveform
for each sub-module is shifted by a difference of 360/M degrees. Due to the uniform
distribution of the 2M triangular waves in the whole modulated wave period, the
voltage levels of the output waveforms is (2M+1). The output voltage increases
M times through linear amplification, and the equivalent switching frequency
increases 2M times. In this way, the harmonic component of the output voltage is
greatly reduced without changing the switching frequency. Nearest voltage-level
modulation (NLM) is another MMC modulation control strategy. The NLM modu-
lation method achieves a low distortion rate with a high output voltage level using a
simple calculation, rather than through separate controllers for each sub-module.
MMC-UPFC includes a large number of sub-modules, and therefore, the NLM
technology is widely applied in UPFC-MMC topologies. The basic principle of
NLM is as follows:
The multilevel step voltage wave on the AC side is generated by controlling the
number of conductive sub-modules to approach the reference wave, as shown in
Fig. 21. In Fig. 21, the hollow blocks and solid blocks represent the shedding state
sub-modules and the working state sub-modules, respectively. The arm reactors are
not included in the diagram. Figure 21 shows the states of sub-modules in every
switch period, and an approximate sinusoidal waveform (single phase,
4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4
0 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0 –1 –2 –3 –4 –3 –2 –1 0
Fig. 21 The five-level step wave synthesis principle

326 R. Adapa et al.
Table 1 Performance comparison between CPS-SPWM and NLM

Type CPS-SPWM NLM
Advantages The switching frequency of each The switching frequency is low, and
sub-module is the same, and the the switching losses are small
switching losses are balanced The hardware circuit is simple, and
High real-time performance, wide the algorithm is simple
equivalent frequency band, and high
control precision
Disadvantages Hardware circuit is complex; FPGA The switching frequency of each
required sub-module is not fixed, and the
Switching loss is slightly higher losses are not balanced
When the number of output voltage
levels is low, the control precision is
low, and the harmonics cannot be
ignored
The control precision relative to the
reference signal is low
Slow real-time performance
8 sub-modules of each arm) is synthesized. As the example shown in Fig. 21, each
arm has 8 sub-modules, thus, the output voltage is five-level step wave.
The CPS-SPWM and NLM modulation strategies have their own advantages and
disadvantages. For example, the CPS-SPWM modulation strategy for each
sub-module has the advantages of having the same switching frequency and bal-
anced switching losses. However, the overall switching losses are slightly higher for
the CPS-SPWM modulation strategy than for the NLM modulation strategy.
The NLM modulation strategy has the advantages of a low switching frequency
and low switching losses. However, the control accuracy and the harmonic spectrum
are not as ideal as desired when the number of output voltage levels is low.
The performance comparison between CPS-SPWM and NLM are shown in
Table 1.
Since the MMC unit is equivalent to a three-phase phase unit in parallel on the
DC side, and its capacitive energy storage units are located in different
sub-modules, the voltage between each arm cannot be exactly the same in
steady-state operation; thus circulating current exists besides load current. The
circulating current not only causes arm current distortion but also increases the
currents through the switching devices and, therefore, produces unnecessary
losses. The internal circulating currents in the MMC result from the voltage
unbalance of the upper and lower arms of each phase. The circulating current
mainly contains a second harmonic negative-sequence component although
there are also other lower harmonic components. These circulating current
flows inside the arms of MMC have no impact on the external AC system.
Actually, besides the second harmonic negative-sequence component, the
circulation currents also contain a DC component in normal operation, which
is generated by a uniform distribution of a DC current among the arms of
three phases. Therefore, it is necessary to understand MMC circulating
R0 i cird –2ws L 0 i cirq

+
* +
ipj icird = 0 PI *
+ ucird
–
*
+ icirj icird ucirj
–1
1/2 C 2f C 2f
+ icirq
–
*
ucirq
inj * +
icirq = 0 PI
+
+
R0 i cirq +2ws L 0 i cirq
Fig. 22 MMC control block for circulating current suppression
current and take appropriate suppression strategy for MMC-UPFC control

system. Figure 22 demonstrates a MMC control block for circulating current
suppression.
The simple block diagram shown in Fig. 22 includes the following:
• ucird and ucirq are internal imbalance voltage components of d- and q-axes of
MMC phase unit in the sequence rotating with double frequency coordinate
system, respectively.
• icird and icirq are circulating current with double frequency of d- and q-axes of
MMC phase unit in the same coordinate, respectively.
• icird and icirq are command values of d- and q-axe components of shunt
converter input current, respectively.
• ipj and inj are arm currents ( j = a, b, c).
Furthermore, unlike in traditional two-level or three-level topology, MMC has no

centralized DC capacitor, which is replaced by distributed DC capacitors in each
sub-module. Therefore, maintaining the stability of sub-module capacitor voltage
cannot be neglected, when power flows on both AC and DC sides of MMC.
MMC voltage balancing consists of three parts: sub-module capacitor voltage
balance within the arms, voltage balance between the arms, and the converter storage
control. Sub-module capacitor voltage balance within the arms can keep each
sub-module capacitor voltage at the same level, and each power semiconductor
device sees the same stress. Therefore, sub-module capacitor voltage balancing
within the arm is a significant factor of evaluating MMC performance.
An example of an UPFC built using such converters is shown in Fig. 23. This is
a single line diagram of the Southern Suzhou UPFC Project installed in China. In
this application, the UPFC system controls the power flows through two overhead
lines that run in parallel. Therefore, it can be considered as a combination of an
UPFC and an Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC). More information about this
project can be found in ▶ Chap. 15, “Application Examples of UPFC and Its
Variants.”
328 R. Adapa et al.

Mudu Meili
~ ~
Start-up Resistor Low Voltage Bypass

Shunt Transformer
TBS TBS Breaker
High Voltage
Breaker

2 1 3
Fig. 23 The structure of the Southern Suzhou UPFC Project
In Fig. 23 the following can be seen:
• In this system, a resistor (start-up resistor) is inserted between the shunt trans-
former and converter #1. This limits the inrush current through the converter
when the high-voltage breaker for the shunt transformer is closed. This resistor is
bypassed after the converter is energized and the DC capacitors have been
charged up.
• Each of converters #2 and #3 has a thyristor bypass switch (TBS) inserted to
short-circuit the series transformer windings in case of an AC line overcurrent.
• Low-voltage bypass breakers are installed in parallel with the TBS to relieve the
TBS thyristors from the high fault currents.
• The series transformers can be bypassed by means of high-voltage breakers
placed across the series transformer’s lineside windings.
This would be typical for most UPFC installations. In addition (not shown in
Fig. 23), there must be disconnect switches so that the system modules can be taken
out of service for maintenance.
3.1.6 MMC VSC Converter Losses

Losses in MMC VSC systems are not well defined in standards. The losses depend
on the conduction and switching losses of the IGBT devices. The switching losses
depend on the switching frequency used for the individual MMC modules. They
also depend on the power direction of the power flows since the diode losses are
lower than in the IGBT switching component itself. Furthermore, the number of
IGBT devices installed in the converter valves will determine the harmonic
content of the resulting AC output voltages. If it is assumed that the output
voltages are sufficiently harmonic-free to avoid installing AC harmonic filters,
then the overall efficiency per converter might be in the order of 1% at rated
output power (Oates and Davidson 2011). Allebrod has reached close to the same
conclusion (Allebrod et al. 2008).
4 UPFC Protection
4.1 Overvoltage Protection and System Starts
The high-voltage AC system side of an UPFC installation requires the same

protection against sustained and transient overvoltages and lightning surges as
is used for regular AC high-voltage substations. As discussed above, the excep-
tion being the insulation requirements for the lineside transformer series wind-
ings. The power electronic subsystems of the UPFC installations are placed
indoors in a valve hall. Thus, the equipment in the valve hall is protected from
lightning surges. However, the transformers are normally placed outdoors, and
these could be affected by lightning surges in the unlikely event of a failure of the
lightning protections system in the substation. In fact, the overvoltage protection
requirements are similar to those of a VSC type HVDC system (CIGRE TB
269 2005).
All VSC systems can experience transient overvoltages if the AC circuit
breakers for the STATCOM section are closed with zero or low voltage on the
DC bus. This is the same as applying a step voltage on a capacitor from an
inductive circuit. That is, there will be a sudden inrush current into the capacitors
which will charge up the capacitor. However, after the first current zeros, the
converter diodes will block the current from flowing back into the source. If,
prior to energizing the converter, the DC side capacitors are charged up to the
peak value of the applied AC voltage, there will be no inrush current. An alterna-
tive is to use breakers with pre-insertion resistors. Such current limiting resistors
might also be needed if the inrush currents cause voltage disturbances beyond what
is allowed for in the grid code.
Energizing the series converter is easier since the DC side of the series converter
can be supplied with DC voltage for charging the DC bus capacitor from the shunt
converter. However, if the series converter is to be operating isolated from the shunt
converter, the AC bypass switch for the series winding can be opened to energize the
converter side. The current flowing through the TBS will be equal to the current
flowing in the lineside winding multiplied by the windings turns ratio. Assuming that
the converter is connected to the series transformer, if the TBS switches are gated off,
then the series windings will force the AC currents through the diodes in the converter
valves and charge up the DC bus capacitor(s). The DC bus capacitance will initially
act like a capacitive series-connected load in series with the line. When the DC
voltage has reached a certain level, the converter must be de-blocked to control the
DC voltage to the required level. If the converter is not de-blocked, the voltage across
the DC bus capacitor would rise until the bus crowbar operates or the series
330 R. Adapa et al.
transformers saturate. But, if the converter is controlled, it can begin to perform

normal reactive power control. That is, this could be a viable method for starting
a SSSC.
4.2 VSC System Faults
The protection of a UPFC can be physically described in the following ways:
• Shunt transformers including any intermediate transformers are protected in the

usual way for this type of equipment. This includes current differential protective
relays, overcurrent relays, sudden pressure relays, etc.
• The shunt converter system is protected for most internal faults through specific
actions of the control system on valves firing and eventually through specific
devices (e.g., circuit breaker trips fuses, disconnectors, etc.).
• The series transformer protection is more complicated. For this transformer, it
is essential to avoid the effects of magnetic saturation since saturation could
cause false operation of differential relays. When the full phase voltage is
applied to the transmission line winding of the series transformer due to an
earth fault on a transmission line near the series transformer, the winding is
likely to quickly saturate. If the transformer’s core is saturated, then the
saturation will change polarity after each current zero. That is, the core will
go out of saturation and then saturate again. This magnetic saturation yields a
large current differential between the transmission line current and the
converter-side winding current that might flow in the series transformer. This
differential protective relays would then operate falsely, so other means of
detecting transformer failures must be used. This could be accomplished by a
set of overcurrent relays.
• It can be assumed that the series converter valves will be blocked if there is an AC
side through fault current. To avoid malfunction of the detection relays, the
following relay systems are proposed for detecting internal transformer faults
(most of this is described in CIGRE TB 160 2000):
1. A sudden pressure relay can be used to detect internal ground faults in the
transformer tank.
2. Ground fault in the lineside series winding can be detected using differential
current between both terminals of the transmission line winding. This method
is not affected by the magnetic saturation.
3. Ground faults in the converter winding can be detected using a differential
current measurement between both terminals of the converter winding. In
general, if there is a single point, high impedance ground used in the UPFC
controller, ground fault can be detected very fast although there will be no fault
location information when such a ground fault current is used to detect the
fault.
4. Turn-to-turn short-circuit faults in the windings (both the lineside and the
converter-side windings) can be detected using differential current relays
placed between the transmission line and converter windings. However, this
method is affected by magnetic saturation caused by the earth faults on
transmission line near the series transformer. In order to prevent incorrect
operation, it is possible to restrain the operation by a signal of detecting
undervoltage in line winding or detecting the second-order harmonic compo-
nent in the winding current.
5. The series converter system is protected for most faults through specific
actions of the control system on valve firing and through specific devices
such as a crowbar.
The crowbar shown in Fig. 23 can be on the line side of the transformer. It can be
also placed on the converter side as shown in Fig. 23, but in this case, the leakage
reactance of the transformer will remain during a fault, and it might be necessary to
examine its effect on system protection. Two circuit breakers in series with the UPFC
can be added to improve security for a UPFC internal fault (by disconnecting the
UPFC without opening the line) (CIGRE TB 160 2000).
• The DC bus might be protected by specific devices such as fuses, if the fuses can
interrupt the capacitor discharge current.
• The valves normally include one or more redundant semiconductor switching
devices. Therefore, operation can continue with one or more faulty devices until
the number of failed devices in a valve exceeds the number of redundant devices
per valve. However, if the number of failed devices exceeds the redundant ones,
the risk of complete VSC valve breakdown is increased. This is typically detected
by appropriate monitoring of the switches. When too many component failures
are detected, the converter is tripped with no further consequences except that the
converter is out of service until repaired.
• Ground faults internal to the valve structure might occur through leaks from the
liquid valve cooling tubes. Coolant leak detection should be provided that detects
and prevents the development of low resistance ground faults. However, if this
fails, ground faults caused by coolant leaks can be detected through monitoring
the fault current through the converter system ground connections.
• The VSC DC capacitor elements are normally built using self-healing insulation,
which eliminates full short circuits. Therefore, some degradation of capacitor
elements can be tolerated. However, runaway capacitor insulation failures can
occur, leading to capacitor module short circuit with high fault currents. This
would result in a DC bus short circuit. It is therefore, necessary to arrange the
capacitors such that the degradation of one part of the overall capacitor can be
detected by measuring the unbalance current. The capacitor dielectric system is
also combustible, which would be a reason for installing fire protection systems in
the valve halls.
The series converter can be exposed to high surge currents during AC system
short-circuit events. Because there has to be ampere-turns ratio balance between the
lineside and the converter-side currents flowing through the series windings, a high
332 R. Adapa et al.
AC surge current will flow through the diodes in the converter and charge the DC
capacitors. Overcharge of the capacitors can be avoided by enabling a short-circuit
path through the converter valves that will shunt the AC fault currents through
selected valve legs. If the currents exceed the thermal limit for the semiconductors,
the TBS has to be triggered to place a short circuit across the series transformer
windings. Thus, the bypass devices for the series windings are critical for protection
of the converter. For example, if the power supply for operating the switching
device gates fails, the AC currents flowing from the series windings can give rise to
severe overvoltage on the DC bus or cause failure of the DC bus crowbar if the
TBSs are unable to be triggered. Thus, this potential failure mode might lead to
requirements for redundant power supplies and a highly reliable system for turning
on the TBSs.
4.3 Converter Valve Protection Consideration
Internal faults will be precluded to the largest extent possible using appropriate design
margins for any component and a safe station layout. However, in the event of an
internal fault, all components will be protected by fast-acting protection systems
(Schettler et al. 2000). Therefore, as is common in HVDC systems, special, fast-
acting protective functions are embedded into the control system. This includes
special overcurrent and overvoltage protections that limit the voltage and current
stresses on the semiconductors and detect semiconductor and other element failures.
However, in spite of these goals, there are potential critical failure modes, which
might not be cleared fast enough to prevent equipment damage. For example, in
VSCs of the type shown in Fig. 24, there are a few severe internal failure modes to
consider.
These faults modes are:
• Location #1: A short circuit between the plus and minus DC buses will create very
low impedance paths. One is a discharge path for the DC bus capacitors, which
can be extremely large currents because the stray inductance between the two bus
1/2 Vdc Ta1 Da1 Tb1 Db1 Tc1 Dc1

ia
+ ea
Virtual ib
1 eb
neutral 3 ic
2 ec
1/2 Vdc Ta2 Da2 Tb2 Db2 Tc2 Dc2
Fig. 24 Severe converter faults

polarities must be very low to enable fast switching and low losses when a valve
leg switches from the plus pole to the minus pole or vice versa. Too high currents
can lead to failure of the bus capacitor(s). The other path for fault currents to flow
is from the AC power system through the diodes into the fault. These fault
currents are limited only by the AC circuit reactances. This might damage the
semiconductors if they are not rated for this fault current flow.
• Location #2: This fault path can be a short circuit through the switching devices:
the GTO, IGBT, or the diode. If this is just one of many series-connected devices,
it should be detected as discussed above. However, it could be a result of a false
turn on signal to the switching devices when the opposite side valve’s switching
device is also turned on. In that case, it will become a fault of the type discussed
for Location #3 below.
• Location #3: This fault path is often referred to as a shoot-thru, since it can be
the result of false triggering of the two series-connected valves in the same
phase leg. In this scenario, the DC bus capacitor will discharge through the
short-circuit path with consequences similar to a fault at location #1. The fault
currents through the switching devices might cause the switching devices to
rupture. In MMC-type converters, such a short circuit should be limited to one
MMC module.
In a UPFC where both the shunt and series converters are sharing a DC bus,
these faults must be cleared by the AC breakers for the shunt converters, but it
would be sufficient to trigger the TBS devices in the series converters, since that
will eliminate the power flows into the faulted area from the series transformer
windings.
These types of faults in the STATCOM converter must be detected extremely
fast. This is done by special protections in the converter control systems but
redundant, high-set overcurrent relays in the AC lines from the shunt transformer
should also be installed. A short circuit at locations #1 and #3 in the series
converter will cause high overcurrents to flow from the STATCOM converter
and must be cleared by opening the AC breaker for the shunt transformer.
However, if the series converter is operated isolated from the STATCOM (the
DC bus is open between the two converters), then the current infeed from the AC
side transformer windings will be limited to the AC line current as transferred to
the converter side. Because the discharge of the DC bus capacitor will stop the
operation of the converter, the fault can be cleared by TBS and then by closing the
lineside AC bypass breaker.
4.4 UPFC Impact on the Protective Relays
The UPFC may have an influence on the operation of distance protection (Zhou et al.
2006). Many AC system protections are based on the principle of estimating the
impedance between the fault location and the protective relay. The presence of a
UPFC may modify the measurements needed for making reliable estimates. This
334 R. Adapa et al.
problem has already been encountered while installing series capacitors and solu-
tions exist, with differential protections, modified distance protections, and direc-
tional comparison relaying being some of the options. For the UPFC the problem
may be slightly different, because during line short circuits, the stresses in the UPFC
are high and it may need to be protected by a bypass switch. Therefore, depending on
the leakage reactance of the UPFC and its protection strategy, it may be necessary to
conduct studies to verify that the existing protective relays will work properly when
short circuits occur on the network.
5 UPFC Converter System Control
5.1 VSC Control Systems
The control systems built for creating the synthesized AC voltages on the AC side
of the VSC that are used in an UPFC include functions for creating the pulse trains
needed to trigger the semiconductors used in the converter valves. Theses controls
also control the phase and amplitude of the synthesized AC voltages with respect
to the AC system voltages. In general, phase locked loops are used to synchronize
the pulse trains to the AC system voltage phasors, such that the created voltages
have a known phase position vis-a-vis the AC system voltages. The details about
how this is accomplished are typically proprietary information owned by the VSC
suppliers.
All of the converters used in FACTS controllers, which have found acceptance in
the marketplace, are designed for low losses, which require operation with as few as
possible switching operations per cycle. To avoid having to install harmonic filters,
the converters operate with a high number of pulses per cycle. However, there are
significant differences between how these objectives are met. The synthesized output
voltages are created in a system using parallel-connected, GTO-based relatively
low-voltage VSCs using two- or three-level converters or in a system using the
MMC VSCs in which many converter modules are connected in series. All of them
have as an overriding control objective the control of the DC voltage on the installed
DC capacitors, which are used for the generation of the output AC voltages (An et al.
1998).
The two-level converters utilize a relatively large capacitor connected across
the DC bus. This capacitor receives controlled active power to keep the DC
voltage across the capacitor relatively constant. In a three-level converter, as
shown in Fig. 9, the DC capacitor is divided into two: one half between the DC
bus and a neutral bus and the other connected between the opposite DC bus and the
neutral. In this arrangement another control objectives is to keep the neutral bus
voltage at zero.
In MMC converters, as shown in Fig. 20 in which the DC capacitors are
distributed across several MMC modules, the control system is designed to keep
the voltage across all of these capacitors constant. The STATCOM modules used for
UPFC controllers are in many respects similar to those used for HVDC converters
except that the number of series-connected MMC modules is usually fewer in

STATCOM systems than in HVDC converters. That is, some of the published
information for HVDC converters could be applicable to VSCs for FACTS applica-
tions (Jacobson et al. 2010; Nam et al. 2016).
5.2 STATCOM Control Systems
The operation of the STATCOM when disconnected from the series converter is
described in more detail in ▶ Chap. 7, “Technical Description of Static Compensa-
tors (STATCOM).” Also, there are numerous application examples described in
▶ Chap. 13, “Application Examples of STATCOM” that describe many different
control concepts used for STATCOM controllers.
When the STATCOM is disconnected from the SSSC, it can only control the AC
system voltage or generate or absorb reactive power for the AC system. A small
amount of active power will flow into the STATCOM to compensate for the losses in
the converter system. A simple example of the STATCOM control system used for
the NYPA STACOM, as shown in Fig. 25, is used to illustrate the control system for
the shunt-connected STATCOM module of the UPFC.
The STATCOM in the NYPA system is designed using pulse amplitude modula-
tion control, so the DC bus voltage is allowed to vary in a 18.8% range. While this
might result in some efficiency advantages by lowering the device switching tran-
sients, it might result in a slower response when there is a need for increasing the
output voltage.
In this control system, the instantaneous reactive current component is used to
regulate the AC bus positive-sequence voltage. There is a one-cycle lag in the
control system to enable calculation of the voltage sequence components. The
fundamental reason for this is that the direct and quadrature components are phasor
quantities valid for fundamental frequency components, which require time to
Fig. 25 Control system design for NYPA’s STATCOM converter

336 R. Adapa et al.
measure and calculate (Ängquist 2002). There is also a slope function that deter-
mines the deviation of the measured voltage from the voltage reference as a function
of the reactive current output level and phase. The slope function is typical for all
SVC and STATCOM applications.
This control system is designed to deliver a constant AC voltage at the point
of connection. However, reactive power control is also a control option.
Constant voltage control might not be the best control strategy for all STATCOM
applications because constant voltage might be destabilizing for generators
during power swings. The speed voltage characteristics of generators during
transient swings should be considered for the design of the dynamic
characteristics of the control systems for STATCOMs and other FACTS control-
lers since there is a need for maximum power output from a generator when the
frequency swings high and reduced power when the generator’s frequency
swings low. The control system strategy should be developed based on the
needs of the power system where the STATCOM/UPFC controller is going to
be installed.
CIGRE has proposed models for study of FACTS systems to be used in load flow
and transient stability studies (TB 145 1999). Figure 26 shows one of the models
proposed to be used for the STATCOM part of the UPFC. This is a highly simplified
model, only applicable for positive-sequence network models.
Much more detailed models are needed for detailed electromagnetic transient
studies and for control system design purposes (Sen and Keri 2003).
• K controller gains
• Tc converter time constant (10–30 ms)
Fig. 26 Proposed control system model for the shunt converter to be used for load flow and
transient stability studies
• VDC ref DC reference voltage (specific)

• Droop slope of the VI characteristics (a few percent)
• Vq and Vp voltage limits corresponding to the current ratings of the shunt part of
the UPFC
When operating only as a STATCOM, the active power branch must be disabled.
If the STATCOM is operating in the pulse amplitude modulation mode, then the
variable VDC ref needs to be adjusted to match the amplitude to be produced at the
outputs of the STATCOM. There are also current limits not shown in the block
diagram.
5.3 SSSC Control Systems
When the SSSC operates disconnected from the STATCOM, it can inject a
voltage in quadrature with the line current (Sen 1998). To achieve a
capacitive compensation effect, the SSSC injects a voltage in series with the
line that is in phase opposition to the voltage produced by the line current
across the series line reactance. As a result, the voltage across the series line
reactance is forced to increase, as if its inductance was reduced, causing a propor-
tional increase in the line current and the corresponding transmitted power, as
illustrated in Fig. 27. Similarly, inductive compensation (when the SSSC’s output
voltage leads the line current) injects a voltage in phase with the voltage across the
line reactance. As a result, the voltage across the line reactance decreases, as if its
inductance was increased, causing the line current and the corresponding transmitted
Fig. 27 Vector diagram illustrating the SSSC capacitive and inductive operation modes
338 R. Adapa et al.
power to proportionally decrease. The line current and the corresponding power
increase or decrease are proportional to the magnitude of the series compoo-
ensating voltage relative to the voltage across the series line reactance (CIGRE TB
371 2009).
That is, when the SSSC is operating in the stand-alone mode, it can act like a
capacitive series compensation system that boosts the power flow on the line or as a
controlled reactor that bucks the line power flow. Traditionally, this is expressed by
the degree of series compensation, which is defined as the impedance ratio of the
series line reactance to the effective series capacitor or reactor or, equivalently, the
amplitude ratio of the voltage across the series line reactor to the series compensating
voltage. One application of an SSSC is therefore the control of parallel path or loop
flows.
The SSSC can, in addition to controlling the positive-sequence voltage injected
into the line, also be programmed to minimize the negative-sequence components of
the line although it will cause ripple voltages to arise on the DC bus.
The SSSC control system used for NYPA’s UPFC, shown in Fig. 28, is used to
illustrate the design of the SSSC’s control system.
When the SSSC converter of the NYPA system is operating disconnected from
the STATCOM DC bus, it is designed to use pulse amplitude modulation. In MMC
systems, the control range might be a function of how many MMC modules are
used. In this operating mode, the SSSC can only produce reactive current
compensation.
The model proposed by CIGRE for use in load flow and transient stability
studies of the SSSC in UPFC controllers is shown in Fig. 29 (TB 145 1999). This
is also a highly simplified model only applicable for positive-sequence network
models.
Fig. 28 Control system design for NYPA’s SSSC converter

Fig. 29 Proposed control system model for the series converter to be used for load flow and
transient stability studies
• K, T(x) controller gains and time constants (specific)

• Tc converter time constant (10–30 ms)
• Vseries (p,q)
• Maximum series voltage (specific)
When operating only as a SSSC, the active power branch of the control
system (not shown in Fig. 28) must be disabled. Also, if the SSSC is not
connected to the STATCOM, it needs to charge the DC bus capacitors in order for
the SSSC to operate. There are also current limits not shown in the block diagram.
5.4 UPFC Control Systems
When the STATCOM and SSSC are operating together with a common DC bus, the
two control systems must be coordinated such that they do not operate in conflict
with each other. Although the STATCOM and the SSSC can operate as stand-alone
FACTS controllers, the assumption here is that operating the VSCs isolated from
each other will most likely only be needed if one of the VSCs is not needed or not
capable of operating.
When the controller is connected as an UPFC, the SSSC can perform the
following functions (Gyugyi et al. 1997):
• Voltage injection
• Active power injection or extraction
• Phase angle regulation
340 R. Adapa et al.
Fig. 30 Active power control system used in the UPFC
• Line impedance emulation

• Reactive power control
• Automatic power flow control
• Combinations of these modes
For active power control, there is an added control loop in the SSSC controller,
which compares the actual power exchanged with the line based on a power set
point. When the two converters are connected together, the DC bus voltage is
controlled by the STATCOM converter (Fig. 30).
The control of the UPFC system as a component of an AC system should not differ
much for GTO systems using parallel converters or MMC converters with series-
connected modules. The most important feature of a UPFC is its ability to transfer
active power between a line and a system bus. This is the fundamental function of the
two VSCs in a UPFC when they share the same DC bus, in which case active power
can be absorbed by the shunt VSC (the STATCOM) and injected by the series VSC
(the SSSC) or vice versa. In this case, the power flows between the two VSCs must be
exactly matched to avoid causing over or under voltage on the DC bus. That is:
PSTATCOM ¼ PSSSC (16)
If there is a mismatch between the SSSC and STATCOM VSCs, the voltage
across the DC bus of the UPFC could go very high or low. Thus, one of the two
converters has to be in control of the DC bus voltage.
AC power system transients may cause active power to flow through the SSSC
into the DC bus capacitor (CIGRE TB 371 2009). This exchange of energy and the
resulting change in the DC bus voltage must be controlled by the UPFC STATCOM
module. Furthermore, if the SSSC or the STATCOM is programmed to minimize the
AC system negative-sequence components, ripple voltages will arise on the DC bus.
This might cause harmonic power to flow through the DC bus unless it is prevented
by the control system. Nevertheless, it is possible to use an UPFC for phase
balancing.
As is obvious from Figs. 6 and 31, when the STATCOM and the SSSC share that
same DC bus, the series-connected compensating voltage can be at any phase angle
Fig. 31 Control range for Vmax

Vmin
an UPFC
β
Vs’s
I
Vx
Vr
Vs
Vs’
with respect to the prevailing line current (Sen and Stacey 1998). That is, the two
VSC units can continue to operate as reactive power compensators independently of
each other, unless the demand exceeds the rated power of one or both of the VSCs
since only active power will flow across the DC bus.
When the STATCOM and UPFC are connected together with a shared DC bus,
the control modes illustrated in Fig. 31 are as follows:
• If the voltage injected from the SSSC converter is in phase or with a phase
opposite to the source voltage VS, it operates to increase or decrease the source
voltage magnitude.
• If the voltage injected from the SSSC is in quadrature with the source voltage VS
as shown in the horizontal red line in Fig. 31, it operates as a phase shifter.
• As has been discussed above and is shown in Fig. 31, when the voltage is in
quadrature with the line current, it acts as a reactive power compensator.
In the first two of these three modes, the UPFC must transfer active power
through the STATCOM converter. Of course, as stated before, the SSSC can inject
a voltage that is a combination of all three modes (see also CIGRE TB 504 2012).
From this, it is obvious that an UPFC can be used to boost the power flows on high-
power, underutilized lines and buck (limit) the power flows across weaker lines, and
this functionality can be used to avoid overloading a line. Normally the STATCOM
converter would be controlled to keep unity power factor at the bus to which the
UPFC is connected. However, the STATCOM and the SSSC converters do not need
to have the same rating. The only requirement is that the active power transfer rating
is the same for both converters. Therefore, the STATCOM can if needed have a
larger rating than the SSSC.
If two SSSCs with or without a STATCOM converter share the same DC bus,
power can be transferred between the two SSSCs, which can be used to move power
between stronger and weaker lines, thereby managing overload situations. An
example of a three-converter system comprised of two SSSCs and one STATCOM
342 R. Adapa et al.
Marcy 345 kV New Scotland
Coopers
Corner
±100 MVA voltage sourced

converter
CONTROL
Fig. 32 Three-converter system installed in New York Power Authority’s Marcy station
as shown in Fig. 32. This system can be operated as two SSSCs or as a UPFC
controlling the power flow in either the line to New Scotland or to Coopers corner, or
both of these lines receiving the same compensation. All of this can be accomplished
without adding significant thermal load capability in the converters to manage short-
term, high-current line flows.
The control of the UPFC as a controllable element of the AC system has to be
specially designed for the specific application. Typically, an UPFC controller would
be applied to enable stable power transfer across a transmission line that otherwise
could not operate reliably or would be tripped in case of specific system distur-
bances. This could be an N-1 or an N-1-1 type contingency situation.
Transient stability improvement is also a typical AC system application for com-
pensation equipment. This typically requires a high-power boost through key lines
during the first and maybe second swing as the system recovers from a disturbance.
This might be required during the first second of the system recovery. This is where the
VSCs are limited because the inherent short-term overcurrent capability of the IGBTs
and GTOs is limited because the forward voltage drop and therefore the conduction
losses in IGBTs and GTOs are higher than in regular, high-power thyristors.6
6
The overload rating might be limited to 15–30% unless higher-power devices are used for the
system.
It is normally detrimental to apply power system damping until the first swing has
passed because doing so may reduce the amount of synchronizing torque to be
transferred across a line. However, the UPFC as well as other FACTS controllers and
HVDC links can be used to provide such damping as needed if the system remains
stable after the first swing has passed (Grund et al. 1984).
UPFC controllers have, like all of the FACTS technologies, been applied for
damping of sub-synchronous resonances (SSR) affecting large steam turbine genera-
tors. The risks associated with SSR are described in significant detail in ▶ Chap. 8,
“Technical Description of Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC).” With a
correctly designed control systems, UPFCs should not excite SSR modes (CIGRE TB
371 2009). This might require that the SSR damping control mode in the UPFC is
active even under low load conditions. That is, in this case, an UPFC must be in
operation at all times, which might require redundant converters or changes to the
operation of the AC system to avoid operating regions in which SSR might arise.
6 Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC)
6.1 Introduction
The SSSC described above is a fundamental part of a UPFC. However, as is shown

in Fig. 33, it can be applied as a stand-alone series reactive power compensator for
transmission lines, too (CIGRE TB 371 2009). The only real power that is drawn
from the line is to offset the losses of the converter, which includes keeping the DC
capacitor charged without an external DC power supply to keep the capacitors
connected to the DC bus charged.
The VSC within the SSSC is operated in synchronism with the transmission line
current.
Fig. 33 Schematic diagram

of SSSC
344 R. Adapa et al.
The voltage generated by the VSC is kept in quadrature with the line current,
lagging or leading it by 90 . Thus, the operating mode of an SSSC, as described
above and shown in Fig. 27, emulates a controlled series reactive compensator
(such as obtained with the Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)) but
provides a wider control range as it can operate equally in the capacitive or
inductive operating domains. However, since it operates by injecting a voltage in
quadrature with the line current, it is not modulating the impedance as is the case
with series capacitors and reactors. This might make the SSSC into a powerful tool
for moving power through lines across which the normal angle between the sending
and receiving ends is low.
If it is assumed that the line shown in Fig. 27 is embedded in an AC system, the
power flow through the line will increase or decrease proportionally to the
magnitude of the series compensating voltage relative to the voltage across the
series line reactance. This might be an alternative to a phase angle regulator for
relatively short lines. The operating range is illustrated in Fig. 34, but there might
be a small area close to the zero current axes in which the SSSC would not be able
to operate because the AC current flow would be too low to keep the DC bus
capacitor charged.
The transmitted power versus transmission angle, i.e., the Pq-δ characteristic of
the SSSC at various per unit values of the compensating voltage, Vq (which may be
capacitive or inductive), is shown in Fig. 35. This figure illustrates that the unique
capability of the SSSC in maintaining the maximum compensating voltage indepen-
dent of line current results in a wide control range for the transmitted power at a
given transmission angle and provides the means to control the desired power flow
under the transmission angle. It is observable in Fig. 35 that the SSSC is also able to
decrease the transmitted power, which might be useful to control inadvertent loop
flows in AC systems.
As the SSSC inserts a voltage source in the AC line, it does not create a classical
series resonant circuit with the inductive line impedance, which could create
Fig. 34 Operating range

of SSSC
Fig. 35 Pq-δ characteristic

with SSSC
sub-synchronous oscillations. By suitable modulation of the inserted series voltage,

the SSSC may be able to provide damping of sub-synchronous oscillation by means
of suitable control features. However, as with all controlled devices, there is a risk of
interactions with other components in the AC network. Therefore, all applications
must be studied in detail to determine if the FACTS controller including its features
can be safely applied in a given system.
6.2 Possible Applications
The SSSC has higher losses than other series compensation systems, which might be
a drawback, but it could be a powerful FACTS controller for power flow control. The
main potential applications within the broad area of adjustable or dynamic power
flow control are as follows:
• Compensation of relatively short transmission lines.

• In long transmission lines, the SSSC might provide an economical solution in
combination with conventional series capacitor banks to provide a vernier control
by adding to, or subtracting from, the fixed compensation provided by the
capacitors and also to increase the immunity against sub-synchronous
oscillations.
• Equalization of power flow in lines and prevention of loop flows of real power.
• Receiving-end voltage regulation of a radial line.
• Improvement of transient stability and dynamic stability (power oscillation
damping).
346 R. Adapa et al.
6.3 The SSSC Components
The Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) has been described as part of
the UPFC. There are no particular differences between the components needed for an
SSSC and those for a UPFC, with the exception of the potential need to provide a
means for charging and controlling the voltage of the converter DC capacitor to
enable operation of the SSSC with low line currents.
7 Interline Power Flow Controller
7.1 Basic Concepts
The Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) represents an extension of the UPFC
concept to control the power flows in a multiline scenario in which two (or more)
lines employ SSSCs for series compensation (Gyugyi et al. 1999). In addition to
independently controlling reactive power in each line into which an SSSC is
inserted, as is shown in Fig. 36 for two lines, since the SSSCs share a common
DC bus, it would enable transfer of real power between the compensated lines. The
system shown in Fig. 36 is equal to the system installed by NYPA except without a
shunt-connected STATCOM.
The IPFC could enable balancing of the power transfers between lines of the same
or different system voltage levels to avoid overloading of lower capacity lines and
moving power to higher capacity lines. The exchange of active power must be such
that there is no net power flowing through the DC bus. This could result in better
utilization of line assets and lower the overall system losses. One application might be
for power transmission management in a multiline substation.
Fig. 36 Basic Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC)

As has been stated before, in an IPFC system, each SSSC can control the reactive
power flows in the line into which it is inserted independently of the other SSSCs
connected to the same DC bus. However, to enable active power flows, there must be
one master SSSC that controls the active power flows for all of the connected SSSC
systems. Another constraint would be that the SSSC converters would have to
operate with a common DC bus voltage, which probably would require all of the
SSSC converters to have a common design.
The modified sending-end voltages for lines 1 and 2 are
V1s0 ¼ Vs þ V1s0 s (17)
V2s0 ¼ Vs þ V2s0 s (18)
However, V1S’S and V2S’S would not need to be equal unless the circuits are
symmetrical and no active power is exchanged.
In theory the IPFC system could be connected between asynchronous systems,
but then a better alternative might be a back-to-back HVDC system.
The IPFC concept could be extended to many SSSC controllers combined with
STATCOM systems as illustrated in Fig. 37 (Fardanesh et. al, 1998). This concept is
referred to as a Generalized Power Flow Controller. This becomes a DC power node
with the AC system branches controlled by the SSSC converter.
Fig. 37 Generalized power flow controller

348 R. Adapa et al.
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Ram Adapa, Technical Executive, Electric Power Research

Institute
Dr. Ram Adapa is a Technical Executive in the Power Delivery and
Utilization Sector at EPRI. His research activities focus on High-
Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission, Flexible AC Trans-
mission Systems (FACTS), Custom Power, and Fault Current
Limiters.
Dr. Adapa joined EPRI in 1989 as a Project Manager in the Power
System Planning and Operations program. Later he became Prod-
uct Line Leader for Transmission, Substations, and Grid Opera-
tions where he developed the research portfolio and business
execution plans for the Grid Operations and Planning areas.
Some of the tools in this portfolio included market restructuring,
transmission pricing, ancillary services, and security tools to
maintain the reliability of the grid.
Before joining EPRI, Dr. Adapa worked at McGraw-Edison
Power Systems (presently known as Eaton’s Cooper Power Sys-
tems) as a Staff Engineer in the Systems Engineering Department.
Dr. Adapa received a BS degree in electrical engineering from
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, India, an MS degree
in electrical engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology,
Kanpur, India, and a PhD in electrical engineering from the Uni-
versity of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.
Dr. Adapa is an IEEE Fellow and has been honored several times
by IEEE for his outstanding contributions to the profession. He
350 R. Adapa et al.
received the 2016 IEEE PES Nari Hingorani Custom Power

Award. He has authored or coauthored more than 125 technical
papers and is an IEEE Distinguished Lecturer. He is an individual
member of CIGRE and a Registered Professional Engineer.
Stig L. Nilsson, Principal Engineer, Exponent, Inc., USA

20 years with EPRI in the USA, he initiated in 1979 the develop-
ment of digital protective relaying system developments and in
1986 EPRI’s FACTS initiative. In 1991 he was awarded a patent
on Apparatus for Controlling the Reactive Impedance of a Trans-
mission Line. Stig Nilsson is a Life Fellow of IEEE. He has
tee, the IEEE PES Nari Hingorani FACTS and Custom Power
Awards Committee, and several IEEE Fellow nomination review
committees and been a member of the IEEE Standards Board,
IEEE PES subcommittees, and other working groups. Stig Nilsson
has been the US Representative and Secretary of CIGRE Study
Committee B4 on HVDC and Power Electronics. He is the recip-
ient of the 2012 IEEE PES Nari Hingorani FACTS and Custom
Power Awards. He received the CIGRE U.S. National Committee
Philip Sporn Award and the CIGRE Technical Committee Award
in 2012. He has also received the CIGRE Distinguished Member
Award for active participation in CIGRE Study Committees and
the USNC of CIGRE (2006) and the CIGRE USNC Attwood
Bjarne Andersen, Director and Owner, Andersen Power

Electronic Solutions Limited (2003)
Before becoming an independent consultant, Bjarne worked for
36 years for what is now GE Grid, where his final role was as
Director of Engineering. He was involved with the development of
the first chain link STATCOM and the relocatable SVCs’ concept.
Bjarne Andersen has extensive experience in all stages of line-
commutated and voltage-sourced converters for HVDC projects.
As a consultant he has worked on several international HVDC
projects, including the Caprivi Link, the first commercial VSC
HVDC project to use an HVDC overhead line, and a VSC HVDC
project for multiterminal operation permitting multi-vendor
access.
Bjarne was the Chairman of CIGRE SC-14 from 2008 to 2014 and
initiated several working groups in the area of HVDC Grids. He is
an Honorary member of CIGRE and was the 2012 recipient of the
prestigious IEEE PES Uno Lamm Award.
Yi Yang, PhD, Senior Engineer, Chair of IEEE PES T&D

UPFC Working Group
Yi Yang is the deputy director of secondary equipment assessment
technical department in State Grid Jiangsu Electric Power
Research Institute, Nanjing, China. His research interests include
FACTS, IEC 61850-based smart substation, relay protection, and
smart grid cybersecurity.
Yi Yang received the BS degree in electrical engineering and
automation from Chongqing University, Chongqing, China, in
2005; the MS degree in electrical engineering from Huazhong
University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China, in 2007;
and the PhD degree in electrical and electronic engineering from
the Queen’s University Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK, in 2013.
From 2007 to 2010, he was with the Zhejiang Yuhang Power
Supply Company of State Grid Corporation of China. From
2014 to 2017, he participated in the research and application of
the first 220 and 500 kV MMC-based unified power flow control-
ler (UPFC) projects around the world. As the Chair of IEEE PES
UPFC WG, he is in charge of drafting the IEEE P2745 series,
Guide for Technology of Unified Power Flow Controller Using
Modular Multilevel Converter.
Dr. Yi Yang has published over 40 papers. He has participated in
writing four books in English. He is also serving as member of
CIGRE SC D2.02, IEEE PES Nanjing Chapter, Advisory Board of
IEEE PES China Standard Committee, IEEE PES SBLC Asia-
Pacific Working Group, and IEEE SBLC P2781. He also serves as
editorial board member of Progress in Energy & Fuels and Energy
for Sustainable Development, as well as referee of some renowned
journals/conferences, such as IEEE Transaction on Smart Grid,
IEEE Access, IETE Technical Review, IET network, and IEEE
PES General Meeting.
Part IV
Applications of FACTS Controllers
Controllers Using the Saturation of Iron
for AC Network Control 10
David J. Young
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
2 The Saturation Characteristic of Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
2.1 The Basic Static Var Compensator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
2.2 The Magnetic Constant Voltage Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
3 Harmonics in Saturated Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
3.1 Harmonics in a Single-Phase Self-Saturated Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
3.2 Harmonics in Three-Phase Self-Saturated Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
3.3 Reduction of Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
3.4 Magnetic Frequency Multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
4 The Magnetic Amplifier or Transductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
4.1 100 MVA Transductor for Alternator Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
4.2 Tertiary-Connected Transductor for Dynamic Var Balancing in a 132/275/400 kV
Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
4.3 Magnetically Controlled Shunt Reactors (MCSR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
5 Development of Effective Compensation for Arc Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
5.1 Characteristic Features of Arc Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
5.2 Experimental Arc Furnace Compensation by Transductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
5.3 Experimental Arc Furnace Compensation by Self-Saturated Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
5.4 Commercial Applications of Saturated Reactors for Arc Furnace Compensation . . . 381
5.5 Compensation by Decoupling Transformer-Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
6 Three-Phase Self-Saturated Reactors with Harmonic Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
6.1 The Twin Tripler Saturated Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
6.2 The Treble Tripler Saturated Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
6.3 Slope Correction for Saturated Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
7 Applications of Self-Saturated Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
7.1 Disturbances Caused by Industrial Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
7.2 Compensation for Long Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
7.3 Commercial Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
7.4 Static Var Compensation for the 2000 MW HVDC Cross-Channel Link . . . . . . . . . . . 392
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
D. J. Young (*)
Stafford, UK

356 D. J. Young
Abstract
Before the advent of FACTS controllers, breaker-switched capacitors and induc-
tors were used to provide a stepwise balance of vars (reactive power) for
transmission and distribution systems; synchronous compensators were installed
at some substations to provide a continuously variable reactive power output, but
these machines were expensive and needed regular maintenance.
Prior to the availability of power electronic devices, Dr. E S Friedlander
developed the first static voltage stabilizers, based on the properties and charac-
teristics of saturated iron. Similarly to synchronous compensators, these “static
var compensators” (SVCs) had a continuously variable output, but they were
capable of a much faster response than synchronous compensators and had other
advantages. For over two decades, they found widespread use in transmission and
distribution systems. This chapter describes saturated reactor-based var control-
lers and provides application examples.
1 Introduction
The control of reactive current is vital to the satisfactory and efficient operation of
electricity supply systems. For many years it was necessary to switch capacitors and
inductors into and out of operation to provide a balance of reactive power (vars) for
relatively steady system conditions. Whereas frequent or cyclic switching of shunt
capacitors is not uncommon in distribution and industrial applications, it is generally
undesirable to use frequent switching in transmission networks. In situations where
variability of reactive compensation was important, synchronous compensators had
offered a solution and were being used more widely as transmission networks
developed. Such machines were expensive, required substantial civil works and
auxiliaries, and needed regular maintenance and refurbishment.
In the 1960s a breakthrough in respect of the dynamic reactive support of AC
networks by means of static devices instead of rotating machines was spearheaded
by Dr. Erich Friedlander (Friedlander 1966). These early controllers were based on
the properties and characteristics of saturated iron and were capable of a much faster
response than synchronous compensators. They made it possible to overcome many
of the limitations experienced when using conventional reactive power control
methods. Their application was facilitated by the availability of much improved,
grain-oriented, transformer steels and by developments in capacitor designs, which
had led to both lower losses and lower price/kvar.
For Friedlander the nonlinear saturation characteristic of iron presented an oppor-
tunity instead of a limitation. The study of nonlinearities had been at the heart of his
doctoral thesis on “relaxation oscillations” (Friedlander 1926). Friedlander regularly
made use of models to check the correlation between theory and practice and to
identify what might have been overlooked either in the theory or the application. He
worked for several years under Dr. Reinhold Rudenberg at Siemens AG in Berlin,
10 Controllers Using the Saturation of Iron for AC Network Control 357
but later joined The General Electric Company of England (GEC), initially at the
company’s Research Laboratories at Wembley and subsequently as the Consultant at
its group of electrical engineering factories in Witton, Birmingham. At GEC, he was
able to develop controllable saturated reactors (transductors) and self-saturated
reactors for application in power systems. These could be called the first FACTS
controllers (even though they preceded EPRI’s acronym by about 40 years). New
applications of saturated reactor SVCs for transmission networks declined when
SVCs based on the use of power thyristors were introduced and were demonstrated
to be economic and reliable.
This chapter describes how various reactive power controllers were developed
under Friedlander’s supervision and provides examples of the application of these
SVCs in transmission and distribution networks.
2 The Saturation Characteristic of Iron
The economic application of electrical power has only become possible because iron
has a remarkable magnetic property; its relative permeability, μ, is several thousand
times that of a vacuum, air, water, or any other commonly occurring material. A high
level of flux density, B, can be obtained in iron and steel with only a very small
magnetizing force, H, as illustrated in the well-known B-H characteristic Fig. 1a. As
the flux density is increased beyond a certain point, the characteristic becomes
nonlinear because the relative permeability starts to reduce very quickly. Iron is
described as being saturated when the value of μ decreases to 1, the same value as air.
When iron is used in alternating current applications, in which the flux reverses
direction in each half cycle, there is a hysteresis effect, and the change of flux density
follows a different path when it reverses direction Fig. 1b. The area enclosed by the
B-H curve represents the small amount of energy dissipated in the iron due to the
flux reversal, the hysteresis loss. When iron is used in electrical equipment such as in
transformers, the flux density in normal operation is kept comfortably below the
typical core saturation level of about 2 tesla (T).
The B-H curve needs to be drawn on a different scale, Fig. 1c, to show the
characteristic when iron is driven deeply into saturation; the slope of the B-H curve in
the saturated region becomes the same as air with μ equal to 1. On this scale, the “knee”
of the characteristic shows a sharp change at the transition between the unsaturated and
the saturated states.
When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a winding around a closed iron core, the
flux induced in the iron will also vary sinusoidally. When the applied voltage is low,
the flux density is also low, and the magnetizing current is very small. When the
voltage becomes sufficiently high, the crest of the flux wave will exceed the
saturation flux, and this causes a large pulse of magnetizing current to flow in the
winding, Fig. 2. This current has the shape of a truncated sine wave and contains
fundamental and odd harmonic components.
358 D. J. Young
Fig. 1 Magnetic characteristics of iron
crest flux
saturation
flux
B
H (I)
current
Fig. 2 Sinusoidal flux wave and current pulse
Fig. 3 illustrates the most important fundamental, third, fifth, and seventh har-
monic frequencies in a typical current wave. As the value of the applied voltage
increases, the duration of the current wave is more prolonged, and the proportions of
the harmonic components decrease relative to the fundamental. An iron core which
is driven into saturation only by an alternating voltage applied to the winding is
described as a self-saturated reactor (usually abbreviated to “saturated reactor”).
Fig. 4 shows that the relationship between the fundamental frequency current and
the voltage applied to the winding is similar to the saturation curve, though it has a
softer knee and a continuous slight curvature above the knee point. Nevertheless, the
fundamental characteristic approximates closely to a straight line between about
10% and 100% of the maximum magnetization current; the point at which this line
intersects the axis gives the “saturation voltage” Vs and the slope of the characteristic
is the air reactance or “saturated inductive reactance” Xs.
Fundamental
3rd harmonic
5th harmonic
7th harmonic
Current pulse
Fig. 3 Harmonics in a current pulse
Fig. 4 B-H characteristic and

linearized fundamental
frequency voltage-current
B (V)
characteristic B
fundamental
linearized
fundamental
H (I)
2.1 The Basic Static Var Compensator
The equivalent circuit of a self-saturated reactor is represented by the saturation

voltage in series with the saturated reactance as indicated in Fig. 5a. This has
similarities to the characteristic and equivalent circuit of a synchronous compensator
with fixed excitation voltage Fig. 5b. For this reason, a saturated reactor provides an
inertia-less static equivalent to a synchronous compensator and was the first kind of
“static var compensator” (CIGRE TB 25 1986).
360 D. J. Young
Fig. 5 Saturated reactor equivalent circuit and characteristic
By itself, a saturated reactor will only absorb vars whenever the voltage at its
terminals is greater than its saturation voltage, whereas a synchronous compensator
can also generate vars when its terminal voltage is below its excitation voltage. The
ability to generate vars with a static compensator can be obtained by adding a shunt
capacitor, Fig. 5c.
In this arrangement, the equivalent saturation voltage is
Vs’ = Vs.Xc/(Xc – Xs) and the equivalent slope reactance is
Xs’ = Xc.Xs/(Xc – Xs)
The switching duty on a circuit breaker is very easy when switching a static
compensator which comprises a shunt capacitor in parallel with a saturated reactor.
This is because the trapped charge effect normally associated with capacitor
switching is eliminated. After separation of the breaker contacts and interruption
of the arc at current zero, the residual charge on the capacitor causes the reactor to
saturate again. The capacitor energy is then dissipated in a cyclic manner at
steadily decreasing frequency. Consequently the rate of voltage rise across the
contacts of the breaker as they separate is so low that re-striking of the arc cannot
occur.
2.1.1 Speed of Response

Fig. 6a shows a simple circuit with a self-saturated reactor connected in parallel with
an inductive load. While the inductive load is in operation, the voltage on the load
busbar, Vl, is lower than the open-circuit voltage, Vo, due to the voltage drop in the
supply reactance, Xo. If the saturation voltage, Vs, of the saturated reactor is very
slightly lower than Vl, the saturated reactor core will be unsaturated, and the
inductive magnetizing current will be very small. At the instant when the load is
Fig. 6 Undelayed response of a self-saturated reactor
switched off, Vl instantaneously becomes equal to Vo. The initial increase in Vl

causes an increase of the rate of change of the magnetic flux in the saturated reactor
core. Because the flux now increases more rapidly, it reaches and substantially
exceeds the saturation flux, Bs, and the saturated reactor draws an increased current
during the same half cycle as the load current and voltage changes occur. There is
effectively no delay in the response of a self-saturated reactor to changes of load
current and applied voltage. This is illustrated in Fig. 6b. As can also be seen, the
load voltage becomes distorted.
2.2 The Magnetic Constant Voltage Transformer
The voltage on a typical supply system can vary over a considerable range, often as
much as 5% or even 10% of its nominal value. A static compensator is able to
contribute to a reduction of the voltage variations at its point of connection, whether
these variations are caused by changes of load or by changes of the supply voltage.
Some sensitive loads do not operate correctly if supplied from a supply system in
which the voltage can vary over a wide range; the magnetic constant voltage
transformer was developed to protect such sensitive loads from large variations of
supply voltage (Friedlander 1935). A tapped reactor is connected in series with the
sensitive load, with a saturated reactor connected to the tapping point Fig. 7a. In a
practical application, the tapped reactor can consist of a linear reactor, (1 + n)2X0,
with an autotransformer connected in parallel as shown in Fig. 7b. By matching the
362 D. J. Young
Fig. 7 Magnetic constant voltage transformer
slope reactance of the saturated reactor to a combination of the linear reactance and
the tapping ratio n: 1 of the reactor or transformer, the effects of the supply voltage
variations can be neutralized.
Fig. 7c shows the equivalent three-terminal star-impedance representation of the
tapped reactor; the impedance of the branch to the tapping point is a negative
reactance, nX0. When the slope reactance, Xs, has an equal numerical value, the
reactances will cancel, and the voltage at the star point of the equivalent circuit will
be the same as the saturation voltage, Vs, which is constant. This constant equivalent
voltage Vs will be applied to the load through an equivalent reactance, n(1 + n)X0 as
in Fig. 7d. Variations of the system voltage are absorbed by variations of the
saturated reactor current and do not disturb the effectively constant voltage supply-
ing the load.
3 Harmonics in Saturated Reactors
3.1 Harmonics in a Single-Phase Self-Saturated Reactor
When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a self-saturated reactor, the waveform of the

magnetizing current is not sinusoidal but takes the form of a current pulse (the
waveshape is the top part of a cosine wave) as illustrated above, in Figs. 2 and 3. The
harmonics in this waveshape can be studied in detail, for example, by Fourier
Analysis. As described earlier, the wave is made up of a fundamental frequency
component together with smaller amplitudes of all odd harmonics. Fig. 8 shows the
relative amplitudes of the fundamental frequency and harmonics up to the 13th as the
peak magnitude of the current pulse increases. The third harmonic component
predominates, but the amplitudes of the higher harmonics diminish quickly as the
applied voltage and flux levels increase.
1
Hn/H1
0.8
3rd
0.6
5th
0.4
7th
0.2 9th
11th
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 13th
(Bcrest - Bsat)/Bsat
–0.2
Fig. 8 Amplitudes of harmonics relative to the fundamental, for increasing crest flux
3.2 Harmonics in Three-Phase Self-Saturated Reactors
The pattern of harmonics flowing in a three-phase saturated reactor (or a set of three
single-phase reactors) depends on the type of connection, star or delta, earthed, or
isolated neutral. With a simple set of 3 single-phase reactors, there will be 6 current
pulses per cycle of the fundamental frequency; with more advanced reactors
consisting of two or 3 sets of 3 reactors, there may be 12 or 18 pulses per cycle.
By analogy with rectifier terminology, the dominant residual harmonics in the line
currents can be categorized as 6n 1, where n represents the number of sets of
reactors and has the values 1, 2, 3, etc. See, for example, ▶ Chap. 6, “Technical
Description of Static Var Compensators (SVC)” in this Green Book.
3.2.1 Earthed Star Connection

When the windings on three single-phase reactors are connected in star and the star
point is connected to the system neutral, as in Fig. 9a, the reactors saturate one at a time,
and the line current contains the fundamental and all odd harmonic components. When
the other reactors are unsaturated, they have a very high impedance, and the saturation
current return path is from the star point into the system neutral. This pattern is repeated
as each phase conducts in sequence. Fig. 9b shows the phase and neutral currents; the
repetition rate of the neutral current pulses is 3 times the system frequency and therefore
contains all the triplen harmonics (but not the fundamental and non-triplen harmonics).
In the example shown, the neutral current, In, is clearly much larger than each of the line
currents. The reactors could be combined on to a three-limb core, but the earthed star
configuration is generally undesirable because of the very large third harmonic currents
364 D. J. Young
b
a Va
Vb
Va Vb Vc N
Vc
Ia Ib Ic In Ia
Ib
Ic
In
0 90 180 270 360
Fig. 9 Earthed star reactor currents and voltages
flowing in the neutral connection to the supply system. Third harmonic overloading of
neutral conductors sometimes occurs in distribution systems.
3.2.2 Unearthed Star Connection

When the windings on the single-phase reactors are connected in star but with a
floating star point, as in Fig. 10a, the reactors are forced to go into saturation in pairs.
When none of the reactors is saturated, the star point is aligned with the system
neutral, but each time a pair of reactors goes into saturation, the star point moves to the
midpoint of the associated line-line voltage, and this develops a third harmonic
voltage (which is approximately a square wave) between the star point and the system
neutral. Consequently, it is the flux wave in each limb which contains a third
harmonic component instead of the current wave. If the three reactors are combined
b Vab
Vbc
a
Vca
Va Vb Vc N Iab
Ibc
Ica
Ia Ib Ic Vn
Ia
Ib
Ic
Vn
0 90 180 270 360
Fig. 10 Unearthed star reactor currents and voltages

on to a multi-limb core, one or two unwound limbs are required to provide a return
path for the third harmonic fluxes. The current in the line, Fig. 10b, has a double pulse
waveshape instead of the single pulse of Fig. 9b; it does not include any 3rd-order
harmonic components.
3.2.3 Unearthed Star Connection with Mesh Winding

Fig. 11a shows an unearthed star-connected arrangement of the same set of single-
phase reactors, but with an extra “mesh” winding (also called a delta-connected
winding) on each phase; these mesh windings are connected to form a closed loop. In
this case, each reactor saturates individually, because the mesh winding allows each
of the unsaturated phases to conduct half of the saturated current by transformer
action. The mesh current also flows in the saturated phase; the polarity of the mesh
current is the same as that in the main winding and thus reinforces the magnetizing
force on the saturated core. Because each reactor saturates individually, the phase-to-
phase saturation voltage is reduced to √3/2 compared with the simple unearthed star
of Fig. 10a in which reactors saturate in pairs. Fig. 11b shows the line and mesh
currents. The current in the mesh winding contains the triplen harmonics; the line
currents (with a triple-pulse waveshape) consist of the fundamental and the other odd
harmonics. The presence of the mesh winding eliminates the third harmonic voltage
and flux between line and star-point terminals and allows a three-limb core to be
used. Harmonic analysis shows that the phase angles of the 5th and 7th harmonics
have reversed polarity compared with those harmonics when there is no mesh
winding as in Fig. 10 (or when the mesh winding of Fig. 11 is left open-circuited).
3.2.4 Delta Connection

When the windings on the three single-phase reactors are connected in delta, as in
Fig. 12a, each reactor goes into saturation independently, with delta phase currents,
I1, I2, and I3. The line currents are given by the differences of the phase currents,
b
a
Va
Va Vb Vc
Vb
Ia Ib Ic
Vc
Ia
Ib
Ic
In
In
0 90 180 270 360
Fig. 11 Unearthed star reactor, currents, and voltages with mesh winding
366 D. J. Young
b
a
Vab
Vbc
Va Vb Vc
Vca
Iab
Ia Ib Ic
Ibc
I1 I2 I3
Ica
Ia
Ib
0 90 180 270 360 Ic
Fig. 12 Delta-connected reactor currents and voltages
Ia = I1 – I2, Ib = I2 – I3, and Ic = I3 – I1 and thus comprise two equal pulses in each
half cycle, separated by 60 (π/3), Fig. 12b. The line current waveshapes are the
same as those in Fig. 10b. The triplen, zero sequence, 3rd, 9th, 15th, etc., harmonics
in the phase currents are all in-phase and circulate round the delta-connected
windings; therefore the triplen harmonics do not appear in the line currents under
balanced conditions. The line currents contain the fundamental with the remaining
odd harmonics, 5, 7, 11, 13, etc. The voltages and fluxes sum to zero round the delta-
connected units, which can therefore be combined on to a three-limb core.
3.3 Reduction of Harmonics
3.3.1 Phase Displacement of Fluxes

The waveshapes of the line currents in Figs. 11b and 12b are very different although
they both include the same proportions of harmonic currents to fundamental. There
is a 30 (or 150 )-phase displacement of the fundamental frequency fluxes and
currents in the delta-connected reactors compared with the star-connected units.
This fundamental frequency phase displacement causes the fifth and seventh har-
monic components to have a relative phase displacement of 180 with reference to
each other. Thus, when a star-connected reactor with a mesh winding, Fig. 11a, is
connected in parallel with a delta-connected reactor, Fig. 12a (designed to have the
same saturation voltage), the individual and combined currents for one phase are
illustrated in Fig. 13. The star- and delta-connected reactors form a 12-pulse set, and
the fifth- and seventh-order harmonics circulate between the reactors and are there-
fore absent from the line currents. The eleventh and thirteenth harmonics (12 1)
are not cancelled and are the lowest-order harmonics in the line currents.
In practical applications, the combination of star- and delta-connected reactors is
not normally used for harmonic cancellation. For convenience of design and pro-
duction, two identical reactors are manufactured, using zigzag (inter-star) intercon-
nections to give 30 relative phase displacement, Fig. 14a. The interconnections of
the phase-shifting windings are arranged so that the flux in one set of limbs is phase
Voltage
I delta
delta fundamental
I star
star fundamental
I line
0 90 180 270 360
line fundamental
Fig. 13 Cancellation of 5th and 7th harmonics between star- and delta-connected reactors
a b
minus 15°
plus 15°
sum
0 90 180 270 360
Fig. 14 Cancellation of 5th and 7th harmonics with 15 displacement of fluxes
displaced by 15 positive and in the other by 15 negative, resulting in the cancel-
lation of the 5th and 7th harmonics, as shown in Fig. 14b. The fifth and seventh
harmonics are also eliminated from the line currents if the reactors are connected in
series: the fifth and seventh harmonic distortions then appear (and are cancelled) in
the fluxes of the reactors.
It is important to note that complete harmonic compensation can only occur with
balanced system conditions. If the three phases of the system lose AC symmetry, the
negative sequence fundamental component will reintroduce small amounts of odd
harmonics into the line currents; if there is a zero sequence component present (DC
or third harmonic), even harmonic currents will be generated. The presence of even
harmonic distortion in the supply voltages will similarly cause a slight disruption of
the harmonic balance in a saturated reactor.
368 D. J. Young
3.3.2 Mesh Loading

If the mesh winding of an unearthed star-connected reactor, Fig. 11a, is suddenly
open-circuited, the third harmonic current becomes zero, and the star point develops
a third harmonic voltage; the current waveshapes change from Fig. 11b to Fig. 10b.
The difference in waveshapes is because of the reversal of polarity of the dominant
fifth and seventh harmonics with respect to the fundamental. If the transition from
mesh short-circuit to open-circuit is made gradual, by introducing reactive imped-
ance into the mesh loop, the amplitudes of the fifth and seventh harmonics steadily
reduce, passing through zero, with a line current waveshape similar to Fig. 13, before
they increase again, with reversed polarity, to the open-circuit condition. However,
for a particular value of mesh impedance, the fifth and seventh harmonic currents are
only minimized at one value of fundamental frequency current. When the funda-
mental current changes, the mesh impedance must also be changed to maintain an
optimum waveshape. A small saturated reactor, operating at third harmonic fre-
quency, inherently provides a self-adjusting impedance which closely approximates
to the optimum value throughout the current range.
3.4 Magnetic Frequency Multipliers
In the metal processing industries, induction furnaces provide a clean and efficient
method of heating metal for refining, alloying, and/or raising temperature prepara-
tory to teeming. Mains frequency furnaces are frequently used for this purpose but
are inefficient for melting metal. Higher-frequency induction furnaces are often
preferred, supplied from motor generators or static frequency multipliers. The
magnetic frequency tripler utilizes a three-phase, unearthed star-connected saturated
reactor with a mesh winding (as in Fig. 11) connected to the terminals of an
induction coil surrounding a crucible containing the metallic material. Shunt har-
monic filters are used both to improve the input power factor and also to improve the
three-phase current waveshape by absorbing the predominant 5th and 7th harmonic
currents from the saturated reactors. The third harmonic output voltage and power is
adjusted by means of contactor switching of shunt capacitors in parallel with the
induction coil, Fig. 15. The effect of the load impedance during the different stages
Harmonic Filters/pdf
Contactor-
Induction switched
coil capacitors
Fig. 15 Frequency tripler arrangement

R Y B
III
II IV
I III V
R B
II IV I V
L3 a
b
Fig. 16 Frequency quintupler
of the heating and melting process is to reduce the harmonics in the supply current,
as indicated in the previous section.
The general principles for magnetic frequency multipliers at higher frequencies
were described by Friedlander. For example, a quintupler uses an iron core with five
active limbs and two flux return limbs. Four of the active limbs use zigzag windings
to provide saturation flux displacements at 36 intervals, Fig. 16 (Friedlander and
Young 1966). The mesh winding has an output voltage at the fifth harmonic
frequency, and the voltage is adjustable in the same way as for a frequency tripler.
The septupler, for seventh harmonic generation, takes a corresponding format with
seven active limbs (Friedlander 1958).
4 The Magnetic Amplifier or Transductor
For many years magnetic amplifiers provided a very convenient and effective way of
controlling a high level of either AC or DC output power flow, using only a
low-power control input. Fig. 17a represents a closed iron core with an AC power
winding and a DC control winding. A sinusoidal voltage which does not cause
saturation of the iron core is applied to the AC winding. When there is no current in
the DC winding, the core remains unsaturated so that the impedance of the AC
winding is very high and only a very small magnetizing current will flow in it. When
the DC winding is energized with direct current, this provides a magnetizing force
which drives the core into saturation; the alternating flux wave becomes offset, so
that part of the flux wave projects into the saturated part of the B-H characteristic,
Fig. 17b. While the core is saturated, the AC winding impedance is very low (equal
to an air-cored winding) and a pulse of current flows in the winding. At the end of the
conduction period, the alternating flux wave drives the core out of saturation, and
370 D. J. Young
Fig. 17 Operating principle of a transductor
only a low value of magnetizing current can flow in the AC winding for the rest of
the cycle. During conduction, the mean value of the ampere-turns in the AC winding
balances the DC ampere-turns in the control winding. When the DC control current
is increased, the time during which the flux wave projects into saturation is pro-
longed (to maintain ampere-turn balance), which allows the current in the AC
winding to increase; this current includes both direct and alternating components.
For practical applications, the direct component is eliminated from the line current
by using a pair of identical iron cores, Fig. 17c, with opposite relative polarity of the
DC windings so that one core permits current during the positive half cycle, and the
other permits an equal current during the negative half cycle. The current in the AC
windings is approximately proportional to the DC control current for a wide range of

applied voltages, as indicated in Fig. 17d.
In order to distinguish them from self-saturated reactors, transductors are some-
times called “saturable reactors.” In comparison with a self-saturated reactor, a
transductor requires twice as much active magnetic material, a greater number of
windings, auxiliary equipment for control of its output, and it has a relatively slow
response. Consequently, after a few early applications of transductors, as described
below, Friedlander concentrated on the development of self-saturated reactors as the
key elements of static compensators for power systems.
4.1 100 MVA Transductor for Alternator Testing
Factory tests on very large machines such as turbine alternators cannot normally be
done at the actual output load for which the machines are designed and rated because
the required input power is not available and the output could not be contained
within the factory. Very occasionally a suitable machine might be available for a
back-to-back test at a high load level. Large machines are normally subjected to two
main electrical tests in the factory, short-circuit and open-circuit tests. The impact of
the complex heat flows and stray losses occurring under rated service conditions are
difficult to determine from these factory tests. However, testing at full kVA load, but
at almost zero power factor, can provide a great deal of information on stray losses
and heat flows.
In the 1950s, Friedlander designed two large transductors to enable generators to
be tested in this way (Easton et al. 1958). These provided an easy and stepless means
of controlling the reactive load current in the machine under test at the voltage set by
the machine excitation. The nominal rating of each transductor was 100 Mvar
throughout the range of voltages between 6.6 and 22 kV.
In order to incorporate harmonic compensation, two six-limb transformer type
cores were needed. As shown in Fig. 18, the winding arrangement used zigzag
connections giving 15 phase displacement of fluxes to eliminate 5th and 7th
harmonic currents. Delta-connected tertiary windings allow triplen harmonic cur-
rents to circulate and eliminate the need for any unwound flux return limbs. The
residual 11th and 13th harmonic currents have maximum amplitudes of about 1.5%
(causing a similar magnitude of voltage at the machine and transductor terminals)
but in most operating conditions are much lower. These residual harmonics had an
insignificant effect on the performance of the machine under test.
The control current for the transductor was drawn from a grid-controlled 500 kW
rectifier. Each DC control winding embraces three limbs of the core, so that the
induced voltage at fundamental frequency is zero. These control windings were
connected in series. Fig. 19 shows the wound core of one of the two units of the
transductor before being mounted in a conventional oil-filled tank.
372 D. J. Young
Fig. 18 Transductor in parallel inter-star connection
Fig. 19 Wound core of 100 MVA transductor
The primary windings could be connected either in star or in delta to cover a wide
range of operating conditions, shown as hatched areas in Fig. 20. The voltage/current
characteristics with the units in star connection are shown in Fig. 21.
The two identical 100 Mvar transductors were manufactured and entered service
in 1953 and, as alternator ratings increased, a third identical unit was added a few
years later. The three transductors had an overload capability which enabled them to
be operated with a combined controlled output of 360 Mvar and, using the
uncontrolled natural saturation characteristic, at up to 460 Mvar.
Fig. 20 Operating ranges of kv

100 MVA transductor ION
CITAT
25 d.c EX
ZERO
STAR CONNECTION
20
15 CITATION
ZERO d.c EX
N
10 MESH CONNECTION TIO
I TA
XC
.E
. d.e N
X TIO
MA C ITA
X
5 .e. E
X. d
MA
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 MVA
Fig. 21 Voltage/current characteristics in star connection

374 D. J. Young
4.2 Tertiary-Connected Transductor for Dynamic Var Balancing

in a 132/275/400 kV Network
As its grid network developed in the United Kingdom, the Central Electricity
Generating Board (CEGB) had embraced the use of shunt reactors and shunt
capacitors to control the network voltage profile by balancing steady-state var
demands at its substations. For dynamic compensation of sudden system changes
following faults or equipment outages, tertiary-connected synchronous compensators
were installed at important substations. The usual dynamic range for these compen-
sators was 90 Mvar (30 Mvar inductive absorption to 60 Mvar capacitive generation
at a nominal 13 kV). They were usually installed in pairs so that one should always be
available when the other was taken out of service from time to time for routine
maintenance or factory refurbishment.
Recognizing that the controllability of a transductor was similar to that of a
synchronous machine and that regular factory refurbishment would not be needed,
CEGB decided to install a +60/ 30 Mvar static compensator at one of its 275/132 kV
substations, at Exeter, to provide a direct comparison of the behavior and performance
of the static and the rotating compensators. In steady state operation, the synchronous
compensators were normally brought back to a “float” condition at 0 Mvar, so that their
dynamic range, with a slope of 5% on 60 Mvar, was available for sudden changes. A
voltage range of 10% to +15% was allowed on the tertiary winding.
The transductor design used 15 flux phase displacement for harmonic com-
pensation similar to the earlier 100 Mvar transductors, but the control windings were
wound round individual limbs to help achieve the required response time.
It was agreed that the 60 Mvar capacitive range of the static compensator
should be obtained by means of three switched capacitor banks each of 20 Mvar
so that a smaller transductor could be used and could operate with minimum losses at
the 0 Mvar float condition. Air-blast circuit breakers were used for the capacitor
switching. The transductor was designed to have a dynamic range of 34.5 Mvar (at
13 kV), sufficient to give an overlap at each capacitor switching point so that the total
Mvar output range could be covered smoothly without any discontinuities.
With forced excitation, the synchronous compensators had a response time
of about 5 cycles (at 50 Hz). The control system of the transductor provided
the same response time for sudden disturbances. Capacitor switching was insti-
gated when the transductor reached the end of its dynamic range. It was accepted
that, even though the full-range dynamic response included the short delays
required for switchgear operation, the static compensator would provide a satis-
factory Mvar contribution toward severe network disturbances. Fig. 22 shows the
controllable range of the voltage/current characteristic and a simple single-line
diagram of the installation at the CEGB substation. The static compensator was
commissioned in 1967. When the substation was upgraded to 400/132 kV opera-
tion, both the compensators were transferred to the 13 kV tertiaries on the new
transformers.
The static compensator remained in service for some 30 years without signif-
icant downtime until the substation underwent a further major upgrade and new
Fig. 22 Operating range and diagram of +60/ 30 Mvar transductor-type SVC
thyristor controlled SVCs were installed. The successful and reliable operation of
this original static var compensator was a factor in support of the later decision by
National Grid (the successor to CEGB) to install thyristor-based SVCs for
dynamic compensation of the 275 kV and 400 kV networks at many substations
in England and Wales.
4.3 Magnetically Controlled Shunt Reactors (MCSR)
Magnetically controlled shunt reactors (MCSRs) are being used to provide variable
reactive absorption for power grids and industrial plant in Russia, Kazakhstan, and
some other countries. An MCSR is a transductor which has its primary winding
connected directly to the high voltage system. Although a transductor requires two
magnetic cores, one for each direction of magnetic saturation, this duplication of
active core material is offset by the direct connection to the HV system, which eliminates
the need for a stepdown transformer; consequently, the cost of an MCSR is relatively low.
Typically, MCSRs are being used to compensate the net charging current of high-
voltage transmission lines, to give better control of the voltage along the line and to
increase their total power transfer capability. MCSRs are also used at substations
which are distribution nodes of the power grid in order to contain voltage variations
within a narrow range close to the nominal voltage and also to reduce the Mvar
control requirements of nearby synchronous generators.
Details of the MCSR design and its application are given in ▶ Chap. 11, “Devel-
opment of Magnetically Controlled Shunt Reactors in Russia” in this Green Book.
376 D. J. Young
5 Development of Effective Compensation for Arc Furnaces
5.1 Characteristic Features of Arc Furnaces
A three-phase electric arc furnace is a valuable tool for melting scrap metal to
produce high-quality steel for use in steelworks and foundries. The output voltage
of the arc furnace transformer is a few hundred volts and is supplied to three, large-
diameter, graphite electrodes. Arcs are developed between the electrodes, and the
scrap metal in the furnace and the electrodes are controlled to move vertically to try
to maintain the arc current in each phase at a chosen target value. It is the heat from
the arcs that is responsible for melting the scrap and not conduction of current within
the scrap. In the early stages of the melting cycle, the arcs are very unstable and
unbalanced, and the currents can change by a large amount from one half cycle to the
next, in the worst case from open-circuit to short-circuit and vice versa. In addition,
the scrap metal settles as it melts, sometimes collapsing around the electrodes to
cause a short-circuit which may persist for several tens of cycles. In the later stages
of melting and refining, when the arcs are established between the electrodes and
molten metal, they become much more stable and balanced.
The fluctuating currents pass through the supply system and cause corresponding
voltage fluctuations which can disturb other consumers. The most commonly
reported disturbance has been the flicker effect on the light output of filament
lamps; fluctuations of picture size on early television sets also caused complaints.
It is not always possible to mitigate lamp flicker by connecting the arc furnace to a
stronger supply point. When a series capacitor installation was used to offset for the
mains frequency inductive reactance of the supply system, it had a very limited
ability to reduce disturbances.
Synchronous compensators, designed to have low transient reactance, absorbed
some of the reactive current fluctuations of arc furnace loads when they were connected
in parallel with the primary of the furnace transformer. To improve the sharing effect of
these compensators, the supply impedance was sometimes increased by means of a
series buffer reactance. Good results were reported for this system, and fast excitation
control was claimed to give some further improvement, but the results were misleading
because the transducers used to measure voltage fluctuations had a slow response.
Caution was needed in selecting the impedance of the buffer reactor – too large a value
risked a loss of synchronism because of the significant rotor oscillations which occurred
as the machine attempted to respond to the fluctuations of furnace power as well as the
reactive fluctuations (Concordia et al. 1957).
5.2 Experimental Arc Furnace Compensation by Transductor
When a large arc furnace complex was being planned for the Sheffield area in
England, using six 40 MVA arc furnaces, it was clear that the existing supply network
would be inadequate to supply the load because other customers would experience
unacceptably large voltage fluctuations. The use of synchronous compensators was
being considered, but, because transductors offered a static equivalent to synchronous

compensators, Friedlander was approached for his views and to offer a design. A
synchronous compensator does not compensate the unbalanced components as effec-
tively as the balanced components of furnace reactive demand, because its negative
phase sequence reactances are higher than its positive-sequence reactances. In con-
trast, transductors can be arranged as single-phase units, so that they can compensate
balanced and unbalanced components equally; in addition, transductors do not have
inertia and thus cannot lose synchronism with the supply voltage.
From reports of the operation of large arc furnaces in other parts of the world, it
appeared that the most severe effects of voltage fluctuations causing lamp flicker
would be the very large, low-frequency voltage dips during the early stages of
melting cold scrap iron. Disturbances lasting less than 3 cycles (60 ms) were not
considered important and could be ignored. Consequently, the specification required
the transductor compensator to respond completely to large disturbances within
5 cycles at 50 Hz (100 ms). Friedlander arranged a laboratory-scale model demon-
stration to show that this speed of response could be achieved with transductors. It
was agreed that there should be a larger trial using an actual arc furnace. There was a
suitable 500 kVA arc furnace, supplied at 11 kV, at the British Iron and Steel
Research Association Laboratory in Sheffield. Recordings were made of the opera-
tion of this furnace to guide the design of the compensator.
The disturbing currents of the arc furnace lie within the range from open-circuit to
short-circuit. In order to aim at complete compensation of these currents, the
transductors would need to be large enough to perpetuate the short-circuit current
of the arc furnace. Small arc furnaces generally have a lower per-unit circuit
reactance than large furnaces. For the 500 kVA furnace, the short-circuit current
was more than 3 times the rated current, and the specification required the correction
to be 75% of this maximum value.
The arc furnace current includes odd harmonic currents because the arc has a
nonlinear impedance characteristic; there is often asymmetry between successive
half cycles of the furnace current, resulting in even harmonics and brief duration
direct currents. The odd harmonics generated by the single-phase transductors would
be attenuated by the inclusion of an inductor in series with the control windings. A
bank of shunt harmonic filters tuned to 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th harmonics was
connected in parallel with the arc furnace transformer and the transductors to
minimize voltage distortion on the supply busbars. The capacitive output of these
filters was approximately equal to the maximum transductor load.
A six-phase grid-controlled rectifier fed the transductor DC winding, with a
closed-loop control system to regulate the alternating current. 2nd, 4th, and 6th
harmonic filters were connected across the DC supply to minimize interaction
between the transductor harmonics and the rectifier. The forcing power of the
rectifiers was great enough to enable the transductors to change between minimum
and maximum current in 50 ms, i.e., only half the specified time. Fig. 23 is a single-
line representation of the compensator arrangement.
The normal short-circuit level at the 11 kV substation was 93 MVA, and the
voltage fluctuations at this “reference busbar” were barely noticeable. In order to
378 D. J. Young
Fig. 23 Circuit of experimental transductor-type SVC for arc furnace compensation
produce more severe voltage fluctuations for the experiment, a large buffer reactor
was introduced to reduce the short-circuit level at the furnace transformer to only
13 MVA. The visual effect of the disturbances on this “flicker busbar” was moni-
tored by a 110 volt, 60 watt lamp fed via a voltage transformer, and this could be
compared to the lamp flicker on the reference busbar, which was at a completely
acceptable low level.
High-speed recordings showed an impressive reduction of the large,
low-frequency, voltage fluctuations, and the transductor compensator fully met the
target performance criteria in this respect. Nevertheless, the results of the tests were
disappointing with reference to the reduction of visual flicker effects on the 60 watt
lamp. The visual perception of the higher-frequency components of lamp flicker was
still disturbingly strong with the compensator in service.
It became evident that the sensitivity of the human eye and brain to the smaller, but
more frequent, step-function changes in illumination caused by an arc furnace was
much greater than had previously been considered and allowed for; it was concluded
that sudden voltage changes would need to be cancelled within about one half cycle of
the AC frequency in order to be strongly attenuated (Dixon et al. 1964).
5.3 Experimental Arc Furnace Compensation by Self-Saturated

Reactor
Within a few days of the evaluation of the transductor test results, Friedlander proposed
an alternative concept which promised to meet the required compensating performance.
He realized that the magnetic constant voltage transformer, which is described in sect.
2.2 and is used to protect sensitive loads from supply voltage fluctuations, could be used
Fig. 24 Tapped reactor SVC for arc furnace compensation
in the reverse mode to protect a supply system from a disturbing load, Fig. 24a; it also
has the required very fast speed of response, as described in sect. 2.1.1. For arc furnace
compensation, when the slope reactance of the self-saturated reactor, Xs, matches the
negative reactance, nX1, of the tapped branch in the equivalent circuit of Fig. 24b, the
voltage at the star point is a constant value equal to the saturation voltage Vs. The
current, I1, drawn from the supply must therefore also be constant so that the supply
voltage, Vp, becomes immune to the variations of furnace reactive current, I3. Vs also
becomes the effective supply voltage for the furnace. After a laboratory demonstration of
the principle, further tests using self-saturated reactors were agreed.
For the full-scale trial, again using the 500 kVA arc furnace, the compensation was
arranged as a three-phase, mesh-connected version of the basic single-phase circuit
shown in Fig. 25. The auxiliary transformer in parallel with the arc furnace transformer
is used to magnify the voltage change across the saturated reactor in a manner equivalent
to the tapped reactor of the constant voltage transformer. The ratio of the auxiliary
transformer was adjusted to match the slope reactance of the saturated reactor to the
reactance of the buffer reactor, Xo, which was connected in series with the furnace
transformer. The shunt harmonic filters were tuned to 3rd, 5th, and 7th harmonics. The
monitoring arrangements were similar to those for the earlier experiments.
The results were highly successful, giving a reduction of perceptible lamp flicker
by a factor of approximately 7 to 1, and all observers found the residual flicker
effects on the 60 watt lamp at the flicker busbar to be barely visible or not visible
(Dixon et al. 1964). Phase sequence filter measurements showed that the phase-by-
phase compensation reduced the negative phase sequence current drawn from the
supply system to an insignificant level, even when the furnace was operating in its
most unbalanced conditions.
Because the trial was intended to prove the principle of effective flicker compen-
sation, it was accepted that the compensated voltage supplied to the furnace (the
380 D. J. Young
Fig. 25 SVC using auxiliary transformer arrangement for arc furnace compensation
Fig. 26 Tapped reactor SVC with boosting of furnace voltage
saturation voltage of the saturated reactor) was lower than the normal supply voltage
and that this would reduce the melting power of the furnace and increase the melting
time. Fig. 26 shows how the rated power of the furnace can be restored by
incorporating an autotransformer into the saturated reactor in order to restore the
normal rated supply voltage to the arc furnace transformer.
5.4 Commercial Applications of Saturated Reactors for Arc

Furnace Compensation
Shortly after the publication of the very positive results of the trials referred to in
sect. 5.3, there was a successful commercial application in Ethiopia (Friedlander
et al. 1965). At the time, the main source of power for Addis Ababa was a remote
hydroelectric power station consisting of three 18 MW alternators. An arc furnace
rated at 1.7 MVA caused such severe disturbances throughout the system (they were
even clearly visible at the generating station) that the furnace was only allowed to
operate for 6–8 hours a day from about midnight.
GEC installed a compensator to control the voltage fluctuations caused by
the arc furnace based on the successful tapped reactor scheme, using three -
single-phase saturated reactors with a three-phase rating of 7 Mvar and a bank
of shunt harmonic filters for 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th, and 13th harmonics
also totaling nominally 7 Mvar (Fig. 27). The arc furnace transformer could
be connected either in star or in delta to cover the required range of
output voltages, and the compensation equipment was connected in star; in
order to suppress third harmonic phase voltages and currents, a mesh winding
was applied to the single-phase saturated reactors and also looped over the series
Fig. 27 Circuit of SVC for arc furnace compensation in Ethiopia

382 D. J. Young
buffer reactors. The saturated reactors included auto transformer windings

to restore the arc furnace primary voltage to its rated value as-illustrated
above in Fig. 26.
Because of the sensitivity of the higher-frequency harmonic filters to
any drifting of the system frequency (which had been manually controlled), a
frequency controller was supplied for the generators to ensure that the frequency
was stable to 50 Hz 1%. A target reduction of disturbances to not more than
15% of the uncompensated fluctuations was agreed. This target was succes-
sfully achieved so that all the constraints on the timing of furnace operation
were removed. The residual fluctuations were barely perceptible and were well
below the level which would cause irritation to other users of the system
(Friedlander et al. 1965).
There were several other successful commercial applications of the tapped reactor
scheme to single arc furnaces for which a large reduction of disturbances was
needed, down to 15 to 20% of the uncompensated level. These levels of lamp flicker
reduction do not yet appear to have been matched by power electronic devices.
Because of the way in which the tapped reactor scheme must be integrated
into the circuit of an individual arc furnace, it cannot conveniently be
arranged to compensate multiple furnaces which operate simultaneously in the
melting mode. Nevertheless, harmonic compensated three-phase saturated
reactors have been applied to compensate multiple furnace loads. They have
the same fast response as single-phase reactors, but their ability to
compensate unbalanced conditions is less effective; their negative phase
sequence reactance is greater than their positive-sequence reactance, but they have
been used to reduce disturbances caused by single and multiple arc furnaces to about
30% of the uncompensated level (Kennedy et al. 1974).
5.5 Compensation by Decoupling Transformer-Reactor
Another interesting and very effective method of compensation also uses a tapped
reactor. In this application the negative reactance at the tapping point of the tapped
reactor is matched to the system impedance, to provide one output to the disturbing
load and a second output to the protected load with minimal interaction from one
load to the other. This principle of compensation had previously found application
for protection against welding loads but was originally patented for use in early
television transmitters.
This compensating system was installed in Scotland at a substation where one
stepdown transformer supplied two arc furnaces and the other supplied the local
community. The point of common coupling at high voltage was strong enough to
avoid any interaction or disturbance between the two loads, but the enforced
segregation of supplies at 11 kV resulted in a lack of back-up for maintenance or
emergency conditions.
Two tapped reactor-transformers were provided, one for each stepdown
transformer; each was rated to supply the combined load to the furnaces
Fig. 28 Decoupling transformer-reactor for multiple arc furnace compensation
and the community, but they could also be operated in parallel, Fig. 28. As
anticipated, the reduction of disturbances was extremely strong, such that
the residual disturbances on the protected busbar were imperceptible to almost all
observers.
6 Three-Phase Self-Saturated Reactors with Harmonic

Compensation
In a balanced three-phase system, the third harmonic currents of a three-phase set of

single-phase saturated reactors would circulate between the reactors and would not
flow in the line currents, but the other odd harmonic currents, especially the fifth and
seventh harmonics, would be unacceptably high for general applications in power
systems. These harmonics are reduced to negligible levels in three-phase saturated
reactors by using the phase-shifting techniques that are described in sect. 3.2.
6.1 The Twin Tripler Saturated Reactor
The twin tripler reactor was the first practical design of a harmonic compensated
saturated reactor devised by Friedlander. It was used for ratings from a few kvar up to
about 50 Mvar. Its name is derived from the idea that a frequency tripler is a three-
phase saturated reactor with a mesh winding arranged to feed a load at
third harmonic frequency, see sect. 3.3. The twin tripler is made up of two such
384 D. J. Young
Fig. 29 Twin tripler currents without and with mesh loading reactor. (a) Mesh winding open (b)
Mesh winding with optimum loading
triplers combined to operate in such a way that their low-order harmonic currents
cancel out.
The core is constructed with 6 active limbs; each group of 3 limbs has zigzag
windings to provide flux displacements of plus or minus 15 and also has its own
mesh winding for third harmonic currents. The net 30 flux displacement at mains
frequency is multiplied at fifth and seventh harmonic frequencies such that they
are phase displaced by 180 ; therefore, when the windings of the reactor groups
are connected in parallel, these currents circulate between the groups and are
eliminated from the line currents as was shown in Fig. 14. If the windings of the
reactor groups are connected in series, the fifth and seventh harmonics develop in
the fluxes and again cancel out. As described in sect. 3.2.2, when the third
harmonic currents in the mesh (or delta) windings are controlled to optimum
values, fifth and seventh harmonic currents in the primary windings of each
“tripler” are greatly reduced, as are the losses that they would cause. In addition,
the predominant 11th and 13th residual harmonics become very small as can be
seen in Fig. 29.
In order to control the third harmonic currents in proportion to the primary
(mains frequency) currents, saturated reactors are used as the mesh loading reac-
tors. The third harmonic currents in the mesh windings are displaced by three times
the mains frequency fluxes, at 45 , i.e., at 90 with respect to each other. The
mesh loading reactor is therefore arranged as a harmonically compensated
two-phase saturated reactor with 4 active limbs, again using zigzag windings
which provide 22.5 flux displacement on each pair of limbs. This arrangement
also helps to improve the waveshape of the third harmonic currents in the main
mesh windings.
Fig. 30 illustrates the core and winding arrangement. Conventional
transformer design and manufacturing techniques are used for building the cores
and windings. Because of saturation, the core losses are greater than in a compa-
rable transformer, and additional cooling ducts are included in the core
construction.
Fig. 30 Winding arrangement for a twin tripler reactor
6.2 The Treble Tripler Saturated Reactor
Similarly to the twin tripler, the name of the treble tripler is derived from the concept
of three frequency triplers, in this case arranged with 20 flux phase displacements.
The core has nine active limbs. There are simple windings on the central group of
3 limbs, which give no phase displacement of the fluxes; the groups of limbs on
either side have zigzag windings which give, respectively, 20 and + 20 phase
displacements. In normal operation, this design of saturated reactor cancels all
harmonics below 17th and 19th harmonics (6n 1), but even these are reduced to
insignificant levels by the mesh loading reactors.
In the treble tripler reactor, the third harmonic currents are phase displaced by
120 and thus form a three-phase system at triple the mains frequency. In this case,
the mesh loading reactor is a three-phase saturated reactor, with three active limbs,
and is itself fitted with a mesh winding which operates at 9th harmonic frequency.
Fig. 31 illustrates the winding arrangements of a treble tripler. Fig. 32 shows a
completed core and winding assembly before tanking.
386 D. J. Young
Fig. 31 Winding arrangement of a treble tripler reactor
Fig. 32 Treble tripler core and winding assembly

Treble tripler reactors have been installed with continuous ratings up to 170 Mvar,
but substantially higher ratings are possible. The voltage-current characteristic has a
sharp knee point, and the slope is linear to within about 1% from 10% up to more
than 300% of rated current.
6.3 Slope Correction for Saturated Reactors
The natural slope reactance of self-saturated reactors is typically 8 to 15% over

its normal range of operation. This is uncomfortably large for most applications
in power systems, for which only a small change of voltage is desirable. Series
capacitors offer an obvious way to provide the negative reactive impedance
needed to reduce the effective slope reactance to practicable values. However,
the connection of capacitors in series with saturated reactors is a potentially
unstable arrangement and, in the absence of preventive measures, would cause
subharmonic oscillations. A bypass filter, which includes a damping resistor as
shown in Fig. 33, is always used in conjunction with slope correcting series
capacitors to ensure that this circuit never presents a capacitive reactance to any
subharmonic frequency (one half, one third, one fourth, etc., of the supply
frequency).
Fig. 33 Series capacitor

bypass filter
388 D. J. Young
7 Applications of Self-Saturated Reactors
7.1 Disturbances Caused by Industrial Loads
When the electrification of industrial processes gathered pace, converter-fed DC

drive motors became increasingly popular because of their easy and accurate con-
trollability. The drawback of using this type of drive was that the associated reactive
demand was often relatively large and would cause unacceptable voltage fluctuations
for other users of the supply system. Reinforcement of the supply system was usually
expensive and not always feasible. The availability of a reliable and robust design of
static compensator, which could reduce the voltage fluctuations to acceptable levels,
provided a lifeline in such cases.
7.1.1 Compensation for Mine Winders, Hoists, and Rolling Mills

In the United Kingdom, efficient AC induction motor drives were often used to
replace old steam-driven winding engines in coal mines, but converter-fed DC drives
became increasingly popular because of their greater controllability. The var demand
of these drives, typically in the range of 3–5 Mvar, would often cause voltage
disturbances which were larger than the local 11 kV distribution system could accept
without reinforcement. The harmonic distortion due to 6-pulse converters was also
potentially a problem. For several mine winder drives, a standardized SVC was used
to reduce the voltage and harmonic disturbances to acceptable levels.
The SVC used slope-corrected twin tripler reactors, with a continuous inductive
rating of approximately 5 Mvar, together with a 5 Mvar shunt filter capacitor bank. In
order to adapt the fixed compensation voltage of the SVC to the value of distribution
voltage chosen by the supply utility, a small transformer with tap changer was
interposed between the distribution busbar and the SVC, so that the saturated reactor
could always operate within the necessary compensation range.
The fluctuating Mvar demand due to thyristor converter-fed drives for rolling
mills, particularly reversing mills, is much larger than that for mining applications.
Larger drives may use 12- or 24-pulse converters, but often some 6 pulse auxiliaries
require attenuation for 5th and 7th harmonics. There are usually several large drives,
including reversing mills, which are the chief sources of fluctuating var demand. It is
necessary to make a statistical assessment of the probability of coincidence of
simultaneous high peaks of demand from all the drives and to allow for this in
setting the operational range of static compensating equipment. Twin and treble
triplers with slope correction and shunt harmonic filters were used for such SVCs
(Clegg et al. 1974).
7.2 Compensation for Long Transmission Lines
As referred to in ▶ Chap. 3, “AC Network Control Using Conventional Means,”

Baum had described how transmission distances could be increased by using a
synchronous machine to provide voltage support at the midpoint of a long
transmission line (Baum 1921). Subsequently, Griscom had illustrated this stabiliz-
ing action by means of his mechanical model of a transmission line (Griscom 1926).
Rudenberg and Friedlander had identified that a self-saturated reactor has a natural
saturation characteristic which is similar to the control characteristic of a synchro-
nous machine and it should therefore be able to fulfill an equivalent stabilizing action
(Friedlander 1930). Furthermore, a saturated reactor should have a much lower cost
than a synchronous machine. The concept of saturated reactor stabilization was
patented by Friedlander (DRP 592510 1931), and he described it in a contribution
to a book edited by Rudenberg (1932), but there were no practical applications for
many years.
7.2.1 Model Studies

Friedlander continued to look for opportunities to convert principle into practice and
arranged for the construction of a model transmission line to demonstrate to consul-
tants and potential customers the stabilizing action of self-saturated reactors
(Friedlander and Jones 1969; Ainsworth et al. 1974). A three-phase 415 volt labo-
ratory supply represented the strong network and a 200 kW motor/generator set,
driven by a synchronous machine, represented a weaker, remote generation or load
system. Transmission lines were represented by multiple lumped components; some
sections were equivalent to individual lines, while others represented two (or more)
lines in parallel. Voltage stabilizers consisting of 100 kvar treble triplers, with series
slope-correction circuits and shunt capacitors, provided the intermediate voltage
support Fig. 34. The model demonstrated the possibility of steady and stable
operation with angles between the equivalent machine voltages well in excess of
180 . Even at such a large angle, it was shown to be possible to ride through a fault
on, for example, one of two lines in parallel. Fig. 35 shows the layout in the
laboratory, with two of the line sections in the foreground and two voltage stabilizers
in the center of the picture.
11kV
Single-
supply circuit
Double- line unit Double-
circuit circuit
line unit line unit
Single-
circuit
Regulator line unit
M-G
set d.c.
Voltage Voltage Voltage

stabilizer stabilizer stabilizer
Load
Fig. 34 Model line arranged as three line sections

390 D. J. Young
Fig. 35 GEC’s model transmission line
7.3 Commercial Applications
In 1978 the first commercial application of saturated reactor SVCs was for a 132 kV
transmission line in Nigeria, which was about 750 km long; 8 Mvar slope-corrected
saturated reactors were connected to the distribution busbars at two intermediate
substations.
This system was followed in 1984 by a larger, more complex arrangement in
Western Australia, which is applied to the 700 km long, 220 kV single-circuit
transmission line from Muja power station, near Perth, to the extensive Eastern
Goldfields area in the Kalgoorlie region, Fig. 36 (Lowe 1989). About halfway along
the line, there is a substation at Merredin which interconnects with the 132 kV
network around Perth. At Kalgoorlie, the 220/132 kV substation supplies commu-
nities and industries in the Eastern Goldfields mining area, which includes a rela-
tively small amount of local generation. The stepdown transformers at each
substation have on-load tap changers and a 29.5 kV tertiary winding. Each SVC
has a rated output of 44/ 32 Mvar, and one is connected to each tertiary. Slope
correction series capacitors provide a constant voltage characteristic at the tertiary
terminals.
Fig. 36 SVC compensation of a long transmission line
The SVCs permit stable power transfer in excess of the SIL of about 125 MW. In
the event of an outage of one SVC or its transformer, the remaining SVCs ensure
continuing voltage control on the 220 kV transmission line but with a reduced range
of compensating vars. The total requirement for balancing vars is obtained by
adjusting the voltage profile along the line.
7.3.1 Studies for the 735 kV James Bay Transmission Scheme

In 1971, Hydro-Quebec announced its intention to develop the hydroelectric poten-
tial of the James Bay basin in northwest Quebec, to supply about 8 GW into its
network. James Bay is about 1000 km north of Montreal. Hydro-Quebec had
developed and adopted 735 kV transmission systems, but even at this voltage, it
appeared that as many as 13 parallel circuits might be needed for stable transmission
if conventional line-connected shunt reactors were used for each line section, to
control the Ferranti effect at the receiving end (see ▶ Chap. 3, “AC Network Control
Using Conventional Means” in this Green Book). Dynamic shunt compensation had
the potential to allow a reduction of the number of transmission lines needed and
hence a major reduction of the costs of the scheme. Friedlander’s work encouraged
Hydro-Quebec engineers to consider the possible use of static shunt dynamic
compensation at intermediate substations. To support their calculations, they under-
took studies using GEC’s model transmission line, compensated by saturated reac-
tors, and concluded that the number of circuits could be reduced by about half, with
consequent major cost savings. The final arrangement uses 6 AC transmission lines
at 735 kV (and one 450 kV HVDC transmission circuit). The shunt SVCs connected
at intermediate substations use TCRs rather than saturated reactors, and series
capacitors (TCSCs) have been added subsequently to give a further enhancement
of the transmission capacity of the lines.
392 D. J. Young
7.4 Static Var Compensation for the 2000 MW HVDC Cross-

Channel Link
7.4.1 Features of the HVDC Scheme

A 2000 MW HVDC scheme links France and England by submarine cable across the
English Channel, from Les Mandarins Converter Station near Calais, in Northern
France, to the Sellindge Converter Station, near Folkestone in the southeast of
England. Full-rated power can be transmitted in either direction, depending on
system requirements in each country.
At Sellindge, there are four 500 MW 12-pulse converters combined into two
1000 MW bipoles, which can operate independently, with an output voltage of
275 kV. At the rated power transfer of 2000 MW, either importing or exporting,
the reactive demand of the converters is about 1200 Mvar lagging. This demand is
largely compensated by eight-switched capacitor banks, each rated at 130 Mvar. The
capacitor banks are configured as harmonic filters. Four of the filters (two per bipole)
are broadly tuned to attenuate the predominant 11th and 13th characteristic har-
monics of the converters. The other four filters (again two per bipole) provide
attenuation for low-order non-characteristic harmonics, including background dis-
tortion on the 400 kV supply network.
7.4.2 Features of the Supply Network

There are several nuclear power stations in Northern France which ensure a strong
400 kV system at Les Mandarins; no additional dynamic reactive support or
harmonic filtering was considered to be necessary to support the operation of the
French Converter Station. In contrast, the features of the 400 kV network in South
East England are less conducive to the connection of a large HVDC terminal.
Dungeness is the only generating station near to the Sellindge Converter Station.
When in export mode from England, most of the power needs to be drawn from a
more remote group of power stations on the Thames Estuary, Fig. 37.
Fig. 37 400 kV supplies to

Sellindge Converter Station
The short-circuit level at the Sellindge 400 kV terminal is normally not less than
9 GVA, but under summer light load conditions, it is about 6 GVA; it might even fall
to 4 GVA under severe outage conditions. Operation of the Converter Station should
not cause disturbance to other customers. When the shunt capacitor banks are
switched in or out, the voltage step change should not exceed 1.5% at a short-
circuit level of 9 GVA. Harmonic distortion on the 400 kV network should be
limited to 1% for an individual harmonic and 1.5% total rss (root sum of squares)
distortion. The rate of change of the transmitted power should be slow enough to
avoid interference with normal frequency and voltage control strategies for the
network. A scheduled change from no load to full load and vice versa takes
approximately 30 min. Unscheduled changes of transmitted power (for example,
due to faults) are much more problematic and need special precautions to mitigate
their effects.
7.4.3 The Need for Dynamic Mvar Support

A fault in either the English or the French network can lead to blocking of the
converters, with total loss of power flow and reactive demand. If the converters are
disconnected and the capacitor banks tripped immediately, it will take 30 min for full
power to be restored. The alternative is to keep the capacitor banks connected and to
try to recover converter control and pre-fault power flow as soon as the fault
(in England or in France) has been cleared. This causes a potentially severe voltage
swell on the 400 kV system. The overvoltage is greater for the power export
condition, and, at the short-circuit level of 6 GVA in summer, the overvoltage
could reach 1.4 per unit. A temporary overvoltage of this magnitude would be
completely unacceptable for consumers at the distribution level, which has a normal
tolerance of 6%.
In order to reduce short-time overvoltages to a more acceptable level of
about 15%, fast-acting equipment capable of absorbing at least 900 Mvar was
needed. The capabilities of synchronous compensators and thyristor-controlled
SVCs were evaluated, but it was found difficult to achieve designs which
reconciled normal continuous operation and the severe overload duties (Allon
et al. 1982).
Because of their transformer-like construction, SVCs using saturated reactors
have a very large inherent short-time overload capability and are well able to satisfy
both normal and overload compensating duties.
7.4.4 SVC Performance Requirements

The 400 kV network is normally operated within the voltage range of 5%, i.e.,
between 380 kV and 420 kV. The compensating equipment was specified to be able
to operate continuously between a capacitive generation of 300 Mvar at 380 kV and
an inductive absorption of 300 Mvar at 420 kV. The nominal dynamic characteristic
has a slope of 5%: the nominal “float” condition is 0 Mvar at 400 kV, but the float
condition must be adjustable between 380 kV and 420 kV. The dynamic character-
istic gives a change of 600 Mvar in response to a voltage change of 10% and thus
394 D. J. Young
Fig. 38 Voltage-Mvar characteristic for SVC at Sellindge
makes a contribution of 6000 MVA to the effective short-circuit capacity of the

400 kV network at Sellindge and therefore reduces its sensitivity to switching of the
HVDC capacitor banks.
With regard to the short-time overload duty, many network faults are cleared very
quickly, within two to three cycles, and the preset power flow can be quickly
restored, but allowance must be made for some faults to persist for longer periods;
the HVDC shunt capacitor banks will remain connected to allow for power flow to
be restored after this longer delay. If, however, converter control has not been
restored within 300 ms, circuit breaker tripping is initiated; the HVDC converters
and capacitor circuits are interrupted within a further 55 ms. The overload absorption
capability of the SVC installation was specified as 3.3 pu (990 Mvar), for 0.5 s, at
1.165 pu voltage (corresponding to the design slope of 5% on 300 Mvar). Fig. 38
illustrates the specified requirements, with the envelope for the required continuous
range shown shaded.
Because the HVDC capacitor/filters had already been specified, it was necessary
to arrange that the compensation equipment would not compromise the harmonic
performance and ratings of these 400 kV capacitor banks.
7.4.5 The SVC Equipment

The compensation equipment is subdivided into two identical SVCs, each with a
dynamic range of 150 Mvar within a total rated Mvar range of 150 Mvar. The
SVCs are based on treble tripler saturated reactors; they include series slope-
correction capacitors and fixed and switchable shunt capacitors; they are connected
to the 400 kV system by stepdown transformers.
The saturation voltage of each treble tripler (the knee of the voltage-current
characteristic) is 56.6 kV, and its slope characteristic is 11% on rated current. The
slope-correcting series capacitor circuit is connected to the neutral terminals of

the saturated reactor, so that it is not vulnerable to through-fault currents. It has
the same nominal impedance as the saturated reactor; consequently, the net
impedance of the saturated reactor, seen from its line terminals, is zero, and
this creates a constant voltage busbar at 56.6 kV. The slope-correcting capacitors
include a damping bypass circuit, which prevents the generation of subharmonic
currents, and a discharge voltage transformer to ensure readiness for
re-energizing within a few cycles. Although the slope-correction circuit is rated
to withstand the specified half-second overload duty, some transient conditions
could impose even higher voltage stresses; therefore nonlinear resistors are
connected in parallel with the capacitors to ensure that all overvoltages are
limited to safe values. The capacitor units in the slope-correction circuits are
fitted with internal fuses.
The capacitive output range requires each SVC to include shunt capacitor banks
which can be switched out when the SVC inductive range is needed. The 56.6 kV
voltage does not change when the SVC filters are switched in or out, so that SVC
capacitor switching causes no net Mvar change on the 400 kV network.
The overall 5% slope of the SVCs, seen from the 400 kV busbars, is
provided by the reactance of the 150 MVA, 400/56.6 kV stepdown trans-
formers. The transformers have on-load tap changers so that the SVC float
voltage can be adjusted through the range 400 kV 5%, if required by system
conditions.
The harmonic studies showed a particular need to avoid amplification of the
non-characteristic second and third harmonics, which can always be present as
low-amplitude background distortion of the network voltage. Third harmonic cur-
rents can be generated by inherent phase unbalances in the converters as well as
unbalances in the 400 kV voltage. Any unbalance in the French network will
generate a second harmonic modulation of the direct current, which is converted
into third harmonic currents by the converters at Sellindge.
In order to coordinate the filtering characteristics of the SVC shunt capacitors
with the 400 kV shunt capacitor banks, two small filters are permanently
connected in parallel with the saturated reactors; one is tuned to just below
third harmonic, and the other is a “C” Filter,1 which is broadly tuned to damp
any incipient second harmonic distortion. Two larger filter capacitor banks, which
are also tuned to just below third harmonic, are switched when needed to satisfy
the requirements for leading vars. The shunt capacitor units are fitted with
1
Friedlander needed to identify a filter design which would provide damping for low order harmonic
frequencies without introducing significant losses at fundamental frequency. He compared about
eight possibilities and decided to use the third item in his alphabetical list, “C”. Thus, “C-Filter”
became the shorthand reference for this filter arrangement.
396 D. J. Young
Fig. 39 Oscillogram of switching a 56.6 kV filter
external, expulsion-type fuses. All the shunt filters include discharge voltage
transformers. All the linear reactors for the filter and the bypass circuits are of
the air-cored, air-cooled design. The rapid discharge of switched capacitor volt-
age can be seen in Fig. 39.
A detailed single-line diagram for one SVC is presented in Fig. 40.
400kV
X
X CB X
SDT
SASC SVC 2
56 6kV
ET
X CB X CB
SR
SAL
LSTA LSTA LUTA LCF
RCF
CSTA CSTA CUTA DVT SC BC
BL
CACF
DVT DVT DVT DVT DVT
DVT NLR
N N N BR
STA STA UTA CHCF
N
CF
Slope Correction Circuit
Fig. 40 Single-line diagram of one SVC. See the component identifications below the figure
SDT Stepdown transformer

ET Earthing transformer
SR Saturated reactor
(C ) (L ) STA (Capacitor) (inductor) switched tuned arm
(C ) (L ) UTA (Capacitor) (inductor) unswitched tuned arm
(CM) (CA) (L) (R) CF (Main capacitor) (auxiliary capacitor) (inductor) (resistor) “C” filter
SC Series capacitor
B (C ) (L ) (R ) Bypass (capacitor) (inductor) (resistor)
DVT Discharge voltage transformer
NLR Non-linear resistor
SA (SC) (L) Surge arrester (static compensator) (reactor)
CB Circuit breaker
N Star point of filter arm (isolated)
Fig. 41 is a photograph of one of the SVCs at Sellindge. The treble tripler is in a

noise enclosure in the center of the picture. The switched filters are in the foreground
and the slope correction circuits in the background.
While the SVC design was in progress, CEGB (the Central Electricity Generating
Board, now named National Grid) identified that dynamic Mvar support was also
required, for system operational reasons, on the 400 kV network to the west of the
Dungeness nuclear power station. CEGB decided to locate this at Ninfield, about
398 D. J. Young
Fig. 41 View of one SVC at Sellindge
30 miles from Sellindge, and to use an SVC identical to those at Sellindge. This
decision did not affect the design of the main SVC components but resulted in small
changes to the harmonic filter specifications.
The commissioning tests were completed smoothly in only 8 days, and the SVCs at
Sellindge were taken into service in 1984 in advance of the start of commissioning of
the HVDC equipment. The SVC at Ninfield was taken into service a few months later
(Brewer et al. 1986). During rare system and converter disturbances, the SVCs have
responded fully in accordance with the design specification and performance objec-
tives and remain in service as essential components of the Sellindge Converter Station.
References
Ainsworth, J.D., Cooper, C.B., Friedlander, E., Thanawala H.L.: Long distance AC transmission
using static voltage stabilisers and switched linear reactors. CIGRE, 31–01 (1974)
Allon, H., Gardner, G.E., Harris, L.A., Thanawala, H.L., Welch, I.M., Young, D.J.: Dynamic
compensation for the England-France 2000 MW Link. CIGRE, 14–04 (1982)
J. AIEE. 40, 1017–1077 (1921)
Brewer, G.L., Horwill, C., Thanawala, H.L., Welch, I.M., Young, D.J.: The application of static var
compensators to the English terminal of the 2000 MW HVDC cross channel link. CIGRE,
14–07 (1986)
CIGRE TB 25: Static var compensators; WG 38-01, Task Force 2, (1986)
Clegg, E., Heath, A.J., Young, D.J.: The static compensator for the British Steel Corporation –
anchor project. In: IEE International Conference on Sources and Effects of Power System
Disturbances, IEE Conference Publication 110, (1974)
Concordia, C., Levoy, L.G., Thomas, C.H.: Selection of buffer reactors and synchronous con-
densers on power systems supplying arc furnace loads. AIEE Trans. 76(part 2), 170–183 (1957)
Dixon, G.F.L., Friedlander, E., Seddon, F., Young, D.J.: Static shunt compensation for voltage-flicker
suppression. In: IEE Symposium on Transient, Fluctuating and Distorting Loads and their Effects
on Power Systems and Communications; paper no 7, February 1963. IEE Conference Report
Series No 8, Abnormal loads on power systems, p. 49. (1964)
DRP 592510, Friedlander, (1931)
Easton, V., Fisher, F.J., Friedlander, E.: A 100 MVA Transductor for Testing Alternators; paper
117, CIGRE (1958)
Friedlander, E.: Uber Kippschwingungen, insbesondere bei Elektronenrohren; Doctoral thesis,
Berlin 1926, also Archiv fur Elektrotechnik, vol 16, p 273 and vol 17, p 1. (1926)
Friedlander, E.: Selbstattige Blindstromkompensation auf langen Hochspannungsleitungen; Sie-
mens Zeitschrift, p. 494. (1930)
Friedlander, E.: Der Spannungsgleichhalten, ein verzögerungsarmes, statisches Regelgerät zum
Ausgleich von Wechselspannungschwankungen; Siemens Zeitschrift 15, 177–181 (1935)
Friedlander, E.: Grundlagen der Ausnutzung hochster Eisensattigungen fur die starkstrom technik;
ETZ, Ausgabe A, 11 Feb 1958
Friedlander, E.: Static network stabilization: recent progress in reactive power control. GEC J. Sci.
Technol. 33(2), 58–65 (1966)
Friedlander, E, Jones, K.M.: Saturated reactors for long distance bulk transmission lines. Electr.
Rev., 27 June 1969
Friedlander, E., Young, D.J.: The Quin-reactor for Voltage Stabilisation. Electr. Rev. 126–9, 22 July 1966
Friedlander, E., Telahun, A., Young, D.J.: Arc-furnace flicker compensation in Ethiopia. GEC
J. Sci. Technol. 32(1), 2–10 (1965)
Griscom, S.B.: A mechanical analogy to the problem of transmission stability. Pittsburgh, Electr J.
23, 230–5 (1926)
Kennedy, M.W., Loughran, J., Young, D.J.: Application of a static suppressor to reduce voltage
fluctuations caused by a multiple arc furnace installation. In: IEE Conference on Sources and
Effects of Power System Disturbances, IEE Conference Publication No 110, (1974)
Lowe, S.K.: Static var compensators and their applications in Australia. IEE Power Eng. J. 3(5),
247–256 (1989)
Rudenberg, R.: Elektrische Hochleistungsubertragung auf weite Entfernung; pp. 182–239.
Springer, Berlin (1932)
David J Young, David Young was educated at King Edward’s

School, Birmingham, and read Mechanical Sciences at Cambridge
University. After joining the General Electric Company (GEC), he
was appointed as Assistant to the Company’s Consultant,
Dr. Erich Friedlander, at Witton, Birmingham. He was immedi-
ately involved in the early development of static var compensators
(SVC) for flicker correction and then for their wider application in
transmission and distribution systems. He became the Chief Engi-
neer responsible for SVC and FACTS projects using saturated
reactors and power electronic devices, initially at Trafford Park,
Manchester, and then at Stafford where he was also responsible for
harmonic filter design, including filters for HVDC projects. He
was appointed as a Consultant after the company became part of
Alstom and worked as an independent consultant after retiring. He
was a member of the Disturbances Study Committee of UIE
400 D. J. Young
(International Union for Electro-heat, now the International Union

for Electricity Applications) which specified and produced the
UIE/IEC Flickermeter. He also served on the IEE (Institution of
Electrical Engineers) Panel P9 and was a member of several
CIGRE Working Groups reporting on the application of SVCs
and on reactive compensation and harmonic filtering for HVDC.
In 1996 he was awarded GEC’s Nelson Gold Medal and he
received the IEEE PES FACTS Award in 2000.
Development of Magnetically Controlled
Shunt Reactors in Russia 11
Sergey V. Smolovik and Alexander M. Bryantsev
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
2 The Need for Reactive Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
3 Development of Magnetically Controlled Shunt Reactors in Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
4 MCSR Operation Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
4.1 Mathematical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
4.2 Higher Harmonics Suppression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
4.3 A Model for Stability Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
5 Magnetically Controlled Shunt Reactor Operation Experience in 110–500 kV
Power Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
5.1 Overview of the MCSRs in Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
5.2 Benefits of the MCSRs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
5.3 Voltage Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
5.4 Power System Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
6 Tavricheskaya MCSR, Siberia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Abstract
The large area covered by Russia and other CIS countries’ power grid combined with
variable load schedules result in the possibility of considerable voltage rises during
low-load periods, because of excessive reactive power generated by the overhead line
capacitance. To manage this potential problem, controllable shunt compensation
using magnetically controlled shunt reactors (MCSR) was developed to improve
S. V. Smolovik (*)
JSV “STC UPS”, Saint-Petersburg, Russia
e-mail: smolovik@ntcees.ru
A. M. Bryantsev
JSV “ESCO”, Moscow, Russia
e-mail: amb-amb@mail.ru

402 S. V. Smolovik and A. M. Bryantsev
voltage control during normal operation and to increase the small signal stability and
transient stability performance of the long-distance transmission systems.
Since 1999, some 8.4 Gvar of MCSR have been produced and installed in HV
and EHV grids of Russia and other countries. This chapter provides some
technical details of these controllers and provides a typical application example.
1 Introduction
As has been explained in ▶ Chaps. 2, “AC System Characteristics,” and ▶ 3, “AC

Network Control Using Conventional Means,” long transmission lines may require
reactive power compensation, to keep the voltage within the desired limits. When the
line load varies over a large range, the reactive power compensation may need to be
switched in and out depending on the power flow. However, when conventional
switchgear is used for this purpose, the time taken to switch the reactors may not be
acceptable in case of faults in the network. Furthermore, frequent switching will
result in the need for more switchgear maintenance.
Controlled variable reactive power control provides a solution to the control of
the line voltage and can also provide support to the AC network during disturbances,
resulting in increased stability margin. ▶ Chap. 10, “Controllers Using the Satura-
tion of Iron for AC Network Control” in this Green Book has described how, in the
1960s, the nonlinear saturation characteristics of iron was used for variable reactive
power control in transmission networks.
This chapter describes the magnetically controlled shunt reactor (MCSR) systems
developed in Russia. The need for these controllers arose from the very long
transmission lines required because of the large area covered by Russia and other
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) countries. The power grid also had very
significant daily and seasonal variations of power flow. This resulted in the possi-
bility of considerable voltage rise during low load periods because of excessive
reactive power generated by the overhead line capacitance. To manage this potential
problem, controllable shunt compensation using magnetically controlled shunt reac-
tors (MCSR) was developed to improve voltage control during normal operation and
to increase the small disturbance and transient stability performance of the long-
distance transmission systems.
This chapter describes the problem to be solved and provides information about
the operation of the MCSR, the MCSRs in service at the time of writing (2019), and
the description of a typical MCSR installation.
2 The Need for Reactive Power Control
As explained in ▶ Chaps. 2, “AC System Characteristics,” and ▶ 3, “AC Net-

work Control Using Conventional Means” in this Green Book, the conventional
shunt reactor is one of the most important long-distance transmission system
11 Development of Magnetically Controlled Shunt Reactors in Russia 403
elements without which normal operation would face considerable technical

difficulties (Bernard et al. 1996). Reactors are normally switched on to the
transmission grid to avoid overvoltage operation of the power system under
light loads. This improves the power factor and reduces the losses associated
with large reactive power flows in the system. However, it is not economical to
use a multitude of small switched reactors to optimize the system power
factor, Therefore, larger reactors are used, which either overcompensate or
undercompensate the power system, which results in larger reactive power
flows than desirable and, consequently, results in higher than desired power
system losses. That is, the power system operation is suboptimal. The reactors
of course also have power losses (both no load and load losses when connected)
of their own.
As described in the ▶ Chap. 3, AC Network Control Using Conventional
Means,” the main disadvantages of the conventional switched reactors are potential
operational problems due to the lack of fast switching capability. The need to prevent
over-voltages results in the reactors having to be in operation regardless of the
transmitted power, which reduces the power transfer capability.
The installation of a controllable reactive power device with voltage control
capability at an intermediate point of a long transmission line gives the advantage
of line sectioning, increasing the transmission line’s power transfer capability.
The reactive power consumed by a controllable reactive power device connected
to the transmission line can be coordinated with the power flow through the line. The
transfer capability is then only limited by the permissible current through the
conductors (Belyaev and Smolovik 2003).
A controllable reactive power device can be used as an alternative to a synchro-
nous condenser, or a Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) (Gama 1999;
Gerin-Lajoie et al. 1990).
Information about the alternative FACTS Controllers can be found in this Green
Book in the chapters in the following parts:
Part 2 – Technical Description of FACTS Controllers

Part 3 – Applications of FACTS Controllers
• ▶ Controllers Using the Saturation of Iron for AC Network Control

3 Development of Magnetically Controlled Shunt Reactors

in Russia
In Russia, the MCSR is used for reactive power shunt compensation in EHV long-
distance transmission lines. The MCSR performs the following functions:
• Control of the line voltage without using circuit breakers in automatic switching
systems
• Decreasing power losses in networks by management of reactive power flows
• Improving the operational reliability by reducing the number of transformer
on-load tap-changer operations
• Increasing the small signal stability margin
• Improving power system damping
• Minimizing the use of synchronous generators as controlled sources of reactive
power
The MCSR has been applied at 110, 220, and 330 kV substations with ratings of
25, 100, and 180 Mvar, respectively, within and outside the former USSR power
systems.
4 MCSR Operation Principles
The MCSR is a powerful three-phase extension of a magnetic amplifier with inverse-

parallel connection of control windings as shown in the left part of Fig. 1. The
MCSR has a steel magnetic core and two windings. One of the windings, namely, the
power winding is connected to the electrical grid (UHV), while the second winding,
the control winding, is connected to a DC voltage source of controlled magnitude
(Uc). The power and control windings are inverse-parallel connected and the two
cores do not have direct electromagnetic coupling.
The control winding is fed by a power electronics controlled rectifier providing
variable DC magnetization current. In terms of small disturbance stability, the
MCSR equivalent time constant Tp is about 3–4 s. However, the time constant can
be decreased in special cases by application of magnetic field forcing for a short
period down to Tp = 0.1 s.
Figure 1 illustrates three operating levels, i.e., idling (I), rated load (II), and rated
overload (III). To increase or decrease the phase current, the DC control voltage UC
is changed as shown in the blue line in the third graph, which also shows the system
voltage. The controlled current increases as the iron saturates, as can be seen in the
second graph. When the desired change in the phase current has been achieved, the
control voltage is returned to a very low value, sufficient to maintain the controlled
current amplitude at the chosen level. The controlled current remains at the same
value as long as UC remains constant. The magnetic fluxes can be seen in the fourth
part of Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Principle diagram of a magnetically controlled electrical reactor phase and typical plots of
voltages and currents of a controllable reactor phase (UHV, IHV – voltage and current of the power
grid; Uc, Ic – control voltage and current)
Each of the phase windings creates its own magnetic flux: the power winding
creates an alternating flux of the fundamental frequency, while the control winding
produces a constant biasing magnetization flux of controllable magnitude. The
constant biasing flux biases the alternating flux to the area of saturation of the
magnetization curve, which results in the change of the inductance of the device.
See ▶ Chap. 10, “Controllers Using the Saturation of Iron for AC Network Control”
in this Green Book which provides more details on the saturation characteristics
of iron.
The plots of voltage and current variation characterizing this process are shown
on the right hand side of Fig. 1. When the terminals of the power winding are
connected to the electrical grid, and there is no energy stored in the control loop
(Uc, Ic), alternating fluxes of equal value and direction are produced in the split core.
The fluxes do not exceed the saturation flux in any section of the magnetic core, and
the current in the power winding is practically equal to zero (IHV 0). That
operating condition is the no-load conditions. The graph of the current and voltage
variations in this case is presented in Fig. 1 for time interval I.
When energy is applied to or removed from the control loop (Uc Ic > 0 or
Uc Ic < 0), the transient process of the increase or decrease of power grid current
IHV and control current Ic takes place (time intervals I – II, III – I). The average power
of the control loop is about 5% of the rated capacity of the controllable reactor in
order to achieve the transition from one stationary mode to another in about two
periods of the system voltage frequency.
However, this is necessary only during the transition. In any steady state mode,
for instance, in the semiperiodic (nominal) mode or the full-period (maximum) one,
the power consumed by the control loop reduces sharply, since it is necessary only to
compensate the ohmic losses in the control winding and this power is less than 1% of
the rated power.
Advantages of the MCSR compared with an SVC using a coupling transformer:
• Relatively low cost (approximately 150–200% of a conventional transformer of

the same rated power).
• Small footprint (105% of conventional transformer of the same rated power).
• Grid connection without additional transformer when line connected.
Drawbacks:
A relatively large time constant (0.1 s) causing a slow response compared to
an SVC.
4.1 Mathematical Model
Figure 2 shows the diagram of a magnetically controlled reactor and a possible

electric equivalent. The diagram is explained below.
• In the equivalent circuit, Lnet. and Lcon. are the inductances of the power and
control windings, respectively, with the magnetic system completely saturated;
• α is the firing angle of the thyristors corresponding to the time interval for which
the core is saturated during the half-period of the system voltage, expressed in
electrical degrees.
• The complete range of possible operating modes corresponds to the range of α
variations from 0 to π. For example,
Fig. 2 Diagram of a magnetically controlled reactor (left) and a possible electric equivalent (right)
– The firing angle of thyristors of α = 0 corresponds to the no-load conditions of

the reactor operation.
– The angle of α = π/2 corresponds to the mode of semiperiodic saturation
(nominal operating conditions).
– The angle of α = π is the mode of maximum current consumption or full-
period saturation.
The equivalent functional scheme is not only a representation that allows the
technical performance of a controllable electrical reactor in the power system to be
described using the combination of well-known devices. It also reflects the economic
potential of controllable reactors. The reactor is equivalent to a transformer which has
double-wound windings of comparable capacity and voltage in terms of losses and
material consumption. At the same time, the functionality of the reactor corresponds to
the widely used thyristor controlled reactor (SVC) connected to the high-voltage grid
through a coupling transformer. Thereby, rather than combining a coupling trans-
former with a reactor and a thyristor switch connected in-series (an SVC), we have
only one transformer-type device, in which the inductances of the windings perform
the function of a reactor and the controlled saturation of the core acts as the inverse-
parallel thyristor pair in the SVC. Thus, instead of three power elements there is one,
the cost of which is comparable with the three aforementioned.
The voltage and current of a MCSR is shown in Fig. 3.
The plots presented in Fig. 3 have been obtained by calculations performed in
accordance with the circuit diagram of Fig. 2 (left side) using computer software.
These graphs can also be reproduced with high accuracy using the equivalent
Fig. 3 Typical plots of voltages and currents of a controllable reactor phase

functional scheme in Fig. 2 (right), in which a phase of the controllable reactor is

presented as an inverse-parallel thyristor pair with linear inductances connected
in-series. In Fig. 3, Vnet is the voltage of power grid and Inet is the reactor current.
Correspondingly Vcon and Icon are the voltage and current of the control winding.
4.2 Higher Harmonics Suppression
The design of the magnetic system of MCSR is performed so that the operation
with the rated absorption of reactive power is close to so-called half-cycle
saturation mode (when the resulting induction of each of the cores is more than
the saturation induction of the steel during half of the period), as in this mode,
half-cores will be alternately saturated (each for half of the period of the fre-
quency) and hence the current of the MCSR in this operating mode does not
contain harmonics (Bryantsev 2010; Dmitriev et al. 2013). Figure 4 presents the
Fig. 4 Current in the power i(t), A

winding of the reactor in half- 300
cycle mode (180 MVA,
500 kV reactor, rated current 200
207 A)
100
−100
−200
−300
0 0,005 0,010 0,015 0,020 0,025 0,030 0,035 t, sec
i, A
200
160
120
80
40
0
3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29
harmonic №
Fig. 5 Current in the power i(t), A

winding of the reactor for the 300
consumption of 40% of rated
power
200
100
−100
−200
−300
0 0,005 0,010 0,015 0,020 0,025 0,030 0,035 t, sec
i, A
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 3 5 7 9 11
harmonic №
current of the power winding and its harmonic composition for the half-cycle
mode of reactor operation.
Intermediate operating conditions of reactive power consumption between
no-load and the half-cycle saturation conditions are considered in Fig. 5.
The power of the reactor is controlled by varying the direct component of
magnetic induction in the half-cores by changing the current in the control
winding. Consequently, it is necessary to reduce current in the control winding
in order to cause the reactor to absorb less than the rated power. As the
magnitude of current in the control winding is reduced, the direct component
of magnetic induction decreases. The decrease in the direct component of
induction will result in a reduction of the part of the period for which each of
the half-cores is in the saturated state. Correspondingly, the saturated states of
each half-core will alternate with the periods within which they are both not
saturated. Therefore, the current in the power winding of the reactor will
decrease, and the waveform of the current will be distorted by higher harmonic
components.
In Fig. 5, the plot of the power winding current and its harmonic composition
are presented for the mode of 40% of rated power consumption. It is evident
that the current curve is distorted to a considerable degree. According to Fig. 5,
the odd harmonics from the third to the ninth are clearly represented. The
total distortion current constitutes 42.3% of the peak value of the first
harmonic current, but it makes up 12.8% or 0.13 p.u. with respect to the rated
current.
The maximum of the third harmonics corresponds to the power winding current
of 80 A (about 40% of the rated power). At that current, the effective value of the
third harmonic current totals about 25 A or 12.6% of the rated current of the
reactor.
It is obvious that the distortion in the waveform of the power winding current is
caused mainly by the third harmonic component. As a rule, in order to compensate
the third and other odd triplen harmonics, the design solution is to connect a special
(compensation) winding of the reactor with delta connection. The compensation
winding (CW) serves two main functions:
• It reduces the triplen harmonic components;

• It serves as a supply secondary winding of the reactor, to which converters
providing the magnetic biasing of the reactor’s magnetic conductor are connected
along with filtering and compensating units (FCU), if they are required.
The influence of the compensation winding on the harmonic composition of

current in the power winding can be seen from comparison of Fig. 6a and Fig. 6b,
by example of the 40% of rated power consumption, in which the third harmonic
component in the power winding current was maximum.
Without the compensation winding, the resulting distortion current constituted
0.13 p.u. (12.8% with respect to the rated current of the reactor), while the
presence of the delta-connected winding causes this parameter to decrease to
0.04 p.u. with full compensation of the third and ninth harmonic components. It
should be mentioned that the use of only two low-capacity FCUs adjusted to
compensate the fifth and seventh harmonic components permits eliminating the
distortion of the power winding current almost completely in some operating
condition.
The MCSR rated mode is close to the half-cycle saturation condition, in which
there is no distortion of the power winding current. In the compensation winding,
only odd triplen harmonic currents are prevented. The largest is the third harmonic. It
is evident that under the rated conditions, the current in the compensation winding
will be low because of the absence of distortion, while the maximum of the
compensation winding current takes place when the device carries about 50% of
the rated load.
a
i(t),A i, A
300 60
200 50
100 40
0 30
−100 20
−200 10
−300 0
0 0,005 0,010 0,015 0,020 0,025 0,030 0,035 0,040 1 3 5 7 9 11
t, sec harmonic №
b
300 60
200 50
100 40
0 30
−100 20
−200 10
−300 0
0 0,005 0,010 0,015 0,020 0,025 0,030 0,035 0,040 1 3 5 7 9 11
t, sec harmonic №
Fig. 6 Currents in the power winding and its harmonic composition in the condition of 40% of the
rated power consumption. (a) CW is open; (b) CW is closed
4.3 A Model for Stability Study
The concept of defining a magnetically controlled reactor as a transformer-type

device performing the equivalent functions of a semiconductor device was devel-
oped as the base of all the developments carried out during the last 10 years and
allowed the existing developments both in the area of transformer-building industry
and power electronics to be used.
Generally, MCSR control law for power system stability investigations can be
expressed as follows:

K 1u s
ð1 þ pT R ÞbR ¼ bR0 þ K 0u þ ΔV R ,
1 þ sT 1u
Where:
• bR, bR0 are actual and initial (in previous stable operation) MCSR conductivity,
respectively.
• K0u, K1u are the terminal voltage deviation ΔUp and its derivative control gains.
• TR is the equivalent time constant of the MCSR control system.
• T1u is the voltage derivative control loop’s time constant.
5 Magnetically Controlled Shunt Reactor Operation

Experience in 110–500 kV Power Grids
Controllable shunt reactors have proved efficient in increasing the reliability of the
Unified Power System (UPS) grid of Russia due to its capability to normalize the
operating conditions for the transmission lines and power generators (Belyaev et al.
2016; Bryantsev 2010). Operation of long transmission lines of high and extra-high
voltage classes showed that for the full utilization of the flow capacity, it is required
to control the line reactor’s absorption of reactive power depending on the actual
power transmission. The most vivid example was the reduction of the natural power
capacity of the 1150 kV overhead line “Ekibastuz-Kokshetau-Kostanai-Chelya-
binsk” by more than 50%, due to use of unregulated shunt reactors for reactive
power compensation when putting the line in test operation in 1984. Today, a bias-
controlled shunt reactor using the extreme saturation of the magnetic circuit sections
has become the most widespread option (Bryantsev et al. 2006; Belyaev et al. 2016).
5.1 Overview of the MCSRs in Operation
MCSR implementation began in 1997, when a pilot MCSR prototype of

RTU-25000/110-U1 version, as described below, was produced. In 1998, the reactor
passed comprehensive tests and subsequently entered trial operation at the VEI STC
test site in Togliatti. Afterwards, the reactor was sent to the Northern Electric
Networks, Permenergo (Russian Federation), and was installed at the 110 kV sub-
station “Kudymkar.” In September 1999, it was put into operation, together with the
existing static shunt capacitors (SSC) which has a capacity of 52 Mvar. It was the
first successful experience of the MCSR in commercial operation.
The MCSR (110 kV 25,000 kVA) installed at substation “Kudymkar” Permenergo
has been in operation for more than 19 years already (Bryantsev et al. 2006). In fact, a
controllable reactive power source (RPS) was implemented, featuring a parallel con-
nection of MCSR and the capacitor bank to provide a smooth regulation of reactive
power both in the mode of absorption (within the rated power of the reactor) and in the
mode of generation (within the rated power of the capacitors).
To date in Russia and in some other countries (Kazakhstan, Belarus, Lithuania,
and Angola), a large number of controlled shunt reactors with a total capacity of
more than 8000 Mvar (Fig. 7 and Table 1) have been commissioned. The majority of
the MCSR, with a total capacity of more than 6200 Mvar, are installed in Russia.
Capacity, Mvar
9000 8374
MCSR capacity (as a part of RPS)
8000
MCSR capacity (separate units) 6996
7000
Total CSR capacity
6000
5143
4738
5000 6834
3903
4000 6161
3000 2478 4668

2153 4308
2000 3473
1183
823 2123
1000 1898
480
305 330 1540
25 835
255 355 430 430 475
0
1998 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Fig. 7 Total Capacity of MCSR produced, January 2014
Table 1 MCSR characteristics of different voltage classes

Voltage class, kV Quantity Power, Mvar Country
10 6 10 60 Russia
Kazakhstan
35 9 25 + 4 10 265 Russia
Kazakhstan
110 31 25 + 1 63 838 Russia
Kazakhstan
220 2 25 + 1 60 + 7 63 + 20 100 2551 Russia,
Kazakhstan,
Angola
330 4 180 720 Russia, Belarus,
Lithuania
400 7 100 700 Angola
500 18 180 3240 Russia
Kazakhstan
Total 110 8374
At the time of writing (2019), none of the equipment listed in Fig. 7 had reported
any failures, and the first MCSR has already been in service more than 19 years.
5.2 Benefits of the MCSRs
The 330 kV switch yard of the Ignalina nuclear power plant (NPP, Lithuania) is a
major distribution node of the Lithuanian high-voltage power grid, which is part of
Fig. 8 Electrical network

330 kV of Baltic republics
the Baltic Unified Power System (UPS). Six 330 kV overhead lines (one of which is
dimensioned to 750 kV requirements) are connected to switchyard buses, to connect
with the power systems of Lithuania, Latvia, and Belarus. The power network
around Ignalina is shown in Fig. 8.
The 750 kV power transmission line (thick black line in the figure) operates at a
voltage of 330 kV. The capacitive charging capacity of the adjacent power lines
connected to the Ignalina substation is about 280 Mvar
Maintaining acceptable voltage and its stabilization in the nodal points of the
power system are critical for ensuring the operational reliability of the equipment.
Until 2008, voltage regulation in the 330-kV grid caused some difficulties because of
the limited choice of control facilities. Excessive reactive power generated by power
lines in the Ignalina area (up to 400 Mvar) made it necessary to limit the voltage
levels during the summer and daily minimum. To control the reactive power and
voltage at the Ignalina substation, two NPP turbine generators were operated in an
under-excited mode consuming up to 280 Mvar. The absorption of reactive power by
generators was limited to ensure acceptable power system stability conditions and
usually did not exceed 150 Mvar.
In accordance with international agreements, one of the conditions of entry of
Lithuania into the European Community was to close the Ignalina NPP, followed by
the possible construction of several new units on the site. Thus at least for
10–15 years, the 330 kV switch yard would be without control facilities for the
reactive power generated by the above transmission lines at minimum loads, leading
to unacceptable rise of operating voltages. Therefore, in accordance with research
findings, it was recommended to install a MCSR at the 330 kV busbars at Ignalina
substation. The MCSR was installed in August 2008.
5.3 Voltage Control
The primary purpose of the MCSR and the MCSR-based reactive power sources
(RPS) is voltage stabilization, reactive power distribution optimization, and reduc-
tion of losses in the high voltage grid. At the same time, the problem of potentially
increasing power oscillations and decreasing dynamic stability of the power system
can be solved.
The accumulated operating experience and research-based recommendations
show three feasible options for the installation of the MCSR and the MCSR-based
RPS in power systems:
• As part of extended intersystem transmission lines of 330, 500 kV;

• At substation (power plant) busbars with a large number of outgoing power
transmission lines or lines transmitting power through a very long overhead line
• In autonomous power systems (or power systems located remotely from high-
capacity sources) with a load requiring high voltage quality
It should be noted that most of the MCSR-based RPS are installed in 110 kV grids
of the oil and gas producing systems for voltage stabilization, facilitation of motor
start operation, and removal of reactive power flows in the grids.
To confirm the need for implementation of the MCSR in the extra-high voltages
grids, the operating characteristics of several substations in the 500 kV Central
Russia Intersystem Power Grid (IPG) were collected. These showed significant
deviation of the voltage levels from the nominal value as shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Nodes in the 500 kV network IPG Center with deviating voltage levels
ΔU, kV QΣ, Mvar
Wint. Wint. Sum. Sum. Wint. Wint. Sum. Sum.
Substation Max min max min Max min max min
Metallurgicheskaya 23,24 12,46 2,7 5,1 87 95 50 18
Staryj Oskol 21,15 10,4 4,61 3,8 296 302 198 131
Cherepoveckaya 0 0 18,66 9,22 0 0 147 153
Vologodskaya 0 0 8,46 2,18 0 0 153 160
Kaluzhskaya 7,9 6,67 0 0 98 74 0 0
Novovoronezhskaya 7,01 11,97 7,55 2,7 45 21 167 112
NPP
Trubnaya 5,33 3,14 0,83 2,92 163 161 163 161
Tambovskaya 4,54 5,38 4,78 15,2 160 166 166 173
Volzhskaya 2,37 0,37 2,1 0,5 395 466 399 466
HPP
Borino 1,32 6,03 0,12 8,76 164 168 164 169
Zvezda 0 0 1,09 2,8 0 0 163 165
Volga 1,06 3,61 4,14 2,36 198 207 199 207
Voronezhskaya 0,73 8,4 0,56 7,86 130 83 122 89
Table 2 provides information on the range of voltages and reactive power flow to the
power facilities located in the territories served by the IPG Center, based on
measurements performed in 2013. The ΔUnom column shows the deviation from
the nominal operating voltage (in absolute units) at different load conditions. The QΣ
column shows the total reactive power flowing to the node (or away from it) of all
adjacent power lines in the considered nodes.
This analysis provides important information enabling recommendations for
installing MCSR (or MCSR-based RPS) to stabilize the voltage, to prevent excessive
reactive power flows in the adjacent grids, and to reduce losses.
Figure 9 shows the deviation of the operating voltage at the nodes from the
nominal voltage. Each location marked on the x-axis provides information for four
different operating modes, using four color columns, showing the variation of the
voltage in different load conditions. The load conditions are winter-max, winter-min,
summer-max, and summer-min, with the colors defined in the chart. The hollow bars
indicate the absolute value of the reactive power that flows into the node in the
corresponding load mode.
This information highlights the relevance of extended implementation of con-
trolled shunt compensation devices in the high-voltage grids of Russia and other
countries with well-developed transmission system with a high content of long AC
lines.
Figure 10 shows an example of the successful application of a 180 Mvar MCSR
on a 500 kV power transmission line installed at the Agadyr substation at the “North-
South” transit system of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Figure 11 shows the voltage
16 ∆Unom, kV Q, Mvar 800

14
12 600
10
8 400
6
4 200
2
0 0
-2
-4 -200
-6
-8 ∆U (winter, max) -400
-10 ∆U (winter, min)
-12 ∆U (summer, max) -600
-14 ∆U (summer, min)
-16 Q (corresponding to ∆U) -800
-18
-20 -1000
-22
-24 -1200
Fig. 9 Facilities in the 500 kV grid of IPG Center with deviating voltage levels
Fig. 10 North South 500 kV

transmission system of the
Republic of Kazakhstan
Fig. 11 The chart of voltage Voltage, kV

change at the 500 kV Agadyr 550
substation before MCSR
commissioning 540
530
520
510
500
490
480
470 Date
01.01.2009 03.01.2009 05.01.2009 07.01.2009 09.01.2009
change at the 500 kV busbar before the commissioning of MCSR. Figure 12 shows
the voltage with the MCSR in operation, which demonstrates much smaller daily
voltage variations.
After the commissioning of the MCSR, the measurements of the voltage in the
period of about 2 weeks, the voltage almost fits into the range of 510–520 kV.
Voltage, kV
530
520
510
500
490
01.10.2010 03.10.2010 05.10.2010 07.10.2010 09.10.2010 11.10.2010 13.10.2010 15.10.2010
Fig. 12 The chart of voltage change at the 500 kV Agadyr substation after commissioning of the
500 kV, 180 Mvar, MCSR
5.4 Power System Damping
Based on the measurement of transients in the large 500 kV power system, and the
impact the installed MCSR parameters and their settings discussed in detail in
Belyaev et al. (2016), it has been shown that the damping properties of power
systems depends mainly on the setting of automatic voltage (excitation) regulators
(AVR) of physical and equivalent generators. As a rule, it appeared that the change
of the time constant (Tcsr) of the MCSR (using continuous MCSR control law on
voltage deviation) within a wide range has little effect on damping performance.
Therefore, it was concluded that a fast response of the MCSR for system issues is not
required.
Table 3 shows the results of the eigenvalue calculations for the model of a simple
transmission system with a long transmission line when a MCSR is installed on
power plant high voltage buses. It was assumed that the power generators operate at
two different power factors (cos (φ) = 0.992, mode 1, and cos (φ) = 0.9, mode 2).
The real root shown in Table 3, in the second mode, is larger in absolute value,
which illustrates the effect of the conditions of steady-state operation (large value of
Table 3 Results of eigenvalue calculations

№ Mode Tcsr = 0.05 s Tcsr = 0.1 s Tcsr = 0.5 s Tcsr = 1 s
Mode 1 0.429 8.233i 0.413 8.20i 0.456 8.016i 0.554 7.975i
0.270 0.268 0.256 0.242
Mode 2 0.373 + 8.566i 0.360 + 8.536i 0.418 + 8.366i 0.514 + 8.337i
0.289 0.2872 0.273 0.257
EMF generator and a smaller transmission angle). A pair of complex roots shows
that the parameters of MCSR insignificantly affect the dynamic stability perfor-
mance – but by increasing the time constant of the reactor, the damping rate is
improved. The determining factor is the availability of automatic excitation controls
with stabilization of the generator (voltage frequency deviation and voltage fre-
quency derivative).
Dmitriev et al. (2013) shows that the losses in the rotor and stator circuits of
power generators in case of power factor (cos (φ)) close to unity is much smaller
compared to the operation at nominal power factor. According to Dmitriev et al.
(2013), for an electric power plant of 2000 MW the potential savings amount to
30 million rubles ($ one million) per year.
6 Tavricheskaya MCSR, Siberia
Figure 13 shows the MCSR at the Tavricheskaya substation in Siberia.

The general specifications of the controllable reactor RTU-180000/500 (put into
operation in 2005 at the 500 kV substation “Tavricheskaya” in Siberia) as confirmed
by factory and field tests is shown in Table 4.
Fig. 13 MCSR at Substation Tavricheskaya, 2005

Table 4 The general specifications of the controllable reactor RTU-180000

Rated capacity (QR) 60 Mvar 3 = 180 Mvar
Dynamic range 5–130% of QR
Rated voltage UR 525 kV
Maximum operation voltage 550 kV
Power winding rated current IR 198 A
Control winding rated voltage at the AC voltage 32 kV
terminals
Rated biasing magnetization current of the control 2000 A
winding (biasing magnetization current)
Minimum time of 5–100% QR power pick-up and 0.3 s
100–5% QR power decrease
Summarized (total) losses at QR and UR Does not exceed 0.5% of QR
Operational losses when daily load factor is within the 0.3% of QR
range of 0.7
Amplitude of any higher harmonic of the current at the UR control mode – not more than 3%
nominal sinusoidal voltage, % of the nominal current of the rated current (IR)
UR and QR control mode – not more
than 1% of IR
Sound power level Not more than 108 dB
Double amplitude of tank wall vibration, average Not more than 150 μm
Top oil temperature rise above ambient Not more than 60 С
Voltage controller droop, % of UR 1–5% of UR
Permitted current overload of power winding (not more 120% of IR
than 30 min)
PW-CW short-circuit voltage 50%
Operating Modes Automatic voltage stabilization of
500 kV buses
Automatic MCSR current control
Manual control of reactive power
and/or current
References
Belyaev, A.N., Smolovik, S.V.: An improvement of AC electrical energy transmission system with
series compensation by implementation of Controllable Shunt Reactors. In: Proceedings of
IEEE PES PowerTech, Bologna (2003)
Belyaev, A.N., Bryantsev, A.M., Smolovik, S.V.: Magnetically controlled shunt reactor operation
experience in 110–500 kV power grids. Cigre Session paper B4-209 (2016)
Bernard, S., Trudel, G., Scott, G.: A 735 kV shunt reactors automatic switching system for Hydro-
Quebec network. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 11(4), 2024–2030 (1996)
Bryantsev, A.M., et al.: Magnetically controlled shunt power reactors. (Collection of articles. 2nd
(expanded) edition. In: Bryantsev, A.M. (eds). Moscow. “Mark” (2010) (in Russian)
Bryantsev, A., Dorofeev, V., Zilberman, M., Sminov, A., Smolovik, S.: Magnetically controlled
shunt reactor application for AC HV and EHV transmission lines. Cigre session paper B4-307
(2006)
Dmitriev M.V., Karpov A.S., Sheskin E.B. Dolgopolov A.G., Kondratenko D.V., Magnetically
controlled shunt reactors, In: Evdokunin, G.A. (eds.) Saint-Petersburg, Publishing House
“Native Ladoga”, 2013 (in Russian), 280 p. ISBN 978-5-905657-07-8. Publishing House
“Native Ladoga” stopped working in 2017 (2013)
Gama, C. Brazilian North-South Interconnection control-application and operating experience with
a TCSC. In: IEEE Power Engineering Society Summer Meeting, vol. 2, pp. 1103–1108,
18–22 July 1999
Gerin-Lajoie, L., Scott, G., Breault, S., Larsen, E.V., Baker, D.H., Imece, A.F.: Hydro-Quebec
multiple SVC application control stability study. IEEE Trans. Power Delivery. 5(3), 1543–1551
(1990)
Sergey V. Smolovik has been with the Department of Electrical

Power Systems and Networks, Leningrad Polytechnic Institute
(later on St.-Petersburg Polytechnical University) since 1966,
serving as assistant professor, associated professor, professor,
and head of the department (1990–2007). His research interests
include power system stability problems as well as the issues of
large energy pools operation, analysis and planning, modeling of
transients in electric power systems. In 2007, he joined the Direct
Current Research Institute (since 2013 Scientific and Technical
Centre of the UPS of Russia, Saint-Petersburg).
Professor, Doctor of technical science, academician of the Acad-
emy of Electrical Sciences of Russian Federation (1993), member
of the IEEE and CIGRE, and honored power engineer of the
Russian Federation (2001).
Alexander M. Bryantsev from 1973 to 1994 worked in the

system of higher education of Kazakhstan in Almaty Energy
Institute (Republic of Kazakhstan), including Head of the Depart-
ment of Theoretical foundations of Electrical Engineering, Dean
of the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, and Vice-rector for sci-
entific work. From 1994 to 2000, he worked in the electrical
industry of the Russian Federation at the Moscow electric plant
“Energy” as deputy technical director, deputy general director for
research. From 2000 to 2006, general director of JSC “Electric
controllable reactors.” Since 2006, founder and chairman of the
Supervisory Board of JSV “Electric grid compensators
(‘ESCO’).” A well-known scientist in the field of development
and application of controllable shunt reactors and reactive power
compensation for high-voltage grid. Author of more than
200 patents.
Professor, Doctor of technical Science, Laureate of the Govern-
ment of the Russian Federation in the field of science and tech-
nology, Academician of the Academy of Electrical Sciences of the
Russian Federation, member of the presidium of scientific council
of public joint stock Сompany “Power Grid of Russia.”
Application Examples of SVC
12
Hong Rao, Shi He, Xiaodan Wu, Marcio M. de Oliveira,
Guillaume de Préville, Colin Davidson, Zhanfeng Deng,
Tuomas Rauhala, Georg Pilz, Bjarne R. Andersen, and Shukai Xu
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
2 Brief Introduction of SVCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
3 SVC in Wuzhou, Guangxi, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
3.1 Application Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
3.2 System Structure and Operating Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
3.3 System Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
4 SVC in Dong Anshan, Liaoning, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
4.3 Main Operating Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
H. Rao
Electric Power Research Institute of China Southern Power Grid (EPRI of CSG),
Guangzhou, China
e-mail: raohong@csg.cn
S. He
Rongxin Huiko (RXHK) Electric Technology Co., Ltd., Anshan, China
e-mail: she@rxhk.com
X. Wu
NR Electric Co., Ltd., Nanjing, China
e-mail: wuxd@nrec.com
M. M. de Oliveira
G. de Préville
GE’s Grid Solutions Business, Massy, France
e-mail: guillaume.de-preville@ge.com
C. Davidson
e-mail: Colin.Davidson@GE.com

424 H. Rao et al.
5 SVCs in Gansu, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437

5.2 SVC System Structure and Operation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
6 SVCs in Holeta Substation, Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
7 SVC Merlatière and Domloup in West France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
8 SVC in Kangasala Substation Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
9 Taoxiang Substation SVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
9.1 Project Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
9.2 Introduction of the Taoxiang SVC System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
9.3 Main Parameters of the Taoxiang SVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
9.4 Technical Characteristics of the Taoxiang SVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
9.5 General Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
10 Relocatable SVCs for National Grid, UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
10.1 Application Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
10.2 System Structure and Operation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
10.3 Main Operating Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
10.4 System Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
11 Nemiscau SVCs in Quebec, Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
11.1 Application Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Z. Deng
Global Energy Interconnection Research Institute (GEIRI), Beijing, China
e-mail: dengzhanfeng@geiri.sgcc.com.cn
T. Rauhala
Fingrid Oyj, Helsinki, Finland
e-mail: tuomas.rauhala@fingrid.fi
G. Pilz
System Engineering and Network Studies for FACTS Installations Worldwide, Siemens, Erlangen,
Germany
e-mail: georg.pilz@siemens.com
B. R. Andersen (*)
S. Xu
HVDC and Power Electronics Department, Electric Power Research Institute of China Southern Power
Grid (EPRI of CSG),
Guangzhou, China
e-mail: xusk@csg.cn
12 Application Examples of SVC 425
11.3 Main Operation Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475

12 Viklandet and Tunnsjødal SVCs in Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
13 Haramain High-Speed Railway (HHR) SVCs in Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
14 Directly Connected SVCs in Texas, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
15 SVCs at Bout De L’Ile (BDI) on the Island of Montreal, Hydro-Quebec, Canada . . . . . . 500
15.2 System Structure and Operating Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
Abstract
The chapter starts with a brief introduction of the SVC technology and then
provides a number of typical applications of the Static Var Compensator (SVC)
from around the world. Some application examples are general transmission
system applications, where the purpose of the SVC is to regulate and support
the AC voltage and to minimize the over- and undervoltages that may occur
during various faults and events in the network. Some examples demonstrate the
ability to improve the power quality, e.g., due to disturbing loads such as arc
furnaces, wind farms, traction loads, etc. Some SVC applications demonstrate the
capability of the SVC to damp power system oscillations and to increase the
power transmission capabilities of the AC system.
1 Introduction
This chapter starts with a brief overview of the design of the SVC. It then provides a
number of examples from around the world of the application of SVCs.
The following examples are included in this chapter:
• An SVC in Wuzhou, Guangxi, China, to increase the transmission capacity of

500 kV transmission lines and to enhance system stability (contribution provided
by Hong Rao, Electric Power Research Institute of China Southern Power Grid
(EPRI of CSG), e-mail: raohong@csg.cn, Shi He, Rongxin Huiko (RXHK)
426 H. Rao et al.
Electric Technology Co., Ltd., e-mail: she@rxhk.com and Xiaodan Wu, NR

Electric Co., Ltd., e-mail: wuxd@nrec.com).
• An SVC in Dong Anshan, Liaoning, China, to stabilize the 66 kV AC voltage,
which was impacted by load changes (contribution provided by Hong Rao,
Electric Power Research Institute of China Southern Power Grid (EPRI of
CSG), e-mail: raohong@csg.cn, Shi He, Rongxin Huiko (RXHK) Electric Tech-
nology Co., Ltd., e-mail: she@rxhk.com and Xiaodan Wu, NR Electric Co., Ltd.,
e-mail: wuxd@nrec.com).
• Two SVCs in Gansu, China, to stabilize the voltage on the 750 kV transmission
line which was impacted by a large wind farm (contribution provided by Hong
Rao, Electric Power Research Institute of China Southern Power Grid (EPRI
of CSG), e-mail: raohong@csg.cn, Shi He, Rongxin Huiko (RXHK) Electric
Technology Co., Ltd., e-mail: she@rxhk.com and Xiaodan Wu, NR Electric Co.,
Ltd., e-mail: wuxd@nrec.com).
• Two SVCs in Holeta substation, Ethiopia, to control the reactive power balance
and voltage on four long 500 kV transmission lines (contribution provided by
Hong Rao, Electric Power Research Institute of China Southern Power Grid
(EPRI of CSG), e-mail: raohong@csg.cn, Shi He, Rongxin Huiko (RXHK)
Electric Technology Co., Ltd., e-mail: she@rxhk.com and Xiaodan Wu,
NR Electric Co., Ltd., e-mail: wuxd@nrec.com).
• Two SVC at Merlatière and Domloup in West France to strengthen and enhance the
network stability and quality (contribution provided by Guillaume de Préville, GE’s
Grid Solutions Business; e-mail: guillaume.de-preville@ge.com).
• An SVC in Kangasala Substation, Finland, which was designed to improve the
damping of electromechanical interarea oscillations caused by network faults
(contribution provided by Guillaume de Préville, GE’s Grid Solutions
Business; e-mail: guillaume.de-preville@ge.com and Tuomas Rauhala, Fingrid
Oyj, Finland; e-mail: tuomas.rauhala@fingrid.fi).
• An SVC in the Taoxiang substation, China, which was designed to solve voltage
instability issues of the Chengdu 500 kV ring network (Linxu Lei, Guangfu Tang,
Zhanfeng Deng, Ting An, Global Energy Interconnection Research Institute
(GEIRI), China; e-mail: – anting66@qq.com).
• Relocatable SVCs for National Grid, UK, which were designed to be easily
moved to another site in the UK. These SVCs use only TSCs, which are switched
in small steps (contribution by Colin Davidson, GE’s Grid Solutions Business;
e-mail: Colin.Davidson@GE.com).
• Two SVCs in Nemiscau, Quebec, Canada, which replaced two SVCs at the
end of their useful life, supporting the long 735 kV transmission system
during steady-state regulation and dynamic events and enhancing first
swing stability by maintaining system voltages during large system disturbances
(contribution by Marcio Oliveira, ABB, e-mail: Marcio.oliveira@se.abb.com).
• Two SVCs at Viklandet and Tunnsjødal, Norway, which are designed to con-
tribute to the reinforcement of the transmission grid and to secure the power
supply to central Norway (contribution by Marcio Oliveira, ABB, e-mail:
marcio.oliveira@se.abb.com).
• Two SVCs for the Haramain High-Speed Railway (HHR) in Saudi Arabia, for
traction load balancing of the 380 kV grid and to provide voltage support to
the transmission system during and after contingencies in the surrounding
network (contribution by Marcio Oliveira, ABB, e-mail: marcio.oliveira@se.
abb.com).
• Three directly connected SVCs, i.e., without dedicated transformer, in Texas, to
improve and maintain system voltage stability in an area where the penetration of
wind power production was expected to grow beyond 1 GW, including older
generations of wind turbines (based on induction generators) (contribution
by Marcio Oliveira, ABB, e-mail: marcio.oliveira@se.abb.com).
• Two large SVCs at Bout De L’Ile (BDI) on the Island of Montreal,
Canada. These SVCs are to support the long 765 kV transmission lines from
the hydro generation in the North (contribution by Georg Pilz, Siemens; e-mail:
georg.pilz@siemens.com).
2 Brief Introduction of SVCs
The Static Var Compensator (SVC) is a shunt compensation device, which can
provide variable reactive power to maintain or control the voltage at its point
of connection in the power system. Since the first type of SVC was put into operation
in the 1960s, the SVC has become the most widely used FACTS controller in
power systems. It is available in various configurations, such as saturated reactor
(SR), thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR), thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC), etc.
Today, SVCs typically consist of the TCR and TSC, filter capacitor (FC), and/or
mechanically switched capacitor (MSC). ▶ Chap. 6, “Technical Description of Static
Var Compensators (SVC)” in this book provides a technical description of the SVC.
The SVC has a wide range of applications from low-voltage industrial applica-
tions to medium- and ultrahigh-voltage grids. In fact, thousands of SVCs have
been put into operation worldwide. In utility applications, the SVC is used for
voltage regulation through shunt reactive power compensation to prevent voltage
instability, as well as to increase transient stability and dampen power oscillations. In
industrial applications, such as steel mills and arc furnaces, the SVC is used to
reduce flicker by compensating the randomly varying reactive power created by the
loads.
SVC devices have also been widely employed in China’s power transmission
networks. In China, at the end of 2018, more than 30 substations had been
equipped with SVC controllers. Most of these are installed in the 500 kV and
220 kV substations, where they are connected to the tertiary windings of the
power transformers. The rated voltages of most of the SVCs in China are between
35 kVand 66 kV. The maximum capacity of the installed SVCs is 720 Mvar (4 sets of
180 Mvar).
This chapter provides examples of the application of SVCs from around the
world. Each example will generally provide:
428 H. Rao et al.
• The reasons for the application of the SVC

• A description of the SVC
• The system performance after the installation of the SVC
The data provided in the application examples are clarified as follows:
• The rating of the SVC is given at the minimum continuous voltage at the point of
common coupling (PCC).
• The power loss is given for the SVC valves when operating at maximum rating
at nominal voltage. The power loss does not include the power loss in the
other SVC components.
3 SVC in Wuzhou, Guangxi, China
3.1 Application Background
Wuzhou substation is located in the middle of the 500 kV AC transmission

corridor from Guangxi power grid to Guangdong power grid in China Southern
Power Grid (CSG). There are several HVDC schemes connected to the AC network
in this area. System studies had shown that power flow would transfer to the
AC corridor and would affect the voltage stability when an HVDC system is
blocked. Installing dynamic reactive power control equipment at Wuzhou substation
was an effective way to support the AC network voltage. It would increase the
transmission capacity of the 500 kV transmission lines and would enhance system
stability. Comparing SVC and STATCOM technology and cost at that time, a SVC
with capacity around 200 Mvar was selected to be installed at 500 kV Wuzhou
substation (Baorong et al. 2007).
The SVC can operate in the following control modes:
1. Steady-state constant reactive power control mode

2. Steady-state constant voltage control mode
3. Dynamic reactive power support mode
4. Remote control mode
3.2 System Structure and Operating Parameters
The SVC in this project is designed and owned by CSG, the manufacturer
is Rongxin Power Electronic Co., Ltd. The SVC was completed and put into
operation in May 2009.
The single-line diagram (SLD) of the 35 kV/210 Mvar SVC is shown in Fig. 1.
The main technical parameters of the SVC in the Wuzhou substation are shown
in Table 1.
Fig. 1 The SLD of the SVC

system in the Wuzhou
substation
Table 1 Technical parameters of the SVC equipment

Parameter Value
SVC rating Voltage (kV) 35
SVC range (Mvar) 0 /+210 (with all filters)
TCR connection type Delta
TCR rating (Mvar) 210
Step-down transformer Connection type YN d11
Ratio (kV) 525/230 8 x 1.25%/35
Capacity (MVA) 750/750/240
Semiconductor devices Type Thyristor
Reverse blocking voltage(V) 7500
Average on-state current (A) 5600
Number of devices in series 12
Redundancy (%) 10
Overload capability (current/time) 1.2 pu/continuously
Cooling method Water cooling
Full-load SVC valve losses (%) 0.25
Estimated service life (year) 25
The layout of the Wuzhou and Guangxi SVC is shown in Fig. 2. The land
occupation is around 2400 m2. The control and protection system, thyristor valves,
and valve cooling system are indoor. The water cooling radiators, TCR, circuit
breakers, disconnectors and earthing switches, surge arrester, and filter banks are
outdoor. The harmonic filters consist of capacitor banks and air-cored reactors,
and some include resistors.
430 H. Rao et al.
Fig. 2 SVC layout
The SVC thyristor valves are arranged in a valve hall, and the
valves are cooled by the valve cooling system. Because of space
limitation in valve room, the three-phase thyristor valve was designed
as a horizontal multilayer structure shown in Fig. 3. The control
and protection system is shown in Fig. 4. The valve cooling system is shown
in Fig. 5.
thyristor valve for

phase AB
thyristor valve for

phase BC
thyristor valve for

phase CA
Fig. 3 View of three-phase valve TCR valve
Fig. 4 SVC control and protection system

432 H. Rao et al.
Fig. 5 Valve cooling system
3.3 System Performance
After installing SVC, the normal voltage level of the 500 kV bus increased from
1.01pu to 1.022pu with the active power flow increasing from 1070 MW to
1100 MW. The recovery voltage after blocking a single HVDC pole increased
from 0.972pu to 0.998pu. Furthermore, the reactive power flow between the
Wuzhou and Luodong was reduced to about 20 Mvar after the SVC installation,
compared to 130 Mvar before the installation of the SVC. The power angle stability
margin and voltage stability margin were also improved, with the power angle
stability margin increased to 46.9% from 46.2%, and the voltage stability margin
was increased to 37% from 33% (Huifan et al. 2010).
4 SVC in Dong Anshan, Liaoning, China
With the rapid development of the economy in the central region of the Liaoning
Province, the power consumption experienced a rapid growth in 2000s, especially in
the steel and metal production industry. After the implementation of the peak and
off-peak pricing of electricity, the electricity consumption of some companies shifted
to off-peak hours. This increased voltage fluctuations in the central Liaoning Power
Grid due to insufficient dynamic reactive power support. As a consequence, some
industrial users were seriously affected because of the impact of frequent overvolt-
age and undervoltage on equipment’s lifetime. Furthermore, tap change operation
and capacitor switching were frequent. In response to the lack of controlled reactive
power at the Dong Anshan substation of Anshan power supply company, the
installation of a 66 kV SVC was proposed by Anshan power supply company and
Rongxin Power Electronic Co., Ltd.
The Dong Anshan SVC is designed and owned by State Grid Corporation of China
(SGCC), and the manufacturer is Rongxin Power Electronic Co., Ltd. The SVC is
connected directly to the 66 kV system where loads include a metal production load
rated at 100 MVA. The SVC entered operation in January 2010.
The SLD of the 66 kV/100 Mvar SVC is shown in Fig. 6. The 66 kV system is
connected to the 220 kV network via a two-winding transformer.
The direct connection of the SVC to the 66 kV network means that there is no
transformer cost or power loss and the area occupied by the SVC is reduced
(Yu Linlin et al. 2013).
The main technical parameters of the Dong Anshan SVC are shown in Table 2.
The layout of the Dong Anshan SVC is shown in Fig. 7. The land occupation is
around 1400 m2. The control and protection system, thyristor valves, and valve
cooling system are indoor. The water cooling radiators, TCR, circuit breakers,
disconnectors and earthing switches, surge arrester, and filter banks are outdoor.
The outdoor layout of the SVC TCR and the TCR valve room in the Dong
Anshan substation are shown in Figs. 8 and 9.
One of the AC harmonic filters can be seen in the foreground of Fig. 8. The TCR
reactors are located close to the valve hall.
The 66 kV light-triggered thyristor (LTT) valve group uses a double vertical
structure. The left and right valve bodies constitute a single-phase valve group, and
the left and right valve bodies are connected by a busbar.
Fig. 6 Single-line diagram of

Dong Anshan SVC
434 H. Rao et al.
Table 2 Technical parameters of SVC equipment

Parameter Value
SVC range (Mvar) +30 Mvar to +100 Mvar (with all filters)
25 Mvar to +45 Mvar (with essential filters
only)
Step-down Connection type YNy0
transformer Ratio (kV) 220 2 2.5%/66
Capacity (MVA) 180/180
Semiconductor Type LTT (Nakagawa et al. 1995)
devices Reverse blocking 7000
voltage(V)
Average on-state current 1200
(A)
Number of devices in 28
series
Redundancy (%) 10
Overload capability (current/time) 1.2 pu/Continuously
Fig. 7 SVC layout
The Dong Anshan SVC cooling system and control and protection systems are
similar in appearance to those at the Wuzhou SVC, but the control and protection of
the TCR valves is fundamentally different because of the use of LTT.
LTTs are directly turned on through a light pulse applied to the first stage of
an amplifying gate structure. The only difference between an ETT and LTT is
Fig. 8 The outdoor layout of the SVC system in Dong Anshan substation
Fig. 9 The Dong Anshan substation TCR valve

436 H. Rao et al.
the gate design of the two types of thyristors. In the case of an ETT, the thyristor
is triggered by an electrical pulse applied to the gate. Driven by the HVDC
application, a voltage breakover (VBO) protection has been designed
into LTTs (also called Breakover Diode). The BoD triggers the LTT if the
voltage is getting too high in the forward direction. In addition to the
HVDC application, further applications of the LTT are FACTS, medium
voltage drives, and pulsed power. Especially in applications requiring high valve
voltages with many devices stacked in series connection, the LTTs offer
essential advantages.
By using LTTs with integrated protection functions, the number of external
electronics assigned to the thyristors is reduced, and accordingly, the reliability of
the converter can be increased (Cigre TB 337, 2007).
4.3 Main Operating Modes
The Main Operating modes are the same as those for the Wuzhou SVC.
The SVC device normally operates in constant voltage control as follows:
1. The 3rd and 5th filter branches of the SVC system are kept in operation at all
times to absorb the harmonics produced by TCR.
2. If there is a deviation between the voltage feedback and the reference signal,
the output of TCR will be adjusted. The 7th and 11th harmonic filter branches
will be switched according to the output of TCR.
3. If the reactive power output of TCR is reduced below 25 Mvar (adjustable)
and the voltage is still too low, one of the filter branches is energized (7th first
and 11th later).
4. If the reactive power output of TCR is increased to above 45 Mvar (adjustable)
and the voltage is still high, one of the filter branches is de-energized (11th first
and 7th later).
After the SVC device was put into operation, the 66 kV bus voltage was
stabilized within 67 0.5 kV, and the power quality was improved. The
SVC also provides some support to the 220 kV system, reducing the
voltage fluctuation range and improving the reactive power control of the
220 kV system.
Figures 10 and 11 show typical daily 66 kV bus voltage before and after the
installation of the SVC.
The overall system operation is stable and reliable, and the SVC reduces the
voltage fluctuation and flicker. Because the voltage is more stable, the transmission
line and transformer loss are reduced.
Fig. 10 Voltage
measurement of 66 kV bus
before commissioning
the SVC
Fig. 11 Voltage
measurement of 66 kV bus
after commissioning – note
the change in scale for the
voltage changes
5 SVCs in Gansu, China
The second 750 kV transmission corridor, illustrated in Fig. 12, from Xinjiang grid to
Northwest China, is one of the largest with 3600 MW transmission capacity. It
comprises 6 substations and 12 lines over a transmission length of around 2160 km.
438 H. Rao et al.
70km 420 South of Dunhuang

Hami 360
Hami 300
Hami 69km 285km 300
converter 166km
station 300 360

390
300
Shazhou
337km
SVC(-360MVar~360MVar) 390
390
Iqe
390
210
330
210 178km
210
210
Qaidam
Fig. 12 The second 750 kV transmission corridor
The major problem of the Xinjiang AC power transmission system is an infeed of

1376 MW wind power at Jiuquan, near Shazhou station in Gansu Province. It caused
voltage stability problems and a reactive power imbalance because of the dynamic
reactive demands triggered by the active power fluctuation from the wind power
turbines. The situation would become worse after the completion of the Jiuquan wind
power farm. The large amplitude and fast fluctuation of the wind power would cause
frequent load flow and voltage fluctuation in the transmission link from the Xinjiang
grid to Northwest China.
The Shazhou 750 kV substation is one of the six substations along the second
transmission corridor. The maximum voltage fluctuation at the Shazhou substation
reached 30 kV during heavy load periods in 2015. Therefore, a dynamic reactive
compensation device (SVC) has been installed at the substation to reduce the voltage
fluctuation and enhance the stability of the power grid.
The SVC installed in the Shazhou 750 kV substation is able to operate in the
following control modes:

4. Local control mode

5. Coordinated control mode
During normal operation, the SVC is operated in constant voltage control mode.
5.2 SVC System Structure and Operation Parameters
The SVC installed in the Shazhou 750 kV substation is owned by the

SGCC and was provided by NR Electric Co., Ltd. The first stage
with a rating of 360 Mvar SVC was put into operation in June
2013, and an additional SVC with a rating of 480 Mvar may be installed in the
future.
Two 66 kV/180 Mvar SVCs were installed in the first stage, both of which were
made up of a 360 Mvar TCR and a 180 Mvar FC.
The SLD of the two 66 kV/180 Mvar SVCs is shown in Fig. 13.
The main technical parameters of each of the two SVCs are shown in Table 3.
The layout of one SVC is shown in Fig. 14. The land occupation is around
1700 m2. The control and protection system, valve cooling system, and three-phase
750kV
66kV
66kV Bus I-1 66kV Bus I-2
TCR FC3 FC5 FC7 TCR FC3 FC5 FC7

-360Mvar 63.5Mvar 59Mvar 57.5Mvar -360Mvar 63.5Mvar 59Mvar 57.5Mvar
Fig. 13 SLD of the two SVCs at the Shazhou 750 kV substation

440 H. Rao et al.
Table 3 Main technical parameters of each of the two SVCs

Parameter Value
SVC capacity (Mvar) 180/+180
Connection type Delta
Step-down transformer Connection type Ia0i0(YNa0d11)
Ratio (kV) 765√3/345/√3 2 2.5%/66 kV
Capacity (MVA) 700
Reverse blocking voltage(V) 6500
Redundancy (%) 10
Overload capability (current/time) None
Water Cooling Water Cooling Valve Towers

System Control Room
Radiators
Filter Capacitors
Filter Reactors TCR Reactors
Fig. 14 #1 SVC layout
valve towers are arranged indoors. The water cooling radiators, TCR, filter capac-
itors and reactors, earthing switch, arrester, and circuit breakers are arranged
outdoors.
The TCR valves are arranged in a valve hall, and the valves are cooled by
a pumped water cooling system. The TCR valves in the 750 kV Shazhou substation
are shown in Fig. 15.
Fig. 15 TCR valve of #1 SVC of Shazhou substation
Fig. 16 Outdoor equipment of Shazhou substation SVCs
The outdoor equipment including all SVC branches and the valve
buildings are shown in Fig. 16. The valve buildings are located in the center of
Fig. 16.
442 H. Rao et al.
During the engineering field test, the ability to output rated reactive power
and the ability to control reactive power to an accuracy better than or equal to the
technical requirement were proven. The step response of the SVC in Shazhou
750 kV substation is shown in Fig. 17. The step response time at the 750 kV busbar
voltage is 48.8 ms, which is shorter than the required response time (less than 50 ms
was specified).
During the operation of the TCR, 3rd, 5th, and 7th filter, the maximum
measured overvoltage is 75 kV, which is much lower than the rated insulation
level of the SVC reactor.
The SVC has played an important role by improving the stability of the power grid
since its commissioning in 2013. The SVC can reduce the voltage fluctuation at the
750 kV busbar due to 1000 MW wind power fluctuation from 0.034pu to 0.007pu.
The SVC also plays an important role in supporting the 750 kV Shazhou substation
bus voltage and improving the power delivery capacity. According to simulation
studies of the whole system, the SVC is able to increase the power delivery capacity
by about 800 MW when one pole of the 800 kV/8000 MW Hami-Zhengzhou HVDC
is blocked due to hardware failure or any other faults.
The annual availability of the SVC in the Shazhou substation is higher than 99%.
According to the PSD-BPA simulation (a software for power system simulation
Fig. 17 Step response curves.

and analysis), the SVC is able to reduce the number of trips of wind power farm
units (each 500 to 1000 MW) by 1 to 2 units after a serious fault. Therefore, the
installation of SVC can help reduce the cost of system instability.
6 SVCs in Holeta Substation, Ethiopia
The Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation (EEP Co.) planned to build the Grand
Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) hydropower station on the upper reaches of
the Nile. The installed capacity of the hydropower station would be 6,000 MW,
which would be one of Africa’s largest hydropower projects. The construction
started in 2011 and was planned to be completed in 2016. The hydropower station
would send power through four 500 kV transmission lines (GERD-Dedesa-Holeta)
after the completion. Because the transmitted power is large and the transmission
distance is long, reactive power balance and voltage control issues associated
with the transmission system needed to be controlled.
In order to provide stable operation of the power grid after the completion of
the power plant and transmission system, EEP Co. installed a 900 Mvar SVC
system in the Holeta substation.
The SVCs installed in the Holeta substation was designed to operate in
the following control modes:

2. Steady-state constant voltage control mode with reactive power reserve;
4. Local control mode
5. Coordinated control mode
6. Independent control mode
The engineering field tests verified that the SVC has the capability to stabilize the
system voltage by providing fast reactive power support, thereby accelerating the
recovery of the system voltage. The step response time of the SVC in Holeta
substation satisfies the specified response time (less than 50 ms), as shown in
Fig. 18 (Huang et al. 2016).
The SVCs in Holeta substation have worked as expected since they entered
commercial operation. The availability of the SVCs has reached 99.5%. As the
GERD project has not been completed due to political reasons, the SVCs
are currently used to provide voltage control for the Ethiopian grid. As the
short circuit capacity of the Ethiopian power grid is very low, any fault such as
single-phase-to-earth fault may cause large fluctuation of the power grid voltage,
which may lead to power outages. According to the feedback from the EEP Co.,
444 H. Rao et al.
Fig. 18 Step response on the 400 kV side in the Holeta substation
the voltage of the power grid has been effectively controlled since the SVC was
put into operation and the number of power outages has been reduced considerably.
7 SVC Merlatière and Domloup in West France
The Brittany and Vendée regions in West France boast breathtaking landscapes
and beautiful coastlines. At times, however, these regions are susceptible to
electric outages during peak demands. In 2011, the French Utility, Réseau de
Transport d’Electricité (RTE), decided to address this issue by installing in these
regions two large Static Var Compensators of +/ 250 Mvar each, the highest
rated power ever installed in France.
La Merlatière in Vendée and Domloup in Brittany were the two sites selected
for the SVC installations.
The main objective was to strengthen and enhance the French network stability
and quality in case of large amplitude voltage variations.
The first design criteria were that the SVCs would ensure a high level
of availability and performance. Accordingly, the SVC would help to maintain
the network voltage with regard to the electrical load variation by absorbing
or supplying the necessary reactive power within tens of milliseconds.
Each SVC is composed of a star-delta step-down transformer, an MSE (mechanically

switched equipment), a blocking reactor, a thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR), and a
fifth harmonic filter. The single-line diagram (SLD) of the SVC is shown in Fig. 19.
The blocking reactor results in an improvement of harmonic performance of the
SVC, an optimization of SVC losses, and a reduction of SVC audible noise.
One important constraint was the maximum noise level at the SVC boundary
(<42 dB) in Domloup. In accordance with the results of a detailed noise study, adequate
noise enclosures were placed on the reactors, and efficient acoustic barriers were
installed at suitable location to minimize environmental noise impact of the installation.
With the blocking reactor concept, the SVC bus, which is usually directly connected
to the SVC main transformer secondary, is separated from the main transformer by the
blocking reactor, resulting in two different secondary buses. The bus between the main
transformer and the blocking reactor is the connection point for the auxiliary trans-
former due its more stable voltage and for the breaker switched compensation such as
MSC/MSR. The bus after the blocking reactor is the connection point for the TCR and
its dedicated filter. The blocking reactor isolates harmonics in a two-way manner, from
the network to the TCR filter and from the TCR to the network. Only one filter, tuned to
Fig. 19 Single-line diagram of SVC Merlatière/Domloup

446 H. Rao et al.
the 5th harmonic, is necessary for TCR harmonic filtering because of the improved
harmonic performance.
The MSE is used to extend the Mvar capacity of the SVC in capacitive mode and
in inductive mode. Therefore, one-single MSE is used which can behave as a MSC
( 131 Mvar) when in delta configuration to extend the capacitive range of the SVC
and as a MSR (+152 Mvar) when in star configuration to extend the inductive range.
Tables 4 provides the main technical parameters of the SVC.
Table 4 Main technical parameters of each SVC

Parameter Value
SVC rating SVC bus 25 kV
voltage (kV)
SVC capacity +/ 250 Mvar (with the MSE)
(Mvar)
Dynamic range +/ 100 Mvar
(Mvar)
TCR rating 277
(Mvar)
SVC transformer Connection type YN-d11
Ratio (kV) 225 kV/25 kV
Capacity (MVA) 250
Ucc (%) 15.1%
TCR Capacity (Mvar) 277
Voltage/current 5200 V/3875 A
(V/A-AV)
Valve cooling method Water cooling
TCR filter Capacity (Mvar) +91
Tuning 5
MSC Capacity (Mvar) +131
Tuning 2.12
MSR Capacity (Mvar) 152
Main reactor (mH) 1.98
Acoustic noise measured at the Domloup <32 dB (north ~200 m from the limits
limits of the substation site of the SVC installation)
<37 dB (south ~100 m from the limits
of the SVC installation)
Merlatière <42 dB (west ~100 m from the limits
of the SVC installation)
<52 dB (south at the limit of the SVC
installation)
Full-load SVC valve losses/SVC rating 250 Mvar (%) 0.1%
inductive mode
Full-load SVC total losses/SVC rating 250 Mvar (%) 0.7%
inductive mode
The yellow area of Fig. 20 shows the steady-state operating range.

Undervoltage and overvoltage ride through are indicated with minimum time
duration to withstand before tripping. The applicable network characteristics are
shown in (Table 5).
Fig. 20 SVC characteristics
Table 5 Network characteristics

Parameter Value
Voltage Rated voltage (kV) 225 kV
Operating voltage (kV) 240 kV
Maximum voltage (kV) 245 kV
Minimum voltage (kV) 200 kV
Temporary maximum voltage (pu – s) 1.3 pu – 10 s
Temporary minimum voltage (pu – s) 0.8 pu – 1 h30
Maximum short circuit current Domloup 19.9kA
Merlatière 12.3kA
Minimum short circuit current Domloup 9.2kA
Merlatière 3 kA
Frequency Rated and normal range 50 Hz +/ 0.5 Hz
Exceptional range 47 Hz < f < 52 Hz
Duration of exceptional range 10 min
448 H. Rao et al.
The SVC Domloup site is located at the south side of the 400 kV/225 kV/90 kV
Domloup substation, and 3664 m2 was allocated for the SVC implementation. Figure. 21
shows an aerial view of the Domloup site dimensions are indicated in (Fig. 22). Figs. 23,
24, 25, 26, and 27 shows details of parts of the SVC installation.
Fig. 21 Domloup site
Fig. 22 Domloup SVC layout

Fig. 23 Merlatière TCR with noise shields
Fig. 24 Merlatière MSE MSR/MSC

450 H. Rao et al.
Fig. 25 Merlatière SVC blocking reactor
Fig. 26 Merlatière TCR harmonic filter

Fig. 27 TCR valve
The pictures Figs. 28 and 29 show the operating modes of the SVC.
Three modes of operation are available:
– TCR+ filter: the range of reactive power is +/ 100 Mvar, and MSR and MSC are
disconnected from the SVC bus.
– MSR absorbing 140 Mvar
– MSC delivering 142 Mvar
The SVC can be in the following four states:

– Stop mode
– In normal standby mode
– In fast standby mode
– In operation
In stop mode, the AC main breaker are open; all breakers for filters and MSE are
open. TCR valve cooling system is stopped; TCR valves are blocked. Control is
energized.
The SVC can be started locally or remotely.
452 H. Rao et al.
Fig. 28 SVC operation
MSC MSR
TCR TCR TCR
FC
Ratings +/-250MVAR
Dynamic range
+ /-100MVAR
Btcr
0
-1.50 -1.00 -0.50 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
Btcr
-0.2
-0.25
-0.3
-0.35
Bsvc
Fig. 29 TCR susceptance vs SVC susceptance
In normal standby mode, the AC main breaker is closed; all the breakers for filters
and MSE are open. Valve cooling is running, and TCR valve is blocked.
In fast standby mode, the AC main breaker is closed; TCR filters are energized,
and all the breakers for MSE are open. Valve cooling is running, and TCR valve are
deblocked at fixed angle in order to compensate the reactive power of the TCR filter.
Reactive power delivered to the grid is 0 Mvar. The control is monitoring the grid
voltage, ready to start if the voltage is outside the acceptable range or if a remote or
local start order.
The SVCs have been working as expected since they entered service.
Figure 30 shows a Dynamic Performance Study of the SVC response from
standby mode to operating mode, in response to a single-phase fault. The first
curve shows the main bus voltage, the second curve shows the SVC reactive
power output, and the third curve shows the SVC susceptance.
Fig. 30 Dynamic Performance during single-phase fault
After fault detection and after the response, at about 2 s, an automatic grid short
circuit level determination is launched for gain optimization purposes.
When in running mode, the inductive mode is dominant. The SVC at Merlatière
is 90% used for the limitation of overvoltages, i.e., operating in inductive mode, and 10%
of the capacity is kept for limitation during undervoltage conditions, i.e., operation in
capacitive mode. This optimization is due to the use of a large capacitor bank located in
the area, which generate reactive power during undervoltage conditions, reducing the
need for operating the SVC in capacitive mode. Furthermore, due to the installation of
new HV cables in the area, the reactive power supply is increased in light load situations.
8 SVC in Kangasala Substation Finland
Usually SVCs are used as voltage or reactive power controller at the point of
common coupling. Power damping is often provided too, but power oscillation
damping (POD) is often considered as an auxiliary control, working in parallel
with voltage or reactive power control.
454 H. Rao et al.
The Kangasala SVC in Finland, which is part of the Nordic synchronous power
system grid, is unusual as it was designed so that its main control mode is the power
oscillation damping control. The voltage and reactive power control modes were
implemented as optional control mode to manage reactive power balance or to
support the system voltage, when power oscillation damping is not required.
Since this SVC is applied to increase system transmission capacity and enhance
operational reliability, high availability and reliability requirements are specified.
The Kangasala SVC is located right in the middle of the generation area of
Southern Finland in order to improve the damping of electromechanical interarea
oscillations caused by network faults when the power is exported from Finland
to Scandinavia (Lahtinen 2009).
The POD is designed to improve the damping of the interarea oscillation
mode between South Finland and South Scandinavia. The modal frequency varies
between 0.3 Hz and 0.4 Hz. This is the specific frequency when generators in
Southern Finland and Southern Sweden/Southern Norway oscillate against each
other (Elenius et al. 2005; Rauhala et al. 2010; Lattinen 2009).
The SVC is sized +240 Mvar (capacitive)/ 200 Mvar (inductive), and as the whole
capacity of 440 Mvar is available for power oscillation damping, the effect of the
SVC on damping the interarea electromechanical oscillations is quite significant
(Rauhala et al. 2010).
The Kangasala SVC consists of four controllable components and one harmonic
filter group connected to the grid. The reactors and capacitors are located outdoors,
but the thyristor valves are situated indoors in the same building as the control and
protection system for the SVC and the batteries.
The main technical parameters of each SVC is shown in Table 6.
A simplified single-line diagram of the SVC is shown in Fig. 31.
Table 6 Main technical parameters of the Kangasala SVC

Parameter Value
SVC rating SVC bus voltage (kV) 20 kV
Capacity (Mvar) capacitive/capacity (Mvar) +240/
inductive 200 Mvar
TCR capacity (Mvar) 2 x 132
TSC capacity (Mvar) 2x-92
Filter capacity (Mvar) +34 Mvar
Filter tuning 5/7/11
Step-down Connection type YN-d11
transformer Ratio (kV) 410 kV/20 kV
Capacity (MVA) 250
Fig. 31 Single-line diagram of Kangasala SVC
Fig. 32 Kangasala SVC
An aerial photo of the SVC is shown in Fig. 32. The thyristor valve and
cooling system and the thyristor module can be seen in Figs. 33 and 34,
respectively.
456 H. Rao et al.
Fig. 33 Kangasala thyristor valve and cooling system
Fig. 34 Kangasala SVC thyristor valve
In order to achieve the availability requirements, the SVC is equipped with

duplicated and fully redundant control, protection, and DC auxiliary power system.
The redundancy controller monitors the integrity of both control systems and decides
which control system is active.
The Kangasala SVC has four control modes as shown in Fig. 35. The control modes
are explained in the next subsections (Peltona et al. 2010).
8.3.1 Power Oscillation Damping Mode

The primary control mode is the power oscillation damping control. It is used for
the control of reactive power based on the local frequency measurement to
dampen power oscillation taking place in the grid. Phasor measurement units
(PMU) are used for this purpose. Normally, the POD input signal is either the
frequency or the voltage measurement at the PCC busbar. An option to apply the
POD input signal from an external PMU which can measure a different busbar in
the network has also been prepared.
In practice, damping control activates the SVC when the frequency measure-
ment detects oscillations with an amplitude exceeding the threshold value set for
the control. The damping of interarea oscillations does restrict power transmission
capability from North Finland to South Finland. The damping control mode is
activated when direction of power transfer is from South to North (Lahtinen et al.
2010).
Fig. 35 Kangasala Control System (Lahtinen et al. 2010)

458 H. Rao et al.
Transfer Transfer Transfer Transfer Transfer Transfer

function 1 function 2 function 3 function 4 function 5 function 6 Deadband Output
gain
N(s) N(s) N(s) N(s) N(s) N(s)
D(s) D(s) D(s) D(s) D(s) D(s) GAIN
Measurement SVC
Order =1 Order =1 Order =1 Order =1 Order =1 Order =1
signal susceptance
Fig. 36 Transfer function of the POD controller
Fig. 37 POD controller response
POD control mode is specified to damp interarea power oscillations in the

frequency range of 0.3 Hz to 0.4 Hz. It consists of six first-order fully adjustable
transfer functions whose output is deadband filtered. The output of the deadband
function is multiplied by a gain and converted to SVC reactive power demand. The
POD function is a sixth-order transfer function, in order to provide reasonable
flexibility to re-tune the controller without needing to modify the control code
(Halonen 2011). Figures 36 and 37 present the transfer function of the POD
controller and the response of the POD controller as obtained by PSCAD and
RTDS studies.
8.3.2 Reactive Power Control Mode

The secondary mode of control is constant reactive power control. The goal is to
keep the reactive power generated by the SVC at a constant level. The reactive power
control mode is typically activated when the direction of power transfer is from
North to South.
8.3.3 Voltage Control Mode

The other secondary control mode is constant voltage control mode, aiming to keep
the voltage of the 400 kV busbar at the set value based on the 400 kV voltage
measurement. This control is used to support the 400 kV network voltage control in
extraordinary operating situations.
8.3.4 Degraded Modes

The design allows the SVC to be operated with any combination of SVC compo-
nents as long as the fifth harmonic filter bank remains in service. The structure of the
20 kV bus and the placement of the components in the 20 kV yard allow maintenance
and repairs to be carried out on the components on one side of the building, while the
other components are still in operations.
The SVC controls were extensively tested during the commissioning of the
Kangasala SVC (Lahtinen et al. 2010). In addition to typical step
response, control mode transition, and reactor switching tests, the response of
power oscillation control was tested by modulating the input of the POD
controller using a digital signal generator implemented as a part of the SVC
controls. The results were compared to PSCAD model results. The results
had high correlation even though the PSCAD network model was simplified.
Figure 38 shows an example of a voltage controller step response test on-site
and on PSCAD model.
From the three first years of service from 2009 to 2012, the average availability
rate was 99.9%. Scheduled outages were not considered, as they were taken when
the network was considered to be robust.
Fig. 38 Voltage step response test during commissioning compared to a PSCAD model step response
460 H. Rao et al.
9 Taoxiang Substation SVC
This section will describe the SVC installed at the Taoxiang substation which was
the largest SVC in China when commissioned in 2010.
9.1 Project Background
The Taoxiang 500 kV substation is connected to the Chengdu 500 kV ring network.
This ring network, located in the southwest of China, is an important part of the Sichuan
500 kV network. It is also an important channel to deliver power generated by many
small- and medium-sized hydropower plants in the western part of the Sichuan Prov-
ince. Every year, a large amount of hydropower generated in western Sichuan needs to
be integrated into the Sichuan power system via the Chengdu 500 kV ring network.
This 500 kV ring network, which is connected to the key load centers in Sichuan
and also to the hydropower stations in western Sichuan, has become heavily loaded.
In addition, due to the lack of large power generation connected directly to the
500 kV system in Chengdu to provide voltage support, the voltage stability of
several 500 kV lines at the connection point of the Jianshan (Huayang) 500 kV
substation within the Chengdu 500 kV ring network is low. Therefore, the system
was at risk of instability when three-phase faults occurred in the system or part of the
hydropower capacity in the western area was not available. Consequently, the low
reliability of the system became a bottleneck that limited the export of hydropower
generated in western Sichuan.
In order to solve the instability issue of the Chengdu 500 kV ring network and
to meet the needs of exporting more hydropower from western Sichuan and to enhance
the reliability of the Sichuan power grid, it was necessary to reinforce the Chengdu
500 kV ring network. Therefore, it was decided to install a SVC system at the 500 kV
Taoxiang substation to improve the voltage stability of the Chengdu ring network.
9.2 Introduction of the Taoxiang SVC System
The 500 kV Taoxiang SVC project was designed and implemented by PuRui
Technology Co., Ltd., China.
The project consists of two SVC systems, and the total capacity of the SVC system
is 480 Mvar inductive and 720 Mvar capacitive. The capacity, configuration, and
connection of the two SVC systems are identical. Both SVCs are connected to 1# and
2# 66 kV buses at the tertiary windings of the main transformers in the substation. The
single-line diagram (SLD) of the SVC system connected to 1# bus is shown in Fig. 39.
Each SVC system includes:
• A 180 Mvar thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR).

• Two breaker switched 60 Mvar shunt capacitor banks (1-3C and 1-4C) with a
reactor in series. The reactance of the reactor is 12% of the capacitive reactance
(i.e., XL/XC = 12%) and was selected from the standard values (12%, 6.5%,
Fig. 39 SLD of the SVC connected to 1# bus in Taoxiang substation
5.0%, and 4.5% specified in a Chinese standard). The reason to select 12% is
to prevent the 3rd harmonic amplification of the background harmonics around
third order.
• Three breaker switched 60 Mvar shunt capacitor banks (1-2C, 1-5C, and 1-6C)
with a reactor in series. The reactance of the reactor is 5% of the capacitive
reactance (i.e., XL/XC = 5%) and was selected from the standard values (12%,
6.5%, 5.0%, and 4.5% specified in a Chinese standard). The reason to select 5% is
to prevent the harmonic amplification of the background harmonics around fifth
order.
• Two 60Mvar breaker switched shunt reactor banks (1-1 L and 1-2 L).
The 66 kV bus has been equipped with a circuit breaker. All branches have branch
breakers. The TCR is connected in delta. The fifth-order filters and each shunt
capacitor bank are star connected.
9.3 Main Parameters of the Taoxiang SVC
The main parameters of each of the two SVCs are listed in Table 7.
This project consists of two SVC devices with identical capacity; the total
dynamic range is 360 Mvar, and the total reactive power adjustment range is from
480 Mvar (inductive) to +720 Mvar (capacitive).
462 H. Rao et al.
Table 7 Technical parameters of the Taoxiang SVC equipment

Description Parameter Value
SVC rating Rated voltage (kV) 66
Highest voltage (kV) 72.6
Rated frequency (Hz) 50
Reactive power range (Mvar) 480 (ind.) ~ +720 (cap.)
TCR rated capacity (Mvar) 180 for three phases
TCR rated inductance (mH) 266.228
TCR rated current (A) 909.09
Rated capacity of the fifth-order filter 60
(Mvar)
Semiconductor Type Thyristor
devices Reverse blocking voltage (V) 6500
Part number 5STP 12 K6500 from ABB
Trigger mode Electrically triggered thyristor
(ETT)
Series number 39 series
Total number 234 for one set
9.4 Technical Characteristics of the Taoxiang SVC
During this project high-voltage and large-capacity thyristor valve groups

were developed. Issues such as voltage balance, partial discharge,
insulation coordination and the design of valve frame structure, etc. have all
been solved.
The two SVCs are located in the same substation. In addition to the 2 sets
of TCR, there are also 16 breaker switched shunt compensation branches.
Due to the large number of controllable objects, the control strategy needs to
consider:
• Coordination between the two TCRs

• Unavailability of any branches
• Coordination of the switching of the capacitors and reactors in the two SVCs
• Switching time limitations of the branch switches
• Optimization of the control strategy
At the same time, the reactive power control needs to be different when the
local hydropower system is in operation from when the power flow reverses during
the dry season. If an incorrect control strategy is adopted, the SVCs could have
a significantly negative impact on the system during certain fault scenarios.

Purui Technology developed an SVC control system test platform. Based on this
platform, both the SVC steady-state closed-loop control and the dynamic open-loop
control could be verified, which greatly improved the debugging efficiency of the
SVC control system.
The Taoxiang SVC project fully considered the characteristics of the Sichuan
power grid, its operational mode, future development plan, UHV access, and a
potential future third SVC in the substation. Therefore, detailed system analysis
was carried out to ensure the performance of the SVCs meets the requirements
and designed functions. An experimental/test platform/environment was
developed to test the SVC’s control and protection functions under different
operating conditions to ensure the successful operation of the project. This project
laid an important technical foundation for the application of other SVC controllers
in the UHV power grids in the future.
The project was mainly based on the experience of conventional SVC engineer-
ing. But it was also committed to the research of key technologies and
controller development of 66 kV large-capacity SVCs and to ensure the successful
implementation of the project through a feasible experimental/test platform as
mentioned above.
In summary, the main features and achievements of this project are as follows:
• Large-capacity TCR with an AC voltage of 66 kV and a capacity of 180 Mvar

each
• The coordinated control strategy of the two SVCs
• Compatibility of the SVCs with the 500 kV regional automatic voltage control
(AVC) system developed by another vendor (to achieve automatic voltage
control of the regional grid to controlled automatically with the contribution
of the SVCs)
• Development of a transient and dynamic control system which was designed for
damping of the Sichuan and the interconnected UHV power grids and including
the change in network characteristics caused by the dry season for the local
hydropower generation plants
• Development of a new testing platform for the SVC control system to achieve
efficient validation of the SVC steady-state closed-loop control strategy and the
dynamic open-loop control strategy
The project was mainly based on the experience of the conventional

SVC engineering. But it was also committed to the research of key
technologies and controller development of 66 kV large-capacity SVC and
to ensure the successful implementation of the project through a
feasible experimental device. This project has the following achievements in
the aspects of equipment development, scheme configuration, and control
strategy:
464 H. Rao et al.
1. Development of high-voltage and large-capacity SVC thyristor valve

2. Development of complex coordinated control strategy for 2 SVCs and 16 breaker
switched shunt compensation branches
3. Development of transient and dynamic control and system damping con-
sidering the response characteristics of the Sichuan and UHV
power grids, including the change in network characteristics caused by the
dry season
4. Development of a testing platform for the SVC control system to achieve efficient
validation of the SVC steady-state closed-loop control strategy and the dynamic
open-loop control strategy
5. Coordination of the network AVC and the SVC control system
6. The SVC control system has been designed so that it will
be easy to realize the coordinated control of three sets of SVC devices in
the future
9.5 General Layout
The layout of each SVC controller is shown in Fig. 40.

Figure 41 shows the Taoxiang SVC. The reactors are in the foreground, and the
valve building is in the background (Fig. 42).
Fig. 40 Layout of one of the Taoxiang SVCs

Fig. 41 SVC reactors and valve building in the background
Fig. 42 One phase of the

Taoxiang SVC valve
466 H. Rao et al.
10 Relocatable SVCs for National Grid, UK
The UK was one of the first European countries to privatize and “unbundle” its
electricity supply industry. In 1990 the Central Electricity Generating Board, until
then responsible for all generation and transmission activities, was broken
up. Responsibility for electricity transmission, including voltage regulation and
reactive power control, was assigned to National Grid with generation activities
being taken over by several different generating companies.
The generating companies embarked on a rapid program of building new gas-fired
power stations near the east coast, while many older, less efficient, coal-fired power
stations in inland areas were shut down. The changing locations of generation resulted in
considerable difficulties for National Grid to meet its statutory obligations, and as a result
an ambitious program of installing SVCs was undertaken. Between the late 1980s and
mid-1990s, a total of 16 conventional TCR-/TSC-type SVCs had been installed on the
400 kV and 275 kV networks, mainly in the Midlands and South of the country.
However, by the mid-1990s it had become clear that the unpredictably changing patterns
of generation could result in SVCs being installed and then later ceasing to be necessary.
In order to avoid these “stranded assets,” National Grid then embarked upon a further
program of building “Relocatable” SVCs (RSVCs) which could be installed on a tertiary
winding of any supergrid transformer at any high-voltage substation and then at a later
date, as changing system conditions dictated, moved to a different substation.
National Grid uses autotransformers to couple between the 400 kV and 275 kV
transmission networks and the 132 kV sub-transmission network. Most of these
autotransformers are equipped with a 13 kV tertiary winding intended for the
connection of mechanically switched capacitors or reactors and with a rating of
60 MVA. National Grid decided to use these available tertiary windings for the
connection of a new breed of Relocatable SVC. A standard specification was drawn
up, calling for a reactive power rating of +60 Mvar (capacitive) at a tertiary voltage
of 0.9 pu and with a maximum step size of 9 Mvar. No inductive rating nor
continuously variable reactive power capability was required.
By the end of the 1990s, National Grid had installed 12 such Relocatable SVCs,
of which 8 were supplied by GE (at the time, GEC Alsthom).
10.2 System Structure and Operation Parameters
The standard design chosen by GE for the RSVCs was based on the use of three
TSCs in the size ratio 1:2:4, which could then be switched in a binary arrangement to
achieve any reactive power level within the required range with a maximum step size
of 9 Mvar. The three TSC branches, as a result, had nominal Mvar ratings of
approximately 9, 17, and 34 Mvar, respectively (Table 8).
The single-line diagram of the Relocatable SVC is shown in Fig. 43.
The maximum capacitive output of the RSVC was defined as 60 Mvar at a tertiary
voltage of 0.9 pu; however the RSVC was required to generate reactive power over the
Table 8 Main technical parameters of the Relocatable SVC

Parameter Value
Main rating SVC bus voltage (kV) 13 kV
Capacity (Mvar) +60/ 0 Mvar
TSC1 Capacity (Mvar) 9
Connection arrangement Star (valves in only two phases)
TSC circuit C-type filter
Tuned frequency 175 Hz
Connection arrangement Star (valves in only two phases)
Connection arrangement Delta
Voltage/current (V/A-AV) 4500 V
1088 A (IT(av))
Fig. 43 Single-line diagram Earthing

of Relocatable SVCs 13 kV Tertiary
transformer
bus
Scopeof
Relocatable SVC
TSC1: 9 MVAr TSC2: 17 MVAr TSC3: 34 MVAr

468 H. Rao et al.
range of tertiary voltage from 0.8 pu to 1.2 pu continuously and transiently for tertiary
voltages down to 0.4 pu. Above 1.2 pu, the RSVC was permitted to block all TSCs but
was required to remain connected for a short-duration tertiary voltage of 1.3 pu.
The scope of works for the RSVCs excluded the main connection transformers,
but the wide variety of different primary and secondary voltages, ratings, and
impedances of the transformers to which the RSVCs needed to be connected was
another complicating factor in the design of the RSVCs.
The design of the TSCs was also challenging and incorporated many innovative
features.
One of the most challenging requirements was in relation to harmonics. Although
TSCs themselves do not generate harmonic currents, their presence on the AC
network can amplify pre-existing background harmonics. In addition, the need to
be able to install the RSVCs on any tertiary busbar at any substation gave rise to very
wide AC network harmonic impedance search areas.
For these reasons, the conventional TSC design consisting simply of a series
connection of capacitor and tuning inductor was dispensed with, and the TSCs
were, instead, configured as “C-type” filters. In a C-type filter, the capacitor bank
is split into two parts, such that the resonant frequency of the tuning reactor and
the capacitor sub-bank adjacent to it is equal to the network frequency. A damping
resistor is then connected across this combination such that the damping resistor is
only effective at harmonic frequencies and incurs negligible losses at fundamental
frequency.
A common design of thyristor valve was used for all three TSCs even though
the Mvar ratings of these three branches varied over the range 4:1. The largest TSC
branch was connected in the conventional delta arrangement, but to produce a
cost-effective design, the two smaller TSC branches were arranged in an
ungrounded star connection. This meant that thyristor valves only needed to be
fitted in two of the three phases, although these valves were still exposed to line-to-
line voltage when blocked and thus needed the same number of thyristor levels as
the largest TSC.
The thyristor valves used 56 mm diameter, 4.5 kV thyristors mounted in groups of
four (i.e., two series-connected thyristor levels) mounted on GRP component trays
which were stacked vertically (Fig. 44). Each single-phase valve consisted of
14 thyristor levels in series, including 1 redundant. Although the current rating
requirements for the two smaller TSCs (especially TSC1) were quite modest, that
of the largest TSC was demanding.
The thyristors were mounted on water/glycol-cooled heatsinks, and the valve
losses were rejected to air in conventional dry air blast coolers. However, for the
largest TSC, the cooling system was complemented by a chiller so that a maximum
coolant inlet temperature of 30 C could be achieved. This was necessary to meet
the worst possible combination of tertiary voltage and harmonic currents; other-
wise the valve current would have exceeded the capability of the 56 mm thyristors
(Horwill et al. 1996).
A conventional TSC application on a bus voltage that could reach 15.6 kV and
using 4.5 kV thyristors would have required more than 14 thyristor levels per valve
Fig. 44 Thyristor valve
because of the trapped charge that remains on the TSC after blocking. However, to
economize on the thyristor valves and save space in the valve containers, the TSC
capacitors were equipped with discharge devices to reduce the capacitor voltage
rapidly after blocking, allowing fewer thyristor levels to be used (Luckett 1999).
The layout of the RSVCs was complex. The project requirements called for a
design that could be adapted to any of three different site areas (Fig. 45):
• A square area of 350 m2

• A rectangular area of 30 m 12 m
• Two separate areas, each 20 m 10 m and located up to 50 m apart
The requirement was that the RSVCs must be relocatable to another substation
within a period of 3 months.
In order to satisfy these requirements, the thyristor valves, along with their
cooling plants and control systems, were mounted in transportable GRP containers
(see Fig. 46). The valves, controls, and cooling plant for TSC1 and TSC2 were
mounted in one container, while those for TSC3 were mounted in the other
container. The TSC damping resistors were mounted on the roof of the valve
containers, while the TSC capacitors and reactors were mounted on two transport-
able skids, one for TSC1 and TSC2 and the other for TSC3, and the switchgear is
mounted on a third skid.
470 H. Rao et al.
Switchgear
TSC3 cabin
TSC3
skid
skid
(a) Two 20m×10m
TSC1&2 cabin sites
TSC1&2 TSC1&2
skid skid
Switchgear
TSC1&2 cabin TSC3 cabin
TSC1&2 TSC1&2 TSC3 (b) 30m×12m sites
skid
skid skid skid
Switchgear
TSC3 cabin
TSC3
skid
skid
(c) 19m×19m sites
TSC1&2 TSC1&2
skid skid
TSC1&2 cabin
Fig. 45 Three different RSVC site shapes
Fig. 46 One of the valve containers being lifted into position

Fig. 47 SVC operating tertiary

characteristic voltage
(pu of 13kV)
F 1.3
B
1.2
C
0.9
A
0.4
E D
2960 0 tertiary
capacitive inductive current
(A)
In normal operation, the RSVCs are used in voltage control mode to achieve a target
voltage adjustable in the range of 0.95 pu to 1.05 pu, with a slope adjustable from 2%
to 10% in steps of 1%. Figure 47 from Horwill (Horwill et al. 1996) shows the
overall operating characteristics.
The eight RSVCs supplied by GE were delivered between 1996 and 1999 and have
operated successfully. Initially, four were installed at Iron Acton substation, near
Bristol; two at Pyle, near Bridgend in South Wales; and two at Elstree, Northwest of
London. Subsequently, two of the RSVCs from the Iron Acton substation were
relocated to other substations in the South West of England.
11 Nemiscau SVCs in Quebec, Canada
Two vintage Static Var Compensators (SVC), part of Hydro-Quebec’s 735 kV

transmission system in Canada, were replaced by two new SVCs and commissioned
by ABB in the autumn of 2013 and 2014, respectively (Veilleux et al. 2016). The two
new SVCs are located in the Nemiscau substation in the northern part of Hydro-
Quebec’s transmission system, as shown in Fig. 48. The figure shows the two main
472 H. Rao et al.
Fig. 48 Hydro-Quebec TransÉnergie transmission system
corridors that bring power to most of Hydro-Quebec’s clients. The first is comprised
of six parallel 735 kV transmission lines with series compensation, bringing power
from James Bay hydroelectric power stations in northern Quebec to the Montreal
area. The second corridor is made of four parallel 735 kV transmission lines
spanning from Churchill Falls in Labrador and the Manic-Outardes region in
northern Quebec to the Quebec City area. Additional 735 kV transmission lines
are used to mesh the two corridors adding additional stability and reliability to the
transmission network. Roughly, 1000 km separate the northern generation and the
southern load. In this context, the SVCs have several different functions:
• To regulate the Nemiscau 735 kV voltage under normal steady-state conditions

• To provide dynamic, fast response reactive power following system contingencies
• To enhance first swing stability by maintaining system voltages during large
system disturbances
The Nemiscau SVCs are strategic for network stability and equipment safety of
Hydro-Quebec’s 735 kV transmission system. While replacing the SVCs, the fol-
lowing had to be maintained:
• Overload capability regarding specified overvoltage profiles

• Operating strategies and transient capability
The Nemiscau SVCs were designed in a 12-pulse configuration, with a range between
300 Mvar capacitive and 100 Mvar inductive. They are connected to the same 735 kV
bus via three-phase power transformers with a nominal medium voltage (MV) of 22 kV.
The new SVCs are designed with thyristor-controlled reactors (TCR) and thyristor-
switched capacitors (TSCs), as shown in Fig. 49. The TSC branches were introduced
Fig. 49 Single-line diagram of Nemiscau SVC

474 H. Rao et al.
Fig. 50 Aerial view of Nemiscau SVCs
for the new SVCs to minimize losses. The 12-pulse configuration has the added
advantage of eliminating the 5th and 7th harmonics. These are generated by each of
the TCR branches, and they are eliminated by the phase shift introduced by the
transformer. A third harmonic filter is connected on the MV (star) side, while a second
harmonic filter is connected on the MV (delta) side. Harmonic filters are well damped
to avoid possible resonances at lower harmonic orders. Fault limiting reactors are used
on the high-voltage side of the auxiliary transformer, connected to the MV bus, to
handle large fault current.
All SVC components were refurbished in the upgrade, with the following
exceptions: the main SVC power transformer bays, each built around 300 MVA,
735/22/22 kV three-winding power transformers, and 22 kV auxiliary power
arrangement, one for each SVC. The original transformers were retained
and reused in a modified 12-pulse configuration resulting in a lower
installation cost for the refurbishment. Additionally, the bottom concrete slabs
of the buildings housing the indoor equipment (thyristor valves, cooling equip-
ment, control and protection cubicles, and auxiliary power cubicles) were reused.
The foundations for the outdoor components were removed and replaced. Due to
potentially severe on-site environmental conditions, the SVCs have been
designed to withstand ambient temperatures from 50 C to +40 C. Addition-
ally, to accommodate substantial snowfall, a vertical clearance of 1.2 m for all
outdoor equipment was achieved using vertical steel structures (see Fig. 50,
Table 9).
Table 9 Main technical parameters of each Nemiscau SVCs

Parameter Value
Major rating Voltage (kV) 735
Capacity (Mvar) 100/+300
Connection type 12-pulse
Step-down transformer Connection type YNyd1
Ratio (kV) 735/22/22
Capacity (MVA) 300
Semiconductor devices Type Phase Control Thyristor
Voltage/current (V/A) 6500/3510a (half sine wave, TSC)
5200/5650a (half sine wave, TCR)
Redundancy (%) 10
Overload capability (current/time) 10% capacitive primary current / 150 s
Cooling method Deionized water/glycol
Estimated service life (year) 30 (for the upgraded parts)
a
ITRMS = maximum RMS on-state current
11.3 Main Operation Modes
The SVCs are designed to be operable with the TSC branches out of service. In case
of a TSC branch outage, the other TSC must also be disconnected due to the specific
characteristic of the 12-pulse SVC. The degraded SVC will operate normally but
with reduced available capacitive power range.
Each SVC is designed to operate individually with semi-redundant control
systems, redundant protection systems, and dedicated auxiliary power. However,
since both SVCs are electrically close, it is preferable to use the same voltage
reference, gain, and slope for both.
Each SVC has a “Master and Slave” function, which allows one SVC to dictate
the settings and essentially assume control of the other SVC. Normally they are
operated in a parallel mode because they control the same busbar voltage. However,
the Master/Slave mode is disabled if the controlled busbar is split.
Hydro-Quebec needed both Nemiscau SVCs in service to help maintain system
reliability during periods of peak demand in the winter months. The replacement of
the two SVCs could not have been executed at the same time due to network
constraints. Therefore, parallel operation mode between a new, digitally controlled
SVC from ABB and an old, analog SVC from another supplier was required. The
upgrade work had to be performed with one of the SVCs in operation at all times to
assure dynamic and transient stability of the network. During the transition period of
November 2013 to April 2014, two SVCs of different generations had to work
together to regulate the same 735 kV busbar voltage involving specific control
features. Testing of the controls prior to commissioning was then a key element in
the success of this project.
476 H. Rao et al.
11.3.1 Parallel Operating Mode Between New and Old SVCs

Old and new SVCs have different control strategies and methods to control
their susceptance. The main command signal for the new SVCs is the total
susceptance, whereas the existing SVC used the thyristor conduction
angle since the original SVC consisted only of TCR and filters. Time-domain
simulations were performed beforehand by Hydro-Quebec in order to make
sure that the old and new SVCs could communicate despite their
35-year age gap. The electromagnetic transient studies led to the following
conclusions:
• System contingencies with large voltage variations could lead to different

responses from the SVCs.
• Different responses would increase the risk of negative interaction between
the SVCs.
• It was desirable to always have the same reactive power output for both SVCs.
• “Master and Slave” functionality needed to be implemented.
The chosen solution was to translate the signal from the old command system
in order to make it usable for the new system. The old SVC controller output was
sent to the new SVC controller and added to a new software switch where it was
converted into an equivalent susceptance (BREF) to be produced by the new
SVC. The signal conversion, command, supervision, and filtering were all
performed by the new control system, as shown in Fig. 51.
NETWORK
Z_net
V_source
VT VT
B_SVC12 B_SVC11
α α
TSC TSC
controller controller
Filter TSC TCR Filter TSC TCR Distribution unit FC & Filter TCR FC & Filter TCR
NEW ABB Existing GE
Parralel mode
– ΔV + B Control logic – ΔV + angle
1/sTi 1/sTi
+ + Sigma
– –
Xs Xs
Signal
Slope B = f (Sig) Slope
Vref conversion & Vref
Régulateur ABB supervision Régulateur GE
MACH2 Controller
Fig. 51 Signal conversion allowing parallel operation mode between new and old Nemiscau SVCs
The importance of the Nemiscau SVCs for the dynamic and transient stability of the
Hydro-Quebec system required extensive measures in order to confirm that the
control scheme for the parallel operation mode between the old and new Nemiscau
SVCs would perform up to Hydro-Quebec’s standard on a consistent basis for any
network condition. Both calibration and functional tests were performed during
factory acceptance testing of the control system of the modernized SVC. Additional
tests were performed at Hydro-Quebec Research Institute (IREQ) including dynamic
tests, impact of sub-synchronous frequencies on the controller, complementary
functional tests, and further optimization. A control replica of the new controller
was connected to a real-time network simulator, while the control functionalities of
the older controller were implemented in a digital real-time simulator.
The tests served also to decide filter characteristics for the signal sent by the old
control system to the control system of the new SVC, as represented by the block
“Signal conversion and supervision” in Fig. 51. As an example, the plots in Fig. 52
show the comparison between the old SVC control system signals (red) and the
calculated equivalent signals in the new control system for different filter time
constants “Tau” (τ). It is shown that the time constant of 10 ms results in a reasonable
agreement between different signals, resulting in a similar response and reactive
power sharing between the two SVCs.
VRESP (GE) [COM1] VRESP (ABB)–Tau=10 ms VRESP (ABB)–Tau=100 ms BREF (GE) [COM1] BREF (ABB)–Tau=10 ms BREF (ABB)–Tau=100 ms
1.2 4
Voltage response
1.1 SVC susceptance
3
1
2
0.9
0.8
pu
pu
0.7
0
0.6
–1
0.5
0.4 –2
0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4 1.45 1.5 0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.12 1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4 1.45 1.5
s s
I SVC (GE) I SVC (ABB)–Tau=10 ms I SVC (ABB)–Tau=100 ms Q SVC (GE) Q SVC (ABB)–Tau=10 ms Q SVC (ABB)–Tau=100 ms
6 8
Primary SVC SVC reactive power
5 reactive current 6
4
4
3
pu
pu
2
2
0
1
0 –2
0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4 1.45 1.5 0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2
s 1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4 1.45 1.5
s s
Fig. 52 Remote three-phase fault at 735 kV system and signal comparison between old SVC (red)
and new SVC control systems (τ = 10 ms in blue; τ = 100 ms in green)
478 H. Rao et al.
1.1
1.05
1
V735 pu
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8 Positive sequence
0.75
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
3
CLC11 old
2.5 CLC12 New
2
ISVC pu
1.5
1
0.5
Positive sequence
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Seconds
Fig. 53 Remote single-phase-to-ground fault on February 27, 2014. Upper curve: voltage response
at 735 bus; lower curve: SVC reactive current at 735 kV side of transformer
A remote, single-phase-to-ground fault shown in Fig. 53, occurring 2 months

after commissioning, confirmed the correct dynamic behavior of the parallel mode of
operation between the old and new control systems. It is seen from the primary
reactive current signal that both SVCs show a similar response and waveform,
reaching similar values after fault recovery. The developed strategy avoids hunting
and undesirable control interaction between the two SVCs.
The first Nemiscau SVC was successfully replaced and put into commission in
November 2013, with a parallel operation mode allowing it to function with the older
remaining SVC. The second SVC was commissioned by the end of 2014. A key factor to
the success of this project was the extensive simulation testing done at ABB test facilities
and at IREQ. It allowed optimization of control parameters prior to commissioning. The
control performance and parameters were confirmed through field experience.
The Nemiscau SVCs each result in about 500 MW of additional power transfer
capability on the transmission corridor from James Bay in northern Quebec to the
Montreal region, due to their contribution to voltage support in steady-state condi-
tions and to their fast response following network contingencies. The original SVC
transformers were retained and reused in a modified 12-pulse configuration provid-
ing a lower installation cost for the refurbishment.
The same approach for parallel operation between old and new SVCs was also
used successfully for the replacement of the Hydro-Quebec SVCs in the neighboring
Albanel substation (see Fig. 48). The SVC upgrade improved the harmonic perfor-
mance and reduced electrical losses. Maintenance procedures have also been
improved due to increased accessibility of the equipment.
12 Viklandet and Tunnsjødal SVCs in Norway
The Norwegian power system is almost fully based on hydropower and variations in
precipitation, and thus reservoir inflow can cause the annual generation to vary by
about 30 TWh between a very dry and wet year (Meisingset et al. 2010). This can
result in large variations both in the domestic power flow between regions and in the
power exchange with neighboring countries. Hence, the power system must be
designed and operated to handle these large power flow variations, in which the
extreme situations often are dimensioning cases. In addition to that, as a result of
several large-power demanding industry developments in central Norway, the
demand in the region increased considerably. Therefore, it was necessary to further
reinforce the transmission grid to secure the power supply to central Norway in the
longer time frame. Two of these reinforcements were:
• Commissioning of the 100 km long 420 kV line (Nea-Järpen) in October 2009

after a voltage upgrade from 300 kV, between central Norway and Sweden as
indicated in Fig. 54.
Fig. 54 The Nordic transmission grid

480 H. Rao et al.
• New 300 km long 420 kV transmission line between south and central Norway
(Ørskog-Fardal), also shown in Fig. 54. This transmission line was at license
evaluation stage in 2007 (it is now in operation) and increased significantly the
transfer capacity from Southern Norway.
Due to the expected long time required for getting licenses and building this
transmission line, the Norwegian TSO Statnett adopted several measures to secure
supply to the region during 2008–2013. Among them, reactive power compensation
involving nine new shunt capacitors and two new SVCs, commissioned during
2007–2008, ensured high utilization of the existing transmission grid by increasing
the import capacity to the central region by 200–400 MW depending on the
operating conditions, without the risk of voltage collapse.
The turnkey contract for delivering the two SVC stations was awarded to ABB in
April 2007. Statnett was responsible for preparing the site and the new breaker bays
for both SVC stations. The SVC at Viklandet substation was commissioned in
October 2008, followed by the SVC at Tunnsjødal substation in November 2008.
Figure 55 shows the Viklandet SVC station.
Fig. 55 Viklandet SVC station

The main design is identical for the two SVC stations and optimized for
420 kV grid connection with 250 Mvar continuous rating. Each SVC
station is required to meet availability and reliability criteria, including Forced
Energy Unavailability (FEU) of maximum 1.5% and annual Forced Outage
Rate (FOR) of maximum four trips. The three-phase, two-winding SVC trans-
former is rated 270 MVA with a 420/25 kV voltage ratio.
The SVC stations were designed to limit the harmonic distortion on the system.
Due to the stringent harmonic network impedances specified, the SVC had to be
designed with three TCR and three filter branches, as illustrated in Fig. 56, to
decrease the harmonic generation. Tunnsjødal SVC is equipped with an additional
100 Mvar mechanically switched capacitor (MSC) branch for increased short-term
capacitive capability to utilize the inherent short-term overload capability of the SVC
transformer.
Figure 57 shows the thyristor valves for the three TCR and two TSC
branches at Tunnsjødal SVC. Both the TCR and the TSC valves are
designed with one redundant Bidirectional Control Thyristor (BCT) level,
meaning that the SVC can maintain operation with normal capacity also
with one thyristor level short-circuited. The thyristors are electrically
fired, and the energy for firing is taken from the snubber capacitors. The
fire order to the thyristors is communicated via optical light guides from the
valve control unit, which is normally referred to as “indirect light firing”
(Table 10).
Fig. 56 Single-line diagram for Tunnsjødal SVC

482 H. Rao et al.
Fig. 57 Valve hall with TCR

and TSC valves at Tunnsjødal
SVC station
Table 10 Main technical parameters of Viklandet and Tunnsjødal SVCs

Parameter Value
Step-down transformer Connection type YNd11
Ratio (kV) 420/25
Capacity (MVA) 270
Semiconductor devices Type Bidirectional Control Thyristor
Voltage/current (V/A) 6500/2480a (TCR)
6500/2205a (TSC)
Redundancy One thyristor level per phase
Overload capability +350 Mvar/15 min (Tunnsjødal)
a
When the SVCs were installed, the system voltage at Tunnsjødal substation was
300 kV, but the SVC was designed and prepared for future 420 kV grid connection
including the transformer. Since then, the substation has been upgraded to 420 kV
voltage. The design of an SVC transformer with a 420/300 kV re-connectable
primary winding was discarded due to economical and technical reasons, e.g.,
weight limitations along the transformer transport route.
Operating initially connected to a 300 kV grid, Tunnsjødal SVC had a reduced
rating during the intermediate time period, because of the lower SVC busbar voltage.
The continuous rating was naturally reduced from 250 Mvar to 140 Mvar induc-
tive and 147 Mvar capacitive capabilities. However, the additional MSC branch
could be continuously utilized, thereby increasing the capacitive range to 207 Mvar.
Figure 58 shows the VI-characteristic for Tunnsjødal SVC, where the cyan area
represents 15-min operating points.
Fig. 58 VI-characteristic,
Tunnsjødal SVC (base
primary voltage: 420 kV)
484 H. Rao et al.
The SVCs have the following additional control system features:
– Earth Fault Locator: the SVC protection system does not have selective indication
that identifies the faulty branch for earth faults. The SVCs are equipped with one
main circuit breaker, which is situated on the primary (high-voltage) side of the
step-down transformer. It is therefore not possible to obtain selective disconnec-
tion of earth fault on the secondary side of the transformer and restart the SVC.
Both SVCs are thus equipped with a software-based Earth Fault Locator, which
automatically identifies the earth fault and commences operation at reduced
capacity with the faulty branch disconnected. The method consists of an auto-
matic reclose sequence to connect and energize each branch until the earth fault is
located. This method avoided the installation of a grounding transformer for
detecting single-phase-to-ground faults.
– Control of External Shunt Capacitor Banks: the SVC is equipped with a
Q-Optimizer, which provides coordinated control between the SVCs and shunt
capacitors in the same substation. The shunt capacitors are switched to perform
the steady-state main voltage control such that the SVC operates close to balance
between inductive and capacitive modes. This ensures that the SVC has maxi-
mum dynamic capability available to provide fast response to counteract distur-
bances. The Q-Optimizer at Viklandet SVC controls the 100 Mvar shunt
capacitor banks connected to the 132 kV system in the substation. Tunnsjødal
SVC controls a 100 Mvar shunt capacitor connected to 300 kV in the substation
using a similar principle. Both SVCs connect the external shunt capacitor bank
when the SVC generates more than 80 Mvar in the capacitive range for more than
15 min. Similarly, the SVC disconnects the shunt capacitor when it consumes
more than 80 Mvar in the inductive range for more than 15 min.
– Power Oscillating Damper (POD): there are several well-known local and interarea
power oscillation modes in the Norwegian power system (Leirbukt et al. 2006).
These oscillating modes include an interarea 0.45 Hz oscillation frequency between
Norway and Finland, a 0.65 Hz oscillation frequency between Norway and South-
ern Sweden and a local 0.85 Hz oscillation frequency within Norway. The SVCs at
Viklandet and Tunnsjødal are equipped with Power Oscillating Damper (POD)
function, which is designed to damp critical power oscillation modes. Extensive
power system studies concluded that the local 0.85 Hz oscillation mode could be
controlled by both Viklandet and Tunnsjødal SVCs. Meanwhile, the 0.45 and
0.65 Hz interarea oscillation modes were better damped by the Hasle SVC, located
in Southeastern Norway as indicated in Fig. 54 (Uhlen et al. 2012).
The two SVC stations and the nine shunt capacitor banks were installed in order to
obtain import capability to central Norway during dry years with low local hydro
generation. However, the energy deficit in central Norway was not critical during
2008–2009 winter due to normal local hydro generation. The energy balance in
central Norway was further improved by temporary shutdown of a 170 MW pro-

duction line at Hydro Aluminum at Sunndal due to the demanding market situation
for aluminum at that time. The import capacity to the region was increased by
100 MW when the 420 kV transmission line Nea-Järpen between central Norway
and Sweden was commissioned after a voltage upgrade from 300 kV.
Figure 59 shows the utilization curves for the two SVCs during 1 year of operation
from the end of 2008 to the end of 2009. The curves show that the two SVC stations
operated predominantly in the inductive mode. This can be explained by a good
energy balance in central Norway with high regional hydro reservoir levels, reduced
industry demand, and increased import capacity. There were also fewer outages of
critical transmission lines, generally reducing the need for capacitive compensation.
The 100 Mvar shunt capacitor connected to 132 kV at Viklandet substation was in
operation about 10% of the time. Apart from testing during commissioning, the MSC
in Tunnsjødal was not utilized during the first year of operation.
Figure 60 shows the transient response of Viklandet SVC during a 100 ms two-phase-
to-ground fault and tripping of the 132 kV line Istad-Bolli, which occurred on September
30, 2009. The inductive steady-state SVC output increased from 25 Mvar pre-fault to
83 Mvar post-fault due to load tripping at the gas processing plant at Nyhamna substation.
It can be seen that the transient response by the SVC is to provide maximum capacitive
output (i.e., 250 Mvar) to counteract the voltage drop during the fault.
Central Norway is a region with large-power demanding industry plants and
significant amount of wind power generation. Variations in the industry demand and
150 100
Viklandet SVC-Utilization curve 15.11.08-15.11.09 TunnsjØdal SVC-Utilization curve
100 15.12.08-15.11.09
50
50
Capacitive operation Capacitive operation
0 0
Mvar
Mvar
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
–50
–100 –50
–150
Inductive operation –100
–200
Inductive operation
–250 –150
Hours Hours
Fig. 59 Utilization curve of Viklandet (left) and Tunnsjødal (right) SVCs during 1 year
K1:Q T3/MVAr
Inductive
0
-0.025 0.000 0.025 0.050 0.075 0.100 0.125 0.150 0.175
-100
-200 Capacitive
Fig. 60 Transient response of Viklandet SVC to two-phase-to-ground fault in 132 kV grid

486 H. Rao et al.
wind power fluctuation have often made voltage control a demanding task in the past.
The two new SVC stations made transmission grid operation significantly easier.
The reactive compensation control performed by the SVCs has, together with
other measures, secured the reliable supply to the region until commissioning of the
420 kV transmission line Ørskog-Fardal.
13 Haramain High-Speed Railway (HHR) SVCs in Saudi Arabia
The Haramain High-Speed Rail (HHR) project is a 490 km double-track high-speed

intercity railway system in the western region of Saudi Arabia (Hutchinson et al.
2016). It links the holy cities of Medina and Mecca via King Abdullah Economic City,
Rabigh, Jeddah, and King Abdulaziz International Airport. Trains will run the 78 km
between Jeddah and Mecca in less than half an hour, while the 410 km between Jeddah
and Medina will take about 2 h. The railway is expected to carry around three million
passengers a year, helping to relieve traffic on the roads.
The traction system is connected to the 380 kV transmission system at
several locations, and there are in total six feeder stations along the traction system.
At each feeder station, the railway is fed by two single-phase transformers
rated at 380 kV/2 27.5 kV, taking their power between different phases of
the 380 kV system (see Fig. 61). With this arrangement, asymmetrical currents
and voltages are created, which, unless remedied, would spread to other consumers
connected to the same grid, with a strongly negative impact particularly on
rotating machinery elsewhere in the grid, causing additional losses as well as
thermal and mechanical wear.
Fig. 61 Simplified railway

system
As part of the HHR project, two SVCs were delivered by ABB for traction
load balancing of the 380 kV grid. The SVCs are also designed to provide voltage
support to the transmission system, as the areas of Medina and Mecca have a high
degree of induction motor loads due to high ambient during the summer season
necessitating frequent use of air conditioning. The SVCs are critical for keeping the
network operating during and after contingencies in the surrounding network. When
a fault occurs in the grid, the voltage in the network drops significantly and may
cause motor stalling. Each SVC has a dynamic range extending from 300 Mvar
inductive to 600 Mvar capacitive ( 300/+600 Mvar) at 380 kV. The SVCs were
commissioned in 2015–2016 and have the following tasks in the grid:
• Balance the asymmetrical railway load (open-loop current control).

• Balance other asymmetries (negative-phase sequence voltages) in the 380 kV
voltage (unsymmetrical SVC control) during normal steady-state and during
contingency conditions.
• Control the positive-phase sequence voltage of the 380 kV grid under normal
steady-state and contingency conditions.
• Provide dynamic, fast response reactive power following system contingencies
such as network short circuits, line and generator disconnections.
• Enhance first swing stability by maintaining system voltages during large
disturbances.
Each SVC is connected to the 380 kV bus via three single-phase power trans-
formers and one additional spare, with a three-phase rating of 600 MVA (see
Fig. 62). The SVC is designed with TCR/TSC topology and consists of two
thyristor-controlled reactors (TCRs) rated at 68 Mvar each, three thyristor-
switched reactors (TSRs) rated at 134 Mvar each, and two thyristor-switched
Fig. 62 Single-line diagram (SLD) of HHR SVCs

488 H. Rao et al.
capacitors (TSCs) rated at 181 Mvar each. The harmonic filters, in total rated
238 Mvar, are divided in two identical branches, each filtering out harmonics and
supplying capacitive reactive power. Each filter branch is connected by a circuit
breaker to the MV bus and consists of two double-tuned filters having 3rd, 5th,
7th, and high-pass characteristics. TSC and harmonic filter capacitors are designed
with sunshades to reduce loss of life on capacitors (see Fig. 63). Each thyristor
valve branch is designed with its own cooling system due to customer
requirements.
Due to the strict harmonic emission requirements, TCR branches are split into a
number of smaller branches instead of larger TCR units, with only one run as TCR
and the other as TSR. The firing angle control of the TCRs and switching of the
TSRs/TSCs result in continuously variable reactive power over the entire SVC
operating range (Table 11).
Fig. 63 HHR SVC transformers and 380 kV switchgear and TSC capacitor sunshades
Table 11 Main technical parameters of Haramain SVCs

Parameter Value
Capacity 300/+600
(Mvar)
Connection 6-pulse
type
Step-down Connection YNd01 (four single-phase units including one spare)
transformer type
Ratio (kV) 380/30
Capacity 600 (three phase)
(MVA)
Semiconductor Type Phase Control Thyristor (PCT) and Bidirectional Control
devices Thyristor (BCT)
Voltage/current 6500/3510a (full sine wave, BCT)
(V/A) 6500/4410a (half sine wave, PCT)
Redundancy One thyristor level per phase
Overload capability +673 Mvar for 30 s
Cooling method Deionized water (100%)
a
To ensure maximum availability and performance of the HHR SVCs, the SVCs are
designed with inbuilt redundancy to the maximum limit. The SVCs are designed to
use full installed power for load balancing, i.e., TCRs, TSRs, and TSCs will run
phase to phase-wise independently. During unsymmetrical faults, the SVC will run
unsymmetrically to avoid excessive rise of individual line-to-ground voltages. It is
known that symmetrical operation of large SVCs in weak network may cause
operational concerns, e.g., depressed voltages at TSC blocking and system over-
voltages and large voltage unbalances after fault clearing. Therefore, during unsym-
metrical faults and at fault clearance, the SVC will run unsymmetrically to avoid
excessive rise of individual line-to-ground voltages.
The positive-phase sequence (PPS) voltage controller in the HHR SVCs is a
standard controller similar to other SVC installations. The uniqueness of this con-
troller for HHR SVCs lies in the implementation and cooperation of the controller
with the other controllers to establish a priority system in which the SVC delivers its
reactive power support according to the needs of the grid.
13.3.1 Negative-Sequence Voltage Regulation

The HHR SVCs are equipped with a negative-phase sequence (NPS) voltage
regulator, which regulates the observed NPS voltage present at the PCC and
490 H. Rao et al.
attempts to control it toward zero. In practice, this means that the NPS voltage
must be extracted from the ABC phase voltage signals and controlled
through its own feedback-type regulator. Careful attention should be paid to
the phase arrangement on the primary and on the secondary of the SVC
transformer (i.e., transformer vector group) as well as the individual phase
susceptance limits.
One of the unique aspects of this regulator comes from the fact that there
are many MV branches, which must be coordinated on a per-phase basis.
This means for example that while a traditional SVC without NPS voltage
regulation may be able to assume that the TSC phases will be able to be
switched in and out together, the same cannot be assumed for the HHR SVCs.
Each branch must have the ability to be switched/controlled on a phase-wise
basis.
13.3.2 Traction System Voltage Balancing

One of the key requirements for the SVC is that it should balance the voltage at
the 380 kV level due to unbalanced disturbances on the connected traction
system, caused by the phase-to-phase connection of the single-phase traction
transformers as described previously. When a train passes the station, there will
be a certain amount of power drawn from that train from the 380 kV grid, and the
objective of the HHR SVCs is to inject or consume reactive power such that the
impact of this event on the 380 kV voltage is minimized. In practice, this is
accomplished by means of an open-loop controller that operates for both PPS and
NPS voltages. This controller is dependent on current measurements from the
traction feeders. Once these currents are measured, they are then simply passed
through the open-loop calculations to transform these currents into susceptance
orders to the branches, which occur instantaneously due to the lack of an integrator
circuit. A simplified block diagram of the traction system voltage balancing control-
ler is given in Fig. 64.
Fig. 64 Simplified block diagram of the traction system voltage balancing controller
13.3.3 Controller Coordination

In general terms, during healthy voltages, the priority is placed on the traction
balancing so that the train load is continually compensated by the open-loop traction
balancing controller during steady-state operation. If there is reactive power avail-
able after this controller has acted, the remaining capacity will be available to the
closed-loop negative-sequence controller for general negative-sequence balancing
support of the grid. Finally, any remaining capacity is available to the positive-
sequence regulator.
During under- and overvoltages in the network, the SVC will place priority on
the positive-sequence voltage regulator to support the positive-sequence voltage.
This is important, for example, in the case of a nearby fault which could cause
motor stalling. In that scenario, the motors will demand a lot of capacitive reactive
power which must be supplied by the SVC in order that the network can recover
from the fault condition. If there is remaining reactive power available after the
positive-sequence regulator has achieved its target set point, then the remaining
capacity will be available to the negative-sequence controller and then to the
traction controller.
13.3.4 Overvoltage Mitigation

One of the difficulties of large SVCs is that they can cause overvoltages in a
weak network after fault clearance. In the case of the HHR SVCs, when there are
not many motor loads conducting (i.e., in the winter when there is no air
conditioner load), the network may experience faster voltage recovery, which
could lead to overvoltages due to active components such as SVCs which
may not be able to switch out their TSCs before the voltage has recovered.
Therefore, the HHR SVCs are equipped with a fast-acting symmetrical blocking
function of the TSCs, which will rapidly remove the TSCs when fault clearing is
detected.
Another developed TSC blocking strategy is for cases when a single-phase
fault occurs in the grid. This fault could result in the SVC going fully capacitive
in all three phases to raise the positive-sequence voltage, and during this period,
the SVC could inadvertently increase the voltage in the healthy phases, causing
an overvoltage if the network is weak. Therefore, the HHR SVCs are equipped
with a special control function that will block the TSCs in a single phase if an
overvoltage in that phase is detected on the primary during an unbalanced fault
condition. This effectively allows the SVC to increase the positive-sequence
voltage as much as possible to assist the network in voltage recovery while at
the same time preventing any individual phase from reaching unhealthy voltage
levels.
13.3.5 Degraded Modes

Due to the high demand on redundancy and availability, the HHR SVCs have the
ability to operate with multiple branch outages so that the SVC can continue in
492 H. Rao et al.
operation after a fault in the MV branches. Due to the seasonal high short circuit
power of the grid at which the HHR SVCs are connected, it is not practical to
install circuit breakers for each of the MV branches, so disconnectors are utilized
for each MV branch in conjunction with an advanced auto-reclose scheme.
With this scheme, the SVCs have the ability to operate in all combinations of
degraded modes, including those with the filters out of service where the SVCs
operate in stepped mode.
Local and remote faults in the 380 kV system or in the 110 kV system cause a drop in
the positive-sequence voltage. In such case, air conditioner loads (i.e., induction
motors) lose torque, causing the motors to lose speed as the voltage continues to drop
due to the fault. This results in a large reactive current drawn by motors. Dynamic
voltage support during the fault and after fault clearance is essential to prevent the
speed drop and reaccelerate the motor loads (Al-Mubarak et al. 2009).
Figure 65 illustrates the SVC response to a solid single-phase fault at the 380 kV
system. Once the fault is detected, the SVC output goes fully capacitive within one
and a half cycle, as shown in the susceptance order signal (BREF), to support the
1.4
S1.VRESP [pl]
S1.VREF [pl]
1.2
1
0.8
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

2
S1:UP1_R [pl]
S1:UP1_Y [pl]
S1:UP1_B [pl]
1
0
–1
–2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
10
S1:BREF [pl]
–5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
S2:SPD M21101
S2:SPD M21112
S2:SPD M21320
S2:SPD M21072
1.02
0.98
0.96
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time [s]
Fig. 65 Solid single-phase fault and SVC response; no motor stalling

1.1
UP1_R [pu]
UP1_Y [pu]
UP1_B [pu]
1.05
1
0.95
0.9
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
0.06
VNEG
0.04
0.02
BREF_VREG_NPS_RY [pu]
BREF_VREG_NPS_BR [pu]
BREF_VREG_NPS_YB [pu]
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
4
–2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
ON_RY_AG04
ON_YB_AG04
ON_BR_AG04
ON_RY_AG06
ON_YB_AG06
ON_BR_AG06
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time [s]
Fig. 66 Closed-loop negative-sequence step and action of SVC to reduce NPS disturbance
system with the available capacitive power. As verified in the motor speed in the
bottom plot, the motor loads in the network do not stall, and the speed is recovered to
0.99 pu as shown in speed signals (SPDM).
As described in Sect. 13.3.1, the NPS regulator balance the asymmetry in
the 380 kV voltage by ordering unequal susceptance to each phase and phase-
wise switching and control of the TCRs/TSCs. Figure 66 illustrates a case from
the real-time simulator studies when a stepped unbalance occurred in the
380 kV voltage as seen in the RMS primary voltages (UP1 in the first plot)
at around 0.4 s, which causes the measured negative-sequence voltage (VNEG)
to increase. As the 380 kV voltage is within the healthy range and no traction
load is passing the station, the priority is given to the closed-loop NPS
controller. This means the SVC gives phase-wise susceptance as seen in the
third plot to bring down the negative-sequence voltage (VNEG) below the
maximum allowable limit in order to balance the 380 kV voltage. One should
notice that the controller also orders TSC unsymmetrical operation as seen by
the individual digital ON signals for both TSCs (only phase YB of TSC AG04
is switched in). The SVC returns to normal operation mode after the step in
negative-sequence voltage is removed just after 1.5 s.
As stated in Sect. 13.3.3, good coordination between the various control loops is
essential. One scenario could be that a train is passing the station and suddenly a
system fault occurs causing a drop in the 380 kV voltage. Results of such scenario are
shown in Fig. 67. The pre-fault scenario shows SVC unbalanced operation (fourth
494 H. Rao et al.
S1:UP1_R [pu] S1:l_TRAC_R [pu]

S1:UP1_Y [pu] S1:l_TRAC_Y [pu]
S1:BREF_BR [pu] S1:VREF_SVC [pu] S1:UP1_B [pu] S1:l_TRAC_B [pu]
6
4
2
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
S1:BREF_YB [pu] S1:VRESP [pu]
1.5
0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
S1:BREF_RY [pu]
10
5
0
–5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
S2:SPDM21101
S2:SPDM21112
S2:SPDM21320
S2:SPDM21072
1.05
0.95
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time [s]
Fig. 67 Single-phase fault in the network during train passing
plot) responding to the traction load (shown in the first plot). Once the fault occurs
around 0.15 s and is detected, the SVC priority is to support the positive-sequence
voltage by ordering equal and maximum susceptance orders to each phase as seen in
the fourth plot to ensure motor speed recovery (bottom plot). At fault clearance, the
priority is shifted back smoothly to balance the traction load, which is still present, and
therefore the three-phase susceptance values become different.
The two HHR SVCs have provided dynamic reactive power support to the
380 kV power system at two of the Haramain High-Speed Railway (HHR) feeder
stations in Makkah and Medina. Considering that up to 70–80 percent of the total
load in Saudi Arabia consists of air-conditioning units during summer periods,
the SVCs have frequently supported the system at slow voltage recovery, motor
stalling, or even voltage collapse during fault contingencies in the transmission
or sub-transmission grid. In addition to that, traction load consisting of high-
speed trains is very heavy during the Hajj pilgrimage period, causing an almost
permanent system unbalance. The HHR SVCs can also reduce the system
unbalance caused by this unsymmetrical load.
14 Directly Connected SVCs in Texas, USA
The McCamey area is a sparsely populated part of Western Texas, where the
penetration of wind power production had grown to 750 MW by 2009 and had
increased to well above 1 GW in the next years (Boström et al. 2009).
The transmission system in the McCamey area consists basically of two
138 kV lines providing parallel paths for the wind power delivery into the
345 kV system supplying the Dallas-Fort Worth area, a major load center. With
either of these lines out of service, a substantial increase in reactive losses will
occur, leading to voltage stability problems. Correspondingly, the Abilene hub
causes a significant power flow across the 345 kV transmission system toward
the Dallas-Fort Worth area. Contingencies in the 345 kV network would
increase the power flow in the underlying 138 kV system, which would have
to carry a portion of the power diverted from the 345 kV line lost in the
outage.
There were also older generations of wind turbines (based on induction genera-
tors) in operation in the McCamey area of Western Texas (TX) that are unable to
control the reactive power at the point of connection. They inherently have the
characteristic of increasing reactive power demand as the voltage drops below
nominal. This tends to further aggravate the instability during fault ride through
situations.
These units were depending on capacitor banks to offset the reactive power
demand arising from the induction generators. This further adds to the
reactive imbalance of the system resulting in over- and undervoltage problems
as the power generation changes with the wind conditions. This condition
causes the voltage to rise excessively during periods of low generation and
to drop during periods of high generation. To improve and maintain system
voltage stability in the McCamey and Abilene areas, three SVCs were installed
in the system. Each SVC was rated 40 Mvar inductive to 50 Mvar capacitive
reactive power. The SVCs are located in the Crane and Rio Pecos substations
south of Odessa, Texas, while the third one is located at Bluff Creek, close to
Abilene, Texas.
The concept of smaller SVC units distributed at critical buses in the system was
chosen by the customer (AEP) for its ability to apply the dynamic support close to
the wind power connection points. This gives effective reactive support during post-
fault system conditions and maximizes the power transfer capability from the wind
farm areas during changing wind conditions. By designing the SVCs for direct
496 H. Rao et al.
connection to the 69 kV system, i.e., without a SVC step-down transformer, and by

applying a robust and flexible filter design, an SVC design adapted for operation
anywhere in the Texas AEP 69 kV system was accomplished. In combination with
the concept of direct connection, lead times for additional units can be minimized as
the wind farms continued to grow, requiring additional dynamic reactive support in
the system. Each SVC also has the ability to control up to five external Static Shunt
Devices (SSDs), i.e., mechanically switched capacitor and reactor banks. In addition
to enhancing the overall dynamic stability, this approach also enables implementa-
tion of large-sized shunt elements as the number of switching operations is mini-
mized. These factors resulted in an extremely cost-effective Static Var System
(SVS).
The Crane and Rio Pecos SVCs are directly connected to the 69 kV bus without
the use of step-down transformers. The thyristor valves used for directly connected
applications are subjected to voltage stresses equal or less than those for thyristor
valves used in SVCs connected to the grid via step-down transformers. The SVC
equipment including the thyristor valves are thus rated for operation at the maximum
continuous bus voltage of 72.5 kV and designed to be able to block at voltages as
high as 1.3 pu.
With a thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) rating of 90 Mvar and a total filter rating
of 50 Mvar, the SVCs have an operating range between 40 Mvar inductive and
50 Mvar capacitive reactive power, as shown in the top part of Fig. 68. In order to
obtain an SVC design suitable for all conceivable locations throughout the AEP
69 kV Texas system, the SVCs were designed considering the maximum future short
circuit levels throughout the system and basing the filter design on the minimum
fault levels. SVC installations installed later required fewer system considerations
due to this robust design which paid dividends as the amount of wind power
generation continued to grow in the area.
The Bluff Creek SVC has the same rating but it regulates the 138 kV bus via
connection to the tertiary winding of a 345/138 kV autotransformer, as shown in the
bottom part of Fig. 68.
Figure 69 presents an overview of Crane and Bluff Creek SVCs.
The TCR employs phase angle control and utilizes Bidirectional Control Thyris-
tors (BCT), i.e., a type of thyristor where the two antiparallel devices are integrated
into one single silicon wafer. The current rating of the BCT, being lower than the
unidirectional Phase Control Thyristor (PCT), is well suited for the high voltage-low
current application of the directly connected SVC application.
The thyristor valve has double-sided cooling of each individual BCT, and the
valve module design is based on electrically triggered thyristors. The system is set up
with the thyristor gating electronics for each individual thyristor located in the
thyristor control units (TCU) mounted on the heat sink next to the thyristor unit at
high potential. The small amount of energy required to operate the TCU is supplied
by the snubber and voltage grading circuits (Table 12).
Fig. 68 Crane and Rio Pecos 69 kV
SVC (top) and Bluff Creek

–T15
SVC (bottom) single-line –Q11
diagrams –Q1
–T11
52
–T12
–F21 –Q12
69kV
–C21
–T11 –T11 –T11 –T11

–L1
–L1 –R1 –L1 –R1 –L1 –R1
–V1
–L2 –C1 –C1 –C1
–T11 –T14 –T14 –T14
=CF31 =CF32 =CF33

=TCR21 th th th
5 Harmonic Filter 7 Harmonic Filter 7 Harmonic Filter
90 MVAr
20 MVAr 17 MVAr 13 MVAr
138 kV
345kV
34.5 kV
–Q11
345/138/34.5 kV
675/62 62 MVA –Q1
Y/Y/d –T11
ek=10.84/6.8/5.95% 52
–T12
–F21 –Q12
–T15 34.5kV
–C21
–T11 –T11 –T11 –T11

–L1
–L1 –R1 –L1 –R1 –L1 –R1
–V1
–L2 –C1 –C1 –C1
–T11 –T14 –T14 –T14
=CF31 =CF32 =CF33

=TCR21 th th th
5 Harmonic Filter 7 Harmonic Filter 13 Harmonic Filter
90 MVAr
28 MVAr 12 MVAr 10 MVAr
498 H. Rao et al.
Fig. 69 Crane SVC (left) and Bluff Creek SVC (right)
Table 12 Main technical parameters of AEP SVCs

Parameter Value
Major rating Voltage (kV) 69 (Crane and Rio Pecos)
34.5 (Bluff Creek)
Step-down Connection type Direct connection to 34.5 and 69 kV systems
transformer (no dedicated transformer)
Ratio (kV) N/A
Capacity N/A
(MVA)
Semiconductor Type Bidirectional Control Thyristor (BCT)
devices Voltage/current 6500/2205a (full sine wave)
(V/A)
Redundancy (%) 10
a
For the Bluff Creek SVC, connecting a capacitive load to the tertiary of a transformer
required the maximum voltage to be limited to a level safely below the core flux limit at
maximum capacitive output. This set a distinctive limit to the size of the capacitive load
at higher voltages and was accomplished by having the TCR counteract the capacitive
current with the tertiary voltage as the limiting control factor. The tertiary voltage limit
of the Bluff Creek SVC is set not to exceed 1.05 per unit (36.2 kV), keeping a safe
margin on the core flux limit of the existing transformer.
An important issue of the filter design concerned the avoidance of excessive
harmonic load on the Bluff Creek autotransformers. Excessive harmonic current
could result in thermal issues giving rise to winding hot spot problems. Effective
design of the system required dialog with the transformer manufacturer and the
utility transformer experts. This was initiated by AEP at an early stage in the project.
The purpose of the SVCs is to regulate the positive-sequence voltage in the 69 kV

grid system, and thus the control operates with a purely integrating regulator giving the
SVC the ability of fast restoration of the fundamental frequency voltage. The inte-
grating regulator has the advantage of rapidly reducing gain with increasing frequency
making the regulator insensitive to frequency resonances above a few Hertz. The
regulator gain is adjustable and controlled by a gain scheduling function providing
adaptation to system conditions and preventing control loop instability.
It is desirable for a fast-acting reactive device such as an SVC to keep sufficient
dynamic reserve for unscheduled network contingencies. To facilitate this, the SVC
control is designed to keep the device operating within a narrow window in the
output reactance (Q) range, doing this by using switching actions of the Static Shunt
Devices (SSDs). Since the SSDs are all located at 138 kV, it is not optimal from a
system perspective to initiate switching solely based on the voltage level at the SVC
point of connection. For this reason, an overriding voltage control based on local
measurement at each bank location is integrated into the same SSD control package
in addition to a slower strategy based on the measured SVC reactive power. The SSD
voltage control works with a midpoint setting inside of a voltage window to
determine when the SSDs need to be switched at an accelerated rate due to abnormal
voltage conditions at a local SSD bus. An overview of the SSD switching strategy is
shown in Fig. 70.
Fig. 70 Overview of SSD control scheme

500 H. Rao et al.
The combination of switched and dynamic reactive support with effective control
coordination has helped to regulate the system voltage in the McCamey and Abilene
areas of AEP network through events such as wind shifts and unscheduled contin-
gencies, supporting wind generation effectively and minimizing voltage deviations
to customers. The concept of smaller SVC units distributed at critical buses through-
out the system was chosen by AEP for the ability to apply the dynamic support close
to the wind power connection points.
The design of the SVCs with direct connection to 69 kV or to the 34.5 kV tertiary
winding of autotransformers was also applied to other SVCs located in the AEP
Texas system, namely, Airline and Dilley SVCs (Grunbaum et al. 2008).
The majority of the spare parts are identical between the 69 kV and 34.5 kV
SVCs, giving the benefit of keeping spares and maintenance equipment at a common
base for all SVCs in the area.
15 SVCs at Bout De L’Ile (BDI) on the Island of Montreal,

Hydro-Quebec, Canada
Hydro-Quebec (HQ) transmission network is characterized by a concentration of

hydraulic power generation in northern territory more than 1000 km from the main
consumption centers. Over 60% of the load is concentrated in the greater metropol-
itan area and 20% in greater Quebec area. Network frequency and voltage may be
subject to large variations during events due to this particular topology. Stability and
voltage control being significant concerns, dynamic reactive compensation has been
added over the years to increase the network reliability and robustness.
Two SVCs each with a nominal rating of +/ 300 Mvar were installed at Bout De
L’Ile substation by Siemens. The main requirements for the SVC’s are:
• Secure the transit interconnections to New York and New England

• Additional reactive power capability in the network due to dismantling thermal
power station
The final arrangement of one of the two identical SVCs is shown in Fig. 71. The
main technical parameters of the SVC are shown in Table 13.
Special attention has been given to the harmonic rating of the installed compo-
nents. Self-generated harmonics from TCR operation as well as harmonics from the
network were considered. Due to the proximity of the network to the magnetic north
pole field and the mainly north to south network orientation with its long transmis-
sion lines, the probability of geomagnetically induced currents (GIC) is high. This
60 Hz 735kV
SN = 300 MVA,uk = 13%
26kV
LTCR2 LTCR1
LTSC1
2 2 LF1
V1 VR1
CF1
STF1
LTCR1 LTCR1 CTSC1
2 2
TCR2 TCR1 TSC1
Fig. 71 Single-line diagram of SVC Bout De L’Ile (one station)
Table 13 Main technical parameters of the SVC equipment

Parameter Value
SVC ratings Voltage (kV) 26
SVC range (Mvar) +/ 300
TCR/TSC connection type Delta
TCR rating (Mvar) 2 x 220
TSC rating (Mvar) 180
Step-down transformer Connection type Ynd5
Ratio (kV) 735/26
Capacity (MVA) 300
Reverse blocking voltage (V) 8800
Redundancy (%) 10
Overload capability (current/time) 1.3 pu/5 s
Cooling method Water glycol cooling
Full-load SVC valve losses (%) 0.21 (TCR) 0.14 (TSC)
time-limited phenomenon leads to saturation effects inside transformers and an

increased level of harmonic background voltages and defines the necessary har-
monic rating of components.
502 H. Rao et al.
Several factors lead to an optimized layout design. This included the implemen-
tation of only one single-tuned filter in the final SVC configuration. The optimization
of access and magnetic clearances were also contributing factors. The final layout
area was 183 m 101 m or 18,483 m2 (Figs. 72, 73, and 74).
Fig. 72 Station layout (two SVC substations)
Fig. 73 Two SVC substations

Fig. 74 Three-phase thyristor valves
The control of the SVC was developed with special consideration given to the
conditions at the connection point of the SVC. The main operating mode is the
voltage control mode. The following control features were implemented:
• Parallel operation of the SVCs

The operation of two identical SVCs at the same point of common coupling
requires enhanced control functions. For example, settings like voltage reference
point, slope, and gain adjustments will be handled in a Master/Slave operation for
both SVCs.
• Undervoltage strategies
Because of network studies, six different undervoltage strategies were
implemented in the control system to ensure the distinction between remote and
close-up short circuit faults to the connection point of the SVC.
504 H. Rao et al.
• TCR switchover
If both TCRs are in operation (inductive operation point), one TCR operates as
TSR (firing angle of 90 ). To reach a balanced demand of the TCR branches, a
regular TCR/TSR operation changeover is implemented.
• Sub-synchronous resonance supervision
Additional to the stability controller, the sub-synchronous resonance supervision
detects hunting in the controller output corresponding to specified sub-
synchronous frequencies.
• Geomagnetic storm supervision
A geomagnetic storm supervision circuit is implemented to detect major
geomagnetic storms which cannot be handled by the transformer, whereby
the DC part of the current flowing through the transformer star point is
measured. An alarm or trip signals are issued depending on the DC value and
duration.
The Static Var Compensator control system was thoroughly tested in the
Siemens test laboratory. These tests included Functional Performance Test (FPT)
and Dynamic Performance Test (DPT). The Functional Performance Test (FPT)
checks the static behavior and proper operation of the SVC control systems, while
the Dynamic Performance Test (DPT) verifies the dynamic behavior of the SVC’s
control.
For all the tests, the real SVC’s control system was tested in conjunction
with a digital network model that is simulated using a Real Time Digital
Simulator (RTDS) model. Various digital model setups were used corresponding to
the network steady-state and time-limited conditions (such as a GIC event).
Since its commercial operation in 2014, the compensator has performed
as expected in all its different modes of operation and particularly in parallel mode.
Special undervoltage strategies have been proven in service.
Several cases of geomagnetic storm events have been reported since its commer-
cial operation with no consequence on the SVC operation. The equipment has been
designed to withstand most severe cases, and the protection settings have been
adjusted to prevent tripping during these events.
16 Cross-References

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506 H. Rao et al.
Hong Rao, Chief Specialist of China Southern Power Grid (CSG),

HVDC and Power Electronics, the President of Electric Power
Research Institute of China Southern Power Grid (SEPRI, CSG),
China Regular Member (RM) of CIGRÉ SC B4, Chair of State Key
Laboratory of HVDC Transmission Technology of China, and the
Deputy Director of HVDC and Power Electronics Committee of
CSEE.
Hong Rao received his Bachelor’s degree in Electrical Engineering
from Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China, in
1983. After graduation, he joined Central South China Electric
Power Design Institute and worked as Chief Designer for HVDC
Projects, and then he worked for CSG for R&D and application of
VSC-HVDC, UHVDC, and bulk AC/DC power system operation.
Starting his career from the design of the first 500 kV HVDC project
(Gezhouba-Shanghai) in China in 1983, he led the design and con-
struction of more than 10 HVDC projects, including the world’s first
UHVDC project (Yunnan-Guangzhou), the world’s first VSC-MTDC
project (Nao’ao VSC-MTDC), a 350 kV/1000 MW back-to-back
VSC-HVDC project in the 500 kV backbone network of CSG. At
present, he is leading the study of the ultrahigh VSC technology and
LCC-VSC-HVDC technology, which can be applied into the three-
terminal 800 kV/8000 MW-3000 MW-5000 MW Wudongde
HVDC project in CSG.
He is a Convener of CIGRÉ B4.79 and IEC SF22 JMT3 and now is an
IEEE Senior Member. He has won a first prize and a second prize of
the National Science and Technology Progress Award, the prize for
Scientific and Technological Progress of Ho Leung Ho Lee Founda-
tion in 2016, and IEEE PES Uno Lamm High Voltage Direct Current
Award.
He Shi, Engineer, Energy Storage and Power Electronics, Techni-

cal Director of STATCOM product of Rongxin Huiko (RXHK)
Electric Technology Co., Ltd., Anshan, China.
He Shi received his Bachelor’s degree from Beijing JiaoTong
University and Master’s degree from Tsinghua University, Bei-
jing, China, both in Electrical Engineering, in 2006 and 2008,
respectively. After graduation, he joined RXHK Electric Technol-
ogy Co., Ltd., Anshan, China. From 2008 to 2011, he worked on
the 35 kV/200 Mvar transformer-free STATCOM System which
was directly connected to 35 kV bus in a substation of CSG to
provide dynamic reactive power and enhance network reliability.
He has also joined the work of several Chinese standards on
FACTS applications. At present, he is working on the system
design of large capacity STATCOM for the application of Power
Grid and New Energy Generation.
Xiaodan Wu, Senior Engineer of Flexible Transmission

Research Institute of NR Electric Co., Ltd., Nanjing, China.
Xiaodan Wu received his Bachelor’s degree and Master’s degree
from Southeast University, Nanjing, China, both in Electrical
Engineering, in 2005 and 2008, respectively. After graduation,
he joined NR Electric Co., Ltd., and worked as an R&D engineer
of wind power inverter, solar power inverter, STATCOM, SVC,
and VSC-HVDC system. From 2009 to 2012, he worked on the
development of DFIG wind power inverter and solar power
inverter. From 2012 to 2014, he worked on the development of
STATCOM. And from 2014 to 2017, he worked on the 35 kV/
300 MVAr STATCOMs for power system application which
were installed in 500 kV Yunnan Funing converter station in
China Southern Power Grid (CSG) to enhance power system
stability. Currently, he is working on the research and develop-
ment of 66 kV STATCOM system and super large capacity hybrid
reactive power compensation equipment.
Mr Marcio M. de Oliveira, System Lead Engineer, ABB (Swe-

den) Marcio M. de Oliveira was born in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in
1967 and received the M.Sc. degree in Electrical Engineering from
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. He obtained the
Technical Licentiate and Ph.D. degrees in 1996 and 2000, respec-
tively, in the field of High Power Electronics from The Royal Institute
of Technology in Sweden. He joined ABB FACTS in 2000, where he
has worked in several technical areas such as power system design,
real-time simulator studies, control system design and implementa-
tion, and R&D projects. Marcio currently holds a System Lead
Engineer position, primarily driving technical marketing and sales
activities of FACTS technology worldwide. He participated in
CIGRÉ SC B4 WG53 “Guidelines for procurement and testing of
STATCOMs,” and he is member of IEC TC22, being convener of IEC
61954 maintenance team, related to testing of SVC thyristor valves.
He received the IEC 1906 Award in 2017.
Guillaume de Préville, Fellow Expert FACTS and Power

Quality, GE Grid Solution, France, Guillaume de Préville
received his Master’s degree from ENSEEIHT Toulouse in 1985 and
joined Jeumont Schneider company as R&D engineer in static con-
verter control. After developing specific controls for drives and large
power supplies (Tokamak, electrolysis plants), he moved to Cegelec
and Alstom where he worked in power quality business in the R&D
Department, mainly in FACTS by developing the SVC and
STATCOM expertise in industrial and utility applications and devel-
oping frequency power converter control for railways catenary supply.
He is currently with GE Grid Solution as Fellow Expert in HVDC and
FACTS. He is an Expert in static converter control for machine and
power system applications. He is also Associate University Professor
at CNAM. He was CIGRÉ WF B4.19 member.
508 H. Rao et al.
Mr Colin Davidson Colin Davidson is Consulting Engineer –

HVDC, at GE Grid Solutions, HVDC Activity, whose Centre of
Excellence is in Stafford, UK. He joined the company in January
1989, when it was part of GEC, and progressed through the positions
of trainee thyristor valve design engineer; Manager, thyristor valves;
Engineering Director; and R&D Director, to his current role. He is a
Chartered Engineer and a Fellow of the Institution of Engineering and
Technology and has served on several IEC standardization commit-
tees for HVDC and FACTS, winning the IEC 1906 Award in 2012.
He has a degree in natural sciences, specializing in Physics, from the
University of Cambridge.
Zhanfeng Deng has been working in research institutes of State

Grid Corporation of China (SGCC) since 2003. Currently, he is
Director of Power Electronic Department of Global Energy Intercon-
nection Research Institute(GEIRI), a research institute of SGCC. His
research interest is power electronic application in power system
(FACTS, HVDC, etc.).
Georg Pilz, Engineering Director for System Engineering and

Network Studies for FACTS installations worldwide, Siemens, Ger-
many. Georg Pilz was born in Dresden, Germany, in 1972, and
received his Bachelor’s degree in electrical engineering in 1999 and
Ph.D. in 2007 from the Technical University of Dresden. He joined
Siemens AG 2005, where he worked in the System Engineering
department of FACTS application. Main fields of interest are design
of FACTS installations, especially transient simulation as well as
several R&D projects. Currently, he is Engineering Director for
System Engineering and Network Studies for FACTS application
worldwide. He was member of CIGRÉ SC B4 WG53, works in
IEC TC22, and is Vice Chair of IEEE WG P2745 “Guide for Tech-
nology of Unified Power Flow Controller Using Modular Multilevel
Converter.”
Dr. Bjarne R Andersen is the Director and Owner of Andersen

Power Electronic Solutions Limited, which was established in 2003.
36 years for what is now GE Grid, where his final role was
Director of Engineering. He was involved with the development
of the first chain link STATCOM and the relocatable SVCs con-
cept. He has extensive experience in all stages of line commutated
and voltage-sourced converters for HVDC projects. As a consul-
tant he has worked on several international HVDC projects,
including the Caprivi Link, the first commercial VSC HVDC
project to use an HVDC overhead line, and a VSC HVDC project
for multi-terminal operation permitting multi-vendor access.
Bjarne was the Chairman of CIGRÉ SC 14 from 2008 to 2014 and
an Honorary Member of CIGRÉ and was the 2012 recipient of the
Shukai Xu, Deputy Director of HVDC and Power Electronics

Department of EPRI of China Southern Power Grid, and Deputy
Director of State Key Laboratory of HVDC Transmission Technology
of China.
Shukai Xu received his Bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. from
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, both in Electrical Engineer-
ing, in 2002 and 2007, respectively. After graduation, he joined
EPRI of China Southern Power Grid (CSG) in Guangzhou, China,
and worked as an Engineer of DC De-icing, STATCOM, HVDC,
and VSC-HVDC system. From 2011 to 2013, he worked on the 35
kV/200 MVAr STATCOMs for power system application which
were installed in four 500 kV substations of load center in CSG to
enhance regional power system stability. As the Technical Direc-
tor, he studied the application of VSC-MTDC technology, includ-
ing the system design, integration, control strategies, etc., and
finally developed the world’s first VSC-MTDC project in 2013 –
Nao’ao VSC-MTDC. He also developed a back-to-back VSC-
HVDC project in the 500 kV backbone network of CSG, which
is rated at 350 kV/1000 MW and was put into operation in 2016.
At present, he is studying the ultrahigh VSC technology and LCC-
VSC-HVDC technology, which can be applied into the three-
terminal 800 kV/8000 MW-3000 MW-5000 MW Wudongde
HVDC project in CSG.
He was a Member of CIGRÉ B4.53 and now is an IEEE Senior
Member and IET Fellow.
Application Examples of STATCOM
13
Shukai Xu, Shaobo Wang, Guangjie Zuo, Colin Davidson,
Marcio M. de Oliveira, Rizah Memisevic, Georg Pilz,
Bilgehan Donmez, and Bjarne R. Andersen
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
2 Brief Introduction of the STATCOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
3 STATCOM in East Claydon, UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
4 MMC STATCOM in Shanghai, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
5 STATCOM in Cerro Navia, Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
5.2 System Structure and Operation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
5.3 Main Operation Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
S. Xu
HVDC and Power Electronics Department, Electric Power Research Institute of China Southern
Power Grid (EPRI of CSG), Guangzhou, China
e-mail: xusk@csg.cn
S. Wang
Rongxin Huiko (RXHK) Electric Technology Co., Ltd., Anshang, People’s Republic of China
e-mail: wangshaobo@rxhk.com
G. Zuo
XJ Group Co., Ltd., Xuchang, China
e-mail: 714381833@qq.com
C. Davidson
e-mail: Colin.Davidson@ge.com

512 S. Xu et al.
6 Multiple STATCOMs in Guangdong, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532

6.3 Control Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
7 STATCOM in Inner Mongolia, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
8 STATCOMs in HVDC Converter Station in Yunnan, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
8.4 Performance Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
9 STATCOMs in Aurangabad, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
9.3 Main Operation Modes (or Control Function) and Protection System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
10 STATCOM in Alabama, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
11 Four STATCOMs in Queensland, Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
11.1 Application Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
12 Hybrid STATCOM in Rourkela, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
M. M. de Oliveira
System Lead Engineer, ABB, Västerås, Sweden
R. Memisevic
System Performance and Connections, Power Link, Virginia, QLD, Australia
e-mail: rmemisevic@powerlink.com.au
G. Pilz
System Engineering and Network Studies for FACTS Installations Worldwide, Siemens,
Erlangen, Germany
e-mail: georg.pilz@siemens.com
B. Donmez
AMSC, Ayer, USA
e-mail: NetworkPlanning@amsc.com
B. R. Andersen (*)
13 Application Examples of STATCOM 513

13 STATCOM System in South Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
14 Mobile STATCOM, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
14.3 Major Operation Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
14.5 Project Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Abstract
The chapter starts with a brief introduction of the STATCOM technology and then
provides a number of typical applications of the STATCOM from around the world.
Some application examples are general transmission system applications, where the
purpose of the STATCOM is to regulate and support the AC voltage and to
minimize the over- and undervoltages that may occur during various faults and
event in the network, including the commutation failure of large HVDC schemes.
Some examples demonstrate the ability to improve the power quality, e.g., due to
disturbing loads such as arc furnaces, wind farms, single-phase tractions loads, etc.
Some STATCOM applications demonstrate the capability of the STATCOM to
damp power system oscillations and to increase the power capabilities of AC lines.
1 Introduction
This chapter starts with a brief overview of the design of the STATCOM. It then provides
a number of examples from around the world of the application of STATCOMs.
The following examples are included in this chapter:
1. A relocatable STATCOM in the UK, to help control the transmission network. It

was the first to use the “chain-link” converter, now known as the Modular
Multilevel Converter (MMC). This example was provided by Colin Davidson,
GE’s Grid Solutions Business, Colin.Davidson@ge.com.
2. China’s first chain-link (MMC) STATCOM, which was built in Shanghai to
demonstrate the benefits that a STATCOM can provide in an urban area
with high load density. This example was provided by Shukai Xu, Electric
Power Research Institute of China Southern Power Grid (EPRI of CSG),
xusk@csg.cn, and Guangjie Zuo, XJ Group Co., Ltd., 714381833@qq.com.
3. One STATCOM in Cerro Navia, Chile, provided to increase the dynamic
stability of the system and thereby allow the transmission of additional power
514 S. Xu et al.
through the grid. This example was provided by Marcio Oliveira, ABB,
email: marcio.oliveira@se.abb.com.
4. Four STATCOMs in Guangdong, China, which were built to support the multi-
infeed power system in Guangdong, by providing dynamic reactive power
support and to assist the HVDC recovery after commutation failures. This
example was provided by Shukai Xu, Electric Power Research Institute of
China Southern Power Grid (EPRI of CSG), xusk@csg.cn, and Shaobo Wang,
Rongxin Huiko (RXHK) Electric Technology Co., Ltd., wangshaobo@rxhk.com.
5. Two STATCOMs in Inner Mongolia, China, to solve the problem of
sub-synchronous resonance and sub-synchronous oscillation, which were
caused by HVDC schemes and long AC lines with series compensation. This
example was provided by Shaobo Wang, Rongxin Huiko (RXHK) Electric
Technology Co., Ltd., wangshaobo@rxhk.com.
6. STATCOMs in the HVDC converter station in Yunnan, China, which were
provided to provide AC voltage support after commutation failures in the
HVDC scheme. These STATCOMs considerably improved the performance of
the HVDC schemes and the AC network. This example was provided by Shukai
Xu, Electric Power Research Institute of China Southern Power Grid (EPRI of
CSG), xusk@csg.cn, and Guangjie Zuo, XJ Group Co., Ltd., 714381833@qq.
com.
7. Two parallel connected STATCOMs in Aurangabad, India, to provide dynamic
reactive power compensation to improve the voltage quality and dynamic
stability of the transmission system. This example was provided by Shaobo
Wang, Rongxin Huiko (RXHK) Electric Technology Co., Ltd.,
wangshaobo@rxhk.com.
8. STATCOM in Alabama, USA, to improve the power quality, which had
decreased due to reduced short-circuit capacity in the regional network, and a
large Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) generating flicker, unbalance, and harmonics.
This contribution was provided by Marcio Oliveira, ABB, email: marcio.
oliveira@se.abb.com.
9. Four STATCOMs in Queensland, Australia, to provide compensation for the
single-phase load of heavy electric trains and to comply with the grid code
requirements. The STATCOM was chosen because of its much lower harmonic
output. This contribution was provided by Rizah Memisevic, Power Link
Australia, email: rmemisevic@powerlink.com.au and Georg Pilz, Siemens,
email: georg.pilz@siemens.com.
10. Hybrid STATCOM in Rourkela, India, to provide dynamic reactive power
compensation to improve the voltage quality and dynamic stability of the
transmission system. Note that this application is almost the same as number
7 above, but from another manufacturer. This contribution was provided by
Georg Pilz, Siemens, georg.pilz@siemens.com.
11. A STATCOM in Australia that is designed to enable an enlarged wind farm to
meet new grid code requirements. This contribution was provided by Bilgehan
Donmez, AMSC, NetworkPlanning@amsc.com.
12. A Mobile 50 Mvar STATCOM in USA, which is designed to be relocated in a
very short time, and is designed to be connected anywhere in the Customer’s
system. The 50Mvar STATCOM consists of a number of trailer and connection

cables, and a mobile STATCOM transformer. This contribution was provided by
Georg Pilz, Siemens, georg.pilz@siemens.com
2 Brief Introduction of the STATCOM
STATCOM is the abbreviation of static synchronous compensator. The STATCOM

uses semiconductor devices with turn-off capability. At the time of writing (2019),
most STATCOMs use insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) as its switching
devices. Earlier generations of STATCOMs used gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs) or
the integrated gate-commutated thyristor (IGCT)). At the time of writing, the main
converter topology is the Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC) with IGBTs, but the
GTO and the integrated gate-commutated thyristor (IGCT) are also being used.
The STATCOM has the characteristics of fast-switching speed, good output
characteristics, fast dynamic response, small footprint, and flexible control functions.
In the transmission system, STATCOM can be used to provide voltage and
reactive power control, to enhance the system damping, to suppress low-frequency
and sub-synchronous oscillation, and to improve power system transient stability.
In power distribution systems, the STATCOM can be used for power quality
control, e.g., flicker suppression and to balance the phase voltages. In the case of
renewable energy power generation such as solar or wind generation, the STATCOM
can be used for voltage stability control, reactive power control, etc.
Three major converter topologies have been used – the type using magnetic
combination of multiple six-pulse converter bridges, the three-level Neutral Point
Clamped (NPC) converter, and the Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC) type of
STATCOM which is now becoming most common.
The STATCOM valves can be connected in delta or star, and its capacity range
from a few Mvar to more than 100 Mvar. The valves can be forced air-cooled or
water-cooled.
A detailed technical description of the STATCOM is provided in ▶ Chap. 7,
“Technical Description of Static Compensators (STATCOM)” in this Green book.
Note that the power losses in this chapter are for the valves only and are declared
as a percentage of valve rating (typically 50% of the rated dynamic range) and are
provided for operation of the STATCOM valve at maximum rated capacitive power.
3 STATCOM in East Claydon, UK
The privatization and “unbundling” of the electricity supply industry in the UK

during the late 1980s and early 1990s led to a major shift in the patterns of
generation, with many older coal-fired power stations being shut down and replaced
by low-cost combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) generation. The new CCGT
generation was located mainly in the North and East of England, closer to the
516 S. Xu et al.
North Sea coast. By the mid-1990s, National Grid in the UK (NG) had become
concerned that the increased generation in the North of England would result in
increased power flows through the already congested Midlands to South transmis-
sion corridors, with a consequent large potential deficit of reactive power in the
South. Following a period of heavy investment in conventional Static Var Compen-
sators, as part of an overall scheme to provide reactive compensation in the South,
National Grid decided to provide a STATCOM-based compensation system at East
Claydon substation, strategically located on the 400 kV grid system, between
Birmingham and London.
Since National Grid were no longer in control of the location of new generation, it
was concerned that new compensation equipment could become redundant
“stranded assets” in the future as a result of future changes to the network. To
mitigate this risk, the new compensation system had to be capable of subsequent
relocation to other 400 kV or 275 kV substations with suitable site areas available.
Up to three relocations were envisaged over an equipment lifetime of 40 years
(Horwill et al. 2001).
The STATCOM was specified to provide a smoothly variable reactive output of

0~225 Mvar (capacitive). No inductive capability was specified. The chosen con-
figuration was based on a STATCOM with a dynamic range of 150 Mvar
(75 Mvar) together with a small fixed filter, to provide outputs between zero and
about 100 Mvar. A 127 Mvar thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC) is also provided to
deliver the additional Mvar required for an output of 225 Mvar.
The compensation system in this project is owned by NG and was supplied by
Alstom (now GE’s Grid Solutions Business). The site installation and tests of the
compensation system were finished, and the STATCOM was formally put into
operation in 2000 (Hanson et al. 2001).
The single-line diagram (SLD) of the East Claydon STATCOM is shown in
Fig. 1.
This STATCOM was the world’s first commercial application of the “Chain Cir-
cuit,” now known as the Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC): see ▶ Chap. 5, “Power
Electronic Topologies for FACTS.” The STATCOM has three single-phase converters
connected in delta, each containing a number of “chain links” (or H-bridges) connected
in series. Each H-bridge uses four GTOs and associated freewheel diodes with a DC
capacitor as its voltage source. The GTOs, freewheel diodes, and snubber components
are water-cooled, and the DC capacitors are air-cooled. In order to satisfy the worst-case
operating point, each phase of the converter requires a minimum of 14 series connected
H-bridges. Two additional links are provided in each phase as redundancy, giving a
total of 16 H-bridges per phase.
The main technical parameters of the STATCOM in the East Claydon substation
are shown in Table 1 (data from Woodhouse et al. 2001).
400kV BUS
400/15.1
15.1kV BUS
TSC STATCOM Harmonic filter

127Mvar ±75Mvar 23Mvar
Fig. 1 SLD of the STATCOM in East Claydon substation
Table 1 Main technical parameters of STATCOM equipment

Parameter Value
Rating Voltage (kV) 15.1
Capacity (Mvar) 0 to 225 Mvar
STATCOM transformer Connection type YNd11
Ratio (kV) 400/15.1
Capacity (MVA) 237/237
Semiconductor devices Type GTO
Voltage/current (V/A) 4500 V/3000 A
Redundancy (%) 12.5
Overload capability (current/time) 1.1 pu inductive/1 s
Cooling method Water-cooled
Full load STATCOM valve losses (%) No information available
The available site area was limited, and accordingly a compact arrangement of the
compensation system was devised (Fig. 2). The total footprint of the STATCOM
equipment was less than 1400 m2. To facilitate future relocation of the compensator,
should the need arise, each phase of the STATCOM is self-contained in a road-
518 S. Xu et al.
Fig. 2 Valve containers and outdoor equipment in East Claydon substation
transportable container, located in the top-right part of Fig. 2. The TSC valve,
associated controls, and other ancillary equipment are mounted in a similar container
shown in the center of the figure. The heat exchangers that reject the valve losses to
air are located on the right-hand side of the figure. All other switchyard-type
equipment is mounted, with associated connections, on metal frames to group
items together for ease of transport and reinstallation.
Further technical information about the East Claydon STATCOM can be found in
▶ Chap. 7, “Technical Description of Static Compensators (STATCOM).”
The STATCOM mainly operates in steady-state constant voltage control mode and is
operated from the UK Grid Control Center.
The following control modes are also available:

Fig. 3 Response to step

change of STATCOM current
order
One of the main advantages of the STATCOM in comparison with a conventional

Static Var Compensator (SVC) is its smaller footprint and its fast speed of response.
The response time was verified by a number of current order step changes. From
these tests, adjustments were made to the proportional and integral gains of phase
control to achieve the optimum response.
Figure 3 shows a typical waveform demonstrating a smooth and rapid response
from the STATCOM.
4 MMC STATCOM in Shanghai, China
The Shanghai Power Grid has a highly concentrated load and is one of the most
important load centers in China. Since 2001 there has been a continuous increase of
the power load in Shanghai, and an increasing proportion of the load is being provided
from remote locations. The supply from remote locations to Shanghai were increasing,
resulting in the Shanghai Power Grid facing challenges including controllability and
instability problems. Due to constraints on resources and because of environmental
protection, local power plants, which could provide dynamic reactive power, were not
allowed to be built in urban areas. Consequently, the problem of lack of sufficient
dynamic voltage support in the load center of Shanghai arose. The 220 kV city
520 S. Xu et al.
network also required dynamic reactive power support for the different district grids,
and the increasing air-conditioning loads further increased the risk of the occurrence of
voltage instability in the Shanghai Power Grid (LIU Wen-hua et al. 2008).
To demonstrate the benefits of STATCOMs, such as the improvement of power
quality and ensuring the safe and stable operation of power grid, Shanghai Electric
Power Grid Corporation decided in 2003 to install a pilot 50 Mvar STATCOM at
the Xijiao substation in the Huangdu district grid. The expected benefits were:
• Provision of fast dynamic voltage support in the event of a network fault,

reducing the number of load shedding at low voltage
• Provision of dynamic voltage support to prevent transient voltage collapse during
system failures and sudden load increases
• To provide combined switching control of four sets of capacitors connected at the
35 kV bus to ensure 35 kV bus voltage stability
Tsinghua University, Shanghai Electric Power Company, and Xu Ji Electric Co., Ltd.
developed the first 50 Mvar MMC STATCOM in China. It was formally put into
operation at the Xijiao substation in Shanghai Huangdu District on February 28, 2006.
The SLD of the STATCOM is shown in Fig. 4. The main technical parameters and
performance data are shown in Table 2.
The layout of the STATCOM is shown in Fig. 5. The outdoor equipment includes
the 110 kV/10 kV transformer, the valve series reactor, and the water-cooling
220kV/110kV 110kV/10kV
220kV Bus
35kV
A B C
LA
1 1 1 DA
R
2 2 2
3 3 RA
3 CD
LINKA
4 4 4
LINKC
LINKB
CCL
5 5 5 S
6 6 6
7 7 7
8 8 8
9 9 9 Link
10 10 10
+30Mvar +30Mvar B
Fixed capacitor Fixed capacitor
Group 1 Group 2
±50 Mvar
STATCOM
Fig. 4 SLD of STATCOM

Table 2 Technical data for Shanghai Huangdu District STATCOM

Parameter Value
Rating Voltage (kV) 10
Capacity (Mvar) 50 ~ +50
STATCOM transformer Connection type Yy0
Ratio (kV) 110 2 2.5%/10
Capacity (MVA) 55
Semiconductor devices Type IGCT(103)
Collector-emitter voltage(V) 4500
Collector current (A) 4000
Redundancy (%) 10
Overload capability (current/time) 1.2pu/30s
Full load STATCOM valve Losses (%) 1.3
9m 4.3m 5m
Valve Hall Series Reactor 2

surge arrester
LINKA
LINKB
LINKC
15m
Series Reactor 1
4m
Cooling Tower Water cooling Control room 10kV switch room

room
Fig. 5 The layout of the STATCOM
radiator. The indoor equipment includes the three-phase converter, control cabinets,
monitoring cabinet and power supply cabinet, 10 kV switchgear, valve cooling
system, and its control and protection system.
Figure 6 shows one of the series reactors with oil cooling. The valve room is on
the right of the reactor, and the control room and other facilities are on the left.
Figure 7 shows one phase of the STATCOM valves, which can be seen to contain
ten MMC modules.
The STATCOM control and protection system is shown in Fig. 8, which includes
the monitoring cubicle (first right) and the control cubicle (second right).
522 S. Xu et al.
Fig. 6 Outdoor STATCOM equipment
Fig. 7 STATCOM valves

Fig. 8 Control and protection system
The STATCOMs were designed with voltage control modes for steady state and
transient state. In the steady-state voltage control mode, the output reactive power
is controlled to regulate the steady-state grid voltage through a proportional
control loop.
The system state is determined based on the measurements of the 220 kV bus
voltages. In the steady-state voltage control mode, the STATCOM may switch into
the transient state voltage control mode and provide rated capacitive reactive support
for the system immediately after the occurrence of a fault or other disturbances in
the grid. One condition for this mode switching is that the RMS value of the bus
voltage is lower than a preset threshold. This condition indicates a decrease in grid
voltage as a result of the fault. The condition for mode switching is also
determined by the rate of decrease of the grid voltage. As soon as the decrease rate
of the grid voltage exceeds the preset threshold, the STATCOM is switched to
the transient voltage control mode even if the grid voltage is still above the amplitude
threshold at this point.
The design estimates the voltage drop and speed up the response time of
the reactive power during faults. Once the STATCOM is switched into transient
state voltage control mode, after a preset duration of output of rated capacitive
reactive power, the output of the STATCOM will gradually decrease to the steady-
state output.
524 S. Xu et al.
Field test results show that the installed STATCOM can output rated current. Figure 9
shows the 10 kV line current at rated operating conditions. The total harmonic
distortion rate is less than 5%.
A power step response test was also conducted. Figure 10 shows the three-phase
instantaneous reactive power at the substation busbar when changing the reactive
power reference from zero to rated capacitive power. It can be seen that the
reactive power response time is very fast with an initial response in 3 ms followed
by an overshoot before finally settling to the ordered level at about 25 ms.
In 2006, the Huangdu district grid comprised twelve 220kV buses and twenty
load buses (35 kV and 110 kV), and the power load was 1552 MW. The test results
showed that the voltage increases at the 220 kV and 35 kV buses at the Xijiao
substation were 1.5% and 7.8% higher, respectively, when the installed STATCOM
provided output at the rated reactive power. This resulted in the shedding of loads
being reduced by up to 438 MW.
The Xijiao substation 50 Mvar STATCOM was a milestone for industrial-grade
STATCOM in China. It was the first STATCOM that employed the Modular
Multilevel Converter (MMC) concept in China. Subsequently, the MMC has become
Fig. 9 Line current ia ib

waveform at rated capacity
4000 ic
2000
ia,b,c / A
0
–2000
–4000
0 4 8 12 16 20
t/ms
65
45
Q(10 Mv ar/div )
25
5
5 10 15 20
t (10 ms/div)
Fig. 10 Three-phase instantaneous reactive power during step response test

the dominant converter alternative for the large capacity STATCOM in China. For
Huangdu district grid in Shanghai, the STATCOM has provided dynamic reactive
voltage support in case of faults and sudden increase in loads. At the same time, it
has provided valuable operating experience for the application and development of
future FACTS controllers.
5 STATCOM in Cerro Navia, Chile
The Central Interconnected System (CIS) serves the central part of Chile and
supplies power to approximately 90% of the Chilean population. Transelec S.A. is
the main transmission operator, owning and operating transmission facilities at
voltages from 500 kV down to 66 kV.
Similar to the situation in other parts of the world, a growing opposition to
the construction of new transmission infrastructure exists in Chile. Consequently,
Transelec S.A. investigated optimal means to utilize existing transmission facilities
to a higher degree of capacity. After the completion of feasibility studies, it was
decided to install FACTS controllers at critical points in the grid to increase the
dynamic stability of the system and thereby allow the transmission of additional
power through the grid.
The common tasks of the FACTS controllers installed in 2011 were the following:
• Regulate and control the 220 kV grid voltage under normal steady-state and
contingency conditions.
• Provide dynamic, fast reactive power response following system contingencies,
such as network short circuits and line or generator outages, particularly during
high power flow from Ancoa northward.
• Enable an increase of the power transfer capability of the grid.
In 2011, two FACTS installations comprising a STATCOM and an SVC were

supplied and commissioned by ABB at Cerro Navia and Polpaico substations,
respectively, as shown in Fig. 11.
Both Cerro Navia and Polpaico substations are located in the capital of Santiago,
where the greatest part of the load of the Central Interconnected System is concen-
trated. Together, the devices increased, at the time of commissioning, the power
transmission capacity from previously 1400 MW to 1600 MW over the 500 kV
corridor between Ancoa and Alto Jahuel and Ancoa and Polpaico, a transmission
corridor exceeding 300 km of length.
The single-line diagram of the STATCOM is shown in Fig. 12. The STATCOM
consists of a 102.5 Mvar three-level converter (NPC) and three harmonic filters
526 S. Xu et al.
Polpaico
SVC
Cerro Navia
STATCOM
Polpaico 500 kV
Alto Jahuel
Alto Jahuel 500 kV
Ancoa 500 kV
220 kV
500 kV
Fig. 11 Location of FACTS devices in the Chilean Central Interconnected System (year 2011)
Fig. 12 Single-line diagram

of Cerro Navia STATCOM
totally rated 37.5 Mvar. As the filters are always connected, the STATCOM contin-
uously controlled reactive power range is between 65 Mvar inductive and 140 Mvar
capacitive. The main technical parameters of the Cerro Navia STATCOM are shown
in Table 3.
The power transformer and MV outdoor equipment are shown in Fig. 13. Due to
stringent sound requirements, a sound wall around the power transformer was
adopted as sound level mitigation.
Table 3 Main technical parameters of Cerro Navia STATCOM

Parameter Value
Capacity (Mvar) +140/ 65
Connection type NPC converter and wye-connected filters
STATCOM Connection type YNd11
transformer Ratio (kV) 220/34
Capacity (MVA) 140
Semiconductor Type StakPak IGBT’s
devices Voltage/current 34/1800 valve
(kV/A)
Redundancy (%) 6%
Cooling method Water cooling with water-air heat
exchangers
Full load STATCOM valve losses (%) 1.2% on converter base
Fig. 13 Power transformer and MV equipment of Cerro Navia STATCOM

528 S. Xu et al.
Figure 14 shows the connection of the VSC phase reactor to the valve building and
an IGBT stack as part of the three-level converter. The whole STATCOM, including
control and valve building, is placed in a fenced area with dimensions 30 60 m.
Fig. 14 Phase reactor connection to valve room and IGBT stack of Cerro Navia STATCOM
The normal mode of operation is automatic voltage control. The control system uses
a closed-loop system that controls the positive-phase sequence voltage at the
220 kV bus.
In manual control mode, the STATCOM operates with open-loop control. The
desired reactive power output is manually set by the operator, and the STATCOM
provides a constant output current. In this operation mode, the voltage reference
follows the actual line voltage including slope correction, whereas at automatic
control mode, the reactive current power reference follows the reactive current
reference calculated by the voltage regulator. Therefore, transients in the STATCOM
output are avoided at transitions from one control mode to the other, providing a
bumpless transfer.
When the automatic voltage regulator is in operation, a higher level Mvar
regulator can also be activated. The control dynamics of the higher level is very
slow when compared to the voltage regulator, and its output signal is added to the
voltage reference signal in such a way that at steady state the STATCOM will remain
within a window defined by two limits, one at the capacitive range and one at the
inductive range. The main purpose of this function is to leave the controllable part of
the STATCOM, i.e., the voltage-source converter close to zero current at steady
state, leaving the whole converter dynamic range and its fast response to support the
network during system disturbances and recovery. When the STATCOM is con-
trolled to near-zero current, slower acting reactive power controllers in the AC
network will change their output to achieve the AC voltage required by the system
operator.
The STATCOM has also the ability to compensate the voltage unbalance
existing at the Cerro Navia 220 kV bus. The negative-sequence voltage is mea-
sured on the 220 kV system and compensated by adding negative-sequence
current in the VSC converter control. The negative-sequence amplitude that can
be counteracted by the STATCOM is limited, since the negative-sequence com-
pensation increases the DC voltage ripple. The positive-sequence voltage control
has higher priority.
As Cerro Navia STATCOM and Polpaico SVC projects were executed almost in
parallel, the factory acceptance tests of the control system in a real-time simu-
lator environment were performed simultaneously, employing the network setup
shown in Fig. 15. As the FACTS devices were electrically close to each other,
this setup allowed the verification of possible adverse control interactions
between the SVC and STATCOM during steady-state and dynamic conditions
as well as providing suitable settings for the control system of both
compensators.
530 S. Xu et al.
North equivalent
Quillota220 (8)
Polpaico500 (3)
Polpaico220 (7)
Lampa220 (9)
SVC
Cerronavia220 (6)
STATCOM
Cerronavia110 (10)
Chena220 (5)
Ajahuel220 (4)
Ajahuel500 (2)
500 kV
220 kV
Ancoa500 (1) 110 kV
66 kV
South equivalent 13.2 kV
Fig. 15 Studied network in the real-time simulator interfaced with the real control systems
As an example, from the real-time simulator studies, Fig. 16 shows the behavior
at a solid single-phase fault with six-cycle duration at the Alto Jahuel 220 kV bus,
located two buses away from Cerro Navia. At the fault instant, the converter current
is inductive, compensating for the reactive power generated by the filters. The fault
causes a 20% voltage drop at the positive-sequence voltage at Cerro Navia 220 kV
bus. Therefore, the voltage regulator sets the maximum reference for the VSC
capacitive current, as shown in Plot c, providing a very fast 180 phase shift of
converter currents from reactive power absorption to generation. During the fault, it
is still important to keep the balance of the DC voltages of the positive and negative
poles of the three-level converter, keeping the average DC voltage constant, to avoid
further discharge of the DC capacitor for prolonged faults. When the fault is released
at t = 0.22 s, the converter returns rapidly to its original inductive behavior, while the
voltage ripple is reduced as the unbalance in the system voltages is eliminated after
fault clearing.
Since the commercial operation of the Cerro Navia STATCOM and Polpaico
SVC in 2011, the power transfer capability on the 500 kV corridor from Ancoa
to the north of Chile, earlier limited to 1400 MW by voltage stability concerns
Fig. 16 Single-phase fault at Alto Jahuel 220 kV bus. Plot a: Primary voltages at Cerro Navia
220 kV bus [p.u.]. Plot b: Positive-sequence voltage, Cerro Navia [p.u.]. Plot c: VSC current
reference [p.u.]. Plot d: VSC currents [kA]. Plot e: Converter DC voltages across positive and
negative poles [p.u.]
due to a post-contingency scenario (loss of one transmission line), could be

increased to 1600 MW. According to Transelec, this could also optimize the
system operation, allowing transfer from southern generation to the central zone
of Chile.
532 S. Xu et al.
6 Multiple STATCOMs in Guangdong, China
As HVDC transmission capacity takes up a higher share of the West to East Power
Transmission in China, the interaction between HVDC and the existing AC network
has greatly changed the characteristics of the grid, especially the stability of the
system (Rao et al. 2016).
China Southern Power Grid (CSPG) is a typical long-distance bulk power
transmission system with paralleled AC and DC links. Up to 2015, there were
seven HVDC inverter lines feeding into this region. Up to 2020, there will be
11 HVDC inverter lines feeding into this region, as shown in Fig. 17.
In order to support the multi-infeed power system in Guangdong, four
STATCOMs were built in four 500 kV substations to provide better dynamic reactive
power support and to assist the HVDC recovery in the event of commutation failure
(CF) of LCC-HVDCs.
The four STATCOMs in this project were designed and owned by CSG; the
manufacturer is Rongxin Power Electronic Co., Ltd. The first STATCOM was
1
HVDC
HVDC Inverter
2 Inverter
3 60
59
9 4 Mumian 65 6 7 8
HVDC HVDC
Inverter Inverter 46
10 5
41
11 61 14 15
12 13 Dongguan
Beijiao Shuixiang 42 43 44 45 47
20 16
19
18
HVDC 21 HVDC 17
Inverter 22 Inverter
62 HVDC 56
30 64 48 54 55
32 Baoan
23 Inverter Shunde 49 53
63 31 50
25 24 29 33 HVDC inverter
52 Series compensator
28
34 37 Major power plant
26 36 35 Pumped storage power station
38 51 500kV transformer station
Nuclear power plant
39 40 The buses for STATCOM installation
27 57 58 according to 2015 power grid
The buses for STATCOM installation
according to 2020 power grid
Fig. 17 Single-line diagram of the 500 kV receiving-end power system with multiple STATCOMs
of the CSG in 2015
commissioned at Dongguan 500 kV substation in August 2011.The second and third

STATCOMs were commissioned at Beijiao and Shuixiang 500 kV substation in June
2013. The last STATCOM was commissioned at Mumian 500 kV substation in
October 2013.
The phase reactor of each STATCOMs is 12%, which is divided into two parts
that are located on either side of the valve. Each phase consists of 26 power modules.
Each module is an H-bridge structure and is equipped with a crowbar circuit to
bypass the module if an internal fault occurs.
The SLD of the 35 kV/200 Mvar STATCOM in Dongguan station is shown in
Fig. 18. The SLD of the other STATCOMs are the same as Fig. 18. Note that the
STATCOM consists of two STATCOMs.
The main technical parameters of the STATCOM are shown in Table 4.
The Dongguan STATCOM control and protection system, valve cooling system,
and three-phase power module are arranged in containers. The water-cooling radi-
ators, delta-connected reactor, earthing switches, surge arresters, and incoming
circuit breakers are arranged outdoors.
The converter valves are arranged in containers, and the valves are cooled by a
pumped valve cooling system. The outdoor equipment and valves are shown in
Figs. 19 and 20, respectively.
Fig. 18 SLD of the 500kV BUS

Dongguan substation
STATCOM
500/220/35
35kV BUS
220/35
35kV BUS
#1 STATCOM #2 STATCOM
±100Mvar ±100Mvar
534 S. Xu et al.
Table 4 Main technical parameters of each STATCOM

Parameter Value
STATCOM Connection type YNd11
transformer Ratio (kV) 220 2 2.5%/35
Capacity (MVA) 240
Semiconductor Type PP-IGBT (press-pack insulated gate bipolar
devices transistor)
Collector-emitter 4500
voltage(V)
Redundancy (%) 10
Overload capability (current/time) 1.5pu/ 10 s
Full load STATCOM valve losses (%) 0.8
Step up 35kV Valve

Transformer Reactor
Busbar container
Fig. 19 Valve and outdoor equipment of STATCOM of Dongguan substation

Power Module
Fig. 20 Valve container internal view of STATCOM of Dongguan substation
6.3 Control Modes
The two STATCOMs have a common coordination controller, which balances the
reactive power balance and ensures that the parameters for the STATCOMs are the
same. If one of the STATCOMs fail, the other STATCOM will output the total
reactive power.
The coordination controller also controls eight breaker switched reactors and six
breaker switched capacitors, which are connected to the 35 kV busbar of two other
transformers. The shunt reactors are rated at 15 Mvar each, and the shunt capacitors
are rated at 50 Mvar each.
Each STATCOM can operate in the following control modes:
1. Steady-state constant reactive power control mode, a mode only used during
commissioning test.
2. Steady-state constant voltage control mode, the normal operation mode to control
the voltage of the 220 kV busbar.
3. Dynamic reactive power support mode, a mode that will be activated automati-
cally to output reactive current quickly when undervoltage or overvoltage occurs
at the 220 kV busbar.
536 S. Xu et al.
4. Coordination control mode, a normal operation mode to coordinate with shunt

reactor and shunt capacitor.
5. Remote control mode, a special operation mode to work with Auto-Voltage-
Control system.
6. The two parallel STATCOMs normally receive the same control signals.
However, they can also operate independently.
The response of the STATCOM device was tested by a short-circuit test. The test is
done by short-circuiting one phase and earth with a line which quickly melts (a fuse
wire) (Xiao Leisi et al. 2015). The response of the STATCOM is shown in the
following figures (Li Chunhua et al. 2013).
A single-phase instantaneous earth fault was applied to one of the incoming lines.
The voltage and current responses at the 220 kV and 35 kV buses are shown in
Fig. 21.
Figure 22 shows details of the 220 kV voltage in phase A and the current from
the STATCOM. The response time of STATCOM is 15.8 ms, and the fault detection
time including the delay of the controller is 6 ms. (Note:220 kV voltage base is
127 kV; STATCOM phase current base is 2857 A; instantaneous reactive current
base is 4040 A.)
The STATCOM has a specified overload capability as shown in Table 4. The
overload capability is not used, while the power system operates in steady state.
When the power system is in a transient state, the STATCOM overload capability is
automatically enabled.
The annual failure rate of the power module after the commissioning of the
STATCOM in Dongguan substation is 0.64%. According to the operating records,
Fig. 21 Voltage curves of the 220 kV/35 kV buses and current curves of the STATCOM (the
curves are voltage of 220 kV, voltage of 35 kV, current of STATCOM #1, current of STATCOM #2,
respectively)
Fig. 22 The 220 kV bus voltage (blue), STATCOM three-phase current(dot plot), and instanta-
neous reactive current (red)
the STATCOM has responded correctly to occurrences of AC fault and has

supported system recovery.
At start-up the STATCOM is operated with a small reactive power setting (e.g.,
5%) to avoid potential current distortion caused by insufficient control accuracy.
The rapid response of the reactive power compensation means that the
STATCOMs can effectively improve the voltage stability of the system, supporting
the voltage during recovery from commutation failures and speeding up the resump-
tion of power delivery, thereby improving the ability to receive power and withstand
faults in the grid.
7 STATCOM in Inner Mongolia, China
The Hulunbuir Region in Inner Mongolia is an area that largely relies on coal-based
generation. The Guohua Baodian and E’wenke power plants are connected to the
Hulunbuir HVDC converter station through an 500 kV substation (substation 6).
Yi-min phase III is connected directly to the converter station. The detailed infor-
mation is shown in Fig. 23.
The application of HVDC transmission technology may cause sub-synchronous
oscillation (SSO) phenomenon in case of a weak coupling between the
converter station and the AC system (Cao Zhen et al. 2011). Series compensation
of AC transmission lines can also cause sub-synchronous resonance (SSR)
phenomenon (Anderson and Farmer 1996). SSR and SSO may cause serious
damage to generator shafts if suppression measures are not taken (Farmer
et al. 1977).
538 S. Xu et al.
Fig. 23 Regional power system structure
In addition, due to the combination of HVDC and Yi-min AC line with series
compensation, the problem of sub-synchronous resonance and sub-synchronous
oscillation became very complicated in this project. The recorded speed component
of the generator shaft at torsional frequency is shown in Fig. 24.
When # 1 and # 2 generators of the Guohua Baodian power station were in
operation, the torsional stress relay (TSR) frequently gave alarms (abnormal rota-
tional speed). The number of alarms could be up to 150 ~ 350 times every day during
the operation period. Especially under the monopolar operation of Huliao HVDC,
the maximum times of alarm per day could be up to 917 times. In additions, the
generator shaft showed signs of cumulative fatigue damage. To keep the generators
safe, it is necessary to install a sub-synchronous suppression device.
Fig. 24 Speed component at torsional frequency of shaft during 60 s
The two STATCOMs in this project are designed and owned by Guohua Electric
Power Co.,. the manufacturer is Rongxin Power Electronic Co., Ltd. The STATCOM
was put into operation in March 2014.
The converter is an MMC structure, and each power module is an H-bridge
structure and is equipped with a crowbar circuit to bypass the module in case of a fault.
The SLD of the two STATCOMs is shown in Fig. 25.
The main technical parameters of the two STATCOMs are shown in Table 5.
One of the Guohua Baodian STATCOM valves is shown in Fig. 26.
Fig. 25 SLD of two STATCOMs

540 S. Xu et al.
Table 5 Main technical parameters of one of two STATCOMs

Parameter Value
Connection type Star
STATCOM transformer Connection type D/Yn-1
Ratio (kV) 20 2 2.5%/10.5
Capacity (MVA) 48
Semiconductor devices Type PP-IGBT
Redundancy (%) 10
Overload capability (current/time) 1.1pu/continuously
Fig. 26 STATCOM valve of Guohua Baodian power plant

Fig. 27 Layout of two STATCOMs
The layout of the two STATCOMs is shown in Fig. 27. The valves, control and
protection system, and the valve cooling system are arranged indoor. The reactors
are arranged outdoor.
The two STATCOMs are mainly operated to damp sub-synchronous oscillations. In

sub-synchronous oscillation damping mode, the rotation rate of the generator is
measured, and this is used as the input signal to the controller, and the STATCOM
then injects controllable compensation current into the generator to damp the
torsional oscillation of the generator.
542 S. Xu et al.
The STATCOM equipment effectively improves the electrical damping of the

system. The output current of the STATCOM is well controlled. The STATCOM
response time is less than 5 ms.
Small disturbance test and large disturbance tests have been applied separately
on-site to demonstrate the suppression of sub-synchronous oscillation.
The small disturbance test result is shown in Fig. 28.
After the STATCOM equipment was put into service, the oscillation amplitude
was quickly suppressed to less than 0.04 rad/s.
The large disturbance test result is shown in Fig. 29.
enable the damping SSO function Disable

0.1
Speed of mode_1 (rad/s)
Enable
0.05
–0.05
–0.1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time(s)
Fig. 28 Speed component at torsional frequency of shaft after a small disturbance
Fig. 29 Speed component at torsional frequency of shaft and STATCOM current

After activating the SSO damping function, the damping rate of the shaft system
was increased very significantly, which is also shown in Fig. 29.
The amplitude of sub-synchronous oscillation is limited to less than
0.028 rad/s under the condition of small disturbance and is reduced to less
than 10% of the peak value within 2 s of a large disturbances. The STATCOMs
successfully solve the problem of severe sub-synchronous oscillation.
The annual failure rate of the power module since the commissioning of the
STATCOM is 0.51%. The STATCOM meets the technical requirements (less than
three forced outage per year).
8 STATCOMs in HVDC Converter Station in Yunnan, China
The Yongfu 500 kV DC Transmission Project was China’s first provincial HVDC
transmission project. It serves as the main power transmission channel in the
Yunnan Province and is an important part of CSG’s west-to-east power transmission
network. It allows electricity to be transmitted out of Guanyinyan Hydropower
Plant, a large-scale hydropower plant on the upper reaches of the Jinsha River, and
from Yunnan Province to Guangxi Province, helping optimize the distribution of
clean energy in a greater area. The total distance of the HVDC link is 566 km, from
Yongren Converter Station in Chuxiong, to Funing Converter Station in Wenshan,
with rated capacity of 3000 MW. The HVDC scheme was constructed and is
operated by CSG.
The receiving station of the HVDC system in Yunnan, China is connected to a
relatively weak AC system, and studies identified that recovery from commutation
failures of the HVDC scheme might be slow, because of a lack of controllable
dynamic reactive power. Therefore, to ensure safe and stable operation of the HVDC
transmission system, a 300 Mvar STATCOM was proposed and has been installed
at the Funing converter station, to meet the dynamic reactive power support require-
ments for the AC system. This ensured that the DC transmission system could
resume smooth operation after N-1 AC faults, thereby enhancing the operational
reliability of the HVDC system.
The three parallel STATCOMs in this project are designed and owned by CSG. The
manufacturers were NREC Co., Ltd. (#1 STATCOM and #2 STATCOM) XJ Group
Co., Ltd. (#3 STATCOM) (YAO Weizheng et al. 2018). The site installation and tests
of the three STATCOMs were finished by May 2016, and the STATCOMs were
formally put into operation in June 2016.
544 S. Xu et al.
The SLD of the three STATCOMs is shown in Fig. 30.

The main technical parameters of the three STATCOMs are shown in Table 6.
The layout of #3 STATCOM is shown in Fig. 31. The control and protection
system, valve cooling system, and the three-phase power modules are arranged
indoors. Water-cooling radiators, reactors, earthing switches, surge arresters,
500kV Bus I 500kV Bus II
525/35 525/35
35kV Bus I 35kV Bus II 35kV Bus III
#1 STATCOM #2 STATCOM #3 STATCOM

±100Mvar ±100Mvar ±100Mvar
Fig. 30 SLD of the three STATCOMs
Table 6 Main technical parameters of each STATCOM

Parameter Value
Connection Delta
Ratio (kV) (525 2 2.5%)/35
Capacity (MVA) 240,120
Semiconductor devices Type IGBT
Redundancy (%) 10
Overload capability (current/time) 1.3pu/ 5 s
48000mm
Water cooling Valve cooling Reactor A-1

radiators system Valve A
Reactor A-2 Ground switchs
Reactor B-1
Valve B
15 000 mm
Control and Soft-start

protection system Reactor B-2 Incoming
resistors circuit
Bypass breaker
Reactor C-1 breaker
Valve C
Reactor C-2
Fig. 31 #3 STATCOM layout
Water Cooling valve-cooling control and protection

Valve room
Ratiator room room
Fig. 32 Outdoor equipment of #3 STATCOM
soft-start resistors, bypass circuit breakers, and incoming circuit breakers are
arranged outdoors.
Figure 32 shows the outdoor area of #3 STATCOM.
Figure 33 shows the #3 STATCOM valve. Each valve is one phase, and there are a
total of three valves. As can be seen from the picture on the left, the output of the
power modules are cascaded using copper bars, and each power module is config-
ured with a high-speed bypass switch. The picture on the right shows the power
module DC capacitors and the connection between different layers.
The layout of the outdoor equipment for the #1 STATCOM is shown in Fig. 34.
546 S. Xu et al.
Fig. 33 #3 STATCOM valves.
Fig. 34 The outdoor equipment of #1 STATCOM in the Funing substation

Figure 35 is the control and protection cubicles for #3 STATCOM. The cubicles
include an AC switchboard (distribution panel), a DC switchboard (distribution
panel), a transient fault recorder cubicle, a monitor cubicle, two control and protec-
tion cubicles, and a power module interface cubicle. Figure 36 shows the valve
cooling system for the #1 STATCOM.
Fig. 35 Control and protection equipment of #3 STATCOM
Fig. 36 Cooling system of #1 STATCOM

548 S. Xu et al.
The main control modes of the three STATCOMs are:

4. Coordination control mode
5. Remote control Mode
6. Auxiliary control strategies, such as reactive power reserve mode
Each STATCOM controller has the above control modes. In order to coordi-
nate the control of the three STATCOMs to achieve the same reactive power
output of each STATCOM and to realize the control interaction with the HVDC
control and protection system, a dedicated coordination controller is also
provided.
The control strategies of the coordination controller implement the above
control modes. The coordination controller communicates both with the HVDC
control and protection system and the three STATCOM control systems. When
the HVDC control and protection system controls the AC bus voltage, the
coordinated controller monitors the AC bus voltage. If the bus voltage is within
the preset voltage range, it controls the output of the three STATCOMs to zero
reactive power to achieve reactive power reserve. When the AC bus voltage
exceeds the preset voltage range, the coordinated controller forces the
STATCOM control systems to enter voltage control mode to achieve voltage
stability.
When the HVDC control and protection system controls the reactive power at
the outgoing AC line, the coordinated controller will always maintain voltage
control mode for the STATCOMs to ensure stable control of the AC outgoing
voltage.
The coordinated controller will keep the output of the three STATCOMs equal,
when the STATCOM is in coordination control mode.
8.4 Performance Test
The engineering field tests demonstrated that the STATCOM has the ability to output
rated power. The recorded data of the rated 100 Mvar and 100 Mvar output is
shown in Figs. 37 and 38.
In Fig. 37, the current is less than the rated current of 1650 A because the voltage
is greater than the rated voltage of 20.2 kV. In contrast, in Fig. 38, the current is
greater than the rated current of 1650 A because the voltage is less than the rated
voltage of 20.2 kV.
The engineering field test verified that the STATCOM has the specified overload
capability 1.3pu current for 5 s. The recorded data is shown in Fig. 39.
RMS
Solid line cursor Dotted cursor
35kV phase A voltage 35kV phase B voltage 35kV phase C voltage
22.6kV 22.6kV
22.6kV 22.6kV
22.6kV 22.6kV
35kV phase A current 35kV phase B current 35kV phase C current
1479A 1477A
1474A 1476A
1480A 1480A
Fig. 37 The recorded data of rated 100 Mvar operation test
RMS

35kV phase A voltage 35kV phase B voltage 35kV phase C voltage
18.4kV 18.4kV
18.4kV 18.4kV
18.4kV 18.4kV
35kV phase A current 35kV phase B current 35kV phase C current

1833A 1833A
1830A 1828A
1839A 1838A
Fig. 38 The recorded data of rated 100 Mvar operation test
RMS
35kV phase current

2206A 2217A
2200A 2210A
2209A 2220A
Solid line cursor:23296ms Dotted cursor:28297ms Time difference:5001ms
Fig. 39 The test record data of overload ability of 1.3p.u current and lasting 5 s
20 Mvar to 40 Mvar step response test was performed by modifying the

reactive power setting, when # 3 STATCOM operates in steady-state constant
reactive power control mode. The test results are shown in Fig. 40. The step response
time satisfies the technical requirements of less than 20 ms.
A test was performed with # 3 STATCOM operating in steady-state constant
voltage control mode, with a disturbance to the power grid voltage by connecting a
reactor rated at 60 Mvar. The test results are shown in Fig. 41. The step response time
meets the technical requirements of less than 20 ms. The test was performed on one
STATCOM at a time.
Figure 42 shows the result of a single-phase fault test on the 500 kV ac side of the
receiving terminal of the 500 kV HVDC system with the STATCOMs in operation.
From the top to the bottom of Fig 42, there are the DC voltage, DC current,
GAMMA of the converter, and the DC power of the HVDC, respectively. The traces
show that the HVDC scheme suffered a commutation failure from which it
550 S. Xu et al.
Instantaneous value
35kV phase C current

35kV phase A current 35kV phase B current -417.0A -770.7A
348.4A 10.6A
-89.7A -775.9A
-0.2pu -0.4pu
-0.20pu -0.38pu
Instantaneous reactive power

Reactive power target instruction
Solid line cursor :-1.4ms Dotted cursor :2ms Time difference :3.4ms
Fig. 40 The recorded data of step response test
Instantaneous value
35kV phase A current

35kV phase B current 35kV phase C current -781.2A -306.1A
1071.5A 649.2A
-274.5A -316.7A
Instantaneous reactive power -0.46pu -0.27pu
Solid line cursor :-11.4ms Dotted cursor :7.6ms Time difference :19ms
Fig. 41 The recorded data of a step response test when in constant voltage control mode
Fig. 42 The recorded data showing successful recovery of the HVDC converter station supported
by STATCOMs after an AC fault on the inverter side
successfully recovered within about 50 ms, following which pre-fault output was
reached about 400 ms after the AC fault.
The STATCOMs at the Funing converter station in China Southern Power Grid
have solved the problem of lack of the dynamic reactive power control in the Funing
converter station. They have achieved stable control of the AC voltage and ensured
the smooth operation of the HVDC transmission system after the N-1 AC fault in the
Funing converter station. This has improved the power grid stability and the
reliability of power supply.
During the recovery of HVDC after an AC system fault, the STATCOM needs to
respond quickly to smooth the voltage fluctuation on the 500 kV busbar. After
clearance of AC faults, a large amount of surplus reactive power stored in the
converter station AC filters may cause high AC overvoltage, and this was considered
in the design of the STATCOM.
9 STATCOMs in Aurangabad, India
Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd. (POWERGRID) is a government-owned

Indian enterprise that is responsible for transmission of electrical energy
between various central states. POWERGRID plans to install STATCOM at
some locations in the Western Region of India to provide dynamic reactive
power compensation to improve the voltage quality and dynamic stability of
the transmission system.
A STATCOM with a rated capacity of 300 Mvar, plus two breaker switched
125 Mvar shunt reactors and a breaker switched 125 Mvar shunt capacitor,
and associated connection transformers and 400 kV equipment at 400 kV
Aurangabad substation was specified.
The STATCOM was specified and is owned by POWERGRID. The manufacturer

was Rongxin Power Electronic Co., Ltd. The STATCOM was put into operation in
March 2018.
The STATCOM consists of two parallel connected STATCOM units. Each valve
phase consists of 34 MMC power modules. Each module is the H-bridge structure and
is equipped with a high-speed mechanical bypass switch, in case of a module fault.
The SLD of the STATCOM is shown in Fig. 43.
The main technical parameters of the STATCOM in the Aurangabad substation
are shown in Table. 7.
552 S. Xu et al.
400kV BUS
400/38.5
38.5kV BUS
#1 STATCOM #2 STATCOM MSC MSR MSR

±150Mvar ±150Mvar 125Mvar 125Mvar 125Mvar
Fig. 43 SLD of the STATCOM in the Aurangabad substation
Table 7 Main technical parameters of the STATCOM and other equipment

Parameter Value
Ratio (kV) 400/38.5
Capacity (MVA) 585
Semiconductor devices Type PP-IGBT
Redundancy (%) 10
Overload capability (current/time) 1.1pu continuous
The layout of the STATCOM is shown in Fig. 44. The land occupation is around
1700 m2. The control and protection system, valve cooling system, and the three-
phase MMC power modules are arranged in containers. The radiators and fans for
valve cooling, delta-connected reactors, earthing switches, surge arresters, and the
circuit breakers are arranged outdoors.
The outdoor equipment and the valve containers are shown in Fig. 45. The valve
cooling system and the valves are arranged in containers; the control and protection
Fig. 44 Layout of the Aurangabad substation STATCOM
Water cooler Valve cooling Valve Control and

Reactor
radiators system container container protection system
Fig. 45 Valve and outdoor equipment of STATCOM of Aurangabad substation

554 S. Xu et al.
system is in the building on the right-hand side. The water-cooling radiators, delta-
connected reactors, earthing switches, surge arresters, and the circuit breakers are
arranged outdoors.
9.3 Main Operation Modes (or Control Function) and Protection

System
The operation modes are similar to the modes for the Dongguan STATCOM (see
Sect. 6.3) but with different parameters.
Theoretical analysis and field tests have shown that the performance of STATCOM
meets the specified requirements. Figure 46 shows the response of the STATCOM
when a fault occurred on the 400 kV line. The fault is a short circuit from phase Y to
phase B. The response of the STATCOM was as expected according to the setting
control logic.
38.5kV Bus
Voltages
400kV Bus
Voltages
Line
Currents of
STATCOM 1
Line
Currents of
STATCOM 2
Fig. 46 The recorded data during the fault

After entering operation, the STATCOM has responded quickly and accurately to
multiple power grid transient disturbances and has provided a powerful dynamic
reactive support for the power network.
10 STATCOM in Alabama, USA
The utility Alabama Power Company (APC) has faced challenges with decreased
power quality due to a reduced short-circuit capacity in the regional network (Hasler
et al. 2018). One large power quality polluter in the system was a steel plant
comprising a large Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) generating flicker, unbalance, and
harmonics. It was decided that installation of compensation equipment at this point
in the network would be most favorable for the overall system in terms of power
quality.
The main parts of the affected utility network are illustrated in Fig. 47. The EAF
Plant within Steel Plant 1 represents an EAF compensated by the STATCOM.
Also relevant for the evaluation of disturbance at the point of evaluation
(POE) is the steel processing plant together with other loads located inside
Steel Plant 1 as well as another steel plant (Steel Plant 2) located only 25 km
away. In the nearby area, there is a power-generating unit that will be partially
retired, as well as residential loads that need to have their power quality kept
within standard limits.
Fig. 47 Simplified network representation around Steel Plant 1

556 S. Xu et al.
Prior to the STATCOM installation, static harmonic filters were used to compen-
sate for the reactive power consumed by Plant 1 EAF as well as to limit
the harmonics created by the same EAF. Static filters are however unable to handle
dynamic load changes, and therefore the disturbance level (mainly flicker) of the
230 kV grid was heavily influenced. Flicker short-term perceptibility (Pst) values
(Pst 99%) of 1.7 were recorded at the 230 kV network at a short-circuit level of
8500 MVA.
Due to the future retirement of steam turbines as part of the power-generating
unit, the short-circuit level in the 230 kV network will decrease, certainly leading to
increased disturbance levels. To handle this as well as increased residential and
industrial loads in the area, the utility realized that the power quality on the 230 kV
network needed to be improved.
The large EAF in Plant 1 was considered to be the main contributor to distur-
bances in the network, foremost concerning flicker, but also voltage and current
harmonics as well as low-power factor and voltage unbalance. The most efficient
way to mitigate disturbances is locally at the source of the disturbance. It was thus
decided to install a STATCOM inside Plant 1 to compensate for the EAF. Since the
steel processing plant inside Plant 1 is fed by a separate transformer, it is not
compensated by the STATCOM.
The reason for choosing a STATCOM compensation equipment instead of a
Static Var Compensator (SVC) based on thyristor-controlled reactors (TCR) was
due to the low flicker emission level planned for Plant 1. Typically, a STATCOM can
reduce the flicker by a factor of 3–6, whereas a TCR-based SVC can only reduce by a
factor of 1.5–2. In order not to exceed the recommended planning level at POE,
assuming present and future grid conditions, a STATCOM was deemed necessary.
Additionally, the excellent power quality performance (harmonics, voltage unbal-
ance, step response) of a STATCOM made it a preferred solution over a
TCR-based SVC.
In 2016, ABB commissioned a STATCOM based on the Modular Multilevel
Converter (MMC) topology designed to solve the power quality issues related to
the operation of the arc furnace in Steel Plant 1. The MMC topology allows a low
switching frequency for each H-bridge cell without affecting the overall converter
performance, which reduces the switching losses and offers an excellent output
waveform. In order to obtain high current rating and high performance during
unsymmetrical operation, the converter legs are connected in delta as shown in
Fig. 48. The figure shows also the measurement points employed during the
contractual power quality evaluation of the expected STATCOM benefits to the
system.
Harmonic filters tuned to second and third harmonic filters were also part of the
scope of delivery (Table 8).
The modular arrangement of a valve section, each consisting of four cells (full
H-bridges), is presented in Fig. 49.
Fig. 48 Single-line representation of power quality measurement setup
Table 8 Main technical parameters of APC STATCOM

Parameter Value
Connection type Delta-connected MMC (chain-link)
STATCOM Connection type Dyn1
transformera Ratio (kV) 230/34.5
Capacity (MVA) 120
Semiconductor devices Type StakPak IGBT’s
Voltage/current 34.5/4000b
(kV/A)
Cooling method Water cooling with water-air heat
exchangers
a
Part of industrial plant, not included in project scope
b
ICM peak collector current
558 S. Xu et al.
Fig. 49 Section of a chain-

link valve, consisting of four
full H-bridges
The main purpose of the STATCOM is to improve the power quality of the network,
including:
• Mitigate flicker generated from the EAF.

• Reduce voltage and current harmonics at POE.
• Bring the power factor at POE closer to unity.
• Reduce voltage fluctuations and unbalance.
This is achieved by a voltage-source converter (VSC) which generates reactive

power used to compensate for the reactive power absorbed by the EAF. Low order
harmonic filters are added to suppress harmonics generated by the load. The filters
have also the purpose of providing capacitive reactive power needed in order to
compensate for the EAF and a smaller Ladle Furnace used for refining the melted
steel scrap.
The rating and design of the STATCOM (VSC + filters) is mainly determined by
• Load characteristic (type, mode of operations)

• Performance requirements (flicker, harmonics, power factor, etc.)
• Short-circuit power at POE
• Characteristics of the STATCOM transformer
• Other specific requirements from the customer
In an EAF application, the control system constantly measures the current

drawn by the furnace, and accuracy is achieved using high resolution electronic
current transducers. The STATCOM provides the current necessary to compensate
the disturbances from the furnace in terms of reactive power, unbalance, and
harmonics. The high power rating of the VSC and fast control enables the
STATCOM to instantaneously generate phase currents that correspond to the full
range of the furnace disturbing currents. The STATCOM control enables compen-
sation of the complete reactive power absorbed by the furnace loads and also
modifies the individual phase currents in order to minimize the effects of distur-
bances caused by load fluctuations. Since the converter responds in less than
100 μs, even the fastest variations can be counteracted. The high control speed
of the converter also allows compensation of several of the harmonics generated
by the furnace.
10.4.1 Flicker Reduction

Before the STATCOM installation, the uncompensated flicker level Pst99% reached
2.1 at the contractual short-circuit level of 6080 MVA, using the voltage-based
method (IEC/TR 61000-3-7 2008). Figure 50 shows a record of Pst level with the
voltage-based method, which includes the background distortion mainly caused by
Steel Plant 2 located nearby (approximately 25 km away from Plant 1) and other
unknown loads. The left plot shows the records taken before the STATCOM
connection, while the right plot shows the Pst levels recorded exactly 1 week later
(at identical day period) after the connection of the STATCOM, demonstrating the
achieved flicker reduction.
Using the current-based method, which does not consider the background
distortion, 1-week measurements showed a reduction on the flicker level
Pst99% from 2.1 (STATCOM OFF) to 0.48 (STATCOM ON). Such reduction
560 S. Xu et al.
Fig. 50 Pst level records without (left) and with (right) STATCOM in service, measured on 10 min
average using voltage-based method
factor (4.38) can today only be achieved with STATCOM technology and
suitable control algorithms.
10.4.2 Voltage Unbalance

By counteracting the components of the EAF currents that reduce power quality
indices at the POE, the STATCOM reduces indirectly the negative-sequence voltage
at the POE, caused by the unbalanced load. This is shown in Fig. 51, where
the reduction of the unbalance at the POE voltage is clearly observed when the
STATCOM is in service (right plot). It should be noted that the measurement periods
were the same as those presented in the previous figure, i.e., the flicker reduction
achieved by the STATCOM reduces the voltage unbalance at POE.
Fig. 51 Voltage unbalance measured at POE without (left) and with (right) STATCOM in service
10.4.3 Power Factor Improvement

Another benefit from the STATCOM is the improvement of the power factor
measured at the primary side of the transformer. When the STATCOM is in service,
unity power factor can be maintained.
Apart from the power quality improvements, a major advantage for steel plants
after installing an SVC or STATCOM is its capacity to maintain high and stable
furnace bus voltage (34.5 kV). Since the EAF melting power is the product of the arc
current and voltage, a high and stable voltage at the furnace bus increases the
available melting power.
In Fig. 52, an EAF power increase from 118 MW to 142 MW can be seen when the
STATCOM is connected at 16:00, which corresponds to an increase of approxi-
mately 20%. It should be noted that the furnace power before the installation of the
STATCOM was limited because only the second harmonic filter was in service. After
start of STATCOM commercial operation, the furnace operator has reported an
overall production increase of 1% per day.
150000
125000
100000
kW
75000
50000
25000
00:00 06:00 12:00 18:00 00:00 06:00 12:00

2016-03-28 2016-03-29
Monday Tuesday
TOT P(kW)
Fig. 52 Total EAF power before and after the STATCOM connection at 16:00
11 Four STATCOMs in Queensland, Australia
Queensland Rail (QR) was expecting a substantial increase in the volume of

coal exported from Central Queensland. To successfully carry more coal from
mines to ports, QR plans to increase the number of trains as well as increasing
train loads.
562 S. Xu et al.
Today powerful electric locomotives with induction motors (AC motors) will
replace locomotives with DC motors and diesel-electric locomotives. In the future,
most trains in Central Queensland will be electric powered with noticeably larger
electric loads.
The electric trains are a significant single-phase load on Powerlink’s transmission
system in Central Queensland. Additionally new electric locomotives with induction
motors have capability to regenerate up to 65% percent of the active power generated
through electrodynamic braking. In the future all locomotives with this feature will
utilize maximum regeneration, stretching grid capabilities up to limits. The expected
increase in the QR load will affect the quality of the positive-sequence and the
negative-sequence voltage in the region.
New SVCs should ensure load balancing to comply with the grid code require-
ments. Rating of the SVCs have been considered taking into account local QR load and
partial additional loading caused by the adjacent QR. However, SVCs based on
thyristor technology are strong sources of the harmonic currents. At the same time,
the locomotives are also a considerable source of harmonic currents. The connection
points of the QR loads are usually relatively weak. Therefore the decision was made to
install four new STATCOMs based on true multilevel VSC technology to avoid any
kind of negative interaction between the two harmonic sources while still preserving
power quality at the required level.
Four new STATCOMs were installed at the Wycarbah, Duaringa, Bluff, and Wotonga
substations in Queensland, Australia. The STATCOMs are state-of-the-art voltage-
sourced converters (VSC). The VSCs have extremely low harmonic generation and
therefore allow a safe design with respect to possible harmonic interaction with the AC
system also in case of operation during negative phase sequence control. These
advantages will be achieved without filter components.
The STATCOM solution is owned by Powerlink, and the manufacturer was
Siemens. The STATCOMs were put into operation in 2011.
The SLD of the STATCOM, which uses three-phase transformers and the connec-
tion to the railway catenary using single-phase transformers, is shown in Fig. 53.
The STATCOM is based on the Modular Multilevel Converter technology
(MMC). The voltage-sourced converter consists of three identical phase legs
connected in delta. Each phase leg consists of 44 submodules connected in series.
The main components of each submodule are four IGBTs, four diodes, and one DC
capacitor.
The main technical parameters of the STATCOM are shown in Table 9.
The STATCOM parts of the installation were placed in a building. The building also
contains the required cooling equipment, control, and protection cubicles. Figure 54
shows the voltage-source converter, with the individual submodules placed in a rack.
Each phase of the delta is arranged in one level of the racks. Figure 55 shows the phase
reactors and the ONAN transformer, which are located outdoors.
132kV
Feeder
100MVA 30/40MVA
132/30.4kV 132/50kV
Filters
40+4
Feeder
Auto
Transformers
Catenary
–100 to + 100MVAr
Fig. 53 Typical railway feeder substation with STATCOM
Table 9 Main technical parameters of STATCOM equipment

Parameter Value
Main ratings Voltage (kV) 30.4
Capacity (Mvar) 100 Mvar
Ratio (kV) 132/30.4
Capacity (MVA) 100
Voltage/current (V/A) 3300/1200
Redundancy (%) 10
Overload capability (current/time) 1500/2 s
Full load STATCOM valve losses (%) <1%
564 S. Xu et al.
Fig. 54 MMC
converter 100 Mvar
Fig. 55 STATCOM in Wotonga substation

The Powerlink STATCOM solution mainly operates in a steady-state voltage

control mode.
The following control modes are available:
1. Voltage control mode (automatic control mode)

2. Fixed reactive power mode (manual control mode)
Fig. 56 Measurement from site during testing of negative phase sequence control ((a), STATCOM
current; (b), RMS current for each converter phase; (c), negative phase sequence on HV side) (See
section 11.4)
566 S. Xu et al.
For safe and reliable operation of the installation to provide maximum support for
the grid, the following additional closed-loop functions were implemented:
• Negative-sequence voltage control (high priority) – With the negative-sequence

voltage control, unwanted voltage unbalances are controlled, and the negative-
sequence voltage is minimized. Each phase is controlled individually.
• Positive-sequence voltage control (low priority) – The STATCOM PID (propor-
tional integral derivative) voltage controller regulates the positive-sequence
system voltage quickly and accurately to the defined set point.
• Load balancing (Steinmetz controller).
• Stability controller (hunting detection).
• Automatic gain adjustment.
During commissioning of the STATCOM installation, the negative phase sequence

control was tested. In Fig. 56 the current of the STATCOM (a), RMS value of each
phase of the converter (b) and the measured negative phase content in the voltage at
the PCC (c) are shown. At a certain time, the control function was released, and the
individual phase control starts to operate. It is clearly visible how the negative phase
sequence is reduced.
The STATCOM operates correctly and satisfies the Powerlink’s specified require-
ments. It provides a fast and stable response throughout its operating range.
12 Hybrid STATCOM in Rourkela, India
POWERGRID India is in the process of installing four STATCOMs at various

locations in Eastern Region of India for dynamic reactive power compensation to
improve the voltage profile and dynamic stability of the transmission system. Each
of the installations consists of a symmetrical high dynamic reactive power range
output and an additional unsymmetrical range based on capacitors and reactors,
which are mechanically switched. The first installation in Rourkela substation went
into operation in March 2018.
The compensation system was designed to provide a dynamic reactive power output
of 300 Mvar based on using MMC technology. Additionally, an increased
inductive power output was required based on mechanically switched branches to

achieve in total 510 Mvar output on the HV side.
Design optimization led to a configuration that employed two STATCOM
branches each with a dynamic range of 150 Mvar. Additionally, two Mechanical
Switched Reactor (MSR) branches each designed to provide 105 Mvar output were
installed in the substation.
The compensation system in this project is owned by Power Grid Corporation of
India, and the manufacturer of the STATCOM is Siemens. The site installation and
tests for the compensation system were completed, and the STATCOM was officially
put into operation in March 2018.
The SLD of the Rourkela hybrid STATCOM is shown in Fig. 57.
The STATCOM uses a Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC). The voltage-
sourced converter consists of three identical phase legs connected in delta. Each
STATCOM phase leg consists of 36 submodules connected in series. The main
components of each submodule are four IGBTs, four diodes, and one DC capacitor.
The main technical parameters of the STATCOM in the Rourkela substation are
shown in Table 10.
A compact arrangement of the compensation system, which occupies less than
81m 88 m, was implemented to fit within the limited available site area. The two
STATCOM branches were placed in a building. Additionally the building contains
the required valve cooling equipment and the control and protection cubicles.
All other equipment, including AC breakers and reactors, were mounted
outdoors. An overview of the installation is shown in Fig. 58. The two breaker
Fig. 57 SLD of the hybrid 400kV 50Hz Ik=63kA

STATCOM in Rourkela
substation Y Uprim= 400kV
Usec= 35.8kV
Strafo= 511Mvar
STATCOM STATCOM
MSR 105Mvar MSR 105Mvar
150Mvar 150Mvar
568 S. Xu et al.
Table 10 Main technical parameters of the STATCOM equipment

Parameter Value
Capacity (Mvar) 2 150
Ratio (kV) 400/35.8
Capacity (MVA) 511
Redundancy (%) 5
Fig. 58 STATCOM site view

switched reactors can be seen in the foreground; the two sets of STATCOM
reactors can be seen near to the building in the top right-hand corner, and the
circuit breakers and isolators can be seen at the right of the picture.
The installation mainly operates in steady-state voltage control mode.

The following control modes are also available:

To ensure safe and reliable operation of the installation and to provide maximum
support for the grid, the following additional closed-loop functions were
implemented:
• Stability controller
• Automatic gain adjustment
• Power oscillation damping
• Sub-synchronous damping function
For smooth integration of a hybrid STATCOM installation in the grid, it is

essential that the switched branches are switched on and off without influencing
the HV voltage at the connection point. In the case of mechanically switched
branches, the switching time of the circuit breakers and a possible pre-arcing
during on event must also be taken into account. To achieve a negligible impact
in the voltage at the HV side, a controlled switching device for the MSR branch
and a special function for reversing the converter current were implemented.
Figure 59 shows recordings of the MSR currents, STATCOM currents, and the
voltage at the connection point during switching on (a) and off (b) of the MSR in
Rourkela substation.
The STATCOM is operating as desired and satisfies POWERGRID’s specified
requirements. It provides a rapid and stable response throughout its operating
range. This will lead to improved stability and higher availability of the Eastern
Region grid.
570 S. Xu et al.
Fig. 59 Recorded data from site during MSR switching on (a) and off (b)
13 STATCOM System in South Australia
STATCOMs are commonly used to help wind and solar farms meet grid code require-
ments around the world. For the Lake Bonney Wind Farm in South Australia, a
centralized FACTS solution was needed to meet the grid code requirements of Essential
Services Commission of South Australia (ESCOS), National Electricity Market Man-
agement Company of Australia (NEMMCO), and ElectraNet (Transmission Utility).
Fig. 60 One-line diagram of the Lake Bonney Wind Farm, first and second phase installations
of WTGs
This section is based on the paper: J. A. Diaz de Leon, B. Kehrli, and A. Zalay, “How the
Lake Bonney wind farm met ESCOSA’s, NEMMCO’s, and ElectraNet’s rigorous
interconnecting requirements,” IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Conference
and Exposition, April 2008 (Diaz de Leon et al. 2008).
As shown in Fig. 60, the first and second phases of the wind farm consist of
46 and 159 wind turbine generators (WTGs), respectively.
During the installation of Phase 1 of the wind farm (marked existing in figure),
the ESCOSA grid code was just evolving and did not require the installation of any
type of FACTS devices. However, by the time the Phase 2 installation began to be
analyzed, the grid code had changed significantly with the addition of some stringent
requirements. With respect to reactive output of wind farms and control of system
voltage, the new ESCOSA grid code required the following:
• Capability to provide +/ 93% power factor (PF) at the high side of the power
transformer at full generation.
• Half of the reactive power capability needs to be dynamic (i.e., WTGs, FACTS
devices), and other half can be static (i.e., static shunt devices).
• The reactive output capability should scale proportional to the generation level.
• Capability to regulate the transmission system voltage.
• Capability to ride through nearby transmission grid faults causing high and low
voltages (low voltage ride through (LVRT) and high voltage ride through (HVRT))
• Capability to restore the transmission system’s post fault voltage to a minimum
of 90%.
In order to meet all of these requirements for the Phase 2 installation, a 24 Mvar
STATCOM and a total of 54 Mvar capacitor banks were installed at the Lake Bonney
Wind Farm.
572 S. Xu et al.
Based on the load flow analysis, the total reactive power losses at the point of
common coupling (PCC) were determined to be 47 Mvar as shown in Fig. 61.
The first requirement from the ESCOSA grid code for the 159 MW wind farm
(Phase 2 portion only) was to have the capability of achieving a +/ 93% PF at the
high side of the power transformers. This equates to +/ 63 Mvar at the 132 kV PCC
bus. Adding the 47 Mvar of reactive power absorption to the 63 Mvar needed for the
0.93 PF requirement, the total capacitive compensation needed came out to
110 Mvar. Similarly, for the inductive compensation, an additional 16 Mvar was
needed to increase the 47 Mvar inductive to a total of 63 Mvar.
The second ESCOSA requirement was that a minimum of 50% of the reactive
power compensation needed to be dynamically variable. Thus, at least 55 Mvar of
the capacitive compensation and 8 Mvar of inductive compensation needed to be
dynamic.
Identifying the breakdown of the dynamic and static reactive power requirements
allowed the selection of the type of resources that can be used in meeting
the grid code. The turbines had +0.98/ 0.96 power factor (PF) capability translating
to +32 and 46 Mvar, respectively. For the remainder of the dynamic
requirement, a pure dynamic capability device such as a synchronous condenser,
STATCOM, or SVC was needed. The requirement was met by using two sets of
3 4 Mvar STATCOM units. The total rating of the STATCOM units came out to be
+/ 24 Mvar on a continuous basis with a short-term overload capability of
+/ 64 Mvar (24 Mvar 2.67 overload). Since the WTGs and STATCOM units
provided only 56 Mvar of continuous capacitive reactive power, an additional
54 Mvar was provided by four 13.5 Mvar switched capacitor banks to meet the
Fig. 61 Sources of reactive power losses at full generation

total 110 Mvar requirement. A one-line diagram of the wind farm’s generation and
reactive resources is shown in Fig. 62. A summary of the STATCOM parameters is
provided in (Table 11).
Fig. 62 One-line diagram of the Lake Bonney Wind Farm with the reactive compensation solution
Table 11 Main technical parameters of the STATCOM system

Parameter Value
Steady-state capacity (Mvar) 24/+24
Short-term capacity (Mvar) 64/+64
Ratio (kV) 33/0.48
Capacity (MVA) 64
Voltage/current (V/A) 1000 V/3000 A
Reliability (%) 99
Overload capability (current/time) 2.67 pu/2 s
Cooling method Air-cooled
Full load STATCOM valve losses (%) 2
574 S. Xu et al.
The main controller of the STATCOM system manages the reactive power output of
not only the STATCOM units but also all other reactive power resources at the wind
farm, which are the WTGs and the four capacitor banks. By requesting the appro-
priate amount of vars from each resource according to a voltage droop profile, the
control system is able to regulate the transmission system voltage or the wind farm’s
overall power factor. The integration of the shunt devices and WTGs’ reactive
capability in the overall reactive power control strategy allows the extension of
the STATCOM’s continuous rating. For short duration large voltage excursions, the
STATCOM utilizes its 2.67-times overload for up to 2 s. Capacitor switching is
seamless, i.e., does not cause any significant voltage step changes, due to a soft-
switching algorithm.
For voltage-control mode, independent droop and dead-band characteristics
are selectable for regulation and transient control. In order to provide maximum
reactive power support, the regulation mode is temporarily overridden by transient
voltage control during major disturbances.
The grid code requires the wind farm to stay online for High Voltage Ride
Through (HVRT) and Low Voltage Ride Through (LVRT) events. The
STATCOM’s overload capability is critical in keeping the terminal voltages of
WTGs within their rated operational ranges. The inherent LVRT capability of the
WTGs was sufficient to ride through the low voltage events. However, meeting
the ESCOSA HVRT requirements was not possible without the STATCOM’s
support. Figure 63 shows the Lake Bonney 132-kV PCC pu voltage requirement
(red line) and the 1 kV bus pu voltage of the Vestas WTGs (orange line).
Exceeding the WTG rated voltages causes the turbines to trip. The region of
concern for HVRT compliance is between 0.08 and 0.90 s, during which the
WTGs might trip offline on high voltage.
To keep the WTGs online for these high voltage conditions, the simulations were
first run utilizing only the continuous rating of the STATCOM. As shown by the
green line in Fig. 64, the WTG terminal voltages were still too high to prevent
the WTGs from tripping off-line. Next, using the STATCOM’s overload capability,
the WTG terminal voltages (purple line) were brought down to acceptable values
for the WTGs to stay online.
Other contingencies provided by ElectraNet were also tested to ensure compli-
ance with the voltage recovery criteria, which requires the Lake Bonney 132-kV
transmission bus to reach 90% of nominal voltage quickly after the fault clearing.
A hybrid approach utilizing STATCOMs, WTGs, and shunt devices not only
allowed the Lake Bonney Wind Farm to meet the reactive power requirements of
the South Australia grid code but also minimized the overall cost of the project. With
the proper deployment of FACTS devices, the renewable energy resources can have
Fig. 63 NEMMCO HVRT requirements and WTG capability
Fig. 64 The impact of STATCOM’s continuous and overload capability on WTG terminal voltages
576 S. Xu et al.
reactive power capabilities matching or exceeding those of synchronous generators.

Therefore, FACTS devices play a key role in the development of renewable energy
around the world.
14 Mobile STATCOM, USA
Dominion Energy needed a solution for voltage support in the part of transmission
grid affected by an unplanned event. Such condition could occur due to the unex-
pected outages from natural disasters or closing a power plant with a short notice.
Reliability and power quality have to be guaranteed, while the long-term solution is
under construction. Therefore, a solution that is temporary, but available on short
notice, has been developed.
A short notice modification of the transmission grid can be due to different
reasons such as the switching off of traditional power plants or the integration of
renewable energy sites that are constructed in the span of 18 months or less. The new
generation location creates problems since it is not replacing traditional generation in
the same location or size. To maintain the voltage stability, regulation and tolerance
are difficult since generation is now typically in remote locations compared to the
load centers. Installation and upgrading of new infrastructure are necessary to
make the generation meet the load.
New transmission lines, reconductoring of transmission lines, and installation of
shunt capacitors or reactors are some of the projects that may be required to make the
grid function properly. The challenge is how to carry out the transmission transfor-
mation and still provide reliability and quality of service. Also in this case, the
connection point of reactive power support in the grid is not foreseeable.
The required solution has to be easy to relocate in a very short time. In addition,
the solution should have the capability to be connected anywhere in the entire
network without any negative impacts to the system.
Based on existing containerized STATCOM solutions, a full mobile version was

developed. The mobile compensation system was designed to provide a dynamic
reactive power output of 50 Mvar based on voltage-source converter technology.
In order to have the flexibility to connect at different voltage levels, two possible
HV levels (230 kV and 115 kV) in one transformer unit were realized.
The mobile STATCOM solution is owned by Dominion Energy, and the manu-
facturer is Siemens. The STATCOM was put into operation in June 2018.
The SLD of the mobile STATCOM is shown in Fig. 65.
The STATCOM is based on Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC) technology.
Utilizing this technology, no harmonic filters need to be installed in order to meet
230|115kV 60Hz Ik=50kA
Y Uprim = 230 | 115 kV

Usec = 13.9kV
Strafo = 50Mvar
STATCOM
Fig. 65 SLD of the mobile STATCOM
grid code requirements. This makes the design compact and provides the flexibility
to connect at any point in the network. The voltage-sourced converter consists of
three identical phase legs connected in delta. Each phase leg consists of 22 sub-
modules connected in series. The main components of each submodule are four
IGBTs, four diodes, and one DC capacitor.
The main technical parameters of the mobile STATCOM are shown in Table 12.
The design of a mobile STATCOM including step-down transformer requires
separating component equipment into logical practical blocks that can be connected
with temporary power and control cables (see Fig. 66). The mobile STATCOM
system was designed to be fully relocatable in a comparably short duration. The
main trailer contains the STATCOM valves or submodules, protection with control,
and the cooling system. The second trailer contains arm reactors as well as the
necessary instrument transformers. The third trailer contains all required auxiliary
equipment such as auxiliary transformer, batteries, AC and DC distribution panels,
and storage. The heat exchanger is connected using stainless steel hose allowing for
flexible location and orientation. An additional trailer contains the mobile trans-
former inclusive of HV breaker and arrester. All other equipment is designed to be
temporary and relocatable for rapid deployment inclusive the necessary oil
containment.
578 S. Xu et al.
Table 12 Main technical parameters of the mobile STATCOM equipment

Parameter Value
Capacity (Mvar) 50 Mvar
Ratio (kV) HV: 230 or 115
LV: 13.9
Capacity (MVA) 50
Redundancy (%) 10
Fig. 66 Mobile STATCOM: Overall layout
Cables connect the components in each container; therefore no open live parts or
busbars are exposed. This significantly reduces the risk of internal faults at the
substation and improves personnel safety. In general, the fully containerized solution
is beneficial at remote locations. The reduced installation work on-site together with
a compact STATCOM area results in less work and less overall risk for personnel
(Fig. 67).
Fig. 67 Valve, cooling, and control module
14.3 Major Operation Modes
The mobile STATCOM solution mainly operates in steady-state voltage

control mode.
The following control modes are available:

For safe and reliable operation of the installation to provide maximum support for
the grid, additional closed-loop functions were implemented like:
• Stability controller
• Automatic gain adjustment
The mobile STATCOM mainly operates in a voltage control mode or reactive

power control mode. In addition, external reactive elements like mechanically
switched capacitors or mechanically switched reactors can be controlled. It is
equipped with an automatic gain adaption function that provides a desirable
response of the STATCOM over a wide range of network conditions and thus
ensures the required performance for the various locations.
A study of multiple Dominion Energy projects predicts issues of normal operation at

higher load levels. Frequent sources of voltage violations were noted and observed. As
580 S. Xu et al.
1.2
With STATCOM
1.1
1
Voltage (pu 115 kV Base)
0.9
0.8
0.7
Without
0.6 STATCOM
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10
Time (seconds)
Fig. 68 Worst-case fault before and after STATCOM installation
Fig. 69 Simulation results during RTDS testing
an example, a line reconductoring project was studied and showed voltage violations
for N-1 contingencies. At larger load levels, a fault-induced delayed recovery voltage
(FIDRV) and voltage violations became more profound. Without additional support, in
this case by a mobile STATCOM, the only alternative would be to only perform
construction during light load periods dragging a line rebuild out to possibly 30 months.
With the mobile STATCOM, the line construction project can be a continuous process
culminating in significant savings and enhanced reliability. Figure 68 shows the basic
fault case near peak load with a critical transmission line out of service. A FIDVR
condition occurs that may cause an area voltage collapse. The worst-case bus is
mitigated with a 50 Mvar STATCOM.
For verification purpose the original control cubicles were placed in the real-time
digital simulator, and different scenarios were investigated. In Fig. 69, voltages on HV
side and the reaction of the STATCOM are shown as an example.
14.5 Project Evaluation
The mobile STATCOM is a solution that can be connected at any point on the
electrical network that requires voltage support. It has the flexibility to be relocated
within a short period of time and provides grid support until a long-term solution can
be completed.
The STATCOM operates correctly and satisfies Dominion Energy’s specified
requirements. It provides a rapid and stable response throughout its operating range.
15 Cross-References

▶ Technical Description of Static Compensators (STATCOM)
References
Anderson, P.M., Farmer, R.G.: Subsynchronous resonance; Chapter 6, pages 229 to 286, In: Series
capacitor studies, testing and maintenance, Chapter 8. In: Series Compensation of Power
Systems. PBLSH! Inc., Encinitas (1996)
Cao, Z., Shi, Y., et al.: Simulation analysis on sub synchronous oscillation at sending end of
500 kV power transmission project from Hulun Buir to Liaoning. Power Syst. Technol.
35(6), 107–112 (2011)
Diaz de Leon, J.A., Kehrli, B., Zalay, A.: How the Lake Bonney wind farm met ESCOSA’s,
NEMMCO’s, and ElectraNet’s rigorous interconnecting requirements. In: IEEE/PES
Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exposition (2008)
Farmer, R.G., Schwalb, A.L., Katz, E.: Navajo project report on subsynchronous resonance analysis
and solutions. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. PAS-96(4), 1226–1232 (1977)
Hanson, D.J., Horwill, C., Loughran, J., Monkhouse D.R.: The application of a relocatable
STATCOM on the UK National Grid system. In: CIGRÉ Regional Conference, New Delhi (2001)
Hasler, J-P, Sneed, T., Holmberg, M., Lund, J., Näslund, M.: Power Quality Analysis and IEC
Standard Evaluation Using Measurements and Simulations in a STATCOM Application.
Paper C4-114. CIGRÉ, Paris (2018)
Horwill, C., Totterdell, A.J., Hanson, D.J., et al.: Commission of a 225 MVAr SVC incorporating a
75MVAr STATCOM AT NGC’s 400kV East Claydon substation. In: Seventh International
Conference on AC-DC Power Transmission, pp. 232–237. Institution of Electrical Engineers,
London (2001)
IEC/TR 61000-3-7: Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) – Part 3–7: Limits – Assessment of
Emission Limits for the Connection of Fluctuating Installations to MV, HV and EHV Power
Systems, Ed.2.0. BSI, London (2008)
Li Chunhua, Zhang Yongkang, et al.: Artificial short circuit test and analysis of 200MVAr static
synchronous compensator artificial short-circuit test and analysing in Southern power grid.
Autom. Elect. Power Syst. 37(4), 125–129 (2013)
Liu Wen-hua, Song Qiang, Teng Le-tian, et al.: 50MVAr STATCOM based on chain circuit
converter employing IGCT’s. Proc. CSEE. 28(15), 55–60 (2008)
Rao, H., Xu, S., Zhao, Y., et al.: Research and application of multiple STATCOMs to
improve the stability of ACDC power systems in China Southern Grid. IET J. 10(13),
3111–3118 (2016)
Woodhouse, M.L., Donoghue, M.W., Osborne, M.M.: Type testing of the GTO valves for a novel
STATCOM converter. In: Seventh International Conference on AC-DC Power Transmission.
Institution of Electrical Engineers, London (2001)
Xiao Leisi, Li Ming, et al.: Manual instantaneous earthing test of CSG transmission lines. South.
Power Syst. Technol. 9(3), 63–66 (2015)
Yao Weizheng, Liu Gang, Hu Siquan, et al.: Research on improved control strategies of STATCOM
for LCC-HVDC weak receiving station. Proc. CSEE. 38(12), 3362–3670 (2018)
582 S. Xu et al.
Shukai Xu, Senior Engineer at professor level, HVDC, and

Power Electronics, Deputy Director of HVDC and Power Elec-
tronics department of EPRI of China Southern Power Grid, and
Deputy Director of State Key Laboratory of HVDC Transmission
Technology of China. Shukai Xu received his Bachelor’s degree
and Ph.D. degree from Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, both
in Electrical Engineering, in 2002 and 2007, respectively. After
graduation, he joined EPRI of China Southern Power Grid (CSG)
in Guangzhou, China, and worked as an Engineer of DC De-icing,
STATCOM, HVDC, and VSC-HVDC system. From 2011 to
2013, he worked on the 35 kV/200 MVAr STATCOMs for
power system application which were installed in four 500 kV
substations of load center in CSG to enhance regional power
system stability. As the Technical Director, he studied the appli-
cation of VSC-MTDC technology, including the system design,
integration, control strategies, etc., and finally developed the
world’s first VSC-MTDC project in 2013 – Nao’ao
VSC-MTDC. He also developed a back-to-back VSC-HVDC
project in the 500 kV backbone network of CSG, which is rated
at 350 kV/1000 MW and was put into operation in 2016. At
present, he is studying the ultrahigh VSC technology and LCC-
VSC-HVDC technology, which can be applied into the three-
terminal 800 kV/8000 MW 3000 MW 5000 MW Wudongde
HVDC project in CSG. He was a member of CIGRE B4.53 and
now is an IEEE senior member and IET Fellow.
Shaobo Wang, Senior Engineer, Electronic Power System, Deputy

Director of Grid Business Development department of Rongxin
Huiko (RXHK) Electric Technology Co., Ltd. Shaobo Wang received
his Bachelor’s degree and Master’s degree from North China Electric
Power University, in 2000 and 2007, respectively. After graduation, he
joined Rongxin Power Electronic Co., Ltd. and worked as an Engineer
of Power Electronic equipment and VSC-HVDC system. From 2007
to 2009, he worked on the 35 kV/80 Mvar SVC devices which were
directly connected to 35 kV bus in a power plant to damping the
sub-synchronous resonance. From 2014, he joined RXHK Electric
Technology Co., Ltd. He has also joined the work of several projects
on FACTS and HVDC applications. At present, he is working on the
system design of STATCOM projects.
Guangjie Zuo, Engineer, Reactive power compensation and

Power Electronics, Researcher of Flexible transmission department
of XJ Group Co., Ltd. Guangjie Zuo received his Bachelor’s degree
from Liaoning Technical University, Fuxin, China, and Master’s
degree from Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
Nanjing, China, both in Electrical Engineering, in 2008 and 2011,
respectively. After graduation, he joined Flexible transmission depart-
ment of XJ Group Co., Ltd in Xuchang, China, and worked as an
Engineer of New energy power generation, power electronic equip-
ment, VSC-HVDC, and STATCOM system. From 2012 to 2013, he
worked on the VSC-HVDC system, mainly responsible for the con-
struction of the test platform and the verification of key control and
protection technologies, the results were applied to Zhoushan
VSC-MTDC project in 2014. From 2015 to 2016, as the core
member, he worked on the 35 kV/100 MVAr STATCOM for power

system application which was installed in Funing converter station,
the receiving terminal of the 500 kVdc Yongren-Funing HVDC
system. At present, he is working on the application of STATCOM in
new energy generation systems.
Colin Davidson is Consulting Engineer – HVDC, at GE Grid

Solutions, HVDC Activity, whose Center of Excellence is in Stafford,
UK. He joined the company in January 1989, when it was part of
GEC, and progressed through the following positions: Trainee, Thy-
ristor Valve Design Engineer, Thyristor Valve Manager, Engineering
Director, and R&D Director, his current role. He is a Chartered
Engineer and a Fellow of the Institution of Engineering and Technol-
ogy and has served on several IEC standardization committees for
HVDC and FACTS, winning the IEC 1906 award in 2012. He has a
degree in Natural Sciences, specializing in Physics, from the Univer-
sity of Cambridge.
Marcio Oliveira was born in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1967 and

received the M.Sc. degree in Electrical Engineering from Federal
University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. He obtained the Tech-
nical Licentiate and Ph.D. degrees in 1996 and 2000, respectively, in
the field of High Power Electronics from the Royal Institute of
Technology in Sweden. He joined ABB FACTS in 2000, where he
has worked in several technical areas such as power system design,
real-time simulator studies, control system design and implementa-
tion, and R&D projects. Marcio currently holds a System Lead
Engineer position, primarily driving technical marketing and sales
activities of FACTS technology worldwide. He participated on
CIGRÉ SC B4 WG53 “Guidelines for procurement and testing of
STATCOMs,” and he is member of IEC TC22, being convenor of IEC
61954 maintenance team, related to testing of SVC thyristor valves.
He received the 1906 IEC award in 2017.
Rizah Memisevic has worked at Powerlink, in the Power

Research Institute, and at universities, as Lecturer and Assistant
Professor, at the Faculty Electrical Engineering at the University
of Tuzla, Bosnia, and Herzegovina, and as Research Officer at the
University of Queensland. He was always involved into research
across multiple technical areas of renewable energy (solar and
wind), power quality, energy applications (power generation),
and energy and economic interaction. Dr. Memisevic is a member
of the Australasian Association for Engineering Education, IEEE
(Senior Member), and the Institution of Engineers Australia.
584 S. Xu et al.
Georg Pilz, Engineering Director for System Engineering and

Network Studies for FACTS installations worldwide, Siemens, Ger-
many. Georg Pilz was born in Dresden, Germany, in 1972 and
received the Graduate Engineer degree 1999 in Electrical Engineering
and the Ph. D. degree 2007 from the Technical University of Dresden.
He joined Siemens AG 2005 where he worked in the System Engi-
neering department of FACTS application. His main fields of interest
were design of FACTS installations especially transient simulation as
well as several R&D projects. Currently he is Engineering Director for
System Engineering and Network Studies for FACTS application
worldwide. He was member on CIGRÉ SC B4 WG53, works in
IEC TC22, and is Vice Chair of IEEE WG P2745 “Guide for Tech-
nology of Unified Power Flow Controller Using Modular Multilevel
Converter.”
Bilgehan Donmez joined AMSC’s Network Planning and Appli-

cations group in 2016. His responsibilities center around technical
studies and research on electric power systems, as well as developing
computer models and software tools to simulate and analyze power
system networks. He is experienced in utilizing load flow, dynamic
and electromagnetic transient, and harmonic analyses, to design solu-
tions that address electrical power systems’ challenges and con-
straints. Prior to joining AMSC, he worked for 5 years at ISO New
England as a Real-Time Studies Engineer in the Operations Depart-
ment, where he provided engineering support to the control room for
the day-to-day operation of the New UK electric grid. Before the ISO,
he worked at National Grid as a Transmission Planning Engineer for
3 years. Mr. Donmez earned his B.S. degree in Electrical Engineering
from the joint engineering program of University of Missouri and
Washington University in St. Louis. He received his M.S. degree in
Electrical Engineering from Northeastern University and is currently
pursuing his Ph.D. degree there. He is a member of the IEEE and has
co-authored and presented papers at IEEE and other professional
forums.
Bjarne Andersen is the director and owner of Andersen Power

Electronic Solutions Limited, which was established in 2003.
36 years for what is now GE Grid, where his final role was as
the first chain link STATCOM and the relocatable SVCs concept.
Bjarne has extensive experience in all stages of LCC and VSC
HVDC projects. As a consultant he has worked on several inter-
national HVDC projects, including the Caprivi Link, the first
commercial VSC HVDC project to use an HVDC overhead line
and a VSC HVDC project for multi-terminal operation permitting
multi- vendor access.
Bjarne was the Chairman of CIGRE SC 14 from 2008 to 2014 and
an honorary member of CIGRE and was the 2012 recipient of the
Application Examples of the Thyristor
Controlled Series Capacitor 14
Stig L. Nilsson, Antonio Ricardo de Mattos Tenório, Subir Sen,
Andrew Taylor, Shukai Xu, Gang Zhao, Qiang Song, and Bo Lei
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
1.1 Loading of AC Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
S. L. Nilsson (*)
A. R. de Mattos Tenório
Operador Nacional do Sistema Elétrico – ONS, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
e-mail: ricardo.tenorio@ons.org.br
S. Sen
Central Transmission Utility-Planning & Smart Grid, Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd.,
New Delhi, India
e-mail: subir@powergridindia.com
A. Taylor
Electricity Transmission, National Grid, London, UK
e-mail: andrew.taylor@nationalgrid.com
S. Xu
Power Grid (EPRI of CSG, Guangzhou, China
e-mail: xusk@csg.cn
G. Zhao
NARI Group Corporation of Sate Grid Corporation of China (SGCC), Beijing, China
e-mail: zhgang0909@163.com
Q. Song
Tsinghua University, Tsinghua, China
e-mail: songqiang@tsinghua.edu.cn
B. Lei
Energy Storage and Power Electronics, HVDC and Power Electronics Department,
EPRI of China Southern Power Grid, Guangzhou, China
e-mail: leibo@csg.cn

1.2 AC Systems with TCSC Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589

2 Installed TCSC Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
3 TCSC Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
3.1 USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
3.2 Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
3.3 Sweden: Stöde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
3.4 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
3.5 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
3.6 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
4 Performance Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
Abstract
Thyristor switched and controlled series capacitor systems were developed in the
late 1980s to enable increased load carrying capacity of existing high voltage
transmission lines. Thyristor controlled series capacitors (TCSC) would insert a
variable series impedance in a line, which would enable the shifting of loads from
lines that were being overloaded to lines that were underutilized. Two TCSC
demonstration systems were installed in the USA in the early 1990s. Following
the successful demonstration of the technology, 17 thyristor controlled series
capacitor (TCSC) systems have been installed in Brazil, India, China, Sweden,
and the United Kingdom. All but one of these systems have been built to make
high power transmission lines dynamically stable during all foreseen operating
conditions. That is, the TCSC systems were used to provide damping of critical
power system oscillatory modes and thereby enabled secure operation of the
lines. One of the systems was installed only to prevent subsynchronous interac-
tions between a large nuclear reactor and the AC power system. As can be
expected, some of the TCSC systems are no longer needed because as the AC
power system evolves, the damping of the oscillatory modes improves and the
added damping that was provided by the TCSC systems was no longer needed.
1 Introduction
Limitations on power transmission capability in an AC system can be addressed by

adding new transmission and/or generation capacity (Ölvegård et al. 1981;
Maliszewski et al. 1990). This, however, may not always be practicable, for a variety
of reasons. Adding new lines may be too costly and time-consuming. Obtaining new
right of way and environmental impact aspects are of much concern, which might
also impede construction of new lines.
Insertion of capacitors in series with an overhead transmission line is one way to
achieve higher power transfer through a long line because the series capacitors
reduce the impedance of the line. One of the first major applications of capacitive
series compensation was the 400 kV transmission system built in the late 1940s for
transfer of power from hydro plants in Northern Sweden to load centers in the middle
and Southern parts of the country (Jancke and Åkerstrom 1951).
14 Application Examples of the Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor 587
In the 1960s a switched series compensation scheme was applied in the 500 kV
Pacific AC Intertie system in the USA to deal with contingencies such as the outage
of one of two parallel AC lines used to interconnects power systems between the
hydro-based generation along the Columbia River in the Northwest and the power
systems located in Northern and Southern California. In this AC intertie, when one
line was lost, the compensation of the other line was increased to stabilize the system
(Maneatis et al. 1970). This system was also used to increase the power flows across
the AC lines in case the HVDC line, which runs in parallel with the AC lines, was
lost. At that time, the HVDC line was rated at 1440 MW.
The possibility of subsynchronous resonance (SSR) affecting steam turbine
generators connected to series capacitor compensated lines was recognized before
series compensators were extensively applied (Concordia and Carter 1941). SSR
actually occurred in the early 1970s between a generator and series compensated
lines in the Southwestern USA (Farmer et al. 1977). This impeded
widespread applications of series capacitors in regions with large steam turbine
power plants.
However, subsynchronous oscillations can be prevented from arising if sufficient
damping of oscillatory modes in the subsynchronous frequency region can be
introduced. A potential solution to SSR was demonstrated in the mid-1980s when
the NGH Series Compensation Damping System (a thyristor modulated resistor) was
tested on a series compensated line in Southern California (Hingorani et al. 1987;
CIGRE TB 123 1997). This demonstration indicated that the use of the Thyristor
Controlled Series Compensation (TCSC) systems may also have the potential to
greatly reduce the risk for SSR (Bowler 1992).
TCSC systems are one type of controllers commonly referred to as FACTS
controllers, which stands for Flexible AC Transmission Systems. FACTS controllers
are typically found in applications requiring one or more of the following qualities:
• Rapid dynamic response

• Capability of frequent variations in output
• Smoothly adjustable output
The installation of fixed series capacitor on transmission line plays an important

role to increase the transmission capability of an existing corridor (Anderson and
Farmer 1996). However, fixed series capacitors are still limited in their flexibility due
to their fixed ratings. With TCSC, the following benefits can be attained in AC
systems:
• Control of power flows in AC transmission lines in which the TCSC system is

installed (Ölvegård et al. 1981). The range of control can be enlarged by using
multimodular TCSC controllers.
• Power flows through the TCSC compensated lines can be increased or decreased
by modulating the impedance of the TCSC system(s).
• TCSC systems can be used to augment the power carrying capacity of AC lines in
which fixed series compensation systems are installed by increasing the transient
and dynamic stability of the line.
• Within limits, TCSC systems could even enable power flows to be routed from a
generating station to a designated power user.
• Minimized environmental impact because it might be possible to postpone the
construction of additional lines
• Damping of low frequency oscillatory modes in the power system
• Improved system transient stability by using the short term emergency loading
capability of the TCSC thereby increasing the synchronizing torque transmitted
across the TCSC compensated line after clearing AC system faults
The TCSC has been proven to be very robust and effective as a means to improve
damping of power oscillations, thereby extending the possibilities for AC power
interconnection between two regions by enabling increased synchronizing torque to
be transferred between the sending and receiving ends of the lines after a short circuit
event. In some respects, the TCSC systems augment the benefits from Power System
Stabilizers (PSS) installed in the generating plants, but they can also be used to damp
very low frequency oscillatory modes below the control range of PSS systems.
1.1 Loading of AC Lines
Typically, a power system incorporates many lines with different voltages and
thermal ratings. Long and uncompensated lines are limited by their impedance in
the amount of power they can transfer. For long AC lines, the load limit is often the
characteristic impedance of the so-called surge impedance (ZC, which for a lossless
transmission line is (Anderson and Farmer 1996):
rffiffiffiffi
L
Zc ¼
C
where:
Zc is the characteristic impedance

L is the inductance of the line, and
C is the capacitance between the conductors
Figure 1 shows typical surge impedance load (SIL) limits for long high voltage
power lines versus thermal load limits. Notice that when a transmission line is
transmitting its SIL load the reactive power generated and drawn by the line are
equal. The thermal limits are typically high because to limit corona losses, multi-
conductor arrangements are often needed. Furthermore, mechanical forces from ice
and wind loading of the conductors often require selection of large, mechanically
strong conductors. This leads to relatively high thermal load limits for high voltage
lines.
In many systems, weaker and thermally limited lines are overloaded while other
higher capacity lines are operating far from their thermal limits. This can happen
Power (MW)
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
765 kV 500 kV 400 kV 345 kV 230 kV
SIL Thermal
Fig. 1 Typical surge impedance load (SIL) limits without compensation versus thermal limits for
long high voltage lines
where a high voltage line is overbuilt (in parallel with) a lower voltage line, which
leads to underutilization of the higher voltage line. If series capacitors are installed in
the higher voltage lines, power can be moved from the overloaded lines which
improve the utilization of the investments made in the higher voltage lines as well as
improves the efficiency of the power system. However, if the compensated system is
disturbed, the weaker lines might be seriously overloaded in the event of the trip of
the higher voltage line, which might require fast switching of other elements in the
system to avoid cascading faults (EPRI Report EL-6943 1991). TCSC systems can
be used to perform such switching.
The amount of compensation is easily determined for steady state operation, but
the level of compensation inserted in the line often has to be adjusted based on time
of day, day of the week, and the season. This requires switched compensation
systems. When the dynamics of the system or contingency conditions are consid-
ered, the speed of response, the behavior of the system during over and under voltage
conditions resulting from disturbances in the system are all important attributes.
Other performance characteristics such as the dynamic behavior of the loads also
have a big impact on the required compensation. The speed of response of switching
operations as well as the duty cycle imposed on switches and connected equipment
can make the use of thyristor switched systems advantageous.
1.2 AC Systems with TCSC Installations
Many TCSC systems have now been installed worldwide. Some of these are in
applications where the systems might become unstable, or the loading of the circuit
may have to be reduced for the systems to remain stable, if the TCSC is out of service
(CIGRE TB 554 2013). However, in many applications of TCSC and FACTS

technologies in general, these systems are only required to operate under contin-
gency conditions. Since the power systems are evolving with new lines and gener-
ating stations constantly being added to the systems, many FACTS systems are
needed only for a limited time because as the systems become stronger and more
interconnected, the contingencies for which the FACTS controller were intended will
probably fade away. Still, in all applications of TCSC and other FACTS controllers,
the premise is that the transmission system should be operating at least with the
same level of reliability and security as before the FACTS systems were installed.
Basically this implies that the joint probability for failure of the transmission system
and a FACTS controller should be negligibly small (Nilsson 1994). This often puts
added emphasis on the design of the control systems for the FACTS controllers.
Typically, a series compensation system can be overloaded using the long term
and short term overload capability of the capacitors (IEEE 824 2005). The short term
overload capability of the TCSC systems utilizes the overload capability of both the
series capacitors and the thyristor valves. It is used to provide maximum synchro-
nizing power during severe system disturbances. This requires the following:
• The TCSC system should not be bypassed during an AC system short circuit for
faults external to the compensated line, but if bypassing is needed it must recover
immediately after the short circuit is cleared.
• The TCSC system must not fail or be permanently bypassed as a result of an AC
system short circuit event. That is, failures requiring by-pass of the TCSC system
must be independent events.
For these reasons, as is shown in Fig. 2, the TCSC system specifications would
normally include a 30 min long term overload rating and a 10 s emergency overload
rating. The 30 min overload rating is typically specified for a 35–50% overcurrent
and the 10 s rating is typically for 100% overcurrent. However, the 30 min rating is
sometimes defined as 150% of the rated power at nominal current or 200% of rated
Fig. 2 Typical control range

of a TCSC module
power for 10 s. The long term overload rating is needed to re-dispatch the power
flows after some major AC system disturbance and the short term overload rating is
to manage the transient power swings during and immediately after an AC system
fault.
A TCSC system must be able to ride through temporary short circuits on the line
in which the TCSC system is installed. The capacitors are assumed to be bypassed by
the thyristors during the time it takes for the breakers to clear the fault. When the line
is reclosed, the TCSC system must provide maximum reactive compensation to
provide the needed synchronizing torque between the two ends of the line. This
requires, as described in ▶ Chap. 8, “Technical Description of Thyristor Controlled
Series Capacitors (TCSC),” that the thyristors must be rated for full short circuit
current for normal fault clearing. That is, large, powerful thyristors must be used and
in addition, an effective cooling system for the semiconductor valves must be
installed.
In some AC systems, power does not flow through its intended path causing
overloads on lines with lower power handling capacity and underutilization of the
stronger lines. In such a system, impedance control of key lines using TCSC systems
with a large control range could be used to balance the loading of the affected lines.
Connecting several series connected TCSC module together is one way to achieve a
large control range. By using vernier control in combination with switching in and
out of the series connected modules, a large and almost continuous control range can
be obtained.
In applications where power flow control is the objective, switching of the
thyristors at relatively large firing angles (large voltage boosts) will create high,
continuous switching stresses for the capacitor modules. This might require special
capacitor designs capable of operating continuously with high di/dt stresses. Also, as
described in ▶ Chap. 8, “Technical Description of Thyristor Controlled Series
Capacitors (TCSC),” the switching operations will cause harmonic current flows to
be circulating through the capacitors, which cause power losses in the capacitors. In
situations where a TCSC system is applied to an existing series capacitor installation,
the capacitors might have to be replaced if they are not rated for the harmonic
currents flows and the high, continuous di/dt stresses.
2 Installed TCSC Base
The first 19 TCSC systems installed before the year 2019 are shown in Table 1.
However, ABB announced on the 26th of February 2018 that it got an order to install
TCSC systems in South Korea ABB 2018 (ABB 2019). Note that in the table FSC
denotes Fixed Series Capacitor banks.
The first two or three systems listed in Table 1 above were built to demonstrate
the capabilities of TCSC systems. The Slatt system in the USA was
decommissioned in 2017; 24 years after it was commissioned. It was being used to
improve the AC power transfer capability between the Columbia River basin and
Los Angeles along the west coast of the USA.
Table 1 Installed TCSC systems

Installed
(year) Location Configuration Rating Purpose
1992 Kayenta, WAPA, USA FSC plus 230 kV, 2 165 Increase power
TCSC Mvar (TCSC transfer; SSR (TCSC
module: system now
45 Mvar); converted to FSC)
1,000 A
1993 Slatt System, BPA, USA 6 TCSC 500 kV, System to
modules in 208 Mvar, demonstrate power
Series 2,900 A flow control, SSR
damping, stability
control and fault
performance
Decommissioned in
2017
1997 Stöde, Svenska Kraftnät, FSC plus 400 kV, SSR control; to be
Sweden TCSC 493 Mvar total decommissioned in
(TCSC 2019
148 Mvar);
1,500 A
1999 Imperatriz, Eletronorte, 1 TCSC 500 kV, System damping
Brazil module 108 Mvar,
1,500 A
2000 Serra da Mesa, FURNAS 1 TCSC 500 kV, System damping;
Centrais Elétricas S.A module 107 Mvar, changed to operate as
Brazil 1,500 A a fixed series
capacitor
2003 Pingguo, State Power 2 FSC plus 500 kV, TCSC System damping
South Company, 2 TCSC 55Mvar; FSC
Guangxi, China 350Mvar,
2,000 A
2004 Serra da Mesa, Nova 1 TCSC 500 kV, 107.5 System damping;
Trans, Brazil module Mvar, 1,500 A changed to operate as
a fixed series
capacitor
2004 Imperatriz, Nova Trans, 1 TCSC 500 kV, 107.5 System damping
Brazil module Mvar, 1,500 A
2004 Chengxian, Gansu TCSC 220 kV, 86.7 Damping, Improving
Electric Power Co. China Mvar, 1,100 A Power Transmission
Capability
2004 Raipur end of, Rourkela 2 TCSC 400 kV, System damping
– Raipur 400 kV D/c plus 2 FSC 394 Mvar FSC
line; Power Grid and 71 Mvar
Corporation of India, TCSC, 1,550 A
Ltd., India
2006 Gorakhpur end of 2 FSC plus 420 kV, System damping
Muzaffarpur–Gorakhpur 2 TCSC 716 Mvar FSC
400 kV D/c line;, Power and 107 Mvar
Grid Corporation of TCSC
India, Ltd., India
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Installed
2006 Purnea end of 2 FSC plus 420 kV, System damping
Purnea–Muzaffarpur 2 TCSC 743 Mvar FSC
400 kV D/c line, Power and 112 Mvar
Grid Corporation of TCSC
India, Ltd., India
2009 Fengtun, Northeast TCSC 500 kV, System damping
China Grid Co. Ltd., 326 Mvar,
China 2,330 A
2015 Hutton 400 kV 2 TCSC 400 kV, Part of a wider
substation, near Kendal 395 Mvar, network strategy to
in Cumbria, UK 4,000 A, 6.83 Ω increase the power
flow capacity
between Scotland and
England by 1 GW,
mitigate SSR, and
system stability
improvement
3 TCSC Applications
3.1 USA
3.1.1 Kayenta 230 kV Line

The first TCSC installation, shown in Fig. 3, was Western Area Power Administra-
tion’s (WAPA) Kayenta system. This system was supplied by Siemens and commis-
sioned in 1992, but the TCSC portion is no longer in service since it was not needed
for the operation of the power system but used to demonstrate the functionality of the
TCSC technology.
This TCSC was part of a 330 Mvar series capacitor bank installed at approxi-
mately the mid-point of a 320-km long 230 kV line. The purpose of this installation
was to improve the loading of the line and to provide voltage support for the Kayenta
230 kV bus. The thyristor controlled series compensation system is shown in Fig. 3.
The 15 Ω segment of this installation was nominally rated at 45 Mvar, but the
thyristor valve had a one minute rating of 1890 ARMS at 36 kVPEAK, which was equal
to 48 Mvar per valve (Christl et al. 1992). This determined the steady state thermal
and voltage rating of the thyristor valves. The short circuit current rating was
12 kAPEAK, which actually determined the current rating of the thyristors them-
selves. The main features of the thyristor devices were as follows (Christl et al.
1992):
• 100 mm devices rated 3.5 kA and 5.5 kV

• Voltage break over diodes (VBO) used for thyristor protection
• Electrically triggered thyristors with gate boxes for firing and monitoring,
connected to the control and protection systems by fiber optics.
Damping Circuit Damping Circuit
Breaker
X X
Breaker
MOV
MOV MOV
40 Ω 55 Ω
TCSC 15 to 60 Ω
Fig. 3 TCSC system installed in the Kayenta station in the USA
The maximum short circuit current was 6.9 kA and was expected to increase to
7.6 kARMS in the future. It is of interest to note that the one minute rating of the
TCSC portion of the bank was 1700 A, whereas the rest of the system is rated at 1500
A. That is, the added duty of the capacitors from the continuous thyristor switching
and harmonic current flows were considered in the rating.
The Kayenta system was also built for impedance modulation as a series reactor.
The reactance at 90 firing angle was about 3.1 Ω inductive. The equivalent
reactance could be increased by delaying the firing beyond 90 up to a limit set by
the voltage limits of the capacitors and the switch. In this operation mode, the TCSC
could be used to buck power flows and as a fault current limiter.
The potential for stimulation of torsional interactions between the installed fixed
and series capacitor banks in the Kayenta station was explored through simulations
and field tests. It was determined through simulations that the TCSC system would
appear to be an inductance in the subsynchronous frequency range. Actual field tests
were conducted, which confirmed the simulation results (Hedin 1997).
The steady state power loss of the TCSC at a line current of 1,100 A was reported
to be 60 kW per phase (Christl et al. 1992). That is, 0.4% of the TCSC rated 45 Mvar
capacity.
3.1.2 Slatt–Buckley 500 kV Line

The second TCSC system to be commissioned was the Slatt TCSC jointly developed
by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), the Bonneville Power Administra-
tion (BPA), and General Electric Company (GE) shown in Fig. 4. The Slatt system
was a multimodular TCSC system, whereas all of the other installed systems have
been built as single TCSC controllers. As can be seen in Fig. 4, the power electronic
subsystems, the reactor for the thyristor switches, and the capacitors are placed on an
insulated platform. Not visible in Fig. 4 are the MOV bank used for overvoltage
protection of the capacitors and the thyristor switches.
Fig. 4 One phase of the Slatt TCSC system showing the thyristor modules, one of the module
reactors and a portion of a capacitor module
Cooling fluids are pumped from ground level up to the thyristor valves.
Furthermore, fiber optic links used for thyristor triggering signals and protective
functions are also brought up and down the platform through fiber optic links. Water
with glycol is used for cooling of the thyristor valves. The cooling pump station and
heat exchangers and the control room building are not shown in Fig. 4 either.
Because the losses in a TCSC system, as will be discussed below, are at most 1%
of the TCSC’s rating, the cooling system plant and heat exchangers are relatively
small. Also, the TCSC controls moderately increase the space needed for the normal
FSC control and protections systems.
This system was installed at the BPA’s Slatt substation in Oregon and put into
operation in 1993 but was decommissioned after 24 years of service since it was no
longer needed. A simplified schematic diagram of the multimodular Slatt TCSC
system is shown in Fig. 5.
The major differences between the Slatt and the Kayenta systems are found in the
short circuit current duties, modularity, and voltage ratings. Slatt was installed in a
high short circuit capacity 500 kV system (20.3 kARMS; maximum crest fault current
equal to 60 kA). It was an 8 Ω bank, rated 2900 A, divided into six modules of
1.33 Ω each. However, the continuous rating with the thyristors operating was 9.2 Ω
or 1.53 Ω per module. The 30-min current rating was 1.5 p.u. and the 10-s current
Fig. 5 Multimodule TCSC system installed at the 500-kV Slatt station in the USA
rating was 2 p.u. The 30-minute impedance rating at 1.0 p.u. current was 12 Ω and
the 10-s rating also at 1.0 p.u. current was 16 Ω. A protective by-pass of the
capacitors was ordered if the current reached 10.7 kA.
The reasoning behind this specification was that maximum compensation of the
line was needed to maintain transient stability of two systems during the first swing
of the disturbed system. This is when the current will be the highest. Also, by
dividing the TCSC in several series segment, the control range approximates a
continuous function from a small inductive impedance (not used in the Slatt system
except the characteristic impedance of the Slatt TCSC system is equal to a small
inductance when the thyristors are fully conducting) to full capacitive compensation
when all modules were inserted with maximum vernier control. This minimized the
installed capacitance of the system (Urbanek et al. 1992).
A new thyristor device was developed for the TCSC application. The device
was a 3300 V, 100 mm diameter, with a special gate structure to achieve high
di/dt performance. Also, the device was relatively thin to minimize the forward
voltage drop, which was slightly below 1.4 V at 4,000 A. This enabled the
devices to ride through the high short circuit currents associated with the Slatt
site. The significant di/dt duty imposed on the thyristor was overcome by the
special gate structure and emitter shorts were introduced to allow the devices to
withstand high dv/dt stresses without causing the device to turn on. (McDonald
et al. 1994).
In the Slatt TCSC system, the gate drivers were powered from current transformers
(CTs) placed in series with the TCSC modules plus voltage transformers (VTs) across
the modules. One consequence of this choice was that the gate drivers would not
contain sufficient energy to turn on the thyristor devices at low line currents. A weak
thyristor gate pulse leads to poor current spreading in the thyristors and a high
probability for device failures. Therefore, the TCSC modules would be blocked if the
line current fell below about 600 A. The bypass switch would be closed if the blocking
condition existed for several seconds. Insertion of the TCSC modules was enabled if the
current was slightly higher than the blocking level.
The high minimum current would be of some concern in a general application of a
TCSC system because when the TCSC is bypassed, it will not be able to add any
damping of potential torsional interactions caused by the fixed series capacitors.
Gate driver power from the ground through isolation transformers or light triggered
thyristors with integrated voltage-break-over features can be used to lower the
low-current operating limit.
Slatt was equipped with control features for system damping and transient
stability improvements as well as for SSR damping (Venkatasubramanian, and
Taylor 2000; Urbanek et al. 1993). All of the functions were tested in staged tests
to the degree this was possible before putting the system into commercial operation
early 1995 (Piwko et al. 1994). Staged fault tests were probably the most severe for
the TCSC equipment itself because faults on the line side of the TCSC puts the
500 kV bus voltages across the bank. Very steep front surges were impressed upon
the thyristors. Although a few thyristors were reported to have failed in these tests,
the performance was remarkably good (Kinney et al. 1997; Hauer et al. 1996; Piwko
et al. 1996).
The Slatt TCSC system was built to demonstrate the TCSC technology. It was
installed in a location where the functionality of the system could be fully tested, but
the location where the system was installed would not require the full spectrum of
the available control functions. Prior to the installation of the TCSC in the Slatt
station, it went through extensive simulator testing (Nyak et al. 1994). Some of the
results were:
• A step change from 1.1 to 1.7 pu was accomplished in about 1 cycle.

• The TCSC system appeared to be the same as an uncompensated system (induc-
tive characteristic) if two of the six modules were operated with a boost factor of
1.5 pu.
• Power oscillation damping and numerous three phase and single phase (stuck
breaker) fault cases were also simulated. The tests showed that the TCSC would
provide positive damping for the AC system and that the thyristor firing control
implementation was robust.
The chosen location provided very high short circuit currents. This required large
metal oxide varistor (MOV) banks with many parallel MOV columns, which is
typical for modern series capacitor banks. Several staged fault tests were conducted
(Kinney et al. 1997). Both faults on the line and station side of the TCSC and faults
on another 500 kV line connected to the Slatt bus were tested. Figure 6 shows the
relay record captured during the test of a bus side single phase to ground fault on the
B-phase. The peak short circuit current that flowed through the TCSC system was
about 6 kARMS. A few thyristors failed during this test, although not because of the
high fault currents but likely because of weak gate pulses after the fault had been
cleared.
The harmonic content of the line currents before and during the commissioning
tests were also measured. It was found that there was no significant difference
between the harmonic current content before the TCSC was put into operation and
with the TCSC system in operation.
The chosen installation site also facilitated demonstration of the SSR damping
features. This feature was tested by connecting the Slatt TCSC system radially to a
local steam turbine generator (Hauer et al. 1996, 1997). The tests demonstrated that
the Slatt TCSC system was decoupled from the generator shaft’s torsional interaction
(TI) modes when operating in the vernier control mode. That is, the shaft modes
were not damped but not amplified either when connected to the Slatt TCSC. This
was the expected result based on the earlier simulator tests (Nyak et al. 1994). No
active SSR damping was included in the control system so this result was positive
proof that the Slatt TCSC system by itself did not cause SSR.
Fig. 6 B-phase single phase to ground short circuit test on the bus side of the Slatt TCSC. The graph
shows in the top traces the line voltage to ground in kV (VLINx), in the middle traces the line currents
in kA (ALINx) and at the bottom the thyristor currents in kA (ITHYx) for phases A, B, and C
The chosen test site also had direct economic benefits since it enabled
increased power transfers on the 500 kV lines between the northern and southern
ends of the 500 kV Pacific AC Intertie transmission systems along the Pacific Coast
in the USA.
The performance of the Slatt system was evaluated as shown in Table 2 (CIGRE
TB 554, 2013).
Table 2 Slatt TCSC performance information

Specific performance information
Subsynchronous resonance prevention Very effective
Power flow control Generally operated in the vernier control mode
Other
How was the performance of the system being Comparison of alarms and oscillographic
evaluated? records to settings and previous events
Is the transient performance meeting Yes
expectations?
Any unexpected or unforeseen events occurred DC offset was created when a module was
for which the TCSC system was not malfunctioning. Created DC ground current in
responding correctly? the neutral of nearby transformer
Were the observed deviations severe requiring Problem was resolved and operation continues
retuning of the controls or of no consequence?with one module blocked; that is only 5 of the
6 modules were used in the vernier
control mode.
Have staged faults been performed to validate Yes, staged fault tests to evaluate performance
the design of the system? during disturbances – short circuit testing on
both the line and bus side of the TCSC were
performed
Major or minor equipment failures occurred in any of the following equipment or
subsystems
Thyristor valves Gating issues discovered under low line current
conditions. Minimum current setting increased
to avoid this issue
Thyristors Pre-1999 failures during high vernier settings.
Settings were modified to 12 ohms and failures
decreased sharply
Capacitors Typical failure rate
MOV banks or spark gaps (if used) No MOV failures and no spark gap used
Bypass switches No issues
Cooling equipment Plastic pipes were replaced with stainless steel
pipes at ground potential and pump cavitation
issues associated with high fluid flow rates
required significant cooling system
maintenance
Control communications systems between Would recommend Fusion splices for fiber
platform and ground (e.g., fiber optic links) optic connections but currently use barrel
connectors
Protective relaying systems Typical failure rate
Valve firing and monitoring electronics Minimal failure rate
The Slatt TCSC system was unique in that it enabled the change of the line
impedance almost continuously within a large range because this TCSC system was
built using six smaller, series connected thyristor switching modules. That is, the
system was built to enable a transmission system operator to change the power flows
in an AC transmission system between lines that cannot carry as much power to lines
that can carry higher loads. In this way, the transmission line losses might be
minimized by moving the power to lines with better power handling capability. By
doing this, lines that would be overloaded can be off-loaded, which should enable
the power distribution in a power system to be optimized. This application did not
require this capability, but it is a feature that could be highly useful in existing, built-
out power systems in which new power plants are installed in places where such a
plant was never before envisioned. The Slatt test system demonstrated this capabil-
ity. It also showed that if there were a slight difference between conduction periods
of the thyristor valves between the positive and negative half cycles, a small DC
component would arise with consequences similar to the effects of geomagnetically
induced currents (GIC). The solution was to use one of the six, small series capacitor
modules as a fixed capacitor.
The published total losses for the Slatt TCSC system would be highest if the
system was operated in the maximum possible inductive operating mode (Larsen
et al. 1994). At this operating point, the power loss of the TCSC system was about
0.6% of the TCSC’s rating. The total loss when the TCSC is conducting in the
bypass mode (with the capacitors short circuited by the thyristor branch) with the
line current at 1 pu was about 0.4%. The maximum losses in the capacitive vernier
mode occurred at the highest boost factor with a current slightly less than 0.5
pu. This was also reported to be about 0.4%. The losses are less at higher and
lower line currents, because the Slatt system was designed as a multimodule TCSC
with six series modules, and some of these modules could be bypassed and other
modules could be operated with varying boost levels. The anticipated need for
extensive use of power flow controllers in the USA never materialized largely as a
result of the deregulation of the power systems. Therefore, no new TCSC systems
have been installed in the USA.
3.2 Brazil
3.2.1 The Brazilian Interconnected Power System

The Brazilian Interconnected Power System (BIPS) is a large hydro-thermo-wind
system, with a predominance of hydroelectric power plants and multiple owners.
The BIPS consists of four subsystems: South, Southeast/Midwest, Northeast, and
most of the North of Brazil. The BIPS’s total generation capacity installed is
155,528 MW (2017). It encompasses 154,748 km of transmission lines, divided
into 22,132 km of DC lines (600 and 800 kV) and 132,616 km of AC lines (230, 345,
440, 500, and 750 kV). Figure 7 shows an overview of the BIPS that is characterized
by long AC and DC transmission lines. The DC transmission lines (Madeira River
and Belo Monte Projects) are longer than 2,000 km. Regarding the AC lines, the
500 kV corridors are long and most of them are equipped with series capacitors.
3.2.2 TCSC Systems Installed in Brazil

In 1999 the first 500 kV AC transmission line was installed connecting Imperatriz
substation (Maranhão State) and Serra da Mesa substation (Goiás State). These
series compensated lines, which can be seen in Fig. 7, show the BIPS interconnec-
tions between the North/Northeast and South/Southeast/Midwest areas in Brazil.
Figure 8 shows a one line diagram of the Imperatriz to Serra da Mesa with six
FSC systems and shunt reactors for voltage control and Fig. 9 provides a more
detailed view of the relevant part of the Brazilian power system. Two TCSC systems
were included in the design of the line, one in Imperatriz substation and another in
the Serra da Mesa substation.
Fig. 7 Overall view with 4 TCSCs (two TCSCs running as FSCs at Serra da Mesa and Two TCSCs
fully operational at Imperatriz substation) on North-South Interconnection
S. da Mesa Gurupi Miracema Colinas Imperatriz
SC SC SC SC SC SC
TCSC TCSC
R 2R R 2R R R 2R 2R
Fig. 8 One-line diagram of the transmission line Imperatriz/Serra da Mesa
Fig. 9 Detailed view – Brazilian North-South interconnection with 4 TCSCs
The TCSC systems were vital parts in the expansion of the AC power system in
Brazil (Ping et al. 1996; Machado et al. 2004). These TCSC systems were used to
provide damping of the 0.2 Hz electromechanical oscillations of the North-South
interarea mode. Following the completion of a second North/Southeast 500 kV AC
interconnection, two more TCSCs were installed in these stations increasing the
number of TCSC system from two to four.
3.2.3 Serra da Mesa TCSC #1

The transient stability was not an issue when the first 500 kV North-South intercon-
nection AC circuit was built due to the level of fixed series capacitors installed along
this interconnection. However, system damping needed to be addressed. Therefore,
TCSC systems were installed in this line.
The Serra da Mesa TCSC was installed in the 500 kV North-South intercon-
nection in Brazil to damp power oscillations (Gama et al. 1998). The Serra da
Mesa circuit #1 TCSC, a single line diagram of which is shown in Fig. 10,
Fig. 10 Single line diagram MOV

of the 500 kV, 108 Mvar, 1500 I line
A Imperatriz and Serra da C
Mesa TCSC systems
Thyristor
Pair
Control System
comprised a 13.25 Ω series capacitor in parallel with a 2.07 Ω TCR reactor

(CIGRE TB 544 2013). The main goal for the TCSC was to damp power
oscillations in the 500 kV North-South interconnection in Brazil. During the
commissioning work in 1999, it was set up for damping a 0.20 Hz power
oscillations interarea mode. When the second 500 kV AC circuit of the North-
South interconnection was added, the interarea mode changed to 0.30 Hz and the
TCSC was re-tuned to this frequency.
With the expansion of the North/Southeast interconnection and because of further
reinforcements (third interconnection circuit in 2009) in the receiver subsystems that
occurred during subsequent years, the electric distance between the generation
centers of the North/Northeast and Southeast/Midwest subsystems was reduced,
causing an increased frequency of the characteristic oscillation mode to between
0.35 Hz and 0.4 Hz. In 2015 the TCSCs at Serra da Mesa were converted into FSCs
since the damping of the interarea modes was no longer as critical as when only two
circuits were available, but the installed TCSC systems enabled power transfers from
North to South and vice versa for about 16 years. This supports one of the tenets for
installation of FACTS controllers, which is that FACTS is an enabling technology of
significant benefit when installed in a growing power system.
The TCSC operated in steady state as a fixed series capacitor, with an effective
capacitive reactance of 15.92 Ω (1.20 times its physical series capacitor). Therefore,
in steady state it just added synchronizing torque to the North-South interconnection.
The vernier control of the TCSC ranged from 6% to 15% of transmission line
reactance, i.e., from 13.25 to 39.81 Ω, providing controllable reactance to counteract
power oscillations (interarea mode). For high magnitude oscillation conditions, the
TCSC was designed to buck the power flow through the TCR (2.46 Ω inductive),
i.e., the reactor bypasses the series capacitor.
The TCSC had the same intrinsic protection as regular series capacitors. In
addition, it was equipped with valve and valve-based electronic supervision and
protection of the thyristors plus conventional protection for the TCR reactor. The
TCSC was equipped with MOV surge arresters as the main protection against series
capacitor overvoltages.
The TCSC was designed to withstand short circuit current within certain limits. In
the event of a short circuit, the MOV arrester starts conducting to protect the series
capacitor against overvoltages. The protection strategy for the TCSC was to bypass it
for any short circuit or ground fault on the TCSC equipped line and reinsert it after
the line is reclosed. The bypass of the TCSC’s series capacitor would be performed
by the TCR. This means that the power damping function could be re-enabled
immediately after the end of the short circuit current flows.
In the event of severe internal line faults when the MOV arrester would be close to
having reached its energy/current limits, a spark gap would be triggered to bypass
the TCSC. The spark gap would bypass the series capacitor, the reactor, and the
MOV to provide thermal protection of the TCSC.
3.2.4 Imperatriz TCSC #1

In the same way as described for Serra da Mesa TCSC, the Imperatriz TCSC was
installed in the 500 kV North-South interconnection in Brazil to damp power
oscillations. The Imperatriz circuit #1 TCSC comprises a 13.27Ω series capacitor
in parallel with a 2.11 Ω TCR reactor, for the purpose of providing damping of power
system oscillations. The same retuning in the control (from 0.20 to 0.30 Hz) as for
the Serra da Mesa TCSC was performed after the integration of the second circuit of
the North-South interconnection. This TCSC acts in steady state in the same way as
is described above for Serra da Mesa circuit #1 TCSC. Figure 11 shows a photo of
the Imperatriz TCSC installed at Imperatriz 500 kV substation in Northern Brazil.
Fig. 11 Photo of the Imperatriz TCSC installed on circuit #1 of North-South Interconnection at

Imperatriz substation
The design of the Imperatriz TCSC is similar to the Serra da Mesa TCSC The
vernier control of this TCSC ranges from 6% to 15% of the transmission line
reactance, i.e., from 13.25 to 39.81 Ω, providing controllable reactance to counteract
power oscillations (interarea mode). It was designed to have the TCR in continuous
firing mode in such a way as to operate as an inductive stable reactance (2.52 Ω)
bypassing the series capacitor when using the TCR mode.
3.2.5 Imperatriz and Serra da Mesa TCSCs #2

The Serra da Mesa TCSC installed in the second circuit of the North-South
interconnection in Brazil was also designed to damp power oscillations. Figure 12
shows a photo of the two retired TCSCs in the Serra da Mesa substation. These
TCSC systems were not as critical to the operation of the system as the TCSCs
installed in circuit #1 described previously, since the interarea mode increased
from 0.20 Hz to 0.30 Hz when the second circuit of North-South interconnection
was finished.
The actions of the Imperatriz TCSC in the North-South circuit #2 in Brazil were
similar to those of the Serra da Mesa TCSC installed in the same circuit, at the
remote terminal. These TCSC systems played an important role in keeping the
system stable under severe contingency conditions, e.g., an outage of the 500 kV
North-Northeast interconnection. The degree of fixed series compensation along the
North-South circuit #2 was enough to keep the transient stability under control.
Fig. 12 Photo of the two retired TCSCs from two different manufactures installed in the Serra de
Mesa substation
Fig. 13 Photo of the Imperatriz TCSC installed on circuit #2 of North-South Interconnection at

Imperatriz substation
Figure 13 shows a photo of the Imperatriz TCSC installed at Imperatriz 500 kV

substation in Northern Brazil.
Imperatriz and Serra da Mesa circuit #2 TCSCs comprise a 13.27 Ω series
capacitor in parallel with a 2.20 Ω TCR reactor and were also installed for the
purpose of damping power oscillations in the 500 kV North-South interconnection in
Brazil. During the commissioning work in 2004, they were set up for damping of the
0.30 Hz power oscillation interarea mode, with the integration of the 500 kV North-
South second circuit. With three circuits in operation, the North-South interconnec-
tion developed an interarea mode around 0.35 Hz and these TCSCs were retuned to
this frequency. The transient stability was not an issue at the time of the second
circuit operation due to the level of fixed series capacitors installed along the North-
South interconnection.
In the same way as for the circuit #1 TCSCs, these TCSCs acted in steady
state as fixed series capacitors since they have an effective capacitive reactance
of 15.92 Ω (1.20 times their physical series capacitors). Therefore, in steady
state these TCSCs just added synchronizing torque to the North-South
interconnection.
Similarly to circuit #1, the vernier control of these TCSCs ranged from 6% up to
15% of transmission line reactance, i.e., from 15.92 to 39.81 Ω, which provided a
controllable reactance to counteract power oscillations in the North-South intercon-
nection. In other respects, the designs of the Imperatriz and Serra da Mesa circuit #2
TCSCs were similar to those of the TCSCs installed in circuits #1.
3.2.6 Operational Performance and Present Status of the TCSC

Systems
Simulations carried out on the performance of the TCSCs, specifically those installed
in the Serra da Mesa substation, identified that if the Serra da Mesa TCSCs were
providing dynamic modulation of the line impedance, there would be a loss of
selectivity of the out of step protection installed on the North Southeast intercon-
nection, with the possibility of reducing their sensitivity in situations where they
would be needed. Furthermore, it was found that the performance of the TCSCs
could compromise the effectiveness of a new Special Protective Scheme (SPS) based
on the out of step protection of the 500 kV Gurupi - Serra da Mesa circuit #1 installed
at the Gurupi terminal. The SPS action is used to send a signal to disconnect four
generating units in the Tucuruí hydro power plant to avoid the loss of synchronism in
case of events that cause large generation deficits in the Southeastern, Midwestern,
or Southern regions. The loss of one of the Madeira River HVDC Bipoles is among
those events.
To avoid the discovered problems, and to retain the gains obtained with the
implementation of the new SPS, the Brazilian System Operator, ONS, recommended
that from March 2015 and onward, the operation of the TCSCs installed at the Serra
da Mesa substation be operated as a fixed series capacitor, with a nominal value
of the series capacitor, i.e., 13.25 and 13.27 Ω, respectively, for TCSC 1 and 2.
Therefore, the two TCSCs at Serra da Mesa substation are presently running as fixed
series capacitors. The two TCSCs installed at the Imperatriz substation in the North
remain in operation as TCSCs with active damping control function.
A further analysis during the integration studies of the 800 kV, Xingu-Estreito
HVDC bipole showed that this bipole can provide adequate damping, through
a power oscillation damping (POD) control function for the interarea mode
(North-South) even with the Imperatriz TCSCs operating as fixed series capacitors.
However, if the Xingu-Estreito bipole is lost, the BIPS loses its capability of
damping the interarea mode. Therefore, when the 800 kV, Xingu-Terminal Rio
HVDC bipole comes into operation (foreseen for 2019), the Imperatriz TCSCs will
be converted into series capacitor banks and the 800 kV HVDC bipoles will be
responsible for damping the North-South interarea mode.
3.3 Sweden: Stöde
The Swedish power system is a part of the synchronous Nordic Power System which
includes Sweden, Finland, Norway, and eastern part of Denmark. The annual energy
consumption in Sweden at around year 2010 was about 140 TWh and the installed
production capacity was about 35 GW. The main consumption areas are situated in
the southern part of the country. The majority of the energy in 2010 was generated by
hydro and nuclear plants (hydro 45%, nuclear 50%). Hydro power plants are situated
mostly in the northern part of the country and nuclear power plants in the coastal
areas of southern Sweden.
Fig. 14 The Swedish 400 kV

network
As is shown in Fig. 14, as of 2010 eight 400 kV lines connected the hydro power
plants in the north with the large load areas in the south. Each line is up to 500 km
long and series compensated up to 70%. Two new series capacitors (SC) were
installed on the 400 kV AC-interconnections between Sweden and Finland. Two of
the eight lines, the ones comprising the series capacitors in Vittersjö and Stöde, are
installed in the 400 kV lines directly connected to Forsmark, a major nuclear power
plant. One of the units, Forsmark 3, has a production capacity of about 1150 MWe.
This unit was equipped with a subsynchronous resonance (SSR) armature current
relay that would detect if subsynchronous current exceeded a predetermined level for
a specified time. The relay had three current levels, the first being an alarm level and
the other ones causing generator trip after different time delays.
The FSC systems at Vittersjö and Stöde both had relay protections which would
detect subsynchronous current. The relay protection would automatically bypass the
series capacitor whenever a certain SSR current amplitude and time criterion was
exceeded.
The Stöde FSC was erected in 1974 using capacitors impregnated with PCB. In
the early 1990s the installation was completely refurbished with state-of-the-art
components including non-PCB capacitors. The station was recommissioned
in November 1994. Shortly after the Stöde FSC was put into service the sub-
synchronous current relay at Forsmark 3 started to trigger repeatedly and the series
Fig. 15 The AC network

close to the Forsmark nuclear
power station
capacitors were bypassed several times. A study was conducted to examine how to
prevent the subsynchronous resonance (Agrawal and Farmer 1978).
The system close to the nuclear power plant at Forsmark is shown in Fig. 15. One
way to prevent subsynchronous resonance would have been to eliminate part of the
series compensation in Vittersjö. This measure would move the electrical resonance
in the network away from the critical frequency. But if more than one third of the
reactance in Vittersjö FSC was eliminated, a new resonance would appear at the
critical frequency, now caused by the Stöde FSC. This illustrates the problem of two
series capacitors with different reactance connected at the same busbar near a power
plant. The reactance at Vittersjö at fundamental frequency was 50 Ω and in Stöde
73 Ω. The reduction by one third of the Vittersjö FSC’s capacitive reactance would
also have changed the power flow in one critical bottleneck in the Swedish network
and reduced its power transfer capacity. This solution would also have increased the
power losses in the system.
Another more attractive solution was to install a TCSC that would change the
reactance in the subsynchronous frequency range even when the capacitive reactance
at fundamental frequency, i.e., 50 Hz, remains constant. It was, therefore, decided to
install a TCSC in Stöde. This was done by dividing the existing series capacitor into
two segments. One segment, 70% of the original series capacitor, remained as a
conventional FSC and the other segment became a TCSC. The section that was
rebuilt is 30% of the total installed reactance. The series capacitor thus equipped was
commissioned in 1997.
Figure 16 shows a single-line diagram of the Stöde TCSC and Fig. 17 shows a
simplified block diagram of the its control system.
The following functional blocks shown in Fig. 17 can be seen:
• An inner control loop (SVR – Synchronous Voltage Reversal) that takes a pulse
train as input and then calculates the thyristor trigger instant so that the capacitor
voltage zero-crossing occurs with a constant time delay with respect to the input
pulses. The loop uses instantaneous values of measured line current (IL-meas) and
capacitor voltage (UC-meas) as inputs for calculating the trigger instant.
Fig. 16 Single line diagram for Stöde
• A Phase Locked Loop (PLL) that extracts phase information from the line current
• A measuring system (Phasor eval) that detects the phasors that correspond to line
current and capacitor voltage and that evaluates the apparent reactance of the
TCSC at fundamental frequency
• A reactance or boost controller (Boost contr) that controls the TCSC apparent
reactance at fundamental frequency by phase shifting the pulse train of the inner
loop relative to the phase of the line current
• A reactance reference generator (Boost ref) that provides the reference for the
boost controllers
• A sequencing system that manages start, stop, and protective actions
It has been shown that the apparent impedance should ideally be inductive in the
subsynchronous frequency range when the dynamic response of the PLL and the
Fig. 17 Control system design for the Stöde TCSC
boost controller is slow. The characteristic is independent of the boost level and
the line current amplitude.
The only purpose of the Stöde installation was to avoid the SSR conditions for the
generator in the Forsmark #3 unit. Therefore, the control system operated with
constant boost reference, i.e., the apparent reactance divided by the physical reac-
tance at fundamental frequency was controlled and the ratio (XTCSC,app / XTCSC,
phys) at 50 Hz was constant.
A design change was made to one phase of the TCSC system because spare light
triggered thyristors became unavailable. The new thyristors were electrically trig-
gered. The control system was, however, left unchanged (Ängquist et al. 1996).
Because of AC system expansions in the region, the TCSC system is no longer
needed for SSR damping. The FSC banks also installed at Stöde is planned to be
rebuilt in 2019 at which time the Stöde TCSC will be converted to a fixed
capacitor bank.
3.4 China
3.4.1 Pingguo, Guangxi, China

The first 500 kV TCSC in China was installed and put into operation in the Pingguo
substation by China Southern Grid in July 2003. This grid, shown in Fig. 18, is a
very complex AC/DC interconnected power system which includes the Hong Kong
grid and covers five provinces in South China.
Anshun Rectifier
Anshun Plant
Huishui
Anshun Hechi
switchstation FSC Shatang
Guangzhou Convertor
Yantan
Tianer Hezhou Beijiao
Luoping Mawo Heshan
TCSC Wuzhou Luodong
Pingguo Laibin
Baise
Lubuge
Tianyi Zhaoqing Xijiang
Nanning
Yulin Convertor
Jiangmen
Maoming
Qinzhou
Fig. 18 A single line diagram of China Southern Power Grid where the first TCSC was installed in
China
The increasing demand for electric power in the southern provinces of China
requires extension of the HV power grid. Bulk power is transferred to load center via
long-distance AC and HVDC transmission lines. At the sending end of China
Southern Grid, there are several power stations and AC and DC lines, resulting in
wide differences in system operation modes.
Local oscillation modes and interarea low frequency oscillation modes exist in
China Southern Grid due to long distance bulk power transmission. In case of heavy
power flow through the mid- and south-corridors, interarea and weakly damped low
frequency oscillation modes would arise after network disturbances. The usual way
to mitigate and eliminate these low frequency power oscillations is to install PSS on
some generator exciters. But for a very complex system, such as China Southern
Grid where multiple oscillation modes exist and operation modes vary considerably,
it is difficult to design the PSSs for system damping because the PSSs are expected to
not only mitigate multiple oscillatory modes but also adapt to variable operating
modes of the generators.
Studies showed that installing the TCSC in the tie-line was the best way to damp
the interarea power oscillations. The mid-corridor from West to East is the main
oscillatory path in the China Southern Grid. Therefore, a TCSC was installed in the
West to East transmission corridor to damp interarea power oscillations. The chosen
place for the installation of the TCSC was the Pingguo substation, which lies in the
middle of the corridor, because this would provide the most effective mitigation of
the interarea oscillation modes.
The main purposes of the TCSC installed in the Pingguo substation are as
follows:
• To provide interarea low frequency power oscillation damping

• To improve transient stability and increase power transmission capability
• To provide power flow control
The Pingguo TCSC and the Hechi FSC are part of this west-to-east network
improvement. Their locations were carefully selected, and together with the Tian
Guang and the Gui-Guang HVDC links contribute to improved system reliability for
the benefit of consumers. The transmission capacity from West to East in China
Southern Grid was increased by about 160 to 240 MW with the Pingguo TCSC and
by about 400 to 500 MW with both the Pingguo TCSC and the Hechi FSC.
The TCSC located at Pingguo substation comprises a TCSC segment with a FSC
segment on one single platform per phase. The installed FSC is rated at 35%, and
the installed TCSC is rated at 5% compensation of the Tianshengqiao-Pingguo line.
The Tianshengqiao is a hydro-electric power plant located at the sending end of the
Mawo to Guangzhou HVDC line that is shown in Fig. 18. In steady state the TCSC
acts as a fixed series capacitor, since it has an effective capacitive reactance of 4.57 Ω
(1.1 times its physical series capacitor), but the apparent impedance of the TCSC at
subsynchronous frequencies is inductive (Fan and Quan 2005). For power oscillation
damping (POD), the TCSC is used to modulate the effective reactance of the power
lines by control of the boost factor. During power oscillation, the inserted TCSC
reactance can be changed between 12.45 Ω capacitive, corresponding to a boost factor
of 3.0, and 4.15 Ω capacitive, corresponding to a boost factor of 1.0 (thyristors
blocked). With the thyristors bypassed, the inserted TCSC reactance is changed to
0.784 Ω. By suitable system control, this modulation of reactance counteracts the
oscillation of active power, thereby quickly damping it out.
For external faults, the TCSC is protected by the installed MOV without
bypassing the capacitor. In case of internal faults, the capacitor is bypassed by a
gap and locked out by a circuit breaker. The controlled segment uses the fast thyristor
bypass feature to immediately protect the capacitor and the MOV when the equip-
ment is overloaded.
For the FSC segment, an MOV and gap protected series capacitor scheme has
been found to be the most economical solution that meets all AC-system fault
requirements. The TCSC segment is realized according to thyristor protection
schemes (TPSC) in case of internal faults.
The single line diagram comprising the main TCSC components is shown in
Fig. 19. For the FSC in series with the TCSC the capacitive reactance is 29.2 ohms
corresponding to 109 μF. The nominal continuous current for the capacitor banks is
2000 ARMS, with temporary overload currents up to 3000 ARMS for 10 min. The
resulting steady state 3-phase reactive power is 350 Mvar.
The TCSC segment is permanently operating at 4.57 ohm in controlled mode.
This results in additional 5.5% line impedance compensation. At lower firing angles,
the TCSC will be able to increase its capacitive impedance up to 12.45 ohm. Within
that range, the TCSC impedance could be continuously adjusted depending on the
line current.
Fig. 19 A single line

diagram of the Pingguo TCSC Damping
circuit
MOV
Damping
circuit
Bypass Switch
Table 3 Damping circuit performance requirements

Time after the
moment of System disturbance
failure [ms] events Protector of a series capacitor/system operates
0 Fault happen
0–100 Fault remains MOV acts in accordance with the requirements to limit
the overvoltage of the capacitor. Depending on the
amount of energy absorbed by the MOV, the rate of
increase of the energy absorbed by the MOV or the
current magnitude, the control system will bypass the
capacitor by triggering the gap or closing the bypass-
breaker
100 Line-breakers clear
the line fault
100–100 + 350 One phase of a MOV acts in accordance with the requirements to limit
breaker fails to the overvoltage of the capacitor. The capacitor is
operate (stuck bypassed by triggering the gap or closing the bypass-
breaker case) and a breaker (Depending on the amount of energy absorbed
single-fault by MOV, the rate of increase of the energy absorbed by
remains on the line the MOV or the current magnitude including the
current of MOV and line current)
100 + 350 Backup fault Capacitor remains in bypass mode until the bypass
clearing time switch opens
The TCSC system is equipped with a damping circuit as shown in Fig. 19 with
performance as described in Table 3. The purpose of this damping circuit is to limit
the current magnitude and frequency of the oscillations arising when the capacitor is
discharged by closing the bypass breaker. During normal operation of the capacitor
bank, no AC line current flows through the bypass-reactor of the damping circuit
because a small air gap in series with the damping resistor was inserted to block the
voltage during steady state operation and to flash over only when the capacitor bank
needs to be discharged. The components of the bypass circuit were designed for a
continuous current not less than the nominal bank current and the short circuit
current of the line. Additionally, the components of the bypass circuit were designed
to withstand the transient stresses associated with short circuiting the capacitor under
the most severe network condition. The assumption for this was two internal faults
occurring within a short time period.
3.4.2 Chengxian, Gansu Electric Power Co. Ltd.

The first TCSC controller developed independently in China was put into operation
in Chengxian substation of Gansu Provincial Grid on December 27, 2007. The main
purpose of the project was to avoid a dynamic instability between a hydro plant and
the power system. The Longnan zone of Gansu province has an abundance of hydro
resources with a maximum output of the Bikou hydro plant at 356.6 MW. As shown
in Fig. 20, the Bikou hydro plant is connected to the Chengxian 330 kV substation
via a single 140 km long 220 kV transmission line. The Chengxian 330 kV substa-
tion is interconnected to the Gansu provincial grid via a single 120 km long 330 kV
transmission line.
A low frequency power oscillation existed in the power system before the TCSC
was installed. Furthermore, according to the stability analysis, the transmission
capability of the Bikou-Chengxian 220 kV line was transient stability limited to
235 MW, which was less than the maximum transmission requirement of the Bikou
plant during high power flow periods. Moreover, the Bikou-Chengxian line goes
through a mountainous region, so that it would be very expensive to build a second
transmission line and a large forest would be ruined. Therefore, the TCSC technol-
ogy was studied as a means to eliminate the Bikou transmission bottle-neck.
The analysis indicated that a 50% TCSC scheme would be economical. The
scheme could satisfy the maximum transmission requirement of the Bikou plant
during high flow periods, because the transient stability limited transmission capac-
ity of the Bikou-Chengxian 220 kV line would then be increased from 235 MW to
Bikou Plant Chengxian Tianshui equivalent System

TCSC 330kV 330kV
140km 220kV 120km 330kV

line line
Chengxian
220kV
Chengxian
110kV
Fig. 20 Bikou-Chengxian power system

Fig. 21 Aerial view the of Chengxian TCSC
345 MW, and the low frequency oscillation between the Bikou plant and the main
grid would be effectively suppressed.
In steady state this TCSC, shown in Fig. 21, would act as a fixed series capacitor,
with an effective capacitive reactance of 23.9 Ω (1.1 times its physical series
capacitor). The vernier control of this TCSC ranges from 21.7 Ω (1.0 p.u.) to
54.3 Ω (2.5 p.u.) providing controllable reactance to counteract power oscillations
(local mode). The TCSC impedance is 3.45 Ω inductive in the TCR mode when the
series capacitor is bypassed.
3.4.3 Fengtun, Northeast China Grid Co. Ltd.

A TCSC system was installed in the Fengtun substation of State Grid of China,
which is at the end of the northeastern power system in the Hulunbeier region of
eastern Inner Mongolia, China. The Yimin Power Plant in the Northeast power
system originally had two 500 MW thermal power generators. In 2007, two addi-
tional 600 MW thermal power generators were installed. That brought the total
generating capacity up to 2200 MW. The Yimin Power Plant was connected to the
500 kV Fengtun substation through two 500 kV ac lines as shown in Fig. 22, and the
total length of the 500 kV transmission lines from Yimin to Fengtun was 378 km.
The transient stability limit of the two AC lines was only about 1600 MW. Therefore,
the power capacity of the double circuit transmission lines was not sufficient to
transfer the full output from the Yimin Power Plant.
Yimin SC TCSC Fengtun Daqing

Yimin I 108km
20kV 378km
500kV
Yimin II equivalent System
TCSC SC
Stage 1 : 2*500MW
Stage 2 : 2*600MW
220kV equivalent System
Fig. 22 A single line diagram of the 500 kV lines from Yimin to Fengtun
fangzhen Substation
Pingan Substation
Yongyuan Substation
Linhai Substation
Yimin Power Plant Fengtun Substation
~ Hanan Substation
TCSC Daqing Substation
Baojia Substation
Hexin Substation
Fig. 23 Diagram of the transmission system fed from the Yimin power plant
To develop a new transmission line between Yimin Power Plant and Fengtun
substation would require building a long distance AC line across the sensitive forest
areas. This plan was not feasible from the perspective of environmental protection
and economy. Therefore, in order to increase the power transmission capability of
the lines, improve the transient stability of the power system, and suppress any
subsynchronous resonance that may arise in the power system, the State Grid
Corporation of China (SGCC) decided to install 500 kV TCSC systems on the two
500 kV power lines between Yimin and Fengtun.
The location of the controller in the 500 kV power system is shown in Fig. 23.
Each of the two TCSC devices in the Fengtun substation is rated at 326.6 Mvar.
That is, the two together are rated at 753.2 Mvar. The TCSC system was developed
by the China Electric Power Research Institute, which was also the supplier of all
other equipment for the TCSC project.
The main features of the 500 kV TCSC project in Fengtun substation are:
• The control and protection system contain completely independent dual units
and can be used for compensation of the individual phases to remove phase
unbalance.
• The TCSC measurement system uses a hybrid optical-electrical measurement
technology. The power supply of the high-voltage measurement system is com-
bined with laser energy transmission and line energy acquirement, which greatly
improves the reliability of the system measurement and operation.
• A fully enclosed pure water cooling system, circulating high-purity water with
ethylene glycol mixed liquid to prevent freezing of the fluid during the cold
winter of the regions of northern China and improve the cooling efficiency of the
controller.
• The main over voltage protection of the series capacitor bank is a large-capacity
metal oxide voltage limiter (MOV), and the guaranteed MOV current non-
uniformity between parallel MOV columns at the protection level does not exceed
5%, which ensures the overvoltage protection reliability of the series capacitor.
• The spark GAP is a sealed structure with a two-electrode ignition feature, which
makes the discharge voltage stable and the polarity effect minimized.
The installation of the device and the system commissioning work were com-
pleted in July 2007. The TCSC system was officially put into operation in October
2007 and has been operating well.
System Construction and Operating Parameters

The TCSCs in the Fengtun substation were installed in the 500 kV transmission line
from Yimin to Fengtun. The Fengtun substation lies 20 km northeast of Qiqihar in
Heilongjiang Province, China, with an average altitude of 146 m and a minimum
temperature of 39.5 C.
As shown in Fig. 24, the 15% rated TCSC system in the Fengtun substation was
combined with a 30% FSC. The main equipment includes series capacitors, metal
oxide voltage limiter (MOV), and current limit damping circuit, spark gap (GAP),
thyristor valves (liquid cooling system) and phase control reactor, bypass circuit
breaker and disconnect switches, measurement and monitoring systems, control and
protection systems, etc.
In October 2007, the 500 kV TCSCs in the Fengtun Substation were put into
operation. The electrical data for the TCSCs is provided in Table 4.
The TCSC thyristor valves are cooled by de-ionized water mixed with glycol. The
key parameters for the Fengtun TCSC thyristors are shown in Table 5.
Figure 25 shows an aerial view of the two TCSCs and the FSC banks installed at the
Fengtun 500 kV substation. Figure 26 shows a close-up view of the TCSC systems.
Real Time Digital Simulation (RTDS) tests were conducted to assess the expected
performance of the Fengtun TCSC. This included power oscillation damping (POD)
and SSR tests.
Fengtun Substation DD3 Transmission Line Fengtun Substation DD3 Transmission Line
14
DD1 GD2 DD2 DD1 GD2

GD1 GD3a GD3b GD1 DD2
measure measure
Energy CT1 Energy CT1
acquirement acquirement
CT1 Energy CT1 Energy
Energy acquirement Capacitor acquirement
acquirement CT2 CT2 Resistance voltage divider
CT3 Measure CT4
Measure
CT5
measure Measure CT2 MOV Unit
Platform
CT6
Measure CT2 MOV Unit
Measure CT3
measure Resistance voltage divider
Platform
CT6
Measure CT3
Capacitor
Resistance voltage divider Measure CT4
Measure
CT5
Measure CT3
MOV
Damping MOV
Measure CT7 Spark GAP circuit Damping
R Measure CT7 Spark GAP circuit
R
Application Examples of the Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor
L
L
Bypass Breaker
TCR
Bypass Breaker Measure CT8
619
Fig. 24 A single line diagram of the 500 kV TCSC in the Fengtun substation. The left side shows the fixed capacitor and the right side of the figure shows the TCSC
Table 4 The main electrical parameters of each 500 kV TCSC controller in the Fengtun Substation
System parameters Section TCSC Section FSC
System operation voltage (kV) 500~550 500~550
Frequency (Hz) 50 50
Rated current (kA) 2.33 2.33
Rated voltage (kV) 46.72 77.86
Rated capacity (1 set/3 phases, Mvar) 326.6 544.3
Basic series compensation ratio 15% 30%
Basic series capacitor reactance (Ω/phase) 16.71 33.4
Overvoltage protection level (pu of rated voltage) 2.35 2.25
Capacitive reactance gain during continuous operation (the 1.2
boost factor in p.u. of basic series compensation reactance)
Maximum capacitive reactance gain (the boost factor in p.u. of 3.0
basic series compensation reactance)
Table 5 Thyristor valve parameters for the Fengtun TCSC. (Data sheet for ABB Phase Control
Thyristor, 5STP 42 U6500)
Current(kA, Voltage(kV,
Mode of operation peak) peak)
Short term (10 ms with a junction temperature of 64.0 151.3
125 C)
15 s 8.51 115.9
8h 5.65 71.2
Long term or continuous operation 5.13 64.5
Fig. 25 Aerial view of the two TCSCs at the Fengtun substation

Fig. 26 View of the TCSC in 500 kV Fengtun substation
Development Simulation Test

The POD function is an important part of the control strategy for the TCSC.
Figure 27 shows the predicted low frequency power flow oscillations on the line
with and without the POD function in the TCSC.
Subsynchronous oscillations (SSO) arise from energy flowing between the series
capacitor of FSC and the steam turbine generators. The TCSC enables suppression
of these oscillations. Figures 28 and 29 show RTDS simulations of the performance
of the power system with only the FSC and with the TCSC+FSC combination. As
can be seen in Fig. 29, it is obvious that the SSO is suppressed by the TCSC.
active power of line ( MW )
3000
Without POD
2500
2000
With POD
1500
1000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (s)
Fig. 27 RTDS test about POD effect of TCSC in 500 kV Fengtun substation
Fig. 28 Waveforms of SSR in RTDS with FSC in 500 kV Fengtun substation
Fig. 29 Waveforms of SSR in RTDS with FSC + TCSC in 500 kV Fengtun Substation
The recorded waveforms from the seven channels numbered from the top are
shown in Figs. 28 and 29:
• Ch1 is the torque between the hi-pressure turbine and the medium pressure
turbine of the 1# turbine in the Yimin power plant.
• Ch2 is the torque between the medium-pressure turbine and the low-pressure
turbine A of the 1# turbine.
• Ch3 is torque between the low-pressure turbine A and the low-pressure turbine B
of the 1# turbine.
• Ch4 is the torque between the low-pressure turbine B of the 1# turbine and the
generator.
• Ch5 is the torque between the generator and the excitation generator.
• CH6 is the capacitor voltage of phase A on the 1# line from the Yimin power plant
to the Fengtun Substation
• CH7 is the current of phase A on the 1# line from the Yimin power plant to the
Fengtun Substation
Control and Protection System

The control and protection system for the 500 kV TCSCs in the Fengtun Substation
consists of two completely independent digital systems, which can switch on/off the
bypass breaker, bypass disconnector, series disconnector, and grounding switch of
the TCSC device, regulate the firing angle of the thyristor valves, and provide
protection for the system.
The control and protection system controls the TCSC’s reactance according to the
operating state of the power system. The control modes include reactance open-loop
control, reactance closed-loop control, and damping control. The main functions of
the control system include:
• Determine the desired TCSC’s operating state, such as blocking and control of the
capacitive reactance settings as required based on the power system’s operating
state and control system’s operating conditions
• Calculate the required reactance and provide the gate control signals for the
thyristor valves
• Limit the control angles from exceeding the allowable working range to ensure
that the series capacitor system operates normally
• Switch master-slave control and protection system settings as required
The TCSC control and protection system is designed to detect all fault states
during the operation of the system and when necessary to activate the relevant trip
relays to isolate or remove the fault effectively in a timely manner. This function
ensures the safe and stable operation of the TCSC. Its design is coordinated with the
transmission line protection systems to protect other devices in the power system.
There are four main types of protection for the TCSC system: MOV overvoltage
protection, capacitor protection, platform protection, and thyristor valve protection
(CIGRE 123 1997).
• The MOV protection including MOV over-current protection, MOV high energy
protection, MOV high temperature protection, MOV unbalance protection, spark
GAP rejection trigger protection, spark GAP self-triggered protection, and spark
GAP delay trigger protection
• Capacitor protection including capacitor unbalance protection, and capacitor
over-load protection
• Platform protection including isolated platform flashover protection, three-phase
inconsistent protection of bypass breaker, three-phase position inconsistency
protection of disconnect switches, line current monitoring, and switching on/off
failure protection of bypass breaker
• Thyristor valve protection including thyristor valve over-load protection, thyristor
valve turn-on failure protection, thyristor valve lost-redundancy protection, and
thyristor valve unbalance trigger protection
Performance Test
A series of field tests were carried out during commissioning of the 500 kV Fengtun
TCSC. These included functional tests of the steady state and dynamic characteris-
tics of the TCSC system.
The recorded waveforms of TCSC in normal operation are shown in Fig. 30, The
current waveforms of the capacitor, the line, and the valve c as well as the capacitor
voltage are shown in Fig. 30.
A single-phase temporary earth fault of the 500 kV line is an important test to
validate the protection and dynamic performance characteristics of the TCSC. The
specific test objectives included:
3000
current of
capacitor 0
phase A
–3000
1300
current
of line 0
phase A
–1300
2000
current
of valve 0
phase A
–2000
30
voltage of
capacitor 1
phase A
–30
Fig. 30 The waveforms of normal operation test of TCSC in 500 kV Fengtun substation
• Checking whether the transmission line and the TCSC’s protection are operating
correctly during the fault
• Checking the MOV’s operating behavior and the absorbed energy
• Checking spark GAP and the thyristor valve’s bypass operation and operating times
• Checking the Power Oscillation Damping (POD) function for the transmission
line
The action of the control and protection of the 500 kV TCSC in the Fengtun
substation was tested by staging an earth fault. The single-phase ground fault was
placed on the line side of the TCSC and FSC on phase C. The line is equipped with
single pole trip reclose breakers. That is, only the phase C breaker poles were opened
as a result of the fault.
Since the single-phase earth fault test took place in C-phase, the currents of
MOV1, MOV2 and spark GAP of phase A and B were always zero. As can be
seen in Fig. 31, the currents of MOV1 and MOV2 of phase C were pulsed
waveforms, which indicated that both MOV voltage limiters had protected the series
capacitors from over-voltage. When the TCSC control and protection system deter-
mined that a high level short-circuit fault occurred, it immediately issued a C-phase
spark GAP trigger signals, which extinguished the currents through the MOV1 and
MOV2 of the C-phase. After the bypass breaker was closed, the C-phase spark GAP
current returned to zero.
After the C-phase short circuit occurred, the C-phase thyristor valve bypassed the
series capacitor bank to limit the short circuit current and then was blocked. As can
be seen in Fig. 31 Currents through the MOVs for the FSC and the TCSC and the
spark gap current of phase C.
Figures 32, 33, 34, and 35, during this period, the A- and B-phase thyristor valves
were first blocked and then immediately were forced to maximum impedance to
increase the transmission power through the line. The line to ground voltages on the
line can be seen in Fig. 36. The phase C voltage exhibits the characteristic oscilla-
tions on a shunt reactor compensated line (Fig. 36). Figure 37 shows the current
Current
of MOV1
phase C 5 kA per division
Current
of MOV2
phase C 5 kA per division
Current
of GAP
phase C
30 kA per division
Fig. 31 Currents through the MOVs for the FSC and the TCSC and the spark gap current of
phase C
8,000 A peak to peak for all traces
current of
capacitor
phase A
current of
capacitor
phase B
current of
capacitor
phase C
Fig. 32 Phase A, B, and C capacitor currents
4,000 A peak to peak
current
of line
phase A
current
of line
phase B
current
of line
phase C
Fig. 33 Line currents recorded in phases A, B, and C
current
of valve
phase A
current
of valve
phase B
current
of valve
phase C
Fig. 34 Thyristor valve currents recoded in phases A, B, and C

120 kV peak to peak for all traces
voltage of
capacitor
phase A
voltage of
capacitor
phase B
voltage of
capacitor
phase C
Fig. 35 Phases A, B, and C capacitor voltages
2,000 kV peak to peak for all traces
voltage
of line
phase A
voltage
of line
phase B
voltage
of line
phase C
Fig. 36 Phases A, B, C line voltages to ground
current of
another line
phase A
current of
another line
phase B
current of
another line
phase C
Fig. 37 Current flows recorded on another line connected to the substation

inflows into the staged fault from another line connected to the substation to which
the TCSC is connected.
Before the line was reclosed and the TCSC controller put back into operation, the
series capacitor voltage, series capacitor current, and line current of phase C are all
zero, and the line voltage of phase C was in an oscillatory state. When the line
reclosing was successful, the TCSC returned to normal state.
Operation Status
The 500 kV TCSC in the Fengtun substation improves the transient stability
and the damping characteristics of the power transmission system from
the Yimin Power Plant. The power transmission capacity of the 500 kV lines
from Yimin Power Plant to Fengtun substation was increased by 22.7%,
which completely met the needed power transmission requirement and
avoided construction of a new 500 kV transmission line across the forest
region in the Xing’an Mountains, and therefore the ecological environment
of the primeval forest in the Xing’an Mountains was protected. At the same
time the TCSC suppresses subsynchronous resonance and low-frequency oscil-
lation of the power system and controls the line power flow in the transmis-
sion system.
After the six 600 MW generators and a 3000 MW HVDC transmission system
were installed in the Hulunbeier area, some of the power from the HVDC transmis-
sion line is also transmitted through the 500 kV lines from the Yimin Power Plant to
the Fengtun substation. The 500 kV TCSC Project in the Fengtun substation ensures
the safe and stable operation of the AC-DC hybrid system in the Northeast
China Grid.
Losses
The losses of TCSC are difficult to measure in actual project, so it is generally
obtained by calculations based on the component parameters in the TCSC.
Taking the Fengtun TCSC as an example, the ratio of the controllable series
compensation is 15%, the nominal capacity is 326.6Mvar (with booster factor 1.2),
the rated current of the transmission line is 2.33 kA, the boost factor in continuous
operation state is 1.2, and the series capacitor capacitance is 190.5 μF/phase. The
inductance of TCR’s reactor is 9.1mH and reactor’s quality factor is 90. The long-
term valve operating current (R.M.S) is 1.58kA and the long-term operating peak
voltage of valve is 64.6kV. The losses of the TCSC device are primarily generated by
its TCR branch, series capacitors, water cooling system and control and protection
system.
The sum of losses of TCSC in 500 kV Fengtun Substation is about 960 kW
calculated as follows:
• The losses of the capacitor bank are estimated as 0.02%; less than 100 kW.
• The power consumption of the water cooling system is generated by pump, fan,
and the controller and is less than 100 kW.
• The power consumption of the control and protection system is generated by

power supply; less than 10 kW.
• When the TCR branch is continuously operating with rated current, the loss of the
valve is about 500 kW and the loss of the reactor is calculated from its long-term
operating current and the reactor resistance, about 250 kW.
3.5 India
3.5.1 Overview of the Indian Power System

In India electricity is a concurrent subject of Indian constitution, i.e., both Central
and State Government are responsible for overall development of the electricity
sector. The total installed generation capacity as of June 2018 in the country was
344 GW comprising about 65% thermal, 13% hydro, 20% renewable, and balance
2% nuclear sources. Out of the above installed capacity, about 85 GW capacity
(25%) is in the central sector, 104 GW (30%) in the State sector, and the balance
155 GW (45%) in the private sector. Five regional grids, namely, Northern, Eastern,
Western, North-eastern, and Southern Regions were synchronously interconnected
with each other, with a transmission network consisting of 765/400/220 kV ac (about
379,425 circuit km) and HVDC (15,556 circuit km) systems. The total inter-regional
capacity was 86,450 MW facilitating seamless flow of power across the regions.
This might grow to be 118,000 MW by 2022.
Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd. (POWERGRID), the Central Transmission
Utility (CTU) mandated to develop the inter-state/inter-regional transmission sys-
tem. In June 2018 it owned and operated about 148,838 circuit km (ckm) transmis-
sion lines and 326 EHV substations at 765 kV and 400 kV levels and 500
and 800 kV HVDC systems with transformation capacity of about 335,433
MVA traversing the length and breadth of the country. Indian National Grid also
had cross border links with neighboring countries Bhutan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and
Myanmar. The total cross border link capacity in 2018 was 2,550 MW, which might
increase to 6,750 MW over a 3–4 year time period.
There were 48 FSCs installed in the 400 kV/220 kV transmission lines and six
TCSCs installed in 400 kV lines. These TCSCs have been installed on transmission
lines in the inter-regional transmission corridors transferring bulk power from
surplus Eastern/North Eastern Region to load centers in Northern and Western
regions. Region-wise distribution of FSCs and TCSCs are listed in Table 6.
Table 6 Region wise distribution of FSCs and TCSCs

Fixed Series Compensation Thyristor Controlled Series Compensation
Region (FSC) (TCSC)
Northern Region 24 2
Southern Region 4 –
Western Region 10 2
Eastern Region 8 2
North–Eastern 2 –
Region
Table 7 List of TCSC in India

System Line length TCSC No. of
no. Line name (km) location TCSCs
1 Rourkela–Raipur 400 kV double-circuit 412 Raipur 2
(D/c)
(Later this line was Looped in Looped
out at Raigarh)
2 Purnea–Muzaffarpur 400 kV D/c [Quad] 242 Purnea 2
3 TCSC on Muzaffarpur–Gorakhpur 233 Gorakhpur 2
400 kV D/c [Quad]
3.5.2 Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors

While series capacitor have been effective in improving transient and steady state
stability, the requirement to increase the transmission capacity of the lines to their
design limits necessitated additional requirements for damping of system oscilla-
tions. A TCSC adds another control dimension because the thyristors can be used to
dynamically modulate the reactance of the inserted series capacitor. This is primarily
used to provide damping of prospective low frequency electromechanical oscilla-
tions. Often the TCSC is combined with fixed series compensation in order to
increase the transient stability in a cost-effective way. The TCSCs installed in the
Indian Power system are shown in Table 7.
3.5.3 TCSC at Raipur on Raigarh–Raipur 400 kV Double-Circuit Line

The location of the Rourkela–Raipur 400 kV D/c line is shown in Fig. 38. This line
was later Looped In and Looped Out (LILO) at the Raigarh substation and was
planned as an inter-regional interconnection line between the Western region and
Eastern regions for facilitating export of energy from the Eastern to the Western
Grid. To enhance the power transfer capacity of the line and maintain system
stability, 40% fixed series compensation was also planned. However, as per the
study, a low frequency (0.5 Hz), poorly damped interarea mode of oscillation was
observed during contingency conditions. In order to solve the problem of sustained
low frequency oscillations, installation of a 5 to 15% TCSC on the 400 kV line at
Raipur end was therefore planned along with the 40% fixed series compensation
(Grünbaum et al. 2006; Nayak et al. 2006).
This TCSC installation, rated at 59 Mvar, was commissioned in 2004. It was the
first commercial TCSC project in India and Asia. The TCSC was installed on each of
the Rourkela–Raipur 400 kV D/c (Double Circuit) line and later LILO’ed. at the
Raigarh substation. The continuous rated current of this system is 1550 A, the
30 min rating is about 2500 A, and the 10 min rating is 2790 A. At the 15%
compensation level, the capacitive impedance is 20.5 ohms.
Fig. 38 Schematic of the TCSC on Rourkela–Raipur 400 kV D/C Line
3.5.4 TCSC at Purnea and Gorakhpur substations

on Purnea–Muzaffarpur–Gorakhpur (Quad) D/c tie line
For transfer of power from Tala hydro plant (1,020 MW) in Bhutan, 400 kV
Tala–Siliguri–Purnea–Muzaffarpur–Gorakhpur (Quad) D/c transmission corridor
was planned to interconnect the North-Eastern–Eastern and Northern regions. In
order to enable high loadability of the line, 40% fixed series compensation systems
on Purnea–Muzaffarpur and Muzaffarpur–Gorakhpur lines were planned. Dynamic
analysis revealed that with series compensation alone, the system becomes tran-
siently stable, but would experience sustained interarea low frequency (about
0.3 Hz) oscillations. Accordingly, to damp out low frequency interarea oscillations,
5% to 15% TCSC were installed on both Purnea– Muzaffarpur (about 230 km) and
Muzaffarpur–Gorakhpur line (about 410 km) sections along with 40% fixed series
compensation on each section as shown in Fig. 39.
In 2006, one 140 Mvar and one 135 Mvar TCSC system were installed at Purnea
end and Gorakhpur end respectively, on the Purnea–Muzaffarpur–Gorakhpur
400 kV transmission corridor. The Gorakhpur installation is shown in Fig. 40.
The purpose of the systems was to damp low frequency interarea oscillations. The
degree of compensation could be varied between 5 and 15%. The continuous rated
current is about 3,900 A, the 30 min rating about 5,300A, and the 10 min rating
slightly less than 5,900 A. At the 15% compensation level, the capacitive impedance
was about 9 ohms (Table 8).
632
S. L. Nilsson et al.
Fig. 39 Schematic of the TCSC on Purnea–Muzaffarpur and Muzaffarpur–Gorakhpur 400 kV Double Circuit (Quad) Lines
Fig. 40 View of the TCSC installation in the Gorakhpur substation
Table 8 Additional data for the TCSC installations

Installed
2004 Raipur end of, 2 TCSC 400 kV, System
Raigarh–Raipur 400 kV D/c plus 2 FSC 394 Mvar FSC and damping
line; 71 Mvar TCSC,
Power Grid Corporation of 1,550 A
India, Ltd., India
2006 Gorakhpur end of 2 TCSC 400 kV, System
Muzaffarpur–Gorakhpur plus 2 FSC 716 Mvar FSC and damping
400 kV D/c line; 107 Mvar TCSC,
India, Ltd., India
2006 Purnea end of 2 TCSC 400 kV, System
Purnea–Muzaffarpur 400 kV plus 2 FSC 743 Mvar FSC and damping
D/c line; 112 Mvar TCSC
India, Ltd., India
3.6 United Kingdom
As part of a program of network updates between National Grid and Scottish Power,
National Grid, UK, installed two TCSC systems to help boost the flow of power
from Scotland to England over the existing 400 kV lines. Two identically 4,000 A,
6.83 Ω (395 MVA) rated TCSCs were, as illustrated in Fig. 41, installed at the Hutton
400 kV substation, near Kendal in Cumbria. The series compensation at Hutton
400 kV substation contributes to increase the transient stability limit of the 400 kV
transmission corridor between Scotland and England up to the thermal limit of the
transmission lines and allows considerable increase in power flow across the Anglo-
Scottish border.
The project was a part of the National Grid’s preparations for the UK
electricity transmission network to meet the Government’s target for 15% of
the UK’s energy to be produced from renewable energy sources by 2020. The
report Our electricity transmission network: A vision for 2020 produced by the
Electricity Networks Strategy Group (ENSG) (2009) studied transmission rein-
forcements necessary to allow the EU 2020 renewable target and longer-term
energy goals to be achieved in an effective and efficient manner. It is recognized
in the report that due to planning constraints and environmental concerns,
traditional methods of enhancing system capacity can be difficult to achieve.
Consequently, the use of new or previously unused technologies on the UK
electricity transmission system had been inveated in order to optimize the use
of existing assets and to provide new infrastructure with minimal environmental
impact and acceptable technological risk.
The TCSCs, which went on line in February 2015, are a part of a number of
infrastructure enhancements on the existing AC power system which together will
increase the power transmission capacity over the Scotland and England network
boundary from 3.3 GW without series compensation to 4.4 GW with some fixed
series compensation in the Scottish Power electricity transmission system and the
TCSCs in the National Grid electricity transmission system in operation. It is the first
Fig. 41 Location of the

Hutton substation in the UK
time that TCSC equipment has been installed in the UK and so these two TCSC’s
represent a landmark development to strengthen the AC power system in the UK
(Hutton substation).1
The series compensation equipment installed at the Hutton 400 kV substation
uses thyristor control to increase the power flow, mitigate subsynchronous reso-
nance, and ensure that the power supply system remains stable. The nominal degree
of capacitive series compensation is equal to 35%. The boost factor of the TCSC
systems is 1.2 per unit. The ABB TCSC is a FACTS controller providing capacitive
apparent reactance at the fundamental grid frequency (in this case 50 Hz) and
inductive apparent reactance in the critical subsynchronous frequency range. The
TCSC comprises a controlled inductor in parallel with the capacitor bank, as shown
in the single-line diagram in Fig. 42. The inductor is of air-core design, mounted on
its own support insulators for full insulation to ground, i.e., the platform. A MOV is
connected across the capacitor bank to prevent capacitor and valve overvoltages.
The thyristor valve contains strings of series connected high power thyristors. The
thyristors are of the same type as used for SVCs. In this case, the thyristors are
“indirect light triggered,” i.e., trigger pulses are transferred from ground potential to
the thyristor electronics via optical fibers. For each thyristor position, there is a
thyristor control unit (TCU) which receives firing pulses and sends back thyristor
status pulses to the control system. The energy required to trigger the thyristors is fed
from the main circuit. All communication between valve and control system is
performed via fiber optic cables. Since the valves are placed in an outdoor enclosure
and must survive ambient temperatures as low as minus 25 C, the valve cooling
system media is a mixture of glycol and water.
Fig. 42 One line diagram of

the Hutton TCSC system 400kV
1
2
3 1: Bypass disconnector
2: Bypass switch
4 3: Capacitor bank
4: Metal-oxide varistor
5 5: Controlled inductor
6 6: Thyrisotor valve
7: Bypass switch
1
Published with permission from ABB. see ABB’s document Appl. Note_1JNS018335_Hutton
TCSCs_LR.
Due to the location of nuclear power plants, there could be a potential risk of SSR
if conventional fixed series capacitors without any SSR mitigation were installed in
the transmission lines. For this reason, SSR damping was a major part of the TCSC
system requirements.
Today the SSR phenomenon is well understood; it can be predicted and
counteracted as part of the series compensation system planning and design.
Consequently, the use of a TCSC with a suitable control algorithm enables a
transmission system free from conditions leading to SSR risks.
To achieve SSR damping, the TCSCs utilize the Synchronous voltage reversal
(SVR) control method (Ängquist 2002).2 The SVR control method forces the
capacitor bank to reverse its voltage during the thyristor valve’s conduction interval.
For the subsynchronous frequency range, i.e., the range of concern for SSR mitiga-
tion, it can be shown that using the SVR control principles the TCSC exhibits an
inductive apparent impedance when the voltage reversals (when the polarity
changes) are repeated with an equidistant time interval. Hence, the series capacitor
is seen as an inductor by the transmission system for subsynchronous frequencies,
Fig. 43 RTDS simulation showing the large negative damping if only fixed series capacitors were
used versus the electrical damping with a fully controllable TCSC
2
This is an ABB patented control concept.
and consequently, no series resonance can be created in the grid in the SSR range. It
should be noted that these unique characteristics are obtained without the need for
any measurement or acquisition of subsynchronous quantities within or outside the
series capacitor. The SVR control function uses instantaneous measurement of the
main line currents and the main capacitor voltages only.
As an example, a Real Time Digital Simulator (RTDS) simulation of the Hutton
TCSC installations is illustrated in Fig. 43. That is, the simulation shows that SSR should
not be an issue for the Hutton TCSC systems incorporating the SVR control scheme.
4 Performance Information
Limited performance information has been received from the operators of the
existing TCSC systems (CIGRE TB 554, October 2013 and Nilsson 1998). All but
one of the commercially procured systems are used for system damping applications.
Some (notably the Chinese TCSC systems) also have as stated objectives to improve
the transient stability of the AC system which generally means transfer as much
synchronizing power as possible during the first power swing before enabling the
damping controls. The Swedish system is purely for SSR control, but the SSR
damping is also one objective for all of the TCSC systems that are a part of series
compensated lines connected to steam turbine power plants. This is the case for the
Fengtun TCSC system in China, the Hutton TCSC in the UK, and the systems in
India. That is, SSR damping is an important consideration when installing TCSC
systems in addition to serving to improve the stability of the system.
System damping applications and transient stability improvements may be needed
only for specific system contingencies. In that case, the TCSC system is installed as an
insurance against some more severe system problems if or when that contingency
situation arises. In other cases, the system would be unstable under normal operation
conditions if the TCSC system is not installed and operating. In these cases, the ability
to include self-checking in the TSCS design provides continuous availability informa-
tion. That is, if the contingency arises when the availability of the TCSC system is
required, the probability that the system will be operational is very high. In the case of
a mechanically switched compensation system, the ability of the system to perform is
unknown until the order to switch is given to the equipment.
The experience gained from the TCSC installations is that such systems can be
installed with relatively short lead times. This can be an advantage if the alternative
is a new line since it can in some parts of the world take 10 to 12 years to build a new
line if it is at all possible.
The required life for operation of a TCSC system might not be as long as for other
power system components because as the power system changes and growths over time,
the system modes will change and the damping of the system will also change. Also,
when more lines eventually are added, the transient stability limits will also change and
most of the time for the better. Therefore, a TCSC system may not be needed beyond a
15- to 20-year time horizon. If this is known at the time when the TCSC system is
procured, it might be possible to reduce the capital (initial) cost of the system.
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Stig L. Nilsson, Principal Engineer, Exponent, Inc., USA. Stig

Nilsson started out working for the Swedish State Telephone
20 years with EPRI in USA he initiated in 1979 the development
of digital protective relaying system developments and in 1986
sion Line. Stig Nilsson is a Life Fellow of IEEE. He has chaired
the IEEE PES T&D Committee, the IEEE Herman Halperin Elec-
tric Transmission and Distribution Award Committee, the IEEE
PES Nari Hingorani Facts and Custom Power Awards Committee,
several IEEE Fellow nomination review committees, been a mem-
ber of the IEEE Standards Board, IEEE PES subcommittees and
working groups. Stig Nilsson has been the US Representative and
Secretary of CIGRE Study Committee B4 on HVDC and Power
Electronics. He is the recipient of the 2012 IEEE PES Nari
Hingorani Facts and Custom Power Awards. He received the
CIGRE U.S. National Committee Philip Sporn Award and the
the CIGRE Distinguished Member Award for active participation
in CIGRE Study Committees and the USNC of CIGRE (2006);
and the CIGRE USNC Attwood Associate Award in 2003. Stig
Nilsson is a registered Professional Engineer in the state of
California, USA.
Antonio Ricardo De Mattos Tenório received his B.Sc Degree

with honors in Electrical Engineering from Federal University of
Pernambuco, Brazil, in 1982, and his MSc in Electrical Power
Engineering from University of Manchester, UK, in 1995. In
2010, he did an MBA at PUC-Rio (Pontifical Catholic University,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) in Energy Business. Mr. Tenório joined
CHESF (Brazil) in 1982, and in 2000 joined ABB Power Systems
in Sweden, moving onto to join ONS in Brazil in 2004, where he
has been working since then. Mr Tenório is an IEEE and CIGRE
Member. He has been serving CIGRE in the Brazilian National
Committee as Secretary (2012–2016) and Chairman (since 2016)
of Brazilian Study Committee B4, being the Brazilian regular
member of Study Committee B4 – DC systems and Power Elec-
tronics (since 2016). His area of interest includes HVDC links,
FACTS controllers, Electrical and EMT studies, and Power
Quality.
Dr. Subir Sen, Chief Operating Officer, Central Transmission

Utility – Planning & Smart Grid activities in Power Grid Corporation
of India Ltd. Dr. Sen has more than 29 years of professional experi-
ence in the field of Power System planning, system studies and
analysis, technology integration, construction, operation of transmis-
sion system, renewable integration, smart grid, and energy efficiency.
He is the Chairman of CIGRE National Study Committee C6 on
Distribution Systems and Dispersed Generation in India. Involved in
development of National Grid comprising 400kV/765kV/1200kV
and HVDC technology, GIS, FACTS devices and their application
in EHV system, forecasting of renewable generation, Synchrophasor
technology for Real time Dynamic State Measurement, deployment
of Smart Grid integrated with intelligent devices, monitoring, IT and
communication technology, energy storage, electric vehicle charging,
energy audit, implementation of energy conservation measures, etc.
Andrew Taylor, Technology Engineer, Electricity Transmission,

National Grid, UK. Andrew Taylor joined National Grid in 1994 as a
graduate trainee and is currently the Lead Technology Engineer for
Reactive Compensation within the Electricity Transmission division of
National Grid. Andrew Taylor has held a number of posts which have
included the delivery of replacement substation SCADA systems, Rail
traction connection projects and product technical assessments. He led
the technical assessment in the tender for the delivery of the first series
capacitors to be installed on the National Grid Electricity Transmission
system and more recently has led the technical tender assessment and
project technical evaluation for the first hybrid Statcoms to be installed
on the National Grid Electricity Transmission system. Andrew Taylor
is a Chartered Engineer (Electronics and Electrical Engineering) and a
Member of the IET. He is the UK representative of BSI Committee
PEL/33 Power capacitors and has contributed to various CIGRE
working groups in the field of series compensation.
Shukai Xu received his Bachelor degree and Ph. D degree from

Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, both in Electrical Engineering, in
2002 and 2007, respectively. After graduation, he joined EPRI of
China Southern Power Grid (CSG) in Guangzhou, China, and worked
as an engineer of DC De-icing, STATCOM, HVDC, and VSC-HVDC
system. From 2011 to 2013, he worked on the 35kV/200Mvar
STATCOMs for power system application which were installed in
four 500kV substations of load center in CSG to enhance regional
power system stability. As the technical director, he studied the appli-
cation of VSC-MTDC technology, including the system design, inte-
gration, control strategies, etc., and finally developed the world’s first
VSC-MTDC project in 2013 – Nao’ao VSC-MTDC. He also devel-
oped a back-to-back VSC-HVDC project in the 500kV backbone
network of CSG, which is rated at 350kV/1000MW and was put
into operation in 2016. At present, he is studying the ultra-high VSC
technology and LCC-VSC-HVDC technology, which can be applied
into the three-terminal 800kV/8000MW-3000MW-5000MW
Wudongde HVDC project in CSG. He was a member of CIGRE
B4.53 and now is an IEEE senior member. Shukai Xu, Senior Engineer
at professor level, HVDC and Power Electronics, Deputy Director of
HVDC and Power Electronics department of EPRI of China Southern
Power Grid and Deputy Director of State Key Laboratory of HVDC
Transmission Technology of China.
Gang Zhao, Senior Engineer at professor level, FACTS and Power

Electronics, Senior Specialist of NARI Group Corporation of State
Grid Corporation of China (SGCC) and Senior engineer of FACTS
and Power Electronics in China EPRI Science & Technology Co. Ltd.
Gang Zhao received his Bachelor degree and Ph. D degree from Xian
Jiaotong University, Xian, China, both in Electrical Engineering, in
1990 and 2003 respectively. After graduation, he orderly joined
CEPRI and NARI Group Corporation of State Grid Corporation of
China (SGCC) in Beijing, China. He worked as a senior engineer of
FACTS, such as SVC, STATCOM, CSR and TCSC etc. From 2001 to
2016, he worked on the application of 35kV~66kV/-200~+300MVAr
SVCs which were installed in about 30 500kV substations of trans-
mission power system in China and other several countries to enhance
power system stability. As the technical director, he developed the
application technology of thyristor valve and Control system for
FACTS equipment, including the system design, integration, control
strategies, etc., and finally these technologies were successfully
applied in the CSR project in 750kV power system, SVC and
TCSC projects in 500kV power system. He has also joined the
work of several Chinese state standards on FACTS. At present, he is
studying the application of CSR in 1000kV Ultra-High Voltage power
system and DFACTS technology about Distributed Power Flow
Controller in 220kV power system. He is a member of IEC TC22F:
JMT 4: Maintenance of IEC/TR 62757 Ed.1.
Qiang Song, Associate Professor in the Department of Electrical

Engineering at Tsinghua University, Beijing, China. Dr. Qiang
Song received his B.E.E. degree and Ph.D degree from Tsinghua
University, Beijing, China, both in Electrical Engineering, in 1998
and 2003, respectively. From 2003 to 2008, he was an Assistant
Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering at Tsinghua
University, Beijing, China. Since 2008, he has been an Associate
Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering at Tsinghua
University. His current research interests include VSC-HVDC
system flexible AC transmission system, high-voltage high-
power DC/DC power conversion system and custom power qual-
ity. He has been the principal investigator of more than 25 aca-
demic and industrial projects. He is the author of 2 monograph
books. He has published over 130 research papers, more than
35 of which are international top journal papers. He has authored
26 authorized China patents. He is a member of Standardization
Committee of Power Quality and Flexible Transmission in Power
Industry of China.
Bo Lei, Engineer, Energy Storage and Power Electronics,

Researcher of HVDC and Power Electronics department of EPRI
of China Southern Power Grid and Secretary of HVDC and Power
Electronics Technical Committee of Chinese Society for Electrical
Engineering. Bo Lei received his Bachelor degree and Master
degree from Hunan University, Changsha, China, both in Electri-
cal Engineering, in 2011 and 2014, respectively. After graduation,
he joined EPRI of China Southern Power Grid (CSG) in Guang-
zhou, China, and worked as an engineer of MW-level Energy
Storage, Power Electronic equipment, HVDC and VSC-HVDC
system. From 2014 to 2015, he worked on the 10 kV/2 MW
transformer-free Battery Energy Storage System which were
directly connected to 10 kV bus in a distribution network of
CSG to provide load shifting service and enhance network reli-
ability. As the core member, he has drafted IEEE P2030.2.1 for
guide of battery energy storage application in electric power
system and joined maintenance work of IEC 60919 for
LCC-HVDC control and protection from 2015 to 2017. He has
also joined the work of several Chinese standards on FACTS and
HVDC applications. At present, he is working on the system
design of 25MWh-level second-use battery energy storage system
and the ultra-high VSC technology and LCC-VSC-HVDC tech-
nology, the latter would be applied into the three-terminal
800 kV/8000 MW–3000 MW-5000 MW Wudongde HVDC
project in CSG.
Application Examples of UPFC and Its
Variants 15
Stig L. Nilsson, Shukai Xu, Bo Lei, Zhanfeng Deng, and
Bjarne R. Andersen
Contents
1 Brief Introduction of UPFCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
1.1 UPFC Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
1.2 Installed UPFC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
2 UPFC in Inez, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
2.1 Application Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
2.2 System Structure and Operation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
2.3 System Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
2.4 Project Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
S. L. Nilsson (*)
e-mail: snilsson@exponent.com; stig_nilsson@verizon.net
S. Xu
e-mail: xusk@csg.cn
B. Lei
Electric Power Research Institute of China Southern Power Grid (EPRI of CSG),
Guangzhou, China
e-mail: leibo@csg.cn
Z. Deng
Global Energy Interconnection Research Institute (GEIRI), Beijing, China
e-mail: dengzhanfeng@geiri.sgcc.com.cn
B. R. Andersen
Andersen PES Ltd, Bexhill-on-Sea, UK

3 UPFC in Kangjin, Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657

3.3 Main Operating Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
3.5 Current Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
4 UPFC/Convertible Static Compensator (CSC) in Marcy, USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
4.2 System Structure and Operating Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
4.4 UPFC System Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
5 UPFC in Nanjing, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
6 UPFC in Suzhou, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
7 UPFC in Shanghai, China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
Abstract
The IEEE definition of a the UPFC (unified power flow controller) is a combi-
nation of a static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) and a static synchro-
nous series compensator (SSSC), which are coupled together via a common DC
link, to allow bidirectional flow of real power between the AC series output
terminals of the SSSC and AC the shunt output terminals of the STATCOM. The
UPFC is controlled to provide independent reactive power control of the AC
system where the UPFC is connected as well as providing reactive power control
of the line into which the SSSC is inserted while at the same time channeling
active power between the two elements of the UPFC. These capabilities make the
UPFC suitable for management of power flows in lines at risk of being over-
loaded during system disturbances, routing power through the most efficient
lines, sharing of spinning reserves by enabling power flows up to the thermal
limits on system interconnections, and providing damping to improve the stability
of the power systems. This chapter describes all known applications of UPFC and
variations thereof as per end of 2018.
15 Application Examples of UPFC and Its Variants 647
1 Brief Introduction of UPFCs
1.1 UPFC Background
The unified power flow controller (UPFC), a detailed technical description of which
can be found in ▶ Chap. 9, “Technical Description of the Unified Power Flow
Controller (UPFC) and Its Potential Variations” (UPFC) chapter, is a powerful
power flow and reactive compensation FACTS controller. It consists of two
voltage-sourced converters (VSC) connected back-to-back with a common DC bus
(Gyugyi 1992). One of the VSCs is a shunt connected to the AC power system. It is
equivalent to a STATCOM, which is described in ▶ Chap. 7, “Technical Description
of Static Compensators (STATCOM).” The STATCOM injects a current into the
power system at the point of connection (POC). The other is what is referred to as a
static synchronous series compensator (SSSC), which as described in ▶ Chap. 9,
“Technical Description of the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) and its
potential Variations,” injects a voltage in series with the transmission line. The
injected series voltage can be at any angle with respect to the line current. The injected
currents have two parts. First, when the two converters share the same DC bus
capacitor, the real power part, which is in phase with the line voltage, delivers or
absorbs real power into/from the line. The real power also compensates for the losses in
the UPFC. Second, the reactive part, which is in quadrature with the line voltage, is
emulating an inductive reactance or a capacitive reactance at the point of connection.
That is, in a UPFC, the STATCOM can regulate the reactive power at the line bus bar
and can also inject or absorb real power to control the DC bus capacitor voltage,
thereby facilitating real power transfers between the two converters.
The UPFC is suitable for use as follows:
• Dynamic control of active and reactive power flows

• Series compensation of long as well as short lines
• Control of loop flows by its ability to adjust the phase angle at the point of
connection which might make the UPFC an alternative to phase-shifting trans-
formers since it does not introduce an inductive impedance in the line that
requires reactive power compensation
• Sharing of spinning reserve by moving power from more remote generating
systems to make up for a local generation deficit
• Damping of poorly damped or potentially unstable system oscillatory modes
including subsynchronous interactions between lines and turbogenerators
To accomplish the objectives listed above, the design of the UPFC requires that
the parallel connected branch, the STATCOM, is designed for the maximum sags
and swells to which the STATCOM will be exposed and remain in operation. Also,
the STATCOM must be designed to transfer active power into or from the series
branch of the UPFC at the same time as it generates or absorbs reactive power at the
point of connection. Furthermore, the series branch, the SSSC, has to be designed to
operate at the maximum line current and at the range of control for the voltage
injected in series with the line at the connection point (Lerch et al. 1994).
The STATCOM’s reactive power reference can be either capacitive or inductive.
There are two control modes that can be used:
1. Reactive power control mode

2. Automatic voltage control mode at the point of connection with a defined slope
characteristic
The SSSC controls the magnitude and angle of the voltage injected in series with
the line as follows:
1. Voltage injection mode is used to generate a voltage vector (across the line-side
terminals of the series transformer) with magnitude and phase angle as requested
by the reference input.
2. Automatic power flow control mode is used to inject a voltage to ensure that the
desired active power and reactive power are maintained independently of system
changes.
3. The SSSC mode is used when the series converter is disconnected from the DC
terminals of the shunt converter to enable this mode of operation. In this mode,
the control system adjusts the injected series voltage continuously and automat-
ically to be always in quadrature with the transmission line current. That is, it can
control the reactive power flows through the line.
The ability of the UPFC to meet the demands of the application during system
frequency excursions is a major performance factor. This might require the UPFC to
perform its control objectives in a frequency range of 1 Hz or more. The design
parameters for the UPFC should be determined in the planning studies as described
in ▶ Chap. 17, “FACTS Planning Studies” and then included in the system specifi-
cation as described in ▶ Chap. 19, “Procurement and Functional Specifications for
FACTS Controllers”.
1.2 Installed UPFC Systems
The first UPFC in the world was put into operation in 1998 at the Inez substation of
the American Electric Power (AEP) in Kentucky to provide voltage support and
power flow control. The UPFC was rated 320 MVA equally split between the
STATCOM and SSSC converters.
Before 2015, only three UPFCs were put into operation worldwide, which were:
• The AEP’s Inez UPFC in 1998

• KEPCO’s KangJin UPFC in 2003
• NPYA’s Marcy UPFC in 2004
The implementation of the UPFCs before 2015 was based on the gate turnoff
thyristor (GTO) voltage-sourced converters (VSCs). After 2015, the application of
the UPFC has started in China. From 2015 to 2017, three new UPFCs were installed
in Nanjing, Shanghai, and Suzhou. The Southern Suzhou UPFC with a rated
capacity of 750 MVA was in 2018 the largest UPFC in the world. The post 2015
UPFCs were constructed using insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) semicon-
ductor devices in modular multilevel converters (MMCs) connected back-to-back.
See ▶ Chap. 5, “Power Electronic Topologies for FACTS” for further details about
the fundamental semiconductor devices and converter designs.
The UPFC installations mentioned above are described in this chapter.
2 UPFC in Inez, USA
In the 1990s, the American Electric Power (AEP) provided electricity to approxi-
mately 1.7 million customers in seven midwestern states in the USA (Rahman et al.
1997). AEP has constructed a large network of long, 345 kV through 765 bulk power
overhead transmission lines. One part of AEP’s system is the Inez area, located in the
south central part of the system. This area, shown in Fig. 1, includes parts of the
states of Kentucky, West Virginia, and Virginia. It is essentially rural in nature with a
population at the time of about 670,000 spread over a 6300 square mile area.
Generating plants and EHV/138 kV stations were located only at the periphery of
the area. The power demand was approximately 2000 MW served by long 138 kV
transmission lines. System voltages were supported by a Static Var Compensator
(SVC) installed in the early 1980s at the Beaver Creek 138 kV station and a large
assortment of switched shunt capacitor banks located at several 138 kV and lower-
voltage sub-transmission stations.
The Inez area depended on long 138 V transmission lines to support its cus-
tomers’ demand. Many 138 kV transmission lines carry power flows reaching
300 MVA during normal operating conditions, which surpasses the surge impedance
loading of such lines. Thus the margin for system contingencies was small, and,
despite the large number of capacitor banks in the area, voltage differences between
the supply stations and the load stations were as high as 7–8%. Single contingency
outages in the area would adversely affect the underlying 138 kV system, and in
certain cases, a second contingency would be intolerable. There were over 30 differ-
ent combinations of double contingency events that could result in area-wide
blackouts.
Following extensive analysis, it was concluded that constructing a high-capacity
138 kV line having thermal capability approaching that of a 345 kV line would
provide an economical means of adding thermal capacity to the area. However, such
a high-capacity line would not carry its share of line loading based on its capacity
margin alone, because the power flow would still be governed by its impedance and
Fig. 1 Location of the Inez UPFC
the parameters of the other AC transmission system elements. Series capacitors or

converter-based FACTS devices were considered to enhance the power flow.
Concurrent with thermal considerations, peak and off-peak voltage performance
in the Inez area also needed improvement. This dictated the need for a dynamic
voltage support facility in the area. A converter-based FACTS device such as the
UPFC, which provides both voltage and line flow control capabilities, was,
therefore, a logical alternative for consideration as an integral part of any solution.
The UPFC functional flexibility met the specification of a “black box” that AEP
defined for the Inez load area (Renz et al. 1998). As a result, AEP, EPRI, and
Westinghouse joined forces in the mid-1990s to develop the world’s first UPFC
with ratings of 160 MVA for the shunt inverter and 160 MVA for the series inverter.
The location of the UPFC is AEP’s substation in Inez, Kentucky (CIGRE TB
160, 2000).
2.2.1 AC System Reinforcement

The transmission system reinforcement planned by AEP included the following
(CIGRE TB 160, 2000):
• A 950 MVA, 138 kV double-circuit line between the Big Sandy and the Inez
stations
• A 160 Mvar dynamic shunt reactive power source at the Inez Station to provide
voltage support (the first part of the 320 MVA UPFC)
• A 160 MVA line flow control device (the second part of the 320 MVA UPFC)
to fully utilize the high capacity of the new 138 kV line
• Series reactors to constrain loading on existing thermally limited facilities
• Control of mechanically switched shunt capacitor banks
• A 600 MVA 345/138 kV transformer at the Big Sandy substation in the Tri-State
Area to provide for the needed transformer capacity and supply the loading
requirements of the new high-capacity 138 kV line
The first phase of the UPFC project, the 160 Mvar shunt converter at the Inez
Station, would initially function as a STATCOM. It would support the reactive
power and dynamic voltage needs of the Inez Area. In addition, it would provide
signals to control the switching operations of several 138 kV shunt capacitor banks
in the area. The shunt converter of the Inez UPFC was put into operation in July
1997. The second phase of the project involved constructing the high-capacity,
double-circuit 138 kV line between the Big Sandy and Inez stations, installing the
series portion of the UPFC and two 138 kV mechanically switched shunt capacitor
banks at the Inez station. The series converter, which was put into operation in June
1998, was identical to the shunt converter.
2.2.2 UPFC Configuration

The system structure of the Inez UPFC project is shown in Fig. 2. The UPFC can
operate as a 160 Mvar STATCOM, a 320 Mvar STATCOM, a 160 Mvar SSSC,
and a 320 MVA UPFC. The power circuit layout reflects AEP’s emphasis on shunt
compensation as the top priority for this location. There are two shunt transformers
for redundancy, which enhances the reliability and flexibility of the UPFC but also
enables the second (spare) shunt transformer, to be used in conjunction with the
normally closed main shunt transformer to double the voltage control capabilities of
the UPFC to a range of 320 Mvar.
The converter output is a three-phase voltage set of nearly sinusoidal quality
(48-pulse), which is coupled to the transmission line by a 3-winding to 3-winding
main coupling transformer. The converter-side voltage of the main transformer is
37 kV line-line (for both shunt and series transformers). The main shunt-connected
transformer has a 138 kV delta connected primary, and the series transformer has
three separate primary windings each rated at 16% of the phase voltage. Interphase
transformers on the 37 kV side are used for harmonic cancellation. The total MVA
Line to Big Sandy

substation
138 kV #1 busbar 138 kV #2 busbar
Series Transformer
Spare Shunt
Shunt Transformer Transformer
Intermediate Transformer Intermediate Transformer
Shunt Series
Converter Converter
Fig. 2 Single-line diagram of the Inez UPFC
rating of the intermediate transformer is approximately 50% of the main transformer

rating (Renz et al. 1998; Table 1).
Figure 3 shows a simplified schematic diagram for the Inez converters. It shows
that there are four 6-pulse converters paralleled on the DC bus. To avoid harmonic
voltage short-circuit current on the AC side, there are intermediate transformers
placed on the 37 kV side of the converters to provide the needed phase shifts of the
output voltages from the converters to create the quasi-48 pulse AC waveforms. The
six converter legs shown to the right side in Fig. 3 can be connected to the series
transformer or to a shunt transformer, which would double the STATCOM capacity
of the system. Note that the DC voltage clamp circuits shown on the left side in Fig. 3
are connected to resistors to drain energy from the DC bus capacitors.
Figure 4 shows the valve hall with the AC bus work, the eight converter poles, the
DC bus clamp providing overvoltage protection of the DC bus capacitors, and the
DC capacitor banks.
Figure 5 shows an aerial view of the site, where the building (housing power
electronics and control) and the outdoor transformers and buses are visible. The interme-
diate transformers are shown between the main transformers and the valve hall. The heat
exchangers for the valve cooling system are shown in Fig. 5 to the right of the valve hall.
The building shown in Fig. 5 is about 60 m (200 feet) long and 30 m (100 feet)
wide. It houses the converter valves, control room, and auxiliary equipment includ-
ing pumps and a system for purification of the cooling water used for the valves.
Table 1 Main technical parameters of the Inez UPFC project

Parameter Value
Converter DC voltage 24 kV
Capacity 160 MVA each
Topology Harmonic neutralized (HN) three-level topology
type
Shunt Connection 138 kV delta
transformer type
used Capacity 160 MVA
Ratio 138/37 kV
Number 2 (one spare)
Series Connection Three isolated windings placed in series with the line
transformer type conductors
used Ratio Series windings rated 16% of 138 kV phase voltage (22 kV) to
37 kV converter-side line-to-line voltage
Capacity 160 MVA
Number 1
Semiconductor Type GTO
devices Voltage/ 4500 V/4000 A
current
Cooling Water
method cooling
Fig. 3 Simplified power circuit

Fig. 4 UPFC converter valve hall
Fig. 5 Aerial view of Inez UPFC project

Liquid to air heat exchangers for the valve cooling system are placed outdoors
(Mehraban et al. 1998). Because of the location, the water cooling system has to
be mixed with antifreeze liquid.
2.2.3 Main Operating Modes

The shunt converter is a STATCOM type controller as described in ▶ Chap. 7,
“Technical Description of Static Compensators (STATCOM).” It is operated in such
a way as to draw a controlled current from the AC bus. The current reference is
chosen to satisfy the shunt reactive power reference and (in the UPFC configuration)
to provide any active power needed to balance the real power of the series converter.
A small amount of active power is also consumed to cover the power losses of the
converter and the magnetics. The shunt reactive power reference can be either
capacitive or inductive. There are two control modes:
1. Reactive Power Control Mode. The reference input is a simple reactive power
order that is maintained by the control system regardless of bus voltage variation.
2. Automatic Voltage Control Mode. The shunt converter’s reactive current is
automatically regulated to maintain the transmission line voltage at the point of
connection to a reference value, with a defined slope characteristic. The slope
defines the per unit voltage deviation in per unit of the converter’s reactive current
within the current range of the converter.
As described in ▶ Chap. 9, “Technical Description of the Unified Power Flow

Controller (UPFC) and its Potential Variations,” the series converter can control the
magnitude and angle of the voltage injected in series with the line. This voltage
injection will influence the flow of power on the line. There are three optional modes
provided for the actual value of the injected voltage:
1. Voltage Injection Mode. The series converter generates a voltage vector (across
the line-side terminals of the series transformer) with magnitude and phase angle
as requested by the reference input. This will also cause active power flows
through the series converter to the shunt converter.
2. Automatic Power Flow Control Mode. The series-injected voltage is given a
magnitude with a defined phase to ensure that the desired active power and
reactive power are maintained independently of other system changes.
3. SSSC Mode. During this operating mode, the series converter is disconnected
from the DC terminals of the shunt converter. The control system will adjust the
injected series voltage continuously and automatically to be always in quadrature
with the transmission line current. Because this converter was designed using
pulse amplitude modulation control to create its AC output voltage, the amplitude
of the injected AC voltage is controlled by changing the DC bus voltage while
maintaining a constant switching pattern on the series converter. The reference
input determines the magnitude of the injected voltage and whether it will lead or
lag the line current by 90 .
2.2.4 Control System

The control system for AEP’s UPFC has a hierarchical structure (Renz et al. 1998).
The UPFC converters are controlled from a single central control system. The
actual control algorithms that govern the instantaneous operation of the two
inverters are performed by a digital control system using multiple digital signal
processors. This system communicates with the pole electronic elements
mounted on each pole via an interface that is linked to the poles by fiber-optic
cables. A status monitoring processor is connected to every part of the
system, including the cooling system and all of the poles, by means of serial
communication links. When the UPFC is running, the operation of all subsystems
is being monitored.
A human-machine interface subsystem gives the operator access to all
system settings and parameters, and provides extensive diagnostic information
right down to the individual GTO modules. The local control system is also
serially linked to AEP’s master controller. This is a computer that is part of a
broader control system network used by AEP’s system operators. It gives
remote operators access to the UPFC controls and also serves to compute
reference settings for the UPFC, based on power system conditions (Rahman
et al. 1997). The master controller also controls the operation of the capacitor
banks in the area. Figure 6 shows the operating range of AEP’s UPFC. As is
indicated in Fig. 6, the UPFC operates in conjunction with a phase shifter to enable
loading of the 138 kV line.
Fig. 6 Operating range for real and reactive power

AEP’s UPFC went through extensive simulation tests during the development of the
system. After completion of the STATCOM subsystem, the system was subjected to
extensive commissioning tests to validate the design of the STATCOM for use as an
automatic voltage controller (Renz et al. 1998). The commissioning tests included
tests during which line outages were created. Similar tests were conducted after the
installation of the series converter was completed (Renz et al. 1999). During the
commissioning tests, set point ramp changes were entered into the control systems to
verify that all of the control modes were functioning (Sen and Keri 2003; Sen and
Sen 2003; Mehraban et al. 1998; Renz et al. 1999).
Figure 7 illustrates the loadability of the Big Sandy-Inez line after installation of the
UPFC was increased as expected. The overall benefits can be summarized as follows:
1. Thermal overload of paralleled lines and low bus voltages could be eliminated.
2. Adequate power supply would be available for several years of growth.
3. The voltage profile in the Inez area was improved, and the risk of major outages in
the area was diminished.
4. Off-loading of parallel lines should have resulted in savings in overall line losses
(Rahman et al. 1997).
The Inez UPFC was decommissioned in 2015 because it was no longer needed
since AEP completed the construction of the Wyoming to Jackson’s Ferry 765 kV
loop and installed a 765 kV SVC at the Jackson’s Ferry Substation.
3 UPFC in Kangjin, Korea
Power generation in Korea is concentrated in coastal areas, and loads are concen-
trated in inland metropolitan areas far away from the generated power (Chang et al.
2006).
Because of increases in the short-circuit capacity due to the loop configuration of
the system, the use of long transmission lines with large voltage drops and a
concentration of large generators better control of the power flow to the North was
needed. A simplified overview of the power grid as it existed in around year 2006 is
shown in Fig. 7 (Chang et al. 2006).
At the time when the decision to install an UPFC was made, line faults in the
Kangjin area on the 345 kV lines at Shin Gwangju-Shin Kangjin or Gwangyang-Yeosu
Fig. 7 Simplified single line of the network around the Kangjin SVC
could cause severe undervoltage and overload on the local 154 kV lines. Plans to
construct additional transmission lines between Gwangyang and Sigjin had at the time
been delayed until the year 2010. Furthermore, reinforcement of transmission lines
could not solve the overloading of the main transformer at the Shin Gwangju substa-
tion (345 kV), and overloading of local 154 kV transmission lines, or severe under
voltage near the Shin Gwangju system, that would result if there were to be a fault on
the 345 kV lines at Shin Gwangju-Shin Kangjin.
Prior to applying FACTS technology to address the weaknesses in the
Korean 345 kV system, which was the backbone of the Korean power system, the
need for a pilot plant project was proposed to verify the reliability and operational
performance through an actual installation and operation of a converter type
FACTS controller (Chang, et al. 2006). Therefore, the installation of FACTS
equipment was considered, and studies showed that FACTS equipment would be
effective in solving the transmission system problems. The UPFC was selected for
this pilot project because of its ability to simultaneously provide series and shunt
compensation and control the power flow. As shown in Fig. 7, the Korea
Electric Power Corporation (KEPCO) UPFC pilot plant was installed at the Kangjin
substation, which is located in the southern part of Korea near the
Chunlanamdo Province to support the 154 kV system at Kangjin during faults.
The Kangjin UPFC was operational in 2003.
KEPCO worked with a consortium including Hyosung Corporation, Siemens, and

local research institutes to build an 80 MVA UPFC for installation in the 154 kV
system. The 40 MVA shunt of the UPFC was connected to the 154 kV Kangjin
station, and the 40 MVA series connection was inserted into a transmission line
between Kangjin and Changheung. A single-line diagram of the Kangjin UPFC can
be seen in Fig. 8 (Han et al. 2004).
The rated capacity of each converter is 40 MVA. As is shown in
Fig. 8, each 40 MVA VSC consists of two 20 MVA converter modules,
which were connected to an auxiliary transformer rated at 22.2 MVA (Chang
et al. 2006).
A more detailed diagram of the converters is shown in Fig. 9. The converters are
constructed using GTO devices rated for 4500 V, 4000 A. The output voltage of the
UPFC was a 24-pulse wave pattern. The converter valves were configured as a three-
level, multi-pulse converter.
The technical data of the UPFC can be seen in Table 2 (CIGRE TB 371 2009; Han
et al. 2004; Kim et al. 2005).
Figure 10 shows the layout of the Kangjin UPFC. Because only a very small site
was available, gas-insulated bus bars (GIB) and gas-insulated switchgear (GIS) were
provided for the interconnection of the equipment.
Changheung S/S
Kangjin Bus
Series TR
Thyristor Bypass S/W
Shunt TR
Intermediate TR
Intermediate TR
Shunt Inverter Series Inverter
Fig. 8 Power system configuration of Kangjin UPFC

Bypass CB
154kV T/L
154kV T/L
Sh-TR Thyristor Sr - TR
Aux- TR Bypass SW
Aux- TR
C1
D1
D2
C2
A1
B1
E1
E2
B2
A2
F1
F2
3-Level
Inverter DC - Clamp SW
STATCOM SSSC
Capacitor
Fig. 9 Detailed diagram of the Kangjin UPFC
Table 2 Major technical parameters of Kangjin UPFC project

Parameter Value
Converter DC voltage (kV) 4.8
Capacity (MVA) 2 off 2x 20
Topology type Three-level
topology
Shunt transformer Connection type Yd
used Capacity (MVA) 40
Ratio (kV) 154/25.7
Number 1
Series transformer Connection type Open Y/d
used Ratio (kV RMS, phase to neutral/peak phase to phase 10.5/25.7
voltage)
Capacity (MVA) 40
Number 1
devices Voltage/current (V/A) 4500/4000
Fig. 10 Layout of the Kangjin UPFC. (Courtesy of Kepco)
Three control modes were provided for the UPFC: STATCOM, SSSC, and UPFC.
The function of the UPFC control mode was to simultaneously and dynamically
control the flow of active and reactive power on the series-compensated line while
maintaining the DC bus voltage at the set levels. The functional operating modes
applied to the KEPCO UPFC were as follows:
1. Normal state: the shunt converter was operated in automatic voltage control
mode, and the series converter was operated in the automatic power flow
control mode (Han et al. 2004; Chang et al. 2006). The power (P), reactive
power (Q), and the voltage (V) references were set to minimize the power loss
of the UPFC.
2. Severe fault case: When there was a fault on the 345 kV Shin Kangjin-Shin
Wasun line, the operating mode of the series converter was changed to constant
voltage injection mode, while the operation mode of the shunt converter remains
in automatic voltage control mode. The reference input for the series converter is
set to maximize the active power flow in the Kangjin-Changheung line.
3. For other fault cases, the control mode of the converter is the same as in the
normal state. Some oscillations resulting from large system disturbances are
damped by keeping the UPFC in the constant PQ control mode. However, no

attempt was made to actively damp the power oscillation across the Mokpo-
Yeosu (M-Y) interface because the capability of the UPFC was too small to
handle the oscillations, which arise in the entire Korea power system (Han et al.
2004; Chang et al. 2006).
With the operation of the Kangjin UPFC project, the voltage drop on the 154 kV bus
at Mokpo was improved from 0.92 p.u. to 0.972 p.u., and the overload of the main
transformer at the Shin Gwangju substation was reduced from 108.7% to 104.5%
during faults, improving the stability of the power grid.
During the operation of the UPFC, several transmission line faults have occurred.
Figure 11 shows the performance of the UPFC during and after a three-phase fault
(Han et al. 2004). The traces are as follows:
Fig. 11 Three-phase ground fault

• The first three waveforms from the top correspond to the voltage of the buses
where the STATCOM is connected.
• The next three waveforms in the middle show the current that flows into the
STATCOM.
• The last three waveforms at the bottom are the currents flowing into the
transmission line.
The three-phase ground faults occurred at a substation not far from Kangjin
substation. After the fault is cleared, the STATCOM converter experienced some
overcurrents. However, the UPFC rode through the fault successfully, although it
stopped gating momentarily twice. It injected full capacitive reactive power into the
network to support the bus voltage during the fault. The current through the series
converter appears to have a 180 phase shift in response to the fault. As can be seen
in Fig. 9, the series transformer windings can be bypassed by thyristor bypass switch
(TBS). These switches might have been activated and short circuited the series
windings, which might explain the increased line current flow and phase shift.
However, the line currents appear to return to prefault conditions when the AC
fault is cleared, which could indicate that the series converter recovered and contin-
ued to operate after the fault was cleared.
Another fault event is shown in Fig. 12. This was a double line-to-ground fault
that occurred twice at a distant substation. The UPFC rode through the first fault,
Fig. 12 Double line-to-ground fault

105.00%
Monthly
Accum.
6 month window
99.93% 100.00% 99.92% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00%

100.00% 99.25% 99.17% 99.71% 99.84% 98.97%
99.14% 99.13% 99.28%
98.95%
97.73% 98.19%
96.92% 96.91% 96.63% 96.64% 96.73% 96.53%
95.84% 95.72%
95.00%
94.04% 94.13% 94.19% 94.19% 94.23%
92.70%
89.97% 89.90%
90.00%
85.84% 85.98%
85.00%
80.00%
75.00%
04.08 04.09 04.10 04.11 04.12 05.01 05.02 05.03 05.04 05.05 05.06 05.07
Fig. 13 Monthly, accumulated, and 6-month average availability of the Kangjin UPFC for August
2004 to July 2005. (Courtesy of Kepco and Hyosung)
even though it stopped gating three times during the fault. The line current flows
indicate that the series winding was short circuited because of a high level of
asymmetry between the line currents during the three line faults. Also, a drop in
the phase C current would be consistent with a bypass of the series windings since
the SSSC probably would not be able to create such an asymmetrical current set. As
can be seen in Fig. 12, the UPFC eventually tripped during the second occurrence of
the fault, which probably represents a high-speed reclosure of the AC breakers back
into the fault. There are highly asymmetrical current flows through the shunt
transformer just prior to the shutdown of the UPFC. This might indicate that the
shunt transformer core was saturated possibly as a result of STATCOM gating issues.
During these two events, the bus voltage, shown in Fig. 12, was not visually
depressed.
The lesson learnt from the pilot project was that the UPFC provided the expected
improved voltage stability margins and relief of line overloads during its period of
operation. Unfortunately, there were a number of trips and failures in the first years of
operation, which decreased the availability of the Kangjin UPFC (Kim et al. 2005).
However, by correcting the fundamental issues, the availability of the UPFC was vastly
improved during its final years of operation as shown in Fig. 13.
3.5 Current Status
The UPFC was shut down in 2010. The reason was failures in the GTO firing control
boards and the lack of spare circuit boards, which were no longer obtainable.
4 UPFC/Convertible Static Compensator (CSC) in Marcy, USA
The Marcy 345 kV substation, as is shown in Fig. 14, is located in the center of the
State of New York (Fardanesh et al. 1998). The substation routes power to the
southeast portion of the State which includes New York City where the power
demand was ever increasing. However, there was no plan to install new power
supplies, and the area’s demand was served by seven transmission lines with rated
voltage of 115 kV or 345 kV. Due to voltage stability limitations, the actual electric
power transmitted on the tie lines were only between 25% and 75% of the
corresponding nominal transmission capacities. Hence, it was necessary to enhance
the power transmission capability of the existing transmission lines. The study
showed that the system constraints which limited the power transmission capability
of the existing transmission lines changed with the load and a variety of compensa-
tion demands were intertwined.
In order to address the above issues, the New York Power Authority (NYPA)
installed a 200 MVA voltage-sourced converter-based FACTS controller at the
Fig. 14 Major transmission lines in the State of New York

Marcy 345 kV substation (CIGRE TB 371, 2009). The FACTS controller installation
was done in two phases; Phase I was commissioned in February 2001. This was the
installation of a 345 kV 200 Mvar STATCOM. This STATCOM regulates the
voltage at the Marcy bus. The second and final phase included the SSSC
element of the UPFC. This phase was completed in July 2004. The project was the
result of long-term collaborative research between the EPRI, Siemens, and numerous
energy companies including the NYPA, Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA),
and AEP.
Figure 15 shows a simplified single-line diagram of the NYPA CSC.
The NYPA FACTS controller is referred to as a convertible static compensator
(CSC) because it can be configured as an UPFC with a STATCOM module
connected to the AC bus and an SSSC module connected in series with one of the
AC lines connected to the bus or connecting the two converter systems configured as
Fig. 15 Single-line diagram of NYPA CSC

SSSCs in series with two of the lines connected to the bus. In the latter mode, the
system would operate as an Inter Phase Flow Controller (IPFC) now normally
referred to as an Interline Power Flow controller (Fardanesh 2004). Each of the
100 MVA converters consists of 12 poles with a total of 288 switch modules and one
DC clamp. Each module contains one GTO device rated for 4500 V blocking
capability and 4000 A turnoff capability. That is, the 2100 MVA VSC systems use
a total of 576 GTOs (Zelingher et al. 2000). As shown in Fig. 16, the system could be
configured as follows:
LV1 (or LV2)

LA TR-SH
A1
X1 X5 H1 A
LB
B1
X4 H3 H2 B
X2
LC X6 C
C1 X3
A2 ZSB
B2 AH
BH CH
C2
N
M
D1 INTERMEDIATE
TRANSFORMER
E1
F1
D2 ZSB
E2
Series Connected Inverter
F2
AIN AOUT
BIN BOUT
LA CIN COUT
X1 X5
LB
X4 X2
LC X3 X6
TR-SE1
AH (or TR-SE2)
BH CH
Fig. 16 Power circuit of the shunt- and series-connected converters. (Figure provided courtesy of
EPRI)
• Both of the 100 MVA VSC systems could be connected to the Marcy bus
through the 200 MVA shunt transformer. This would function as a 200 Mvar
STATCOM
• One of the two 100 MVA VSCs could be connected as a STATCOM to the Marcy
bus, and the other VSC could be connected as a SSSC to one of the two lines. This
would function as a UFC
• One of the 100 MVA VSCs could be inserted as a SSSC in one of the two
lines and the other inserted into the second line. This would function as
an IPFC.
The shunt main transformer has standard delta connected primary windings
rated 345 kV. The transformer has two sets of secondary (converter-side)
windings. The windings are isolated from each other and connected to trans-
former bushings to enable access to both ends of each winding, thereby
providing full freedom for connections between the converters and the trans-
former. The secondary, doubly fed open delta identical secondary windings
are each rated 21.4 kV. The identical dual secondary windings allow one or
both VSCs to be connected to the substation 345 kV bus at the same time.
The ratio of each series transformer is 11/21.4 kV. A set of intermediate trans-
formers and reactors are inserted between the GTO valves and the AC trans-
formers as shown in Fig. 16, which is a simplified sketch of the power circuit
arrangement of a VSC (EPRI 2003). Note that delta windings are needed in the
transformers to block zero sequence components from affecting the operation of
the converters.
The major technical data for the converters and the transformers are summarized in
Table 3 (CIGRE TB 371 2009; Zelingher et al. 2000; EPRI 2003).
Figure 17 shows an aerial view of the NYPA CSC project, where the building
(housing converters, cooling system, and control system) and the outdoor trans-
formers and bus work are visible.
Figure 18 shows a view of a series transformer at Marcy. The six connec-
tions to the converter can be seen in the foreground and are made using
cables. The connections to the transmission line can be seen on the left- and
right-hand side in the picture. Surge arresters are placed between the
bushings and ground on each side of the transformer but not between the
two bushings.
The CSC is housed in a building approximately 36 m long, 29 m wide, and 8.2 m
high and includes the converter hall, control room, battery room, mechanical device
room, etc., as depicted in Fig. 19 (Zelingher et al. 2000). The DC link voltage is
nominally 12 kV (6 kV), which sets high requirements for dust proof and dehu-
midification performance of the converter hall.
Figure 20 shows a view of one of the Marcy converters.
Table 3 Major technical parameters of the NYPA CSC project

Parameter Value
Converter DC voltage (kV) 12 (6.014)
Capacity (MVA) 2 100
Topology type Three-level
topology
Nominal AC pole voltage (kVRMS) 5.537 (line to
neutral)
Shunt transformer Connection type Yd
used Capacity (MVA) 2 100
Ratio (kV) 345/21.4
Number 1
Series transformer Connection type See Fig. 16
used Ratio (kV RMS, phase to neutral/peak phase to 11/21.4
phase voltage)
Capacity (MVA) 100
Number 2
Intermediate Approximate rating ~50% of the VSC
transformer rating
devices Voltage/current (V/A) 4500/4000
Cooling method 50/50 glycol and
water
Fig. 17 Aerial view of the NYPA CSC project

670
S. L. Nilsson et al.
Fig. 18 View of one of the three-phase 100 MVA series transformer at Marcy
Fig. 19 Layout of the NYPA CSC

Fig. 20 View on one of the Marcy converters
As is readily apparent from Fig. 15, the two VSCs can be connected in many
different ways. They can be operated with the DC link between them closed or
open. When the link is open, they can be operated as STATCOM controllers or SSSC
modules controlling reactive power at the connection point or controlling reactive
power flows on two of the lines connected to the Marcy bus. When the link is closed,
they can control the active power flows on one or both lines. In the latter case, they
can be used to balance the power flows between the two AC lines into which the
series windings are inserted. To enable these different operating modes, each con-
verter can to be operated in four different modes. These are as STATCOM, SSSC,
UPFC, or IPFC controllers (Fardanesh et al. 2002).
• The STATCOM provides reactive power compensation from the associated

converters at the point of connection. In this mode the reactive output current
of the converter is regulated to maintain a desired AC bus voltage. The real power
component of output current is only controlled to maintain the necessary level of
DC bus voltage.
The VSC modules can be operated as STATCOMs independently or with both

VSCs connected to the shunt transformer in which case the two VSCs are operated in
parallel. Figure 21 shows the steady-state V–I characteristic obtained with the two
VSCs in parallel operation. This would provide up to 200 Mvar reactive power
1.3
1.2
1.1
System bus voltage
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
Capacitive Inductive
0.3
-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
STATCOM output current
Fig. 21 STATCOM V–I characteristic for 1.0 p.u. reference voltage and 0.03 p.u. droop
support. The system bus voltage magnitude was adjusted over a 200 Mvar range to test
the STATCOM performance in the linear region and at its limits. The droop was set to
0.03 p.u. during this test. The test shows that the STATCOM can support extremely
low system voltages, as long as the DC capacitor can retain enough energy to supply
the losses. As can be seen in Fig. 21, the STATCOM can maintain a constant current
injection at the capacitive limit down to about 0.35 p.u. of the bus voltage. The
reactance of the coupling transformer determines the absolute minimum voltage that
can be supported. The STATCOM is also able to retain its maximum inductive output
of 200 Mvar up to 1.36 p.u. voltage in the single bus test system. In the actual system,
the STATCOM maximum operating voltage is set to 1.15 p.u.
• The SSSC used as a stand-alone unit injects a voltage from the associated
converter in series with the line. In this mode the converter output voltage is
controlled to be in quadrature with the prevailing line current and is controlled to
have a desired magnitude (Sun et al. 2004).
The steady-state results for the SSSC in the Marcy-New Scotland (M-NS) line
indicate a power flow control range of 200 MW with the corresponding reactive
power change of 80 Mvar as shown in Fig. 22. When the SSSC is in service with
zero injected voltage, there is a slight reduction in the line power flow due to the
impedance of the series transformer. Differences in the SSSC reference voltages and
the voltages measured on the primary side of the coupling transformer are shown in
Fig. 22 (a). In the capacitive region, the reference voltage is 1 p.u., while the
(a) (b)
1
0.8 2 250
0.6 3 200
0.4 4
Vq series (pu/11.1kV)
150
0.2 5
Q line (Mvar)
6 100 1
2
0 3
7 5 4
50 6
-0.2 9 8 7
8 10
11
-0.4 9 013 12
10 -50
-0.6
11
-0.8 -100
12
-1
13
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 800 850 900 950
Vd series (pu/11.1kV) P line (MW)
Fig. 22 Steady-state characteristics of the SSSC in Marcy-New Scotland line
measured voltage is 0.88 p.u. In the inductive region, that difference between the
reference and measured voltages is 1.0 p.u. and 1.05 p.u., respectively.
The Vd component of the injected voltage is larger in the capacitive region due to
the larger line current flow and consequently larger converter losses, resulting in
larger required real power exchange with the converter. The power flows and series
voltages for one SSSC inserted into the M-NS line and the other in the Marcy-
Cooper’s Corner (M-CC) line are shown Fig. 23.
The UPFC configuration comprises one converter operating as a STATCOM and
a second operating as a SSSC. In this mode, the SSSC converter output voltage is
controlled to influence the line power with no restrictions on the phase of the injected
series voltage.
Figure 24 shows the results of a test when a three-bus system equivalent for the
strong Marcy bus case was utilized to verify the UPFC power flow control range. The
bus voltage reference was kept at 1.0 p.u., forcing the shunt converter to operate in the
inductive region since the bus voltage was at 1.028 p.u. The SSSC was connected to
control the power flows on the M-CC line. The droop setting for the STATCOM was
3%. The direct and quadrature injected voltage reference values for the series converter
were varied in the +1 to 1 p.u. range for maximum voltage magnitude injection
at phase angles incremented by 30 . The starting point was the zero injection operating
(a) (b)
1
0.8 2
300
0.6 3 250
0.4 4 200
Q line (Mvar)
0.2 5 150
6 MCC Line MNS Line
100 1
0
321 432
7 50 87654 7 65
9
10 8
-0.2 1211 1110 9
8 0 13 1312
-0.4 9
-50
-0.6 10
-100
11
-0.8 -150
MCC Line MNS Line
12 -200
-1
13
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 700 800 900
Fig. 23 Steady-state characteristics for SSSC in M-NS and M-CC lines
(a) (b)
1.5 200
1 6
8
9 7 150
5 7
0.5
Q line (Mvar)
4
10 6 8
100
0 11 1 5 3 1
9
2
12 4
-0.5 50 14
10
13
13 3
-1 2 14 11
12
0
-1.5
-0.5 0 0.5 680 700 720 740 760 780

Fig. 24 Vd, Vq (a) and the corresponding MW and Mvar; (b) Shunt converter in inductive range,
Vref = 1.0 p.u
(a) (b)
1.5
200
8 6
1 9 7
Vq series (pu/11 .1kV)
5 7
150
0.5
Q line (Mvar)
10 6 4
8
0 11 1 100
5 3 1 9
-0.5 2
12 4
50 14
10
-1 13
13 3 11
2 14 12
0
-1.5
-2
-50
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 700 750 800
Fig. 25 UPFC steady-state characteristics; M-CC Vd, Vq reference (a) and the corresponding MW
and MVAr flow (b); Shunt converter in capacitive range Vref = 1.05 p.u
point in the center of the circle shown in Fig. 24. It can be seen that the real
power was controlled in the range from about 660 MW to about 790 MW. The
corresponding shunt reactive power control range for the line was between 30 and
140 Mvar.
Figure 25 illustrates a similar test except with the shunt converter forced into
the capacitive region by changing the bus voltage reference to 1.05 p.u. It can be
seen that the real power flow control range was from about 650 MW to
about 810 MW and the reactive power control range was approximately from
10 Mvar to 180 Mvar. As expected, the elevated bus voltage has resulted in a
small increase in the real power flow and a pronounced increase in the reactive
flow limits.
A test was also conducted with the two converters connected as an IPFC to
control the power flow sharing between the New Scotland and Cooper’s Corner
lines. In this mode, the output voltages of the converters were controlled to influence
the line power flows subject to the restriction that the real power exchanged with the
line must be balanced.
Figure 26 shows the behavior of the M-NS line during the first test. It is seen from
Fig. 26a that the converter was attempting to maintain the desired Vq = 1 set point while
supplying the real power needs of the master converter. Once the real power needs of
(a) (b)
200
1.4 11
180 12
1.2 10
1 160 13
14 9
7 13
0.8 6 8 2 12 140
3 9 10 2
Q line (Mvar)
0.6 4 11
5 120 14
8
0.4
100
0.2
80 1 3
0 1 7
60
-0.2
6 4
-0.4 40
5
-0.6 20
-0.5 0 0.5 1040 1060 1080 1100 1120
Fig. 26 IPFC steady-state characteristics; M-NS actual injected Vd, Vq (a) and the corresponding
line flow to support the master (M-CC) converter (b); M-NS desired control target Vq = 1.0 p.u
the master converter were satisfied, the remaining converter capacity was used to
maintain the desired reference. Due to interdependence of flows on these two lines
from the Marcy substation, the master M-CC line flow variation caused changes in
the M-NS line flow from 1040 MW to 1140 MW. In general, IPFC operating points can
be found so that for a given objective such as maximum flow through transmission
corridor or a desired system voltage profile at the far end of the compensated lines,
are met.
Figures 27 and 28 illustrate a second test intended to determine the IPFC steady-
state characteristics. This test was similar to the first shown in Fig. 26 except that the
M-NS converter was the master. The same 30 increments are used for reference Vd
and Vq signals starting at point 1 and ending at point 13. As is evident from Fig. 28a,
the desired set points were not achieved but were limited to Vd in the range from
0.75 to +0.5 instead of from 1 to 1. This was due to a limitation in the real
power that could be exchanged with the M-CC line due to lower line current
and consequently lower power flow on this line. The range of flow control on the
M-NS line, which is shown in Fig. 28, was from 925 MW to 1125 MW. The
range of control on the M-CC line with the Vq = 1 reference varied over the range
from 650 MW to 770 MW while supporting the real power exchange needs of
the M-NS line.
(a) (b)
1 250
8
9
200
7
6 7
0.5
6 150 5
10
4
Q line (Mvar)
3 8
100
0 1
11 1 5
50 9
2
-0.5 4
12 0 13 10
11
12
-50
-1 13 3
2
-100
-0.5 0 0.5 950 1000 1050 1100

Fig. 27 IPFC steady-state characteristics; M-NS master converter injected Vd and Vq (a) and the
corresponding line flows (b); M-CC converter desired control target Vq = 1.0 p.u
(a) (b)
140
2
120
11 12
1.5 100
10
13
80
1 2 8 13 9
9 60
Q line (Mvar)
0.5 7 40 2
8
6 11
5 20 1
03 4 12 10
1 0
-0.5 -20
3
54
-40 7 6
-1
-60
-0.5 0 0.5 660 680 700 720 740 760

Fig. 28 IPFC steady-state characteristics; M-CC actual injected Vd, Vq (a) and the corresponding
line MW flow to support the M-NS master converter (b); M-CC converter desired control target
Vq = 1.0 p.u
4.4 UPFC System Status
The series modes of NYPA’s UPFCs were utilized for short periods of time to prove the
concept. However, the system is operated primarily as STATCOM systems.
5 UPFC in Nanjing, China
The main load center of Nanjing City power grid is supplied by the 220 kV
Western Nanjing power grid, which is connected to the 500 kV Longwangshan
substation in the north and to the 500 kV Dongshanqiao substation in the south.
The main 220 kV transmission lines have very unbalanced power flows, and this
affects the overall transmission capacity and security of the Nanjing City
power grid.
The power flow on the Tiebei-Xiaozhuang line needed to be limited to reduce the
overload problem of the north cross section (see Fig. 29). Furthermore, overload
problems would arise after a N-1 fault on the north cross section and on the Tiebei-
Longwangshan
Jinggang
Xianhe
Xiaozhuang Tiebei
Huajing
Dongyang
UPFC
North cross-section
Yaohuamen
Zhongyangmen Yanziji
Matou Xiaguan
Mochou Anpinjie
Ninghai
Shuangzha
Binnan Fucheng
Huarun Nanjing
Dashengguan
Qinhuai
South cross-section
Meigang
Dongshanqiao
Fig. 29 Schematic diagram of the 220 kV power system around Nanjing showing the location of
the UPFC project
Xiaozhuang double-circuit lines. It is planned (2018) that the Western Nanjing

power grid will be supplied from the 500 kV Qinhuai and 500 kV Qiuteng (not
shown in the figure) substations. When the Qiuteng substation connection has been
put into operation, the power capability of the Tiebei-Xiaozhuang line will be
increased to reduce the power flow through the south cross section, and this is
expected to solve the overload problem during N-1 fault contingencies in the south
cross section.
Based on the evaluation of the transmission capability and reliability studies, it
was determined that by installing an UPFC on the 220 kV Tiebei-Xiaozhuang
double-circuit line, the above problems would be effectively solved and would
enable future growth of bidirectional power flow control anticipated in the long-
range planning study (Lu, et al., 2017).
The Nanjing UPFC is located in Qixia District, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China.
It is housed in a building with a volume of 1857 m3 and a footprint of 9400 m2. It
was successfully put into commercial operation on December 11, 2015. The
supplier was NR Electric Co., Ltd., and the client was Jiangsu Electric Power
Company of SGCC.
The single-line diagram (SLD) of the Nanjing UPFC project is shown in Fig. 30.
There are three identical modular multilevel converters (MMCs). Two series trans-
formers are connected in the Tiebei 220 kV double-circuit line (one in each line). As
the voltage of the Western Nanjing 220 kV power grid is relatively stable and strong,
there was no requirement for the STATCOM to be connected to the 220 kV grid.
Tiebei-Xiaozhuang double-circuit lines High Voltage Breakers

Tiebei Xiaozhuang
Line2
~ I Line1 ~
Shunt Transformer 1
Start-up Resistor
Series Transformer 1 Series Transformer 2
35kV bus
Low Voltage Breakers
TBS TBS
Shunt Transformer 2
Thyristor Bypass Switch

2 1 3
Fig. 30 The structure of the Nanjing UPFC

Therefore, the shunt side converter of the UPFC is connected to the 35 kV system,
and this converter provides the active power required by the series converters.
Considering the importance of the shunt system, two redundant shunt transformers,
connected to different bus bars, are used to improve the reliability of the UPFC. An
auto-change over function is provided such that the two transformers provide
standby for each other. Isolation switches are added for the start-up resistor, the
two series transformers and the three converters to flexibly switch the converters to
different configurations so that the three converters can be used as the backup for
each other. Back-to-back connection was adopted on the DC side, and the isolation
and different connections of converters and transformers were realized by AC
breakers and isolation switches.
The main technical parameters of the Nanjing UPFC are shown in Table 4.
Pictures of the Nanjing UPFC project are shown in Figs. 31 and 32.
The control modes of the UPFC series side and shunt side are independent of
each other, apart from the constraint of maintenance of the DC voltage level. The
control mode of the series sides includes a double-circuit line power control mode,
a single-circuit power flow control, and an auto control mode. The control mode of
the shunt converter includes an AC voltage control mode and a reactive power
control mode. The control modes of the shunt side and the series side need to be
Table 4 Main technical parameters of Nanjing UPFC

Parameter Value
Converter DC voltage (kV) 20
DC current (kA) 1
Capacity (MVA) 3 60
Topology type MMC
MMC per arm 26 + 2
Shunt transformer used Connection type Dyn1
Capacity 60/60
Ratio (kV) 35(1 2 2.5%)/20.8
Number 2 (1 online spare)
Series transformer used Connection type IIIYnd11a
Ratio (kV) 26.5/20.8/10b
Number 2
Type of power switch used Type IGBT
Overload capability (current/time) 1.2 p.u./3 s
Full load valve losses (%) 0.8
a
References (Lu et al. 2017)
b
The third winding is a balancing winding, which is not shown on Fig. 30
Fig. 31 Aerial view of Nanjing UPFC project
Fig. 32 The Nanjing UPFC converter
selected in the single-circuit line UPFC mode and double-circuit line operation
mode. Only the control modes for the shunt side can be selected in the STATCOM
operation mode.
1. Double-circuit line power control

A coordinated control strategy is applied for the double-circuit line power
control mode.
(a) When both lines are controlled by the UPFC, the total power order for the
double-circuit lines is normally equally divided, and the power of the two
lines are kept the same. The reactive power flow on the line is not
controlled.
(b) When both lines are controlled by the UPFC, if one line is suddenly tripped,
its power flow can be transferred rapidly to the other circuit of the double-
circuit line, and the power loss in the AC network can be reduced to a
minimum, subject only to the power transmission capability of the
remaining line.
(c) When both lines are controlled by the UPFC, if one series converter is
suddenly tripped because of a fault, the double-circuit line will be in the
state in which one line is controlled by the UPFC and the other line is not
controlled. In this situation, the dispatch center will decide the appropriate
settings for the remaining SSSC, when the network has settled after the trip
of the converter.
2. Section power flow control
The purpose of the section power flow control function of the Nanjing UPFC is
to control the power flow of the north cross section, which includes the
Xiaozhuang-Zhongyangmen and the Xiaozhuang-Xiaguan lines. In order to
achieve this function, power measurement devices are used to collect all branch
power flow information in the Xiaozhuang Station excluding the Tiebei-
Xiaozhuang lines. The branch power flow information is sent to the UPFC
control system. Using this information, the UPFC change the section power
order in the Tiebei-Xiaozhuang line to realize real-time closed loop control of
the section power.
3. Auto control
If the series part of the UPFC is in auto control mode, the series
converter injects a zero voltage in the line under normal operating conditions,
and the power of the Tiebei-Xiaozhuang line varies with the natural
system power flow. When the section power exceeds a set limit, or the
Tiebei-Xiaozhuang line is overloaded, or the Xiaozhuang-Xiaguan line is
overloaded, or the Xiaozhuang-Zhongyangmen line is overloaded, the UPFC
quickly switches to power control mode and rapidly resolves these overload
issues.
4. Voltage control mode
The voltage control mode refers to control of the 35 kV AC bus voltage. In this
mode the shunt converter controls the bus voltage to a set value.
Reactive power control mode refers to control of the reactive power at the
35 kVAC bus. The reactive power output of the shunt converter is then controlled
to a set value.
1. A step change test of 100 MW of the double-circuit lines was performed, each line
increasing from 80 MW to 130 MW. Figure 33 shows that the active power can be
controlled fast and precisely. The other converter shows identical active and
reactive power.
2. A step change test of 50 Mvar on the double-circuit line was carried out,
each line increasing from 5 Mvar to 30 Mvar. Figure 34 shows that the
reactive power can be controlled fast and precisely without significant
change to the active power. The other converter shows identical active and
reactive power.
3. In single-circuit line SSSC operation mode, the active power reference is
180 MW and the reactive reference is 60 Mvar. Figure 35 shows that the active
power and reactive power can be precisely controlled at the set value by the
UPFC in SSSC mode.
The UPFC system exhibits good steady-state and fast dynamic performance. The
response time and the maximum dynamic overshoot meet the requirements of the
technical specification.
File: nj_C2P1CCPA1_2015_12_06_10_09_54_161Child00.CFG
180
160
Active Power(MW)
140
120
100
80
60
40
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
50
Reactive Power(MVAr)
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time [s]
Fig. 33 Waveforms of active power step test

160
140
Active Power(MW)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
60
50
Reacti ve Power (MVAr )
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time [s]
Fig. 34 Waveforms of reactive power step test
210
200
Active Power(MW)
190
180
170
160
150
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
0
Reacti ve Power(MVAr)
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
-100
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time [s]
Fig. 35 Steady waveform of Converter 2

By May 29, 2018, the total operation period of the Nanjing UPFC was 900 days
(double-circuit UPFC operation mode), and the number of forced trips of the UPFC
in this period was four.
The 220 kV Nanjing UPFC project has significantly improved the power supply
capacity of Western Nanjing power grid. The operation period has shown that the
performance and system function of the UPFC have achieved the designed targets. It
can meet the requirements for power flow control, and it provides good adaptability
for the future.
The UPFC can balance the power flow of the transmission corridors, which will help
to meet the future load development needs. This project could increase the power supply
capacity by about 500–600 MW, increasing the annual electricity supply by about
2.5 GWhr, and delay the construction of a new 500 kV power transmission line for
more than 2 years. The UPFC project avoids the construction of a long cable transmis-
sion circuit, and it can be used to adjust the power flows and optimize the power flow
distribution, which will help to reduce the losses in the power grid.
6 UPFC in Suzhou, China
The Southern Suzhou power grid includes the Suzhou urban area and Wujiang area.
The main power source to this region is the Jinsu UHVDC project. The hydro
generation resource varies significantly with the season, with insufficient power
supply in the winter, because of water shortages (reduced to about 20%). Further-
more, there was insufficient dynamic reactive power support in the Southern Suzhou
power grid to enable the Jinsu UHVDC scheme to recover quickly in the event of
commutation failures. Therefore, there is a high risk of UHVDC commutation
failures not recovering as quickly as required, which can result in large emergency
load shedding and other problems (Li et al. 2017).
A single-line diagram of the power network and the location of the UPFC is
shown in Fig. 36.
As shown in Table 5, it is unrealistic to address these risks by increasing the
line capacity or by the construction of new transmission corridors. The first
column shows the issues to be addressed, and the next three columns show potential
options.
In future years, there will be no stability issues for the 500 kV power grid in
Southern Suzhou. However, in the winter season, there would still be a high risk of
the Jinsu UHVDC failing to recover from commutation failures, without the support
from the Southern Suzhou UPFC. Therefore, the Southern Suzhou power grid was
an ideal location for the application of a UPFC or FACTS device as an alternative to
new lines. It was decided to install the Southern Suzhou UPFC to directly control the
power flow of the Meili-Mudu double-circuit lines and in so doing enhancing the
Fig. 36 Schematic diagram Luqiao Changshu Shipai Quanfu Dongwu

of the power system around
Suzhou showing the location
of the UPFC project
Doushan
Chefang
Huatai
Yushan
Mudu
Meili Wujiang
UPFC
Suzhou
1000kV Transformer Substation Power Plant
500kV Transformer Substation HVDC Converter Station
Table 5 Scheme comparison

New transmission
Line capacity increase lines UPFC
Reactive power None None Yes, reduces the
support commutation failure
risk of the Jinsu
UHVDC
Emergency load Load shedding of Load shedding of Can reduce the load
shedding (after approximately 2.3 GW approximately 2.3 GW shedding by
commutation still required still required approximately 1.3 GW
failure of Jinsu
UHVDC)
Investment 200 million yuan 1500 million yuan 900 million yuan
Level of It is difficult to add line It is very difficult to Mudu substation has
difficulty of capacity in Wuxi and implement a new route the space to install a
project Suzhou. Meili in Wuxi and Suzhou, UPFC. The project
construction substation and Mudu and the level of short- does not increase the
substation are heavily circuit current of the system short-circuit
loaded, so it is difficult system will increase, current and does not
to arrange outages of necessitating measures fundamentally affect
lines. During the to limit the short- the operation of the
period of line outage, circuit current system
there will be an
increased risk in
southern Suzhou
power grid
security and stability of the 500 kV power grid in Southern Suzhou, bringing
significant economic and social benefits.
The Southern Suzhou UPFC project is located in Wuzhong District, Suzhou, Jiangsu
Province, China. It is housed in a building volume of 8270 m3 and has an area
footprint of 39,000 m2. It was put into operation on December 19, 2017. The supplier
was NR Electric Co., Ltd., and the client is the Jiangsu Electric Power Company
of SGCC.
The system structure of the Southern Suzhou UPFC project is shown in Fig. 37.
Three modular multilevel converters (MMCs) were installed. The main data for the
UPFC controller are shown in Table 6. The capacity of each converter is 250 MVA. The
two series transformers inserted in the Meili-Mudu double-circuit line are fed from two
series converters (Converter 2 and Converter 3). The shunt transformer, the start-up
resistor, and a shunt converter (Converter 1) are connected to the Mudu 500 kV bus.
Breakers are arranged on the grid and valve side of the shunt transformer. The tertiary
winding is required to block zero sequence current flows. Another breaker is installed in
the third winding. High-voltage bypass breakers are installed on the high-voltage line
side of the series transformers. The connections from the series transformer to the line
include disconnectors. A low-voltage bypass breaker and a thyristor bypass switch
(TBS) are inserted on the valve side of the series converters. The back-to-back connec-
tion mode was chosen with a DC bus voltage of 90 kV. The isolation and connection
of the DC side is accomplished by breakers and isolation switches as shown in Fig. 37.
Pictures of the Southern Suzhou UPFC project are shown in Figs. 38, 39, 40, 41,
42 and 43.

Mudu Meili
~ ~
Low Voltage
Shunt Transformer Start-up Resistor Bypass Breaker
High Voltage TBS TBS
Breaker

2 1 3
Fig. 37 The structure of the Southern Suzhou UPFC project

Table 6 Main technical parameters of Southern Suzhou UPFC project

Parameter Value
Converter DC voltage (kV) 90
DC current (kA) 1
Capacity (MVA) 3 250
Topology type MMC
MMCs per arm 112 + 11
Shunt transformer Connection type Yn0YnD11
Capacity 300/300/100
Ratio (kV) 505(1 81.25%)/94/36
Number 1
Series transformer Connection type IIIYNd11
Ratio (kV) 43.5/105/10
Number 2
Overload capability (current/time) 1.2 p.u./3 s
Fig. 38 Aerial view of Southern Suzhou UPFC project

Fig. 39 Converter valves of the Southern Suzhou UPFC project
Fig. 40 Series transformer of Southern Suzhou UPFC project

Fig. 41 Control and protection system of Southern Suzhou UPFC project
Fig. 42 Cooling system of Southern Suzhou UPFC project

Fig. 43 TBS of Southern Suzhou UPFC project
The main operating modes and control mode of the Southern Suzhou UPFC are
similar to the Nanjing UPFC. The Southern Suzhou UPFC project has three oper-
ating modes:
1. Double-circuit line operation mode, Converter 1 connects to the 500 kV bus, and two
series converters are connected in series on the 500 kV double-circuit lines. The DC
sides of all three converters are connected together.
2. Single-circuit line operation mode, Converter 1 connects to the 500 kV bus, and one
of the series converters is connected in series on the 500 kV single-circuit line
through a series transformer, and the other transmission line is out of service. The
DC sides of all three converters are normally connected together.
3. STATCOM operation mode, Converter 1 is connected to the 500 kV bus,
and the DC side is isolated. In this mode, the control of the UPFC series sides
and the shunt side are independent of each other. The control mode of the
series side includes an auto control mode and a double-circuit line power control
mode. The control mode of the shunt side includes an AC voltage control mode
and a reactive power control mode. The control modes of the shunt side and the
series side need to be selected in the single-circuit line UPFC mode and double-
circuit line operation mode. When in STATCOM operation mode, only the control
mode of the shunt side can be selected.
6.4.1 STATCOM Operation Mode

The reactive power of shunt side can be controlled precisely, as shown in the
waveform in Fig. 44.
A step response test of 100 Mvar was also carried out. Fig. 45 shows that the
reactive power can be controlled accurately and fast.
6.4.2 Double-Circuit Line UPFC Operation Mode

As is shown in Fig. 46, the reactive power in the line can be accurately controlled
when the total active power flow through the double-circuit line is 1550 MW. The
power in the other line is identical to that shown in Fig. 46. That is, Fig. 46 only
shows the power flows in one of the two lines.
A step change of 100 MW was made. As is shown in Fig. 47, the active power can
be controlled accurately and fast.
A step change test of 50 Mvar to the reactive power in the line was performed.
The results are shown in Fig. 48. It can be seen that the reactive power in the line can
be controlled accurately and fast.
The UPFC system has demonstrated good steady-state performance and a fast
dynamic response. The response time and the maximum overshoot in the dynamic
tests met the requirements of the technical specifications.
File: SZ_C1P1CCPA1_30504_20171123_153115_099_Child0.CFG
110
108
106
104
102
100
98
96
94
92
90
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
185
184
183
DC Vol tage(kV)
182
181
180
179
178
177
176
175
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time [s]
Fig. 44 Waveforms of Converter 1 in reactive power control mode at +100 MVAr

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
190
188
186
DC Vol tage(kV)
184
182
180
178
176
174
172
170
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time [s]
Fig. 45 Dynamic waveform of Converter 1
-650
-700
Active Power(MW)
-750
-800
-850
-900
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
-40
-60
-80
-100
-120
-140
-160
-180
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time [s]
Fig. 46 Waveforms when the active power of the double-circuit line is 1550 MW
-600
Active Power(MW)
-650
-700
-750
-800
-850
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
-300
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time [s]
Fig. 47 Waveforms of active power step test
-650
Active Power(MW)
-700
-750
-800
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
-100
-150
-200
-250
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time [s]
Fig. 48 Waveforms of reactive power step test

The Southern Suzhou 500 kV power grid UPFC project has significantly enhanced
the security and stability of the 500 kV power grid in Southern Suzhou, which
enables the power system to accept the UHVDC power input source. It is estimated
after a blocking event of the Jinsu UHVDC during the summer, the UPFC can reduce
load shedding by approximately 1.3 GW.
Furthermore, the UPFC can dynamically inject reactive power to the system and
support the voltage during and after a network fault. In this manner the risk of
UHVDC commutation failure causing load shedding is reduced.
After the project was put into operation, it has also been used to optimize the
power distribution in the AC transmission system.
7 UPFC in Shanghai, China
The power grid of Shanghai is a typical urban power grid. On one hand, the
utilization of AC cable is high, so the capacitive reactive power is large. On the
other hand, peak and low power consumption varies greatly, and the reactive power
consumption reduces during the light load period. Therefore, it is difficult to
balance the inductive reactive power. The lack of inductive reactive power control
reaches 110 Mvar in Yunzaobang District, causing unacceptable overvoltages. The
UPFC provides dynamic reactive power that allows the system to absorb the excess
reactive power, helping to realize the balance of reactive power (Sen and Stacey,
1998).
The Yunzaobang UPFC project is located in the Baoshan District, Shanghai. It is

designed and owned by the State Grid Corporation of China (SGCC); the
manufacturer is C-EPRI Electric Power Engineering Co., Ltd. (CEPRI) of the
Nari Group, Ltd. It was commissioned at Yunzaobang substation in September
2017. The single-line diagram (SLD) of the UPFC system is shown in Fig. 49.
The main technical parameter values of the Shanghai UPFC project are listed in
Table 7. The core equipment includes modular multilevel converters (MMCs), a
shunt transformer, series transformer, and double redundancy configuration tandem
bypass devices (Schauder et al. 1998).
Figure 50 shows a bird’s-eye view of the Shanghai UPFC project, Fig. 51 shows
the UPFC converter valves, Fig. 52 shows a bird’s-eye view of the UPFC valve hall,
and Fig. 53 shows the layout of the Shanghai UPFC project.
The components identified on the layout (Fig. 53) are:
220kV 220kV
Series
transformer
TBS
Shunt
transformer converter converter
Fig. 49 220 kV UPFC system
Table 7 Main technical parameters of Shanghai UPFC project

Parameter Value
Converter DC voltage (kV) 20.8
DC current (kA) 0.9
Capacity (MVA) 50
Topology type MMC
MMCs per arm 26 + 2
Shunt transformer Connection type Yn0/Yn/D11
Capacity 100
Ratio (kV) 230/19.2/10
Number 1
Series transformer Connection type III/Yn0/D11
Ratio (kV) 6.5/83.2/6
Capacity (MVA) 50
Number 1
Fig. 50 Bird’s-eye view of Shanghai UPFC project
Fig. 51 UPFC converter valves

Fig. 52 Bird’s-eye view of the UPFC converter valve hall
Fig. 53 Layout of the Shanghai UPFC
1. Series transformer
2. Bypass thyristor valves
3. MMC valves
4. GIS
5. Shunt transformer
6. Switches on the shunt side
7. Control and protection equipment
8. Switches on the series side
9. Cooling system
The UPFC consists of a shunt converter and a series converter, and they will be
discussed separately.
The current of the shunt converter can be divided into two parts: active and
reactive components. The active component is used to provide the active power
required by the series converter; the reactive component is used for reactive power
control or node voltage control according to the requirement (Nabavi-Niaki and
Iravani 1996).

In the reactive power control mode, a given value will be set according to the
requirement for reactive power. The set value is compared with the actual value of
current, and the difference value is converted to voltage as input parameter to the
shunt converter.
2. Node voltage control mode
In the node voltage control mode, the shunt converter will control the voltage of
the connected node and maintain it at a set value.
The series converter can control the power flow in the connected line by control-
ling the amplitude and phase angle of the injection voltage in the transmission line.
There are four control modes:
1. Direct voltage injection mode

In this mode, a specific voltage vector is inserted, and the amplitude and phase
angle can be any reasonable value. The difference value between the set and
normal voltage is an input to the series converter.
2. Impedance compensation mode
In this mode, the injected voltage is proportional to the amplitude of the
line current, and the UPFC can then be considered equivalent to a series
impedance. If the injected voltage vector is in quadrature to the current vector
of the transmission line, it will compensate for the inductive or capacitive
current of the transmission line. Therefore, this working mode is similar to the
function of a TCSC.
3. Phase angle adjustment mode
The voltage vector is injected such that the output voltage is offset at a given
angle, but the amplitude remains constant.
4. Power flow control mode

In this mode, the UPFC controls the active and reactive power of the line
independently. By injecting an appropriate compensation voltage into the line,
the circuit will generate an ideal current vector, thus achieving the purpose of
regulating the current flow in the line.
The 220 kV Yunzaobang UPFC project went through a series of system test,
including the UPFC mode test, single STATCOM test, double STATCOM test,
and SSSC mode test. In SSSC mode, the line voltages are used as the input signals
for the synchronization, while the power factor is estimated in real time with the
aid of dedicated filters and their phase angle compensation. The synchronization of
the line current can be estimated from the signals of voltage synchronization and
the angle information derived from the power factor. In this way the
adverse effects due to low power factor and low line current upon SSSC synchro-
nization are mitigated when the UPFC is operated in SSSC mode. This
approach was adopted because the line voltage is usually more stable than
the line current.
The shunt part of the Shanghai UPFC is used to provide dynamic reactive
power. During the system tests, the UPFC increases the reactive power of the shunt
part from 5 Mvar to 50 Mvar. Figure 54 shows the injected current waveforms of
the shunt UPFC part at the grid side, while Fig. 55 shows the injected reactive current
waveforms of the UPFC at the grid side in DQ coordinate system. The results show
that the step change response time in this UPFC application is about 18 ms.
Fig. 54 Injected current from the UPFC at the grid side

Fig. 55 Injected reactive current from UPFC at the grid side in DQ coordinate system
Fig. 56 The Yunzaobang-Zhabei transmission line current waveforms
The series part of Shanghai UPFC is used to control the load flow. During the
system tests, the load flow command of the Yunzaobang-Zhabei transmission
lines is increased from 0 MW to 50 MW. Figure 56 shows the Yunzaobang-
Zhabei transmission line current waveforms, while Fig. 57 shows the
Yunzaobang-Zhabei transmission line current waveform in DQ coordinate sys-
tem. The field results show that the step change response time in this application
of the UPFC is about 18 ms.
Fig. 57 The Yunzaobang-Zhabei transmission line current waveform in DQ coordinate system
The Yunzaobang 220 kV UPFC began its formal operation in 2017. This UPFC project
has effectively improved the cross-sectional transmission capacity between
Yunzaobang and Zhabei from 570 MW to 620 MW. At the same time, the UPFC
can provide dynamic reactive power of 50 Mvar, providing an increased voltage
stability margin of the power system of 500 MW. In addition, the Zhabei thermal po-
wer generators do not have to provide reactive power because of this UPFC;
as a consequence, the power system increases its operational flexibility significantly.
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Volume: 4, (2000) www.ieee.org
Stig L. Nilsson, Principal Engineer, Exponent, Inc., USA.Stig

Nilsson started out working for the Swedish State Telephone Board
with carrier communication systems. Following this, he worked for
ASEA (now ABB) with HVDC systems and for Boeing with com-
puter system developments. During his 20 years with EPRI in USA
he initiated in 1979 the development of digital protective relaying
system developments and in 1986 EPRI’s FACTS initiative. In 1991
he was awarded a patent on Apparatus for Controlling the Reactive
Impedance of a Transmission Line. Stig Nilsson is a Life Fellow of
IEEE. He has chaired the IEEE PES T&D Committee, the IEEE
Herman Halperin Electric Transmission and Distribution Award
Committee, the IEEE PES Nari Hingorani Facts and Custom
Power Awards Committee, several IEEE Fellow nomination review

committees, been a member of the IEEE Standards Board, IEEE PES
subcommittees and working groups. Stig Nilsson has been the US
Representative and Secretary of CIGRE Study Committee B4 on
HVDC and Power Electronics. He is the recipient of the 2012 IEEE
PES Nari Hingorani Facts and Custom Power Awards. He received
the CIGRE U.S. National Committee Philip Sporn Award and the
the CIGRE Distinguished Member Award for active participation in
CIGRE Study Committees and the USNC of CIGRE (2006); and the
CIGRE USNC Attwood Associate Award in 2003. Stig Nilsson is a
registered Professional Engineer in the state of California, USA.
Shukai Xu, Senior Engineer at professor level, HVDC and

Power Electronics, Deputy Director of HVDC and Power Elec-
tronics department of EPRI of China Southern Power Grid and
Deputy Director of State Key Laboratory of HVDC Transmission
Technology of China.Shukai Xu received his Bachelor degree and
PhD degree from Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, both in
Electrical Engineering, in 2002 and 2007 respectively. After grad-
uation, he joined EPRI of China Southern Power Grid (CSG) in
Guangzhou, China and worked as an engineer of DC De-icing,
STATCOM, HVDC and VSC-HVDC system. From 2011 to 2013,
he worked on the 35 kV/200 MVAr STATCOMs for power
system application which were installed in four 500 kV substa-
tions of load centre in CSG to enhance regional power system
stability. As the technical director, he studied the application of
VSC-MTDC technology, including the system design, integration,
control strategies, etc., and finally developed the world’s first
VSC-MTDC project in 2013 – Nao’ao VSC-MTDC. He also
developed a back-to-back VSC-HVDC project in the 500 kV
backbone network of CSG, which is rated at 350 kV/
1000 MW and was p.u.t into operation in 2016. At present, he is
studying the ultra-high VSC technology and LCC-VSC-HVDC
technology, which can be applied into the three-terminal
800 kV/8000 MW–3000 MW-5000 MW Wudongde HVDC
project in CSG.He was a member of CIGRE B4.53 and now is
an IEEE senior member and IET Fellow.

Engineering.Bo Lei received his Bachelor degree and Master degree
from Hunan University, Changsha, China, both in Electrical Engi-
neering, in 2011 and 2014 respectively. After graduation, he joined
EPRI of China Southern Power Grid (CSG) in Guangzhou, China
and worked as an engineer of MW-level Energy Storage, Power
Electronic equipment, HVDC and VSC-HVDC system. From 2014
to 2015, he worked on the 10 kV/2 MW transformer-free Battery
Energy Storage System which were directly connected to 10 kV bus
in a distribution network of CSG to provide load shifting service and

enhance network reliability. As the core member, he has drafted IEEE
P2030.2.1 for guide of battery energy storage application in electric
power system and joined maintenance work of IEC 60919 for
HVDC applications. At present, he is working on the system design
of 25MWh-level second-use battery energy storage system and the
ultra-high VSC technology and LCC-VSC-HVDC technology, the
latter would be applied into the three-terminal 800 kV/
8000 MW–3000 MW–5000 MW Wudongde HVDC project in CSG.
Prof. Zhanfeng Deng has been working in research institutes of

State Grid Corporation of China(SGCC) since 2003. Now he is
Director of Power Electronic Department of Global Energy Intercon-
nection Institute Corp.(GERI), a research institute of SGCC. His
research interest is power electronic applications in power system
(FACTS, HVDC etc.).
Dr. Bjarne R. Andersen is the Director and Owner of Andersen

Power Electronic Solutions Limited, which was established in
2003.Before becoming an independent consultant, Bjarne worked
for 36 years for what is now GE Grid, where his final role was as
Bjarne Andersen has extensive experience in all stages of line
commutated and voltage-sourced converters for HVDC projects.
As a consultant he has worked on several international HVDC
projects, including the Caprivi Link, the first commercial VSC
HVDC project to use an HVDC overhead line, and a VSC HVDC
project for multi-terminal operation permitting multi-vendor access.
Bjarne was the Chairman of Cigre SC 14 from 2008 to 2014 and
an Honorary member of Cigre, and was the 2012 recipient of the
Part V
FACTS Controller Planning and Procurement
Economic Appraisal and Cost-Benefit
Analysis 16
Mário Duarte
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
3 General Approach to Economic Appraisal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
4 Problem Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
5 Identification of Alternatives and Assessing Relative Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
5.1 Bespoke Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
5.2 Performance Characteristics for Planning Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
5.3 Functional Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
5.4 Measurement of Incremental Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
6 Cost-Benefit Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
6.1 Initial Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
6.2 Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
6.3 Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
7 Results Summarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
8 Investment Decision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
Abstract
The consideration of FACTS controllers in the planning process does not change
any of the planning procedures currently employed by transmission network
planners. An economic appraisal can be considered as a process comprised of
discrete stages. These stages typically involve defining the problem to be ana-
lyzed and the need for investment, the identification of alternatives, assessing the
costs and benefits, summarizing results, and the final investment decision. The
economic assessment of FACTS controllers takes into account the particular
merits of the controller relative to competing conventional reinforcement
M. Duarte (*)
EirGrid Plc, Dublin, Ireland
e-mail: mario.duarte@eirgrid.com

710 M. Duarte
alternatives. Where the technical merits of FACTS controllers warrant transmis-

sion utilities investing in them, it is necessary that such investments are supported
by the corresponding economic appraisal relative to other competing options. In
such a way, the need for transmission system development should be well
understood, and the role of any FACTS controllers in mitigating the constraint
should be clearly defined. Recent experiences with delivering large transmission
projects have highlighted that permitting, site acquisition, and construction have
become extremely difficult. In this context, FACTS technologies may provide
cost-effective and timely alternatives to new transmission line construction at
least in the short term.
1 Introduction
As described by Stoll, infrastructure investments are long-term commitments to

significant capital investments by transmission utilities that are often regulated and
are required to demonstrate good value for the electricity consumer (Stoll 1989).
Including FACTS controllers in the planning process does not change any of the
planning procedures (Hingorani 2007). The technical evaluation remains built
around load flow, transient and dynamic stability, reactive power and voltage
control, and voltage stability analyses. The main benefits from using FACTS con-
trollers are the following:
• Increased speed of response to power system transient events that will increase
the transient stability of the power system
• Ability to modulate the response of the FACTS controller to provide system
damping
• Superior duty cycle achieved by power semiconductor switches that enables
repeated insertion and disconnection of the FACTS controllers to control power
system swings
• Improved system security by means of built-in self-checking to ensure that the
FACTS controller is operational at all times
• Improved system efficiency by having continuous control of the reactive power
flows and voltage that can result in more efficient operation of the connected lines
The consideration of FACTS controllers either represents the totality of the new
investment or simply provides an additional means to enhance the value of conven-
tional transmission infrastructure investments.
The technical merits of FACTS controllers may well warrant transmission utilities
investing in them. From a network planning perspective, it is necessary that such
investments are supported by a corresponding economic appraisal of its merits
relative to other competing reinforcement options. Therefore, the need for transmis-
sion system development has to be well understood, and the role of any FACTS
controllers in mitigating a constraint or addressing a network limitation should be
clearly defined.
16 Economic Appraisal and Cost-Benefit Analysis 711
In many parts of the world, the introduction of wholesale energy markets accom-
panied by new legislations and regulations has caused transmission system owners
to move away from a centrally planned paradigm adding to the challenges faced by
network planners when determining the optimum reinforcement alternative. Greater
emphasis is consequently placed on flexibility and a focus on a shorter planning time
horizon. The shorter planning horizon may have an impact on the duration for which
the reinforcement will be required.
Deregulation, re-regulation, restructuring, and significant regulatory and policy
changes to support renewable generation, energy storage, and flexible demand
continue to fuel long-term uncertainty and to transform the power system. These
changes impact power system performance, reliability, power quality, and operabil-
ity – all of which support the proliferation of FACTS-based solutions which are well
placed to address the resulting challenges. FACTS technology is also an enabling
technology in terms of continuous control of active and reactive power flows
allowing existing transmission lines to be leveraged and their value to be enhanced.
As Hingorani (2007) puts it, FACTS offers solutions to overcome constraints on
useable transmission capacity.
Recent experiences, in some parts of the world, with delivering large-scale
infrastructure projects, and particularly the construction of new transmission
lines, have shown that the statutory planning and permitting process, site acquisi-
tion, and construction have become extremely difficult. A growing emphasis on
social impacts, in addition to more rigorous environmental assessments, continues
to add to the expense and time required for the development of new infrastructure.
In many cases, localized public opposition has led to nationally negative public
sentiments and political intervention, making transmission developments quite
controversial. In this context, FACTS technologies may provide cost-effective
alternatives to new transmission line construction (Paserba 2009), at least in the
short term.
This cost-benefit analysis chapter considers the costs and benefits of FACTS
controllers in the following contexts:
• The costs and benefits of FACTS controllers compared with alternative

non-FACTS reinforcement options
• The relative costs and benefits for differing applications of the different FACTS
controllers
This chapter addresses the planning aspects of identifying, assessing, justify-

ing, and proceeding with a capital investment in FACTS controllers in the
transmission system. It discusses the approach to compiling an economic
appraisal, which builds the economic case for the investment and which is largely
consistent with such appraisals for any major transmission infrastructure or
equipment.
The chapter covers the factors that need to be considered in completing a cost-
benefit analysis and the major costs and benefits associated with each of the FACTS
controllers considered in this Green Book.
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The key concepts that are listed below are explained in detail within this chapter:
• Economic appraisal
• Incremental assessment
• Discounted cash flow
• Discount rate
• Present value
• Net present value (NPV)
2 Background
Infrastructure projects, including transmission network reinforcements, are identi-

fied inter alia as part of stepped phases of expansion (e.g., connections of new loads
or generators), system optimization, or ongoing developments to alleviate con-
straints that are identified by ongoing analysis. There are usually different alterna-
tives when accommodating such expansions and optimizations or addressing
constraints, and sound economic, technical, social, and environmental arguments
are required to support the preferred alternative.
Economic appraisal describes the studies undertaken to weigh the costs of an
action against the benefits that it provides. In the context of transmission infrastruc-
ture development, the appraisal is carried out before an investment is taken in order
to assist in deciding what is to be done by estimating the effects it is likely to have.
In economics more generally, this type of study is called cost-benefit analysis
(CBA). It is a structured approach to help decision-makers choose between alterna-
tive ways of using resources. The conventional approach to CBA is the monetization
of costs and benefits and assessing the extent of the net benefit in order to make an
investment decision. All costs and benefits are expressed in monetary terms and
adjusted for the time value of money, so that all flows of benefits and flows of project
costs (which tend to occur at different points in time) can be expressed on a common
basis in terms of their net present value (Stoll 1989).
In some cases, which are dependent on the industry structure and the investing
party, the analysis will be done at the company level. For such a case, it is easier to
ring-fence costs and benefits as they are usually clearly defined and well understood.
These costs and benefits would need to be analyzed at the company level and would
usually take into account all legal, funding, and taxation arrangements. These
economic appraisals are typically referred to as financial appraisals.
For many parts of the world, the economic appraisal is measured at the societal
level. This means that the incremental impact of the reinforcement on the national
economy is to be measured, rather than the impact on any of the individual state or
private company involved in making the capital investment.
Given the broad scope associated with measuring value at a societal level, there
are inevitably attempts and requests made to broaden the assessments to include
economic externalities. Externalities refer to the costs and benefits incurred by
parties outside of those directly being assessed and measured. Consequently, there
is a growing awareness that CBA has a much broader context since not all costs or
benefits are easily quantified. For example, the true welfare benefits of a secure and
reliable power system are well known, but very difficult to quantify and seldom
attempted for specific transmission network reinforcements. Similarly, the social
cost of reinforcements for the receiving communities is also recognized, and while
some attempt is made to provide compensation, there is a good argument that they
are not fully quantifiable.
The broader approach to CBA is acknowledged by the European Network of
Transmission System Operators for Electricity (ENTSO-E). ENTSO-E represents
42 electricity transmission system operators (TSOs) from 35 countries across
Europe, thus extending beyond EU borders. As requested by the Regulation
(EU) No 347/2013, ENTSO-E developed a CBA methodology (ENTSO-E 2018)
for the assessment of transmission and storage project that are captured in the
Pan-European Ten-Year Network Development Plan (TYNDP). Each TYNDP pro-
ject is assessed against nine indicators ranging from socioeconomic welfare to
environmental impact.
The European Commission has also developed a guide to CBA (European
Commission 2014). The guide defines the methodology to be followed for all
major projects submitted to the European Structural and Investment Fund (ESIF).
The approach recognizes the broad range of benefits and costs and proposes a range
of methodologies to assist in their quantification.
In other parts of the world outside of EU, the rules for investment decisions may
not be clearly defined. For example, in the United States, transmission investments
might be constrained by among others the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
(FERC), the North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC), the Indepen-
dent System operators (ISOs), and the Public Utility Commissions (PUC) or the
equivalent entities in the states. That is, there is no central authority in control of
investment decisions.
The following sections of this chapter attempt to represent the broad range of
costs and benefits and provide a discussion regarding the ability (or otherwise) to
fully monetize those values.
3 General Approach to Economic Appraisal
An economic appraisal can be considered as a process with a number of process

stages. The process stages are dependent on the governance requirements and
governance structure of the body responsible for making the infrastructure invest-
ment. Depending on the industry structure and the extent to which it is regulated, the
regulatory authorities will have a greater or lesser role in the vetting and approval of
competing reinforcement options.
The stages can be generically represented by five stages:
• Problem definition: defining the problem to be analyzed and the need for an
intervention or investment in transmission equipment.
• Identification of alternatives: alternative ways of dealing with the problem are
specified.
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• CBA: assessing the costs and benefits of the alternatives.

• Comparison and summarization: summarizing the results.
• Decision-making.
The problem definition is always the starting point of an appraisal and needs to be
defined clearly. It is always the case that there is at least one solution available to
solve a problem. In case of high-voltage transmission problems, the possible solu-
tions often include FACTS controllers because their performance characteristics
make them especially suitable for applications in the transmission network.
All reasonable alternatives capable of mitigating a constraint in the transmission
system are to be identified. Depending on the problem definition, this could involve a
large range of technology options of which a number of FACTS controllers could be
considered either on their own or together with other network modifications.
Depending on the problem definition, it may be desirable to focus only on a long-
term strategic investment, or consider a short-term flexible solution, or a compromise
or combinations of the two. Given the growing uncertainty of key forecasting
parameters such as demand location and type, generation location, availability,
quantum, and type, there is a growing emphasis on flexible solutions and solutions
that maximize the capacity and capability of the existing power system which would
potentially suit the further deployment of FACTS controllers.
CBA is an analytical step within the economic appraisal process. Assessing costs
and benefits involves a number of steps that would normally be considered as part of
a CBA, namely:
• Itemizing costs and benefits, which means drawing up a descriptive list of the
costs and benefits that are to be included in the appraisal.
• Measurement of those costs and benefits. This means obtaining data that describe
the levels of costs and benefits for the different alternatives.
• Valuation, which means converting these data into values. For example, resource
use data should be converted into costs by applying to those data the value of the
resources.
CBA is often defined in economics more generally as a generic term for economic
appraisal, starting with an inventory of all the costs and benefits of each alternative,
whatever they are and whoever incurs them. The analysis involves describing costs
and benefits and quantifying and placing a value on them where possible. Compar-
ison and summarization of the results means combining the data on costs and
benefits into the results that will be presented to decision-makers in support of the
recommendation of the preferred investment. The typical technique would be the net
monetized value resulting from the arithmetic combining of each of the costs and
benefits for each of the alternatives, i.e., a comparison of the net present values
(NPVs) for each option. This means that for the study to be meaningful, all costs and
benefits are required to be given in money values. Such a CBA would allow us to
calculate the net benefit of each alternative and the difference between benefits and
costs, which should be positive but might be negative for cases where the investment
is mandated by law or regulations. In the latter case, it would be a matter of
minimizing the loss.
The last stage is when a decision is taken based on the appraisal. The decision is
made within the context of the company’s governance processes and mandate
under the industry structure. Typically, decision-making would be based on
which of the alternatives has the greatest net benefit. Formally, the main decision
rule for CBA is that an activity should be undertaken if the sum of the benefits that
result is greater than the sum of the costs of undertaking it or, identically, if its net
benefit is positive. If only one activity with a positive net benefit can be undertaken
(because, e.g., there are limited funds), the activity with the highest net benefit
would be chosen.
4 Problem Definition
The deployment of transmission equipment, including FACTS controllers, is in

response to a problem that is identified in the transmission network and which
needs to be mitigated. The situation that exists prior to the reinforcement represents
the reference case, and the impact of the different mitigation alternatives is compared
to this case.
It is important to understand the constraints and the resulting specific need for
reinforcement. This will assist in defining the competing technologies that are
capable of meeting that need. For example, a constraint may be identified as a lack
of thermal capacity as a result of the connection of new renewable generators.
Assuming that curtailing the new generation is not an option, the need to create
additional capacity could be met by:
• Increasing the capacity of existing circuits

• Adding further circuits
• Improving the sharing and balance of power flow on parallel electrical paths
Therefore, depending on the nature of the constraint, different reinforcement

alternatives will need to be considered. In this context, FACTS controllers are
suitable for specific applications but are not seen as a general solution to all
transmission constraints.
Often, the use of FACTS controllers forms part of a larger scheme that would
require the controllers to be used together with more conventional reinforcements,
such as the construction of a new transmission circuit. In general, the conventional
reinforcement alternatives are often compared to FACTS solutions and combinations
of smaller scale conventional reinforcements paired with FACTS controllers.
In addition, the approach to solve the postulated problem should also be exam-
ined. Taking a strategic approach would lead to a long-term focused suite of
alternatives. Conversely, taking a short-term reactionary approach would lead to a
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short-term focused suite of alternatives. Such decisions relate to the urgency of the
need and the assessment of its uncertainty over time. Best practice would nudge
solutions in favor of strategic long-term initiatives, but the practical issues that
confront TSOs and developers are not always supportive of such an approach that
favors a more pragmatic resolution of constraints.
5 Identification of Alternatives and Assessing Relative

Performance
The identification and assessment of alternatives is a separate and distinct process.

Through this process, different alternatives for meeting an objective or addressing a
public need, e.g., mitigating a technical or performance constraint, are generated,
and their relative performance is assessed.
The CBA is applied to these alternatives, and the optimum economic solution for
meeting the objective is identified on the basis of the results. This economic case for
the project would then be part of a more general project appraisal that would include,
inter alia, affordability, achievability, or deliverability, the risks associated with the
different alternatives; and various types of impact assessments including on the
society, the environment, and health and safety.
The following FACTS controllers are considered in the discussion that follows:
• Static Var Compensator (SVC)

• Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)
• Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)
• Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)
5.1 Bespoke Solutions
FACTS controllers may represent alternatives to competing conventional rein-

forcements. They may also be contemplated as part of a scheme that permits
alternative strategic considerations to be accounted for, for example, allowing for
greater uncertainty in key assumptions that allows for the deferment of significant
new infrastructure. Network developments or reinforcement schemes focused on
the improved utilization of the existing power system often include FACTS
controllers which are seen as offering a practical alternative to more significant
interventions.
For some applications, FACTS controllers would be seen as the only practical
technical alternative capable of providing suitable and cost-effective mitigation.
For such cases the competing alternatives would be between the controllers
themselves and would depend on the specific reinforcement requirements. Such
applications would normally relate to stability-related constraints such as tran-
sient, voltage, frequency, or dynamic stability or power quality concerns such as
flicker.
5.2 Performance Characteristics for Planning Considerations
The viability of the specific FACTS controller as an alternative capable of addressing

a particular system need will depend on the specific topology of the network and the
effectiveness of the controller in not violating any the constraints.
The technical characteristics of the different FACTS controllers and different
implementations of the FACTS controllers have been described in other chapters of
this Green Book as listed below. The reader will find valuable technical and other
information (e.g., actual implementations, site area, and special applications)
concerning the different FACTS controllers in the following chapters:
Technical Description of the Applications of the

Static Var Compensator (SVC) Static Var Compensator (SVC)
Static Compensator (STATCOM) Static Compensator (STATCOM)
Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor
Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) and its Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)
Potential Variations and its Variants
A brief description of each of the FACTS controller types and their characteristics
is provided below:
5.2.1 Static Var Compensator

• This typically consists of one or more Thyristor Controlled Reactor(s) (TCR), which
absorb reactive power, plus a harmonic filter (for reduction of AC harmonics from the
TCR), which provides reactive power. The SVC can also include Thyristor Switched
Capacitors (TSC) or Thyristor Switched Rectors (TSR). The maximum rated
dynamic reactive power absorption is the sum of the ratings of the TCRs and the
TSRs minus the rating of the harmonic filter. The maximum rated dynamic capacitive
power generation is the sum of the ratings of the TSCs and the AC harmonic filter.
The dynamic range can be offset by breaker switched capacitors and reactors.
• When there is more than one TCR module, all but one can be operated as TSRs to
minimize harmonic generation and to provide system redundancy.
• The thyristors used for the TCR might have significant short-term overload
capacity, which is useful during severe overvoltage events.
• The reactive power output of a TSC is reduced to 64% of the rated reactive power
at 80% of the AC system voltage, that is, the TSC acts as a fixed impedance when
switched on.
• The transformer used for connection of the SVC to the AC network must be sized
for the maximum of the inductive or capacitive rating of the SVC.
• The inductance in the transformer absorbs some reactive power, which should be
considered in the system rating.
5.2.2 Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)

• This is comprised of one or more voltage source converters (VSC) with symmet-
rical, i.e., equal reactive inductive and capacitive compensation, range. The
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dynamic range can be offset by TSCs or TSRs, and the dynamic range can also be
offset by breaker switched capacitors or reactors; however, both of these measures
increase the footprint. Modern STATCOMs do not typically require harmonic
filters.
• Rating is typically given based on the rating of the VSC converter, which is half
of the rating of a comparable symmetrically rated SVC. That is, one var of a
STATCOM requires approximately one var of TCR (net of reactive power in the
filter) plus one var of TSC.
• The reactive power output of a STATCOM is reduced to 80% of the rated reactive
power at 80% of the AC system voltage. That is, the STATCOM is a current
source at the limits of its range.
• Transformer used for connection of the STATCOM to the AC network must at
least be sized for the maximum rating of the VSC.
• The inductance in the transformer absorbs some reactive power, which should be
considered in the system rating.
5.2.3 Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)

• This consists of a shunt-connected VSC controller and a second VSC controller
connected in series with the AC line. Each of the VSCs has a symmetrical range.
The VSCs share the same DC bus, which has to be rated for the active power
transfer.
• Rating might be given as the sum of the rated power of the two converters.
• The shunt- and series-connected converters do not have to have the same power
rating.
• The shunt-connected controller module of the UPFC is the same as a STATCOM
but with the capability to transfer active power to and from the series-connected
controller module.
• The series-connected VSC injects a voltage with varying amplitude and phase
into each phase of the AC line:
– The magnitude of the injected voltage is limited by the allowable over- and
undervoltage acceptable for the line at the point of connection.
– In high short-circuit current applications, the series transformer must be
bypassed (typically on the converter side) to avoid overcurrent stresses for
the converter valves in the series converter.
– The bypass is typically facilitated by means of high current thyristor switches.
• Both of the VSC modules can absorb and generate reactive power up to their
power ratings independent of each other.
• Active power transfers between the shunt- and series-connected modules must be
the same.
• The shunt and series converters can be operated independently of each other by
opening the common DC link, but then no active power flow transfers are
feasible, which means that the injected series voltage can only be in quadrature
to the line voltage.
5.2.4 Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)

• Asymmetric performance rating for capacitive and inductive operating range:
– The capacitive range is primarily limited by the voltage rating of the series
capacitor.
– The inductive range is limited by the harmonic stresses in the thyristor switch.
• The series capacitor bank rating can be given assuming that the Thyristor
Controlled Reactor (TCR) in parallel with the capacitor bank is not conducting.
• The thermal rating of the TCR can be based on the continuous current flow
through the TCR at maximum line current when the series capacitor is bypassed.
• The TCSC rating might be given as the rating of the controller with a specific
boost factor (increased series capacitor voltage) or capacitive impedance:
– The boost factor typically varies between 1 and 3, but a high boost factor is
typically only feasible at less than the rated current of the TCSC.
• Short-term and long-term emergency current ratings are typically specified to be
used for high-power transfer during transient power swings.
• The TCR portion of the TCSC is normally required to bypass the series capacitors
during short-circuit events:
– The short-circuit current duty will determine the thermal characteristics of the
thyristors used in the TCR.
A simplified comparison of the FACTS controllers can be found in Table 1.

In general, the shunt-connected FACTS controllers are useful for voltage, reactive
power, and, therefore, power factor control. Consequently they would improve the
voltage stability of the power system. These types of systems do not contribute to the
short-circuit capacity of the power system because they lack energy storage and
inertia. If applied at a suitable point in the network, they can be used for damping of
sub-synchronous resonances and, if correctly designed, should not cause torsional
interactions.
The series-connected systems will be useful for power flow control and should be
possible to use for SSR damping if correctly designed and located in an appropriate
point in the power system where SSR is observable and controllable. They can be
applied to improve the transient and dynamic stability of the power system and to
reduce the short-circuit current flows by quickly increasing the impedance of the line
in which they are installed. The UPFC, since it is both a shunt and series compen-
sator, combines the performance capabilities of both shunt- and series-connected
FACTS controllers.
5.3 Functional Specification
In order to fully appreciate the costs and benefits of each of the FACTS controllers, it
is necessary to consider their relative performance, in the context of the identified
need. The relative performance is derived from detailed transmission system studies
that consider power flow, stability, and harmonic performance. The scope of the
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Table 1 Comparison of applications for FACTS controllers

Application SVC STATCOM UPFC TCSC
Most Control of system Control of system For power flow Increase power
frequent voltage voltage control and flow capability
application Very good for Very good for simultaneous on lines; mitigate
improvement of improvement of control of system inter-area power
voltage quality, voltage quality, voltage oscillations; and
e.g., reduction of e.g., reduction of The most prevent
flicker caused by flicker caused by versatile FACTS sub-synchronous
disturbing loads disturbing loads controller and torsional
Has smaller may be oscillations
footprint than the applicable where
SVC many issues need
to be addressed
Voltage and For overvoltage For overvoltage For over- and Can provide
power factor and undervoltage and undervoltage undervoltage indirect
control outside the outside the outside the overvoltage and
controllable controllable controllable undervoltage
range, the SVC range, the range, the control of the
acts as a constant STATCOM acts STATCOM part shunt voltage, up
impedance as a constant acts as a current to the rating of
Has considerable current source source. Has the TCSC
overload The inherent limited overload
capability overload capability, unless
capability is specially
typically less specified for the
than the SVC application
Voltage Fast response to Fast response to Fast response to Can provide
stability bus voltage bus voltage bus voltage indirect
improvement disturbances disturbances disturbances overvoltage and
Ability to support Ability to support undervoltage
voltage even at voltage even at control of the
low level may low level may shunt voltage, up
enable the system enable quicker to the rating of
to recover more system recovery the TCSC
quickly Series part’s The capability of
impact on line the power flow
reactive power control can also
can improve be used to
voltage stability improve the
voltage stability,
because of the
impact that this
has on the line
reactive power
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Power flow Indirectly Indirectly Series converter The TCSC can
control through AC through AC can control the active
voltage control voltage control independently power flow
control active and through the line It
reactive power can balance the
flows through the power flows
line. It can between parallel
balance the circuits
power flows
between parallel
circuits
Short-circuit No capability No capability Can only limit During a short
current short-circuit circuit, fast
limitation current if the bypass of the
resulting series capacitor
converter current by the thyristor
is less than the switches reduces
designed fault currents
overcurrent Can be controlled
rating. Once to provide
exceeded the maximum power
series converter transfer on
will be bypassed, unaffected phases
the UPFC will during single-
not limit the phase faults
current
Harmonics Filters provided Modern Modern UPFCs No significant
to limit system STATCOMs do do not usually harmonics escape
harmonics not usually require filters to into the line, and
generated during require filters to achieve there has not
TCR operation achieve acceptable been a need for
acceptable harmonic harmonic filters
harmonic performance on any of the
performance. installed TCSC
Some
STATCOMs are
designed to
provide active
attenuation of
system
harmonics, at
increased cost
(continued)
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Table 1 (continued)
Sub- A correctly A correctly A correctly A correctly
synchronous designed SVC designed designed UPFC designed TCSC
oscillation will not cause STATCOM will will not cause will not cause
mitigation sub-synchronous not cause sub-synchronous sub-synchronous
oscillation sub-synchronous oscillation oscillation
between it and oscillation between it and between it and
generators between it and generators generators
Can be designed generators Can be designed Can be designed
to reduce Can be designed to reduce to reduce
sub-synchronous to reduce sub-synchronous sub-synchronous
oscillations on sub-synchronous and damp resonances and
interconnectors, oscillations on torsional damp torsional
if in a suitable interconnectors, oscillations on oscillations on
location if in a suitable the line to which the line to which
Studies are location it is connected it is connected
needed for both Studies are Studies are Studies are
issues needed for both needed for both needed for both
issues issues issues
technical simulations may be further expanded and would be a function of the

identified need.
The technical simulations are used to evaluate the performance of the identified
reinforcement alternative in mitigating the constraint and to assist in defining the
functional specification for the solution. This could translate to the additional
thermal capacity and hence conductor or cable type associated with a new circuit
or the dynamic compensating range of a STATCOM or SVC. The functional
specifications are required for detailed design should the alternative be selected as
the preferred development.
Initially, generic models are used in static and dynamic simulations to determine
the efficacy of the controller in mitigating the identified constraint. In reality, the
precise performance of the FACTS controller is more complex than that represented
by generic models, and this will be further investigated should the controller be
deemed a viable alternative.
There are several software applications available for load flow and dynamic
modeling and simulation. For example, the PSS/E (supplied by Siemens) and
Power Factory (supplied by DIgSILENT) are in common use.
5.4 Measurement of Incremental Impact
The outcome of the system performance is required to assess the incremental impact
on the system, such as the change in transmission losses, improvement in renewable
generation integration, or increase in inter-area power transfers. These changes
would be monetized into either an incremental benefit or an incremental cost,
depending on their impact.
For the purposes of the comparative analysis, the functional specification, which
provides key parameters such as connecting voltage and compensating range, is also
required to facilitate the costing of the alternatives. The functional specification
impacts several cost components (e.g., the capability and hence cost of the FACTS
controller), likely spatial impact (e.g., circuit length, substation size, installation
footprint, etc.).
For those alternatives that materially impact the power flow to the extent that
generation dispatch is impacted facilitating more economic generation to operate
more frequently, a socioeconomic welfare contribution can be calculated. This is
typically derived from market analysis simulations using market analysis simulation
software.
6 Cost-Benefit Analysis
6.1 Initial Considerations
6.1.1 General Analysis Principles

Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is a well-established and widely used technique to
assess the merits of a decision, policy, or investment. It is typically used either to
assess the viability of an individual investment or decision or to provide the basis or
the comparison of competing investments or projects.
CBA involves comparing the total expected cost of an investment or competing
options against their total expected benefits. These total costs and benefits may be
fully monetized or may form part of a broader multi-criteria analysis approach that
allows for a broader assessment of value.
The practical application of CBA recognizes that the value of money is time-
dependent: Money that is available now is worth more than the same numerical
amount at some future date because of its potential earning capacity. Provided that
the money can earn interest, any amount of money is worth more the sooner it is
received. This is captured in discounted cash flow (DCF) analysis, which is the
general method used to account for the time value of money in which all future cash
flows are estimated and discounted using an approved net discount rate (NDR) to
calculate their equivalent present values. This facilitates the consistent representation
of all the values that are associated with each of the alternative reinforcements and
allows their relative economic performance to be compared. Netting the monetized
costs off against the monetized benefits yields a net present value (NPV) for the
investment.
Decisions regarding the general structure of the analysis depend on the environ-
ment within which the evaluation is taking place and the specific requirements of the
decision-making body. This would relate to such considerations as whether the
evaluation uses real or nominal values, whether the valuation is set at the societal
level or at the company level, and consequently whether to account for taxation or
not. The general approach in a regulated System Operator (SO) is to represent the
724 M. Duarte
evaluation at the societal level and as such to represent values in real terms,
excluding taxation.
Corporate finance decisions relating to the presentation of costs and benefits and
the appropriate return requirement are usually defined by the relevant regulatory
authority or by the firm’s corporate finance department using the company’s financ-
ing position (i.e., gearing or debt-to-equity ratio and weighted average cost of
capital) as reference. This refers to such parameters as the reference currency, the
application to exchange rates, reference energy parameters such as the cost of CO2,
and the cost of input fuel sources, for example. Most importantly, the selection of the
net discount rate that should be used in the economic appraisal is a key corporate
finance decision. It usually has reference to the company’s weighted average cost of
capital (WACC) or the allowed regulatory return on the approved regulatory asset
base. Often, depending on the direction of the corporate financiers, the risk of the
investment is reflected in the NDR which would apply a risk premium to the WACC.
6.1.2 Duration of Evaluation and Useful Asset Life

The economic useful life of an asset is the period for which the asset is effective and
after which the asset is expected to be replaced or decommissioned. For transmission
network assets in a regulatory environment, this is usually the same as the depreci-
ation period allowed for the SO’s regulatory asset base, which can be as long as
50 years, but may be shorter if it is an asset required only for a limited time.
Regulatory accounting then writes off the transmission assets using the depreciation
depending on the approach – typically straight-line depreciation. After the period,
the assets can be expected to be replaced if its function is still required. In firms that
are not subjected to regulation, this would be a decision that would be made by the
corporate financiers.
There is empirical evidence that transmission assets, if well maintained, have a
useful life in excess of the regulatory depreciation periods. However, even though a
FACTS controller might not be needed for as long as its depreciable life lasts, for
consistency and for simplicity, the useful life for different assets is defined and made
use of in all analyses.
The comparison of options requires that the same duration be applied to all the
options being considered. For assets that have the same useful life, there is no
complication in the assessment. But, where there are assets of differing useful life
spans, the usual practice is to apply the evaluation period equivalent to the longest
period and then to factor in the replacement or decommissioning of the assets with
shorter life spans, crediting the asset with its terminal value at the end of the
evaluation period.
From a network planning perspective and as an input into a CBA, the useful life
of a FACTS controller is not seen as the same as the conventional technology
associated with static transmission equipment, such as new circuits or substation
extensions. From an asset management perspective, the useful life of individual
components is related to the nature and frequency of use. Once again, for planning
purposes, a generic consideration of the typical useful life of the individual com-
prising components is sufficient to support a view on the useful life of FACTS
controllers. The typical useful life of key components might range from 15 to
35 years (Joseph et al. 2018). Transformers (where relevant) are considered to
have a useful life of 30 or more years. Consequently, assuming a useful life for
power electronic controllers of significantly less than the assumed 40–50 years of
conventional transmission equipment is deemed reasonable. In general, a useful life
of 30 years for FACTS controllers might be seen as reasonable.
As a consideration, when comparing FACTS to conventional reinforcement
options, the shortened life span of FACTS controllers will therefore be a factor in
the analysis. However, the FACTS option might enable the postponement of invest-
ments in new lines, which might push a significant amount of capital expenditures
into the future.
6.1.3 Calculation of Net Present Values

There are several approaches to the calculation of the net present value (NPV), given
that the technique is widely used and grounded in economic analysis.
An approach requires the calculation of a discounting factor that is multiplied to
the individual costs and benefits in their corresponding years. An alternative
approach determines the costs and benefits in a given year and discounts the net
value to present value (shown below).
XT
Benefitt Costt
NPV ¼
t¼0 ð1 þ NDRÞt
Where:
NPV: Net Present Value
Benefitt: Benefit in year t
Costt: Cost in year t
NDR: Net discount rate
T: Evaluation period (typically 40 or 50 years)
There are several variations of this – all of which are numerically correct. The
method used is a matter of preference and what is considered easier or more
reasonable considering the uncertainties associated with predicting future discount
rates, inflation (where appropriate), and many other unknowns for follow-up audits
that are usually conducted by external third parties.
6.2 Costs
6.2.1 General Approach to Costs

The proposed new reinforcements are to be assessed incrementally. This means that
the incremental costs and benefits associated with the reinforcement need to be
identified and separated from the reference performance in the absence of that
investment. This is to be done for each reinforcement option independently.
726 M. Duarte
Except for applications where the FACTS controllers are required by technical
necessity, or where environmental or social constraints make the extension of the
existing transmission network impossible or prohibitively expensive, the use of a
FACTS controller is treated as an alternative to be assessed alongside more conven-
tional alternatives.
The comparison of costs involves the identification and quantification of a
number of costs that can be directly attributed to the reinforcement alternative –
including for the application of FACTS controllers. The primary cost components
are as follows:
• Initial capital costs, including preengineering costs and a risk factor for consid-
eration of the potential cost of contingencies.
• Where relevant, the inclusion of terminal costs. The terminal costs should include
decommissioning costs and scrap recovery value and may also include the cost of
having to return the site to its original condition depending on the specific
valuation requirements of the jurisdiction or company completing the appraisal.
For cases where solutions have different life spans, the residual asset value is also
required to be included to assist with comparability of options.
• Incremental operating and maintenance costs.
• Reliability-related costs.
Despite the number of studies detailing technical analyses and applications of the
various FACTS controllers, there is little information available in open literature
regarding their economics (L’Abbate et al. 2007). However, performance differences
among the different FACTS controller options might make it possible to use a lower
rated controller of one type versus a higher rated controller of another type to
accomplish the same objective. Therefore, a simple cost per kvar assuming an
equal rating for the different FACTS options might be highly misleading. This
impacts the ability for detailed economic appraisals to be undertaken for a FACTS
installation due to the reliance on approximations of several parameters, some of
them often not clearly measurable or quantifiable. There is also limited information
available about economic parameters from FACTS manufacturers as their deploy-
ment, depending on the controller, is still not generally widespread. In this context,
the cost components are discussed below.
6.2.2 Inception Costs

Inception or capital cost estimates are intended to cover the equipment cost (i.e.,
design, engineering, manufacturing, transportation) and construction (i.e., physical
construction, erection, installation, and commissioning) of the FACTS controller.
The typical cost determinants relate to the installation rating and the required
configuration of the controller. In addition to these, the inception costs are also
impacted by specific requirements in respect of (1) redundancy of the control and
protection system and, in some cases, of main components to achieve the specified
reliability; (2) ambient conditions, such as temperature or pollution levels; and
(3) geological or location-specific physical limitations.
There are also inception costs associated with the site location and the specific
infrastructure integration requirements that are also a factor in determining a reliable
cost estimate. These costs include the cost of land acquisition, the cost of modifying
existing substations, the cost of constructing the necessary building to house the
indoor equipment if applicable, and the cost of yard civil works.
Accurate estimation of the inception costs of FACTS controllers is a function of
the design of the controllers themselves. As a result, although tables of costs per
controller are available, the tendency is for more detailed cost models to be used.
Cost models, such as parametric cost models, typically consider the cost of individ-
ual components including transformers, switchgear, power electronic systems, site
area, etc. and seek to account for other parameters of the specific controllers.
The limited availability of adequate and meaningful information on the inception
costs of FACTS controllers is a significant factor that limits the accuracy level of any
economic calculations undertaken when justifying their use. Some dated information
provided by industry bodies and original equipment manufacturers are available, but
have less relevance for projects today, because of the continuing technical develop-
ments of the FACTS controllers.
All these factors contribute to complicate cost estimation.
Costs are referenced in several articles and professional journals, but relate
primarily to specific applications or high-level comparisons of technologies. This
is the case with Balser et al. (2012) and an often-cited paper by Habur and O’Leary
(2005) in which cost ranges for FACTS controllers are provided as supplied by one
of the main original equipment manufacturers (OEM). Similarly, cost ranges
referenced in the Cigre TB 183 (Cigre 2001) based on an EPRI-cited cost table.
By reviewing known projects, and considering reference articles relating to
inception costs, a synthesis of the inception costs in per unit (PU) cost per kvar is
provided in the table below. Such a presentation of costs presents the relative cost of
the individual FACTS controllers and would be of most use when two controllers are
competing to address the same constraint. However, the required rating of the
different FACTS options first need to be determined before a simple cost per kvar
can be applied. This is of less value when comparing FACTS controllers with
conventional transmission network reinforcements (Table 2).
Also included in the table above are assessments of the other factors that are likely
to impact on the cost of a FACTS solution, namely, typical equipment footprint,1
requirement for additional equipment such as transformers and filters, and the
complexity of the controllers. The maturity of the controller is also provided in
order to provide an indication of how reliable any cost estimates that are provided or
developed are likely to be. This is a direct indication of how much risk is inherent in
the cost estimation and should be correlated with the magnitude of any contingency
allowances to apply to the cost estimate. Because of these price risks, it may be
beneficial to contact the FACTS controller vendors for guidance on the potential
1
See the application chapters in this Green Book. Some further guidance is also provided in Table 3.
728 M. Duarte
Table 2 Comparison of factors relating to inception costs of FACTS controllers

Thyristor
Controlled Series Unified Power
Capacitors Flow Controller
Criterion SVC STATCOM (TCSC) (UPFC)
Typical 100–850 100–400 25–600 100–500
available
Mvar/MVA
range
Relative Proven Converter is Relatively simple Complex system
complexity technology. proven, and there technology.
Requires are fewer other Produces
harmonic components. harmonics that
filtering May not require might not require
harmonic filters filters
Space Large area Small area Requires elevated Requires
requirements needed for needed for platform excitation and
capacitors, system; insulated from series
reactors, and magnetic fields ground; well- transformers of a
filters; high confined to the proven seismic simpler design
magnetic stray valve building strength designs because of no or
fields incl. high available few taps in the
harmonic windings; may
current fields require
unsymmetrical
transformer
design
Maturity Excellent, in Excellent, in Limited; however Limited –
excess of excess of service 6 projects
100 units 100 units experience is in worldwide
installed installed excess of 15 years
worldwide, worldwide,
reliability reliability
improving with improving with
SVC STATCOM
development, development,
and they have and they have
been installed been installed for
for more than 20 years
30 years
Relative cost 1.0–1.7 1.7–2.5 1.2–1.7 3.0–4.3
range (PU €/
Mvar or
MVA)
price of any proposed FACTS controller(s), prior to moving to the final decision
stage and the preparation of technical specifications. However, the actual price of a
FACTS controller might not be the same as the estimated cost because the general
business climate affects the factory loading, delivery times, etc. which can have a
significant impact on the price of the equipment.
6.2.3 Operating and Maintenance Costs

The operating and maintenance costs are typically made up of the cost of incremental
power losses, the cost of routine maintenance, and the cost of unplanned
maintenance.
The operating and maintenance costs for FACTS are typically taken into account
in the CBA as a percentage of the inception capital cost. The operating and
maintenance costs are assumed to include the costs associated with maintenance,
services and monitoring, network utilization costs, equipment power losses, and
insurance. The cost of upgrading the digital control, instrumentation, and monitoring
equipment should be included as specific cost items because this type of equipment
might not have a maintainable life in excess of 15 years. The annual operating and
maintenance cost figure used in the cost-benefit analyses range between 1% and 5%
of the FACTS controller inception: Early references indicate 1% per annum
(L’Abbate et al. 2007). Subsequent references recommend using operating and
maintenance costs of 5% of initial capital cost per annum in economic appraisals
(Alabduljabbar and Milanović 2010; Alhasawi and Milanović 2012). More recently,
references make use of 3% per annum (Sekharan and Sishaj 2014).
Power losses and maintenance costs are discussed in further detail below.
Cost of Losses
The power losses associated with the FACTS controller are factored into the typical
operating and maintenance cost assumption, which is typically taken as a percentage
of the inception capital cost (mentioned above). This is a generalized approach. The
power losses will depend on how the FACTS controller is operated. If a more
detailed approach is preferred then the separate components of the operating and
maintenance costs would need to be addressed discretely. Detailed discussions of the
losses for each of the FACTS controllers are given in a number of chapters in this
book, namely, ▶ Chaps. 6, “Technical Description of Static Var Compensators
(SVC),” ▶ 7, “Technical Description of Static Compensators (STATCOM),”
▶ 8, “Technical Description of Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC),”
and ▶ 9, “Technical Description of the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)
and Its Potential Variations.”
To determine the cost of losses, the costs are assumed to be marginal costs and
therefore the average system marginal price (if an electricity market exists); or the
short-run marginal cost of generation (for vertically integrated utility environments)
is used. Multiplying the annual energy losses associated with the controller by the
marginal price produces the annual cost of losses.
The functioning of the FACTS controller changes the operation of the power
system, affecting the balance of power flow around the network and consequently
impacting the incremental transmission system losses. This impact is dependent on
the application of the FACTS controller and the topology of the power system within
which it is integrated. It is therefore necessary to also consider the cost of the
incremental change in transmission system losses attributable to the FACTS con-
troller or alternative network reinforcement that it is compared to.
730 M. Duarte
To determine the cost of the incremental transmission system losses of a particular

controller, the typical duty cycle for the controller is required to be estimated over the
course of a typical year. These are, as an approximation, extrapolated to be repre-
sentative of future equipment losses. For the purposes of an economic appraisal, the
level of detail will depend on the purpose of the appraisal. Any inaccuracy as a result
of such a calculation would be less relevant for a comparative assessment as it would
apply equally to each competing reinforcement alternative. The NPV of the losses
can be larger than the inception costs and could materially affect the investment
decision as a result.
The change to the transmission system losses is normally derived from load flow
model simulations that are compiled to estimate the annual incremental change in
system losses. With the increases in computing power and data management capa-
bility, the trend is toward automated simulations that cover the 8760 h of a year to
calculate the changes to the transmission losses. Using the same reference marginal
price referred to above, the cost of losses is calculated. This cost of losses is
incremental and should be with reference to the system prior to the consideration
of the reinforcement alternative. Depending on the reinforcement, the cost may well
reflect a saving.
Cost of Maintenance
The relevance of maintenance from an economic appraisal perspective is to identify
the maintenance practices that are relevant for costing and to provide an input into
the reliability assessments. The life cycle maintenance costs are a function of the
controller, or reinforcement option, being considered and are closely tied to the
useful life of the components of which it is comprised. For example, the control and
protection system’s life expectancy is about half that of other major equipment, such
as thyristors or power transformers (Bilodeau et al. 2016). For this reason, the first
intervention typically involves the replacement of the control and protection system,
while the other major equipment would remain in service. From a reliability per-
spective, the planned interventions would impact the availability of the controller
and would be factored into any computation of the cost of reliability.
Strategies for the management of traditional transmission assets have been well
studied and are common practice for utilities (Joseph et al. 2018). But the growing
incorporation of power electronic controllers into existing grids has escalated the
asset management challenge significantly. The complexity of FACTS controllers and
their aging mechanisms and the interpretation of information derived from existing
asset management techniques make evaluating their condition a complex task. For
FACTS controllers that have been in operation for significant periods of time,
additional investment is often needed. This recognizes that regular maintenance is
no longer sufficient to ensure the controllers’ long-term sustainability and reliability.
A systematic item-for-item replacement is not always possible given the availability
of spare parts and dependencies among sub-systems such as thyristors, control and
protection, and cooling systems. Therefore, a more global approach is required.
Asset management strategies for the main FACTS controllers can be found in
chapter “Life Management” of this book.
The amount of annual maintenance of FACTS controllers is estimated by Harbur

and O’Leary (2005) to range from 150 to 250 man-hours and is dependent on the
size of the installation and the local ambient conditions. Furthermore, the age and
type of equipment are seen as key factors for the costing of maintenance, recognizing
that the relationship between cost, age, and type is not linear and is also a function of
obsolescence.
From a planning perspective, the typical approach is to smooth the costs of the
FACTS controller’s maintenance over its lifetime, recognizing the replacement of
key components during that period and representing it as a percentage of the
inception costs that is incurred annually. The maintenance costs are usually com-
bined with the operating costs discussed above and factored into the assessments as a
single annualized figure. The operating and maintenance costs for FACTS,
according to L’Abbate et al. (2007), are typically taken into account as a percentage
of the inception capital cost and are typically taken as around 1% per year.
For economic appraisals that are focused on the assessment of investment deci-
sions for existing FACTS controllers that are nearing the end of their useful or
economic life, the basic principles discussed above still apply. In reality, such
investment decisions would be dealt with under the utility’s prevailing asset man-
agement strategies. As an illustration, though, and using the general approach to
economic appraisals detailed above, the following would apply:
• For the “problem definition,” the increase in equipment failures, the history of
forced outages, availability of spare parts, and major equipment nearing their life
expectancy would usually define the need for an investment in the asset and the
initiation of a project.
• The “identification of alternatives” would relate to the options available and
would typically address (i) partial replacement of a system, such as the control
and protections system; (ii) the complete replacement of a system, such as the
thyristor or cooling systems; or (iii) the complete replacement of the installation.
Options that involve the introduction of new technologies permit alternative
FACTS controllers to be considered and would be especially relevant for cases
where the original justification for the FACTS controller had changed signifi-
cantly over the life of the controller.
6.2.4 Reliability and Unavailability

The introduction of new equipment to a transmission system impacts the reliability
of the transmission system. It does this by (a) exposing the transmission system to
the reliability of the new equipment itself and (b) acting to mitigate the impact of
reliability of other equipment on the system, potentially improving overall system
reliability and availability.
Approach to Reliability Assessment

The technologies associated with competing reinforcement options each have dif-
ferent performance and reliability characteristics. The differing reliability perfor-
mance of the options would also impact the cost of the electricity market for the
732 M. Duarte
periods where the reinforcement is not available due to forced outages. Forced
outages are normally associated with faults that occur from time to time and are
specific to the equipment type, technology employed (including voltage level,
overhead line, underground cable, etc.), and environmental conditions.
Asset management strategies and approaches to maximizing the reliability of the
main FACTS controllers can be found in chapter “Life Management” of this book.
The reliability assessment of any equipment is heavily data-reliant. Good quality
data regarding failure rates and repair times for components are necessary to
facilitate meaningful and accurate modeling. This was recognized by the Cigre
Advisory Group AG B4-04 who conducted a survey in the early part of 2016 and
identified that no standard protocol for reporting performance of FACTS controllers
was available. As a result, each system that the advisory group surveyed used a
different method for reporting. It concluded that although the survey provided good
information, a valid comparison could not be made between the various systems due
to a lack of standard method of reporting.
Therefore, a technical brochure was published by the advisory group in January
2018 providing a protocol and standard method for reporting the performance of all
FACTS controllers (Cigre 2018). The technical brochure recommends the prepara-
tion of an annual report on the operational performance of each FACTS controller in
commercial service be prepared each year, in accordance with this protocol. This will
ensure uniformity and comparability of the data. This data, over time, will provide
information about the past performance of equipment groups and subgroups and the
influencing factors. With enough data, projections can be made about future
performance.
Consequently, if the CIGRE format is adopted and the data is provided to CIGRE,
standardized reliability data might become available for FACTS controllers to
support reliability assessments. However, until the data is made available, the asset
owners need to rely on their own performance data to date in order to project
reliability performance assessments.
General asset management data regarding power electronic components are
available, though. Through continuous improvement asset management processes,
the failure rates of IGBT modules have been reduced from 1000 failures in time (FIT,
the number of failures in one billion hours) in 1995 to 20 FIT in 2000 and
significantly fewer more recently (Joseph et al. 2018). Despite the extensive efforts
to improve reliability, failures in power electronics have continued to be observed
with surveys indicating that IGBTs have been the most frequently used controllers
(42%) among power semiconductors, followed by metal-oxide semiconductor field-
effect transistors (MOSFETs) (27%) and thyristors (14%) (Yang et al. 2010).
The power electronic components are not the only components subject to failure
in a FACTS controller. From the work done by Joseph et al. (2018), the most
common types of failure arising in power electronic controllers relate to semicon-
ductor failure, control and protection systems, transmission linking equipment such
as cables and connection equipment, filters, and cooling system failures. Although it
is theoretically possible to achieve an availability approaching 100%, it cannot be
achieved without introducing excessive redundancy. This contributes to increasing
complexity of the FACTS controller, affecting reliability once again. Realistically a

total annual operational availability of 99% to 99.5% can be reached with redun-
dancy built into the most sensitive components and maintaining adequate spares
holding to support the required availability. This is including both forced and
scheduled outages in addition to mobilization time of repair crews. Overall annual
reliability requirements representative of most FACTS controller specification are in
the range of 98% to 99% (Janke et al. 2010).
The failure rates and unavailability can reduce the value of the transmission asset
and can become a burden for operators and asset owners. In line with this, the failure
rates of the different components in a typical power electronic substation are
carefully evaluated to determining their respective failure rate in occurrence per
year and repair time in hours per year. From an economic appraisal perspective, this
reliability performance data is used to estimate the time over the course of a calendar
year that the FACTS controllers would not be available. During this time, either the
assessed benefits would be foregone, or continuity of supply may be affected
contributing to Expected Energy Not Served (EENS). Depending on network topol-
ogy and the nature of the reinforcement scheme that the FACTS controller is a part
of, it may well include components of both.
It is possible to develop quite complex reliability models, but the objective should
always be to develop models that are appropriate for the case being evaluated.
Similarly it is also important to remember that the objective is to differentiate
between competing reinforcement options.
Cost of Reliability
The cost of both forced and unforced outages can be derived from the benefits (i.e.,
savings in production costs). The benefits are not available during the outages and
can therefore be treated as the cost of the outage.
Using the annual benefit, the average hourly benefit attributed to having the
reinforcement available can be derived. Using this average hourly benefit, the
average forced and unforced outage rate, and the time taken to return to service,
the cost of reliability can be calculated.
The cost of reliability is annualized, and it is assumed that it is constant through-
out the useful life of the development.
Using this annualized figure, the present value of planned and unplanned outages
can be calculated by using the useful life of the reinforcement option and the
discount rate (referred to above). This monetary value represents the cost of
unplanned outages for the reinforcement option and is then used to compare the
competing options’ reliability performance.
6.3 Benefits
6.3.1 Overview of Benefits

The benefits associated with FACTS controllers are usually classified into a number
of categories, namely:
734 M. Duarte
• Flexibility in investment decisions, which addresses the deferral of major capital

investment, and rapid deployability to minimize costs of constraints or short-term
security of supply issues
• Improved utilization of the existing power system
• Bespoke technical solutions to meet specific classes of constraints, such as
stability (transient, voltage, frequency, or oscillatory), or power quality concerns
In many instances, the benefits that arise from the implementation of a FACTS
reinforcement solution are a combination of these categories.
Economic assessments are built on forecasts regarding future performance, future
asset utilization, and, therefore, future costs and benefits. Near-term estimates are
more reliable than estimates for future values. In practice it is very difficult to
forecast the incremental impact of a reinforcement with the future benefits or
changes in overall system performance heavily dependent on the accuracy and
reliability of the models and data inputs used. The economic appraisal relies on a
consistent application of assumptions for each of the alternatives that are considered.
In such a way, the analysis relies more on the comparative performance of options
rather than the absolute measure of incremental benefit.
Worldwide there is a growing opposition to the construction of new overhead
transmission lines owing to safety, environmental, and social amenity concerns. The
ability to rapidly deploy FACTS controllers as a result of less time required for
planning and construction, aided by reduced environmental and social impact, is a
clear benefit attributed to FACTS controllers. This permits greater flexibility in
planning and development of transmission networks with lower project-associated
risks related to lead times and forecasting errors.
Many of the typical benefits that are associated with the deployment of FACTS
controllers can be reflected in their timing and the timing of any subsequent
reinforcement in the discounted cash flow analysis used in the CBA. This addresses
the benefits of deferring large-scale transmission reinforcement and the ability to
rapidly implement FACTS controllers. The overall economic performance of the
FACTS-based reinforcement alternative will then be compared to those of a con-
ventional reinforcement.
The availability of transmission capacity directly impacts on the economic
dispatch of generation and hence on market prices. This direct effect of transmission
projects on market costs is well understood and is measurable and quantifiable in
simulations and has traditionally been regarded as “the socioeconomic welfare
effect” of these projects.
The incremental benefits of a new reinforcement, FACTS or otherwise, are
dependent on the need for that reinforcement. In many of the cases, and depending
on the scale of the project, the reinforcement may be required to ensure that security
of supply is maintained. For those projects, the incremental impact on socioeco-
nomic welfare may be assessed to be negligible (other than maintaining security of
supply for which no readily available measure is available). For reinforcements that
are of sufficient scale that they are likely to impact on transmission constraint costs, a
detailed market analysis is usually undertaken. Consequently, the benefits arising
from the use of FACTS controllers on a transmission system are a function of the
systems’ topology and the nature of the constraints being mitigated. In this case, any
timing issues that relate to the deferment of large-scale reinforcements, the timing of
capacity increases through better network utilization, or the alleviation of voltage or
stability constraints are reflected in their incremental production cost savings (i.e.,
socioeconomic welfare benefits).
The reduction in production costs as a result of a new reinforcement is a cost
saving, i.e., a benefit. Different reinforcement alternatives have a greater or lesser
impact on production cost savings and would be a source of differentiation between
their relative economic efficiency. Market simulations allow for the benefits to be
calculated and monetized on a consistent and annual basis, which supports the CBA
approach.
6.3.2 Flexible Investment Decisions

The investment in transmission infrastructure, because of its economies of scale, is
inherently lumpy with large increments of capacity being added at a time. For the
transmission system to continuously be capable of satisfying the security of supply
performance criteria, there should not be a situation where undercapacity is reached.
The timing of investments should be optimized to ensure this. In reality though, due
to the unpredictability of both demand and generation and growing opposition to the
construction of new infrastructure leading to long delays in their delivery, it is an
increasing possibility that the transmission network will be moving from overcapac-
ity to undercapacity and back to overcapacity over time. SVC and STATCOM
FACTS controllers can be provided as relocatable, or even mobile, as described in
▶ Chaps. 12, “Application Examples of SVC,” and ▶ 13, “Application Examples of
STATCOM.” Such solutions may reduce the risk of stranded assets, but are typically
relatively low ratings and more expensive than a fixed location FACTS controller.
Given the scale of the investment required for new transmission infrastructure,
their broad social and environmental impacts, and their long asset life spans, it is not
something that is easily, if at all, reversible. As a result, constructing new infrastruc-
ture is a significant commitment for the long term.
Committing to significant transmission infrastructure investment in an environ-
ment that is characterized with growing uncertainties and less stable forecast out-
comes is a significant risk for utilities. In a risky planning environment, the
expectation would be that expansion plans should have the flexibility to quickly
adapt to unlikely scenarios or adapt to minimize losses contained in existing
commitments. The consequence for transmission development plans is therefore to
ensure that options to defer, expand, or abandon project depending on how the
uncertainties unfold are also considered. Such options have, in economic terms,
value that is seldom considered during the decision-making process (Olafsson 2003).
Improved Power System Flexibility

FACTS controllers provide an effective means of adding flexibility to the power
system (EPRI EL-6943 1991). Comparisons of conventional expansion strategies
(i.e., new transmission circuits) and flexible investment strategies (i.e., comprising
736 M. Duarte
new circuits and FACTS controllers) have showed that a proper combination of new
circuits and FACTS controllers leads to more efficient investments. This is attributed
to the flexible strategies allowing a progressive adaptation of the transmission grid to
the changing scenarios (Blanco et al. 2011b).
FACTS controllers provide control of voltages and/or currents which facilitates
the optimization and controllability of power transfers around the grid. These
features are dynamic and permit the utilization of existing transmission capacity at
levels closer to their installed thermal limits. In such a way, the fast-reacting FACTS
controllers can really help to avoid or relieve constraints where new thermal capacity
would ordinarily have been the obvious investment decision.
In addition, FACTS investments exhibit features that considerably improve their
flexibility, e.g., modularity, scalability, and higher reversibility. Therefore, the inclu-
sion of FACTS controllers, either as a reinforcement option alone or as part of a
reinforcement scheme, adds new strategic options to the grid expansion plan,
significantly improving its flexibility.
From a CBA perspective, the benefit attributed to greater flexibility introduced by
FACTS-based alternatives is factored into the computation of value via the timing of
the investment(s) and the displacement of conventional reinforcement components.
FACTS controllers also offer an interesting dimension to investment flexibility
for planning in an environment of greater uncertainty. They represent a set of options
that enhance transmission investment flexibility, such as options for relocation,
abandonment, operational flexibility, expansion, and contraction. This offers a
substantial additional value to FACTS controllers that is seldom explored in valua-
tions in any significant way (Blanco et al. 2011a).
Deferment of Major Capital Investment

The addition of new capacity is often not a readily feasible option as a result of
economic, environmental, or political limitations. These nontechnical constraints
often hinder the development of the transmission system via new transmission lines
and large power plants (L’Abbate et al. 2007), making alternatives that delay major
capital investment very attractive.
Using FACTS controllers allows the power system to operate nearer to the safety
margins set up according to the transient stability limits. Consequently the power
flow through the existing transmission lines can be increased closer to their thermal
limits. Hence, it would be possible to delay the need to increase thermal capacity on
the network, deferring the associated financial investment (Blanco et al. 2009).
The decision to delay investment is dependent on the details of the case being
investigated. It would, at a simplistic level, depend on at least the utility’s return
requirement (i.e., discount rate), the cost of the FACTS controller, the cost of the new
transmission line, and the delay period. The conventional economic valuation
method of discounted cash flows (DCF) is typically used to calculate the net present
value (NPV) of the social welfare created by the alternatives. The outcome would
determine whether the FACTS controller option, the new circuit option, or the
combination of the two with a delayed new transmission line was the optimum
result. In reality, uncertainty regarding key drivers of the need to increase the power
transfer could also impact the decision which could be accounted either qualitatively
or via a modified discount rate to reflect the heightened risk. Depending on the
assessment of these parameters, it could be economically advantageous to delay the
new transmission line.
Accounting for the greater uncertainty has more recently led to consideration of
newer economic valuation tools where flexibility is incorporated as the option to
defer a transmission expansion. This is done by applying alternative economic
valuation methods that include real options (Blanco et al. 2011b). To date, such
methods are not yet seen as mainstream in the transmission planning environment,
despite their widespread use in corporate finance and trading since the late 1970s.
Reduced Environmental and Social Impact

Lumbreras and Ramos (2016) identify long permitting processes as a key chal-
lenge for transmission expansion planning. Obtaining the necessary permitting or
licenses is becoming increasingly difficult to obtain on the grounds of growing
concerns about environmental impact and aesthetic considerations. Recent expe-
rience, particularly in Europe and the United States, demonstrates that public
opposition is capable of interrupting or stopping the permitting process. Further-
more, negotiation with landowners for land access, or to expropriate the right-of-
way where the line will be physically built, can take several years. These factors
conspire to drive the lead time for commencing the construction of new circuits
into several years. All the while, the risk that permitting may not be achieved at all
remains. This uncertainty represents a significant risk that needs to be considered
for new transmission circuits.
Obviating the need for new transmission lines, or deferring the need for their
construction, means that the environmental and social impacts associated with their
construction and operation can be minimized. This is a benefit that has been attributed
to FACTS controllers. FACTS controllers help to distribute the electrical energy more
economically through better utilization of existing installation, representing an exten-
sion of the capacity of existing power transmission networks to their limits, reducing
the need for additional transmission lines (Acharya et al. 2005).
For cases where a FACTS controller solution is a viable alternative to the
addition of a new transmission circuit, at least in the short term, the direct
environmental impact is much smaller. This is attributed to the localized and
physically smaller footprint associated with FACTS controllers compared with
transmission circuits that span several kilometers in distance along with the
associated station extensions.
For information, the typical footprint ranges from 3 to 20 m2 per Mvar depending
on the FACTS controller, the power rating, and whether the controller is capable of
being relocated (L’Abbateb et al. 2010). Table 3 lists the major sub-systems incor-
porated into FACTS controllers. The actual footprint required for the installation
depends on the switchgear, buswork, etc. and is air or gas insulated.
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Table 3 Comparison of FACTS controller footprint

Surface occupation
Controller Major system components (Footprint)
SVC – asymmetric rating Transformer Bay: Max {Q} The valves for the TCR and TSC
possible (+Q1/Q2) Mvar modules placed inside an
Q: TSC valves and air-conditioned building; access
capacitor bank(s) for erection and maintenance of
+Q: TCR valves and reactor the valves needed which increases
bank(s) the floor space requirements
Harmonic filter required
STATCOM – symmetric Transformer Bay: Q Mvar Typically built using VSC
operating range (Q) Converter for Q Mvar technologies with the converter
placed inside an air-conditioned
building. For VSC converters, a
minimum of three two-level
valves are required
UPFC – asymmetric Transformer Series Approximately equal to two
rating possible (shunt Bay; S1 Transformer STATCOM controllers
S1; series S2 with MVA Bay; S2
S2 < S1) MVA
Converter Converter
for S1 for S2
Mvar Mvar
TCSC – inherently Series capacitor bank on an Equipment mounted outside in a
asymmetric rating (+Q1/ insulated platform moderately sized compartment
Q2) TCR for with environmental conditioning
QSC > Q2 > Q2Max on the insulated platform for the
where QSC is the reactance of series capacitor bank; estimated to
the series capacitor increase the size of the platform
TCR for 0 < +Q1 < +Q1Max by about a factor of 2 to 3
Notes
+Q inductive reactive power; Q capacitive reactive power; S is rated power
Footprint depends on whether high-voltage air- or gas-insulated switchgear and bus sections are
used. For the valve building, the footprint depends on if the valves are mounted horizontally or
vertically. Seismic requirements can influence the valve arrangement inside the building. Space for
man lifts and other machinery also has to be provided between valves in order to be able to maintain
the valves and their auxiliary equipment. Furthermore, space of heat exchangers will also have to be
provided. But, this space can be small if water to water heat exchangers are used instead of dry heat
exchangers
UPFC can be configured as a STATCOM if the series converter is disconnected from the line and
both converters are paralleled onto the shunt transformer assuming that the shut transformer is rated
for S1 plus S2
TCSC has an asymmetric operating range with more capacity for causing reactive power injection
into the line than for absorbing reactive power. It is typically specified for large short-term and long-
term emergency loading
An example of an SVC installation can be seen in Figs. 1 and 2. The SVC reactors
and the valve halls can be seen in Fig. 1. Figures 3 and 4 show a 100 Mvar
STATCOM installation. Figure 3 shows the valve reactors placed outdoors, and
Fig. 1 Outdoor layout of the 66 kV 180 Mvar SVC, Shazhou 750 kV substation, China
Fig. 2 Valve of the 660 kV 180 Mvar TCR, Shazhou 750 kV substation, China
Fig. 4 shows the valves placed in the valve hall. An example of a UPFC rated at two
times 160 MVA is shown in Fig. 5. This system can transfer 80 MW from the
shunt converter through the series converter into the AC line. The converters can
be both connected to the shunt transformer, in which case the system will operate
as a 320 Mvar STATCOM. Figure 6 shows a 107.5 Mvar TCSC installed in a
500 kV line.
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Fig. 3 Outdoor equipment of 35 kV 100 Mvar STATCOM, Funing 500 kV substation, China
Fig. 4 Valve equipment of 35 kV 100 Mvar STATCOM, Funing 500 kV substation, China
Fig. 5 Aerial view of the 2 160 MW, 37 kV UPFC installed in the 138 kV American Electric
Power system
Fig. 6 Arial View of the 107.5 Mvar 23.88 kV TCSC at Imperatriz in Brazil with 30 min 35.82 kV
and 10 s 47.76 kV overload ratings
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Recognizing that both new transmission lines and FACTS controllers are
designed to comply with health and safety requirements and environmental plan-
ning legislation means that the direct environmental impact is appropriate and is
minimized to the least extent possible. Social considerations such as the loss of
visual amenity and the impact on socially sensitive sites such as heritage sites,
schools, churches, or recreational areas are factors that are minimized, but are
seldom dictated by formal regulations. Social considerations are typically
addressed by utilities in order to minimize the level of social opposition. In this
sense, the localized nature of FACTS installations would correspond to a more
socially palatable solution than a new transmission circuit spanning a considerable
distance. In such a way, FACTS controllers can be associated therefore with
avoided costs in comparison to other conventional reinforcement options. These
avoided costs are usually addressed qualitatively in the supporting economic
appraisals.
6.3.3 Improved System Utilization

The deployment of FACTS controllers offers the promise of maximizing the utili-
zation of existing power system assets (see ▶ Chap. 4, “AC Network Control Using
FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems) Controllers” in this Green Book). This
would represent an improvement in capital efficiency.
From a CBA perspective, though, the addition of further value resulting from the
deployment of the FACTS controller would need to be demonstrated. It would be
warranted where its risk and cost of deployment (including direct, social, and
environmental costs) outweigh the risks and costs associated with the investment
in new transmission infrastructure.
The potential opportunities for improving power system utilization are:
• The deployment of more economically efficient generator dispatch due to miti-

gation of transmission network constraints through their optimized utilization
• Increased transfer capability that facilitates greater power, and potentially greater
commercial, exchange depending on the application and the network topology
• The better utilization of the existing transmission network
• Improved power system reliability by the mitigation of the effects of faults by
reducing the number and severity of resulting line trips
These are discussed in greater detail below.
Optimum Utilization of Generation (Socioeconomic Welfare)

The most common economic indicator for measuring benefits of transmission
investments is the reduction in total variable generation costs. This metric values
transmission investment in terms of savings in total generation costs due to the more
efficient dispatch of generation that is possible as a result of the reinforcement. The
CBA makes use of the annual savings (or changes) by extrapolating them for the
duration of the evaluation period.
The generation cost savings are usually estimated on an annualized basis using
market simulation software. There are a number of commercially available off-the-
shelf applications that are widely used in the power industry.
In general, the addition of any new transmission capacity changes the fuel and
other variable operating generator costs and hence changes socioeconomic welfare.
The addition of new capacity is typically associated with the removal of a constraint
that should permit generators to operate in a less constrained manner and hence
improve socioeconomic welfare.
Generation production cost savings are only one part of the overall economic
benefit provided by transmission investments. There are also generation capacity or
adequacy benefits which recognize there is a generation capacity value associated
with transmission investments. This capacity value occurs because, depending on
the nature of the reinforcement, the transmission capacity allows for the use of
(surplus) generation capacity in a different location, which could avoid or postpone
the need for construction of an additional generation unit in a given area.
FACTS controllers are deployed to address constraints that would otherwise have
necessitated the sub-optimal running of generators (e.g., network congestion man-
agement; dynamic voltage support). The direct and quantifiable benefit is the
reduction in production cost and the improved market efficiency where the FACTS
controller removes a network constraint and enables the optimum market dispatch of
generation.
Increased Transfer Capability

Transmission network steady-state transfer capability is often limited as a result of
heavily loaded circuits or low-voltage profiles across the network as the system
loading increases. In a meshed transmission system, the circuits do not all share
power loading equally with their loading being a function of the network topography
(i.e., the configuration and distribution of generation sources). Consequently the
power transfer capability limit may be attributed to a particular circuit, while parallel
circuits remain well within their thermal limits. A similar situation applies to voltage
constraints.
The application of the appropriate FACTS controller makes it possible to control
circuit reactance, voltage magnitude, and phase angle to redistribute the power flows
through the circuits and regulate the voltages at the system nodes (connection points)
(Xiao et al. 2003). This mitigates the constraints that arise from heavily loaded
circuits and low node voltages. The use of FACTS controllers enables circuit loading
to be increased, for example, under severe contingency condition even up to their
thermal limits, thereby enhancing the transfer capability of the transmission grid.
Improved Circuit Utilization

FACTS controllers provide a way to achieve more efficient utilization of existing
transmission networks. Selective application of these FACTS controllers can lead to
numerous benefits for electrical transmission system infrastructure, including
increased capacity at minimum cost.
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Constraints in the transmission system can be mitigated by proper placement of

suitable FACTS controllers and by proper coordinated designs of their high-level
control functions. FACTS perform a dual function of enabling optimal utilization of
power system assets as well as creating a line of defense against unscheduled
disturbances. They enable steady-state optimization of system resources in order to
alleviate overloads, reduce losses, and achieve optimal generation dispatch.
An interesting application of FACTS controllers is one that directly permits the
power flows in specific transmission circuits to be regulated. In cases where there is
enough free transmission capacity available, the shifting of active power to other
lines inside the system by a FACTS controller represents an opportunity to negate the
need for, or at least to delay the construction of, new lines. The scope is then to
efficiently utilize the existing transmission network as well as to reduce the costs and
some of the environmental impact associated with a physical network expansion (Ilić
et al. 1998).
From a cost-benefit perspective, the improved circuit utilization should be treated
in the same manner as discussed in the valuation of flexible investment decisions
previously.
Improved Power System Reliability

Transmission system reliability and availability is affected by many different factors.
Although FACTS controllers cannot prevent faults, they can mitigate the effects of
faults and make electricity supply more secure by reducing the number and severity
of power system disturbances. A major requirement in the application of FACTS
controllers is to develop appropriate tools to support network planners in managing
the uncertainties associated with these FACTS controllers. This includes reliability
evaluations that deal with uncertainties in power systems (Rajabi-Ghahnavieh et al.
2008).
In the context of completing an economic appraisal of competing transmission
reinforcement alternatives, reliability studies that produce reliability indices such
as the Loss of Load Probability (LOLP), the Loss of Load Expectation (LOLE),
the Loss of Energy Expectation (LOEE), and the System Minutes (SM) are
undertaken. In such a way, the relative reliability performance of competing
reinforcements, including FACTS-based solutions, can be compared. These indi-
ces are measured for the overall transmission system (Fotuhi-Firzabad et al.
2000).
The majority of studies into the impact of FACTS controllers on system-wide
reliability have focused on SVCs and TCSC to date. Transmission SVCs are
primarily installed to provide dynamic voltage support during and directly after
network contingencies (Janke et al. 2010). The SVC will support the system during
the voltage recovery stage after clearance of a fault and reduce the risk of voltage
collapse. The TCSC is used to adjust the natural power sharing of two different
parallel transmission lines and, therefore, enables the maximum transmission capac-
ity to be utilized (Anderson and Farmer 1996). Comparative studies were conducted
by Billinton et al. (1999) to show that considerable reliability benefits can result by
including TCSC in the transmission system.
To a lesser extent, STATCOMs and UPFCs have been the subject of more recent
system reliability investigations. The STATCOM can perform the same function as
an SVC. While the UPFC is seen as the most versatile controller, there have been
very little studies on the reliability impacts of UPFC in power systems (Janke et al.
2010). The UPFC is one of the most versatile FACTS controllers that has been used
for the control and optimization of power flow in electrical power transmission
systems. It brings major advantages for the static and dynamic operation and control
of transmission lines. Studies undertaken shows that the UPFC can be used to adjust
the natural power sharing of two different parallel transmission lines and, therefore,
enable the maximum transmission capacity to be utilized (Billinton et al. 2000).
Results showed a significant improvement in transmission system reliability might
be attributable to the UPFC and measured as a reduction in the customer
interruption cost.
6.3.4 Bespoke Technical Solutions

Bespoke technical solutions refer to those solutions where FACTS controller-based
solutions are the most cost-effective alternative available for mitigating a constraint.
The FACTS controllers are designed then to specifically address the constraint,
which most likely would be dynamic or transient stability issue. For those cases,
the CBA is focused on building an economic case for investing in the FACTS
controller, using the prevailing situation as the reference point. Where the investment
in the FACTS controller is required to preserve security of supply or meet specific
statutory network performance criteria, the investment would be warranted, and the
requirement would then be to demonstrate that the least-cost technically feasible
alternative is selected.
Typically the specific bespoke technical solution addressed by FACTS controllers
would be a function of the network topology and performance compliance criteria,
but can typically be categorized as one of or a combination of the following:
• Reactive power support

• Stability improvement
From a CBA perspective, the costs of the option would be prepared in the manner
described above. Where a business case is required, the costs associated with the
situation that would prevail if no investment was made should also be provided. This
would mean compiling the costs in associated with compromised reliability, regula-
tory penalties, or load suppression in order to establish the reference case.
Reactive Power Support

The ability to maintain a steady and acceptable voltage level under normal operating
and disturbed conditions is an important consideration for power system control
(Guo et al. 2001). A power system disturbance may result in short-term voltage dips
and sags, and in severe cases, it may result in localized or widespread voltage
collapse. This requires the control system to have the ability to suppress the potential
746 M. Duarte
instability and poorly damped power angle oscillations that can be dangerous for the
system stability and to eliminate voltage depressions that can damage both utility
and customer equipment.
As wind farms become a larger part of the total generation base and as their
penetration levels increase, the issues related to system transient and voltage stability
become more important. The integration of these renewable generation sources
differs significantly from conventional generator types as a result of their stochastic
nature and their asynchronous characteristics. For wind generation applications,
FACTS controllers can be used for voltage support and control and might enable
the generating units to increase real power output by relieving them from providing
dynamic reactive power support. By implementing FACTS technologies in coordi-
nation with wind and other renewable generation sources, a reliable, steady, and
secure connection to the power transmission grid can be ensured.
The performance of power systems can be improved by applying FACTS con-
trollers. The SVC and STATCOM are two FACTS controllers that are typically used
for voltage control and regulation. The SVC is a widely used FACTS controller that
can provide smoothly and rapidly controlled reactive power and therefore provides
good control of the bus voltage. In addition, a SVC can enhance the transient
stability and provide damping of the power systems as well (Cong et al. 2005).
The STATCOM is a controller that also can provide smooth and rapid reactive power
compensation to power systems and therefore, as the SVC, can be used to provide
voltage support, increase transient stability, and improve damping (Cong and
Wang 2002).
For the case where FACTS controllers are designed to provide a specific technical
solution, the CBA involves comparing the performance of the bespoke solution with
the reference case in which the constraint remains and for which the economic cost is
determined. Where there are multiple FACTS controllers capable of providing a
solution, then each controller would be considered a competing alternative for which
the resulting analysis would identify the optimum solution.
Stability Improvement
The generator excitation controllers with power system stabilizers (PSS) installed are
the primary means of maintaining transient stability or providing voltage regulation
enhancement. However, by making use of only excitation control system stability
may be compromised if a large fault occurs in close proximity to the generator; or the
simultaneous transient stability and voltage regulation enhancement may be difficult
to achieve (Cong et al. 2005). The main goal is to improve both the system transient
stability and damping properties even under large and sudden disturbances and to
insure good post-fault voltage regulation.
Transient stability control plays a significant role in ensuring the stable opera-
tion of power systems in the event of large disturbances and faults. FACTS
controllers have been used to address transient stability and dynamic power system
control issues. SVCs are of course used to provide voltage support but can also be
used for transient (first swing) and dynamic stability (damping) improvements. The
STATCOM is made use of in a similar manner. It employs forced switching type of
semiconductors in a converter that functions as a controllable synchronous voltage

source and has been introduced for reactive shunt compensation. The basic prin-
ciple of reactive power generation by the STATCOM is analogous to that of the
conventional rotating synchronous compensator without any inertia. The converter
produces a set of controllable three-phase output voltages with the frequency of the
AC power system. By varying the amplitude of the output voltages produced, the
reactive power exchange between the converter and the AC system can be con-
trolled (Mathad et al. 2013). The TCSC is also used to enhance system stability,
depending on the nature of the stability issue to be mitigated and the network
topology.
The Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) is the most versatile controller that
can be used to enhance steady-state stability, dynamic stability, and transient
stability. The UPFC is capable of both supplying and absorbing real and reactive
power. It can be used to control the flow of active and reactive power through the
line and to control the amount of reactive power supplied to the line at the point of
installation.
Electromechanical oscillations may cause partial power interruption if not prop-
erly controlled. The standard means of providing the oscillation damping in the
power system is to make use of PSS modules. The properties of power system
stabilizers can also be achieved by the proper placement and setting of FACTS
controllers, usually SVC or STATCOM. The TCSC is also used for the mitigation of
power oscillation damping and/or sub-synchronous resonance (Mathad et al. 2013).
However, FACTS controllers are also able to provide damping at frequencies too
low for PSS modules to be effective.
For a CBA of FACTS controllers designed to provide stability improvement and
therefore provide a specific technical solution, the comparison of options would be
between the bespoke solution and the reference case. The reference case is the case
in which the constraint remains and for which the economic cost is determined.
Where there are multiple FACTS controllers capable of providing stability improve-
ment, then each controller would be considered a competing alternative for which
the resulting analysis would identify the optimum solution.
Power Quality Improvement

Power quality refers to the phenomena that affect the voltage, current, and frequency
of the power being supplied to end users. It is concerned with deviation of the
voltage and current waveforms from their ideal and is usually represented as voltage
sag, undervoltages, prolonged overvoltages, voltage imbalances, harmonics, and
electric noise (Donsion et al. 2007). The sources of these disturbances to power
quality are the proliferation of power electronic generators and controllers, arcing
devices, load switching, large motor starting, and storm or other environment-related
impacts.
In addition to the usual applications, FACTS controllers are used to improve
power quality aspects of the power system (Donsion et al. 2007). Some examples of
these applications are as follows:
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• Shunt controllers such as the SVC and STATCOM can be used for maintaining
power quality in the feeding grid in conjunction with an electric arc furnace in a
steel plant.
• Series FACTS controllers such as the TCSC can be used to address power quality-
related issues such as voltage fluctuations and harmonic voltage distortion.
• The UPFC flow controller incorporates a STATCOM module as well as a series
power flow control module. That is, it is both a voltage control system and a series
controller.
For a CBA of FACTS controllers designed to provide power quality improvement

and therefore provide a specific technical solution, the comparison of options would
be between the bespoke solution and the reference case. The reference case is the
case in which the constraint remains and for which the economic cost is determined.
Where there are multiple FACTS controllers capable of providing power quality
improvement, then each controller would be considered a competing alternative for
which the resulting analysis would identify the optimum solution.
7 Results Summarization
The purpose of the results summarization is to provide a common set of criteria or

data that facilitates the consistent comparison of performance of competing rein-
forcement options. This is normally addressed as part of the capital investment
governance processes defined by the investing entity. The obligation of the analyst
or network planner is to demonstrate that an appropriate level of rigor has been
applied, together with consistency in the assumptions made and the computations
undertaken.
For the purposes of conducting an economic appraisal that relies on the prepara-
tion of the CBA, the parameters are normally entirely quantified, i.e., monetized,
resulting in a NPV per option. In addition, the computation is normally supported by
sensitivity studies that are used to demonstrate the sensitivity of the investment
option to changes in key parameters, such as changes to discount rates, capital costs,
increased operational costs, and decreased benefits (i.e., overstated benefits). Once
again, these sensitivity studies are consistently applied to each of the options and
their results summarized in a comparable and consistent manner.
8 Investment Decision
The last stage of the economic appraisal process is when the final investment
decision is made. The decision is made within the context of the utility’s or
company’s governance processes and their mandate or license under the industry’s
legal structure. For cases where minimum performance criteria are at risk, the
penalties or redress arising from non-compliance would be a key input into the
decision-making process.
Decision-making considers which of the alternatives provide the greatest level of

net benefit. A significant determining component of the economic appraisal would
be the results of the CBA. The main decision rule for CBA is that an activity should
be undertaken if the sum of the benefits that result is greater than the sum of the costs
of undertaking it or, identically, if its net benefit is positive. If only one activity with a
positive net benefit can be undertaken (because, e.g., there are limited funds), the
activity with the highest net benefit should be chosen.
A risk assessment associated with each of the alternatives to be considered should
be factored into the decision-making process. Those alternatives that are more
resilient to changes in assumptions or forecast outcomes are preferred to those
alternatives that are more sensitive. Strategic considerations are also a consideration
at this point where decisions regarding future uncertainty and the need to implement
flexible, albeit short-term, focused solutions could be more favorably considered.
The decision is therefore a function of the environment within which the decision is
made and the utility’s or company’s strategic outlook. Following a decision-making
framework that permits greater managerial flexibility recognizes that the optimal
investment decision may change over time with the release of new information
(Henao et al. 2017).
There is a growing realization that the valuation and decision to investment in
transmission expansion should be treated as a risk management problem in which
flexible investments act as a hedge against problematic scenarios or occurrences
(Blanco et al. 2009).
There is a growing trend for decision-making to pursue a multi-criteria analysis
path to investment decision-making where the results of the economic assessment,
demonstrated by the resulting NPVs for each of the alternatives, are only one of
many other criteria that are considered in parallel (Migliavacca et al. 2011).
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Stoll, H.G.: Least-cost electric utility planning. Wiley, New York (1989)
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FACTS devices. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 18(1), 305 (2003)
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Mario Duarte is an electrical engineer with more than 20 years

of experience in power systems. He started his career in the
South African gold mining industry and worked for the
South African electricity company, Eskom, in transmission expan-
sion planning, energy trading, and sub-Saharan electricity
exchange initiatives where he actively participated in the setting
up of the South African Power Pool. He was a recipient of a CBI
scholarship and worked with British engineering consulting firm,
Kennedy and Donkin. He has worked for the South African trans-
port and logistics company, Transnet, responsible for their invest-
ment appraisal and pricing of infrastructure investments. Since
2009 he has been involved in network planning for the Irish
Transmission System Operator, EirGrid Plc. He holds an MBA
and is currently completing an MSc in applied economics. He is a
member of the Cigré Irish National Committee, the Irish represen-
tative and member of the Cigré Study Committee C1: Power
System Development and Economics, and a member of the IET.
FACTS Planning Studies
17
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
1.1 Planning Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
1.2 Specification Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
1.3 Models for Planning and Specification Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
1.4 Further Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
2 Planning Studies for FACTS Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
2.1 Timeline for Undertaking Planning Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
2.2 Power System Studies Undertaken During Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758
2.3 The Need for FACTS Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
3 Studies for Preparation of Technical Specification of a FACTS Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
3.1 Development of Appropriate AC Network Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
3.2 FACTS Controller Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
3.3 Short Circuit Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
3.4 Transient Stability and EMT Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
3.5 Harmonic Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
4 Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
4.1 Modelling of FACTS Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
4.2 Steady-State Power Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765
4.3 AC Short Circuit Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768
4.4 Harmonic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
4.5 Transient Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
4.6 Electromagnetic Transients (EMT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
4.7 Real-Time Simulation (RTS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782
B. R. Andersen (*)
e-mail: Bjarne@AndersenPES.com
D. Woodford
Electranix Corporation, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
e-mail: daw@Electranix.com
G. Love
PSC Consulting, Dublin, Ireland
e-mail: Geoff.Love@pscconsulting.com

754 B. R. Andersen et al.
4.8 Models to Be Provided by the Vendor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783

4.9 Other Models and Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
Abstract
The ongoing planning studies performed by Transmission System Operators may
identify potential issues, such as breaches of grid codes and planning criteria.
These breaches will require mitigation to achieve compliance, requiring changes
to the voltage and/or power flows in the network, as appropriate. In addition to the
conventional measures such as changes to existing lines, addition of lines,
generation, etc., FACTS controllers may offer short-term or permanent solutions,
which may be easier to implement and or more economic than the conventional
solution. The need for FACTS controllers may also be identified by developers of
wind or solar power plants, as the best/most economical way to achieve compli-
ance with grid code requirements.
This chapter describes the network studies that are necessary to define the
characteristics of the FACTS controller(s) that could provide the technical solu-
tion to the identified issue. The chapter also describes the studies that need to be
performed, if a cost-benefit analysis shows that the FACTS controller is an
attractive solution. An overview of the models used for these studies is provided.
These additional studies are required to provide the information for the technical
specification of the FACTS controller and include rating requirements, speed of
response, fault ride-through requirements, harmonic impedance, background
harmonic data, and harmonic limits. An overview of the models used for these
studies is provided.
1 Introduction
This chapter is based on extracts from CIGRE Technical Brochure 563, Modelling
and Simulation Studies during the lifecycle of HVDC Systems (CIGRE TB
563 2013), modified as necessary to make it applicable to FACTS controllers.
The Transmission System Operator (TSO) and/or Network Owner (NO) network
planning function will study the power system and identify issues that affect the
operation and performance of the AC network. Such issues may include:
• Constraints on transmission of power

• Breaches of the AC voltage requirements set out in the relevant grid code
• Breaches of the power quality
• Potential or existing power oscillations between parts of the network or with
interconnected networks
• Potential sub-synchronous oscillations
• And others
17 FACTS Planning Studies 755
In the study of these issues, it may be shown that a FACTS controller could
provide mitigation of the issue. This chapter focuses on two areas of power system
studies that are likely to be undertaken to define the potential FACTS controller and
additional input to its technical specification:
• The planning studies begin with the initial studies that may determine the need for
a FACTS controller. Typically, once a need is established further studies are
undertaken to determine the FACTS controller type, its functional performance,
and its rating.
• Those studies that should be done to support the specification of the FACTS
controller (see ▶ Chap. 19, “Procurement and Functional Specifications for
FACTS Controllers” in this Green Book).
1.1 Planning Studies
The objective of the planning studies is to determine:
• The need for the FACTS controller

• The most suitable/effective location for the FACTS controller
• The required FACTS controller type, rating, overload capability, speed of
response, and control modes for the FACTS controller
• Any system constraints/benefits resulting from the addition of the FACTS
controller
• Any other system upgrades that may be required
• That new generation being interconnected meets the grid code requirements and
does not cause any adverse impacts to the transmission system
Typically, these studies are carried out by the Transmission System Operator
(TSO) or a Network Owner’s (NO) planning group, or their consultants. In some
cases, the TSO and the NO may be the same organization, but in other cases they
may be different organizations. The studies may also be performed by a wind or solar
power developer, to identify the most economical way to meet the required grid code
requirements. The eventual owner and developer of the FACTS controller may not
be the NO.
The studies should be undertaken in coordination with the financial and environ-
mental aspects concerning the choice of a FACTS controller. These aspects are
discussed in ▶ Chaps. 16, “Economic Appraisal and Cost-Benefit Analysis,” and
▶ 18, “Environmental Considerations for FACTS Projects” in this Green Book.
As the need for the FACTS controller is established, it will likely be competing
with other potential solutions, such as the building of additional lines or cables,
replacement of line conductors, building of new generation, or other FACTS pro-
jects. To be chosen, the FACTS controller must have financial, feasibility, and time
advantages or other technical benefits that are superior to these other solutions. In
some cases, a FACTS controller may be part of a group of network improvements

that together provide the needs of a power system.
These studies are described in more detail in Sect. 2.
1.2 Specification Studies
If a FACTS controller is deemed to be needed, and is a feasible and attractive choice,

further studies are needed so that the FACTS controller can be adequately specified.
Some of these studies will be a refinement of the planning studies, while others are
required to enable tenderers to design their solution.
Section 3 gives an overview of the different studies that may be required.
1.3 Models for Planning and Specification Studies
For both planning and specification studies, several models of the FACTS controller
and the AC network are required. These models are described in Sect. 4.
1.4 Further Studies
▶ Chapter 20, “FACTS Controller Integration and Design Studies” deals with
studies that should be performed:
• By the potential vendors when responding to the functional specification

• By the contractor during the execution of the contract
• Thereafter by the owner/operator during the life of the FACTS controller
Some of the models and studies performed by the vendors will be like those
described in this chapter, while others will be only be developed and performed by
the vendor.
2 Planning Studies for FACTS Controllers
Electric grids are subject to changes in power flow patterns and levels due to
retirement of aging fossil fuel generators that are being replaced by variable renew-
able generators, energy storage systems, and possibly HVDC converters. In addition,
loads are changing due to ongoing efficiency programs and the growing use of
electricity for transportation. Consequently, transmission facilities in the grid may be
subject to increased power flow levels, but at the same time, it is increasingly
difficult to permit new transmission lines to ease system congestions. Voltage
instability may occur in new locations (CIGRE TB 700 2017). FACTS controllers
in suitable locations are obvious candidates to consider to mitigate the issues in

the grid.
Renewable generation, such as wind and solar power plants, typically includes
power electronics and has to be designed to meet the appropriate grid codes, which
often includes requirements in respect to ride-through performance and the need to
provide certain levels of controlled reactive power. Developers of such systems may
find that meeting the grid code requirements can be achieved by the use of FACTS
controllers, such as the SVC and the STATCOM. To optimize the solution, planning
studies should be performed.
At the planning stage for a FACTS project, several studies are required. These
studies are performed by the Transmission System Operator (TSO) or the Network
Owner (NO) to determine what needs to be implemented and the associated impacts on
the power system performance. For the purpose of this chapter, the term Project Owner
will be used to identify the body that will take the studies forward from the planning
stages to the specification phase. In most cases there is expected to be significant
interaction between the Project Owner and the TSO and NO. Typically, the studies, or
as a minimum the basic AC system data and related assumptions, must be coordinated
with the TSOs to whose network the FACTS controller will be connected.
2.1 Timeline for Undertaking Planning Studies
Planning studies are likely to begin many years before a project is needed. The need
may be identified in a long-term network planning report that takes account of
predicted changes in load or generation. As the need date approaches, the level of
planning and study becomes more detailed and sophisticated. A typical planning
process is described in Tables 1 and 2, which show how the study of a project
progresses from long term to the medium term.
When variable wind or solar parks are to be connected to the grid by a developer
or owner and studied by a TSO or NO, the need for a FACTS voltage controller such
Table 1 Long-term planning studies

Long-term study – long-term network planning
Time frame 3–10 years (or even longer)
Objective Power system issues are determined and potential solutions, including FACTS
controllers, are identified.
In addition to the power system studies, solutions may be checked at a high level
for feasibility and cost that need to include all remedies for adverse impacts
throughout the grid revealed through contingency studies for increased power
flow with FACTS controller(s) added.
Study Network models of the future network in its various configurations
inputs Forecasts of changes in demand and generation
Grid code requirements
Study types Normally these would be limited to power flow studies; however for some issues
transient stability studies may also be undertaken
Table 2 Medium-term planning studies

Medium term – solution selection
Time frame Potential solutions are investigated in detail and compared against each other for
effectiveness in solving the power system issues
Studies/simulations are performed to determine the location, site limitations and
constraints, and power and voltage ratings of the FACTS controller and determine
in general terms the range of AC system voltage and/or reactive power flows at
which it should operate
This information will typically be used to check feasibility and economic viability
to select the projects that will solve the identified issue (as outlined in ▶ Chap. 16,
“Economic Appraisal and Cost-Benefit Analysis”)
Study Network model of the current and anticipated future networks
inputs Future forecasts in changes in demand and generation
Grid code requirements
Economic analysis
Models of FACTS controllers including their main functions and limits
Models of other active controllers (loads, generators, etc.) with sufficient
accuracy for the studies being performed
Study types Typically load flow or transient stability studies
as a STATCOM or SVC may become evident and not be foreseen in earlier studies.
This entails short-term studies to prepare a specification and vendor selection to
minimize any delay to the in-service schedule of the variable generation.
2.2 Power System Studies Undertaken During Planning
The planning studies typically consider:
• Steady-state power flows (as outlined in Sect. 4.2)

– To determine thermal and voltage issues1
• Transient stability (as outlined in Sect. 4.5)
– Transient voltage issues
– Inter-area oscillations
In some cases, further studies may be undertaken:
• Electromagnetic transients (EMT) (as outlined in Sect. 4.6)

• Harmonic studies (as outlined in Sect. 4.4)
• Short circuit fault current calculation (as outlined in Sect. 4.3)
The studies may be performed utilizing preliminary FACTS controller component

values and generic controls to demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed FACTS
controller.
1
TCSC
When the performance of the FACTS controller has an impact on networks that
are owned or operated by other utilities, it is necessary to inform and involve these
other utilities at an early stage to coordinate the technical, economic, and institu-
tional issues between utilities and regulatory bodies.
As a secondary but important effect, if the FACTS controller allows increased
power flow into an area, some existing facilities in that area may become overloaded,
and AC voltage and reactive power may be adversely impacted. Such issues will
become evident in the planning studies and will have to be addressed, including the
determination of the economic consequences.
2.3 The Need for FACTS Controllers
If the planning studies have identified potential issues, many different solutions may
exist, including solutions with conventional transmission infrastructure solutions, such as:
• Adding new lines

• Upgrading conductors
• Increasing the operating voltage
• Adding series or shunt capacitors or reactors
• Adding new generation which, if inverter based, might trend to grid forming
rather than conventional grid following to maintain and strengthen grid stability
(Irwin 2012)
• Managing the issue operationally
• Simply accepting the issue without mitigation if it has a low probability of
occurring or has low impact
In addition to these conventional solutions, FACTS controllers can also be

considered. The selection of a FACTS controller may sound easy, and often is, but
in reality, the different FACTS controllers can be used to perform many different
roles as have been explained in other chapters in this Green Book, including:
• ▶ AC Network Control Using FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems)

Controllers
Therefore, the purpose of the power system studies is to determine:
• If a FACTS controller can resolve the issue identified

• If so which FACTS controller(s) can best and most effectively resolve the issue
• What should be the continuous, minimum operating level and the overload rating
(if any) of the FACTS controller(s)
• What speed of response of the FACTS controller would be required

• What component(s) of the FACTS controller could be mechanically switched
The definition of what constitutes acceptable network performance will typically

be defined by an AC system’s grid code. Examples of potential issue are detailed in
Table 3.
Table 3 Issues and their potential mitigation using FACTS controllers

FACTS controllers that could potentially
Issue Description mitigate the issue
Thermal The long-term growth A series FACTS controller such as a TCSC,
constraints on of system load and UPFC, or SSSCa may redirect power away from
transmission of generation may alter the an overloaded controller
power power flow of the
network and under
critical contingencies
may cause overloading
of a transmission line or
other controller
Breaches of the Increase in load or Both series and shunt FACTS controllers can
AC voltage retirement of existing improve the voltage stability of a network
requirements set generation may cause
out in the grid either steady-state or
code transient voltage
stability issues
Inter-area power Potential or existing A FACTS controller with PODb may be able to
system power oscillations mitigate inter-area power system oscillations. In
oscillations between parts of the general, it is expected that series controllers will
network or with be most effective. A STATCOM or SSSC with
interconnected energy storage will provide grid forming to
networks strengthen the network against oscillations, as
the energy storage allows larger excursions of
active power between the AC and DC sides of
the converter
Breaches of the Power quality may SVCs and STATCOMs can help with flicker-
power quality decrease because of style power quality issues. The STATCOM is
installation of network likely to be more effective than the SVC for
assets (such as cables) limitation of harmonics issues, as it can be
or by injections from designed to act as an active filter (but this may
loads or generators result in increased power loss)
Potential There are various A series FACTS controller such as a TCSC or
sub-synchronous sub-synchronous SSSC may be selected in series compensation
oscillations oscillations that may projects if a fixed capacitor is not deemed to be
occur on the network, viable
which are associated A supplementary control of shunt controllers
with HVDC link, series such as the STATCOM may be able to suppress
capacitors, and wind torsional oscillation on a turbo generator used in
farm controllers a steam power plant
a
The SSSC (static synchronous series compensator) can be used as part of a UPFC or as a
freestanding series compensator
b
Power oscillation damping
3 Studies for Preparation of Technical Specification of a

FACTS Controller
After the planning studies have identified a FACTS project that is to be developed, a
specification is required to enable its procurement. This section describes the studies
that should be performed before the preparation of the technical specification of a
FACTS controller. The type and the nature of the studies required depend on the
structure of the AC network and the type of FACTS controller. The most important
studies are presented in more detail.
FACTS projects are typically developed using a performance-based functional
specification (see ▶ Chap. 19, “Procurement and Functional Specifications for
FACTS Controllers”), with the deliverable system consisting of a complete inte-
grated FACTS controller.
The content of the studies as well as the FACTS controller technical specification
must take into consideration the requirement in the network grid codes, which have
been laid down by the Transmission System Operator(s), to whose network the
FACTS controller will be connected. The AC system information must be compiled,
and parameters such as fault levels and harmonic impedance must be identified in
cooperation with the Transmission Network Operator(s). In addition to the rated
capacity of the FACTS controller, any overload requirements, over- and
undervoltage ride-through criteria, and special control requirements, set out in the
grid codes, must be included.
Some design aspects of the FACTS controller may also be determined during
these studies, e.g., the use of breaker switched reactors and capacitors to extend the
operating range of an SVC or STATCOM, combining the slower regulation of the
breaker switched passive elements with the fast dynamic response of the power
electronics-based FACTS controllers.
3.1 Development of Appropriate AC Network Representations
As outlined in ▶ Chap. 20, “FACTS Controller Integration and Design Stud-

ies,” the vendor will typically be expected to carry out studies in the tender and
post-award stages. These studies are likely to be both transient stability and
EMT studies. The network description, on which these studies will be
performed by the vendor, shall be provided by the Project Owner (who may
themselves get the model from the Transmission System Operator or Network
Owner). The details of the model are outlined in Sects. 4.2, 4.5, and 4.6.
Several AC network models may be provided, each representing different
grid configurations such as seasonal low and high load scenarios and expected
future extreme peak load scenarios.
In addition to the AC network representation, the specification should also state the:
• Contingencies that the network should be studied under

• Fault types, fault recovery requirements, and locations that the network should be
studied for
Ideally, the selection of the network contingencies will be selected by the owner’s
own studies – and the owner should have an expectation on how the FACTS
controller will respond to these faults. In most cases a FACTS controller would
have been planned for mitigation of a particular group of contingencies and faults.
These cases should be included in the specification.
If there are nearby existing FACTS controllers or facilities with converters, there
is the potential for adverse control interactions with the proposed new FACTS
controller. Such interactions can only be effectively observed with EMT studies
using models of existing facilities that were provided by their respective vendors.
There are often issues regarding confidentiality of the model data, especially of
existing controllers (generators, HVDC, and other FACTS controllers) that have not
been built by the prospective vendor. In some jurisdictions it may be that only the TSO
has access to all of the necessary models needed to perform some studies, and this
interaction with the TSO will need to become part of the specification. A Joint CIGRE
Working Group B4.82/IEEE was set up in 2019 to address this issue with the end
objective requiring EMT converter simulation models with the vendor’s real code for
the control system and protective functions embedded within models, as opposed to
generic models. The real code will be complied into a dynamic link library (DLL) or
similar. The compiling process of the DLL will turn the control code into machine code
and other information which makes determining the underlying control logic difficult.
In some cases, a reduced AC model may be provided for EMT or real-time
simulation studies; however, care should be taken to ensure that the model is an
accurate representation of the power system. In most cases producing a reduced
network that provides only similar fault level or power flow solution will not be
sufficient. The dynamic effect of a reduced network can be studied by reducing the
response of remote machines using large coherent groups of generators. In any case,
when using reduced models, it is essential that the limitation of the models due to
simplifications required by the equivalents are described and justified in detail so that
the results of the study can be applied in the correct manner.
In some cases, a preliminary AC model may be provided to tenderers – before an
updated model is provided to the successful tenderer.
3.2 FACTS Controller Rating
The owner must define the FACTS controller rating for all operating modes,
including overload capability, if required. The rating will likely be defined for both
short term and steady state using both steady-state and transient stability analysis.
For series controllers such as the TCSC, UPFC, or SSSC, a transient study
(as outlined in Sect. 4.5) may also be used to determine the swing currents that
may occur for a series-connected controller, which are important for the dimension-
ing of equipment.
In addition to current rating, transient stability studies may be undertaken to
determine temporary overvoltage (TOV) rating (as outlined in Sect. 4.5). This
will be particularly important for controllers near line-commutated converters
(LCC).
3.3 Short Circuit Calculation
The short circuit levels required for the technical specification of a FACTS controller
may be obtained from the AC network developed in Sect. 3.1. In some cases, the
Transmission System Operator may have access to a more detailed system model,
and this may be used to provide short circuit currents.
For series controllers such as the TCSC, UPFC, and SSSC, EMT should be used
to calculate an accurate short circuit profile (fault cycle) to help tenderers design the
bypass.
Generally, the fault levels will be calculated using a short circuit model as per
Sect. 4.3 and are normally used for performance rather than equipment rating.
Equipment ratings will normally be specified for a higher short circuit rating defined
by an owner’s standard. In some cases, including the rating of series controllers, a
calculation method, which reflects the actual maximum envisaged fault current at the
location of the FACTS controller, should be used, since otherwise the rating will be
excessive and result in a costly controller.
3.4 Transient Stability and EMT Studies
The owner may undertake transient stability and EMT studies during the
development of the specification, and they are likely to be more detailed
versions of similar studies carried out in the planning studies. These will be
undertaken to:
• Determine the desired speed of response of the FACTS controller and include this
specification of the FACTS controller
• Confirm the appropriate fault locations and types that will be studied by the
vendors
• Support the specification of any external triggered control loops that rely on
remote signals
Many of these studies will be repeated by the vendor (either during tendering or
post-award). In some cases, the owner’s own studies will be able to be used as a
benchmark to confirm the validity of the tenderer’s studies.
3.5 Harmonic Studies
When required the main purpose of the harmonic studies is to obtain the input data
for the design of the FACTS controller’s AC filters (CIGRE TB 553 2013; CIGRE
TB 766 2019; IEC 62001 2016), as outlined in Sect. 4.4. This data will likely be:
• System harmonic impedance (envelopes)

• The background harmonic distortion
• Emission limits
As with the AC model of Sect. 3.1, this data should preferably come from
the TSO.
In some cases, the owner may perform a preliminary filter design to estimate if the
harmonic data is not too onerous to meet. If they find that the requirements are too
onerous, a reassessment of the harmonic data or the type of a FACTS controller may
be reconsidered.
4 Models
This section provides a description of the models required for studies during the
planning and specification of FACTS controllers. The following models are
described:
• Load flow
• Harmonic studies
• Short circuit current calculation
• Transient stability
• Electromagnetic transients (EMT)
Not all the models mentioned in this section need to be built for all FACTS
controllers. Each model considers different amounts of system detail and covers a
different range of frequencies.
A description of the models is provided in this section. In practice the accuracy
and extents of the FACTS models and the network model are highly dependent on
the intended purpose of the study.
4.1 Modelling of FACTS Controllers
There are numerous study programs that can be used by Transmission System
Operators and Network Owners to perform the study required to ensure that potential
issues their networks can be identified. Many of these study programs include basic
models of FACTS controllers that can be modified and can be used for to determine
the optimum location and required performance of different types of FACTS con-
trollers. These models may be sufficient for the needed input to the specification of
the FACTS controller. However, these models represent performance characteristics
of a typical FACTS controller, which may not be applicable to the future FACTS
controller, and if the FACTS controller will have a significant impact on the
performance of the power system on a local or a system-wide level, they may not
provide reliable study results. In such cases it might be beneficial to contact the
FACTS controller suppliers to obtain models that provide more realistic performance
characteristics for the particular application.
The Technical Description of FACTS Controllers section of this Green Book
includes ▶ Chaps. 6, “Technical Description of Static Var Compensators (SVC),”
▶ 7, “Technical Description of Static Compensators (STATCOM),” ▶ 8, “Technical

Description of Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC),” and ▶ 9, “Technical
Description of the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) and Its Potential Varia-
tions.” This chapter and the equivalent chapters in the “Application Examples of
FACTS Controller” part will provide useful information which can provide guidance
when customizing the available models to suit the owner’s application.
However, if the personnel using the models do not have sound knowledge of the
capabilities and limitations of FACTS controllers and the software they are using,
there could be errors and shortfalls in the interpretation of the results, which if not
identified before their inclusion in the specification could lead to serious and costly
issues during tendering and subsequent contract implementation. Therefore, it may
be prudent to consider involving suitably qualified consultants to either oversee the
studies or to conduct the necessary studies.
When a FACTS controller is added to an electric power system, certain
performance and operational issues that invoke non-fundamental frequency char-
acteristics may need to be addressed. One example is the issue of geomagnetically
induced current (GIC) flows that arise as a result of the earth’s magnetic field
disturbances caused by solar storms. See ▶ Chap. 2, “AC System Characteristics”
in this Green Book. GIC in AC lines can cause saturation of transformers (Price
2002). In 1989, a severe geomagnetic storm caused saturation of transformers, that
caused SVCs to trip, which resulted in the collapse of the Hydro-Québec power
grid (IEEE 2015).
The conventional power flow and transient stability programs will be limited in
their ability to accurately address such performance and operational issues for the
simple reason that they are valid at fundamental frequency and positive sequence
only. Initially, i.e., before project award, this work is done with generic FACTS
controller models. In the longer term, the owner is likely to need to perform studies
involving the FACTS controller, and therefore the contractor should be required to
provide fully detailed models as part of his scope of supply. The final model to be
provided by the contractor should be verified during factory acceptance testing and
commissioning. Factory acceptance test models are limited in AC system represen-
tation, and control and protection adjustments may be necessary to the FACTS
controller during commissioning and when operational. Such adjustments are best
tested first in EMT simulation with an exact FACTS controller model in a wide area
model with other models with exact controls and protections represented.
4.2 Steady-State Power Flow
4.2.1 Model Capability

A power flow (or load flow) program is used to calculate steady-state power flows in
the network. The elements of the AC network are represented by phasor impedances
or admittances, and all sources are assumed to be fundamental frequency phasors
(CIGRE TB 051 1996).
The FACTS controllers are represented by their steady-state equations. Similarly,

existing or planned future STATCOM, SVC, TCSC, UPFC, SSSC compensation
schemes, HVDC schemes, phase shifters, synchronous condensers, wind parks, or
voltage-sourced converters (VSC) such as in battery energy storage systems must be
included in the model. Estimated power losses need to be considered in the load flow
analysis. The program is usually not capable of calculating any transient or dynamic
behavior but will identify overload and voltage issues in the interconnected AC
network.
The numbers of bus bars and lines should be decided to achieve an acceptable
model of the network as seen by the FACTS controller on a case-by-case basis. The
same applies also to the degree of modelling of the individual components and
subsystems that may be necessary for load flow, stability, reactive power, and
voltage control (CIGRE 301 2006; CIGRE 310 2007; CIGRE TB 504 2012).
A fundamental frequency power flow study example is discussed in Appendix B
of (CIGRE TB 563 2013).
4.2.2 AC System Modelling Aspects

For the AC system, transmission line data should include shunt admittance and
series impedance at fundamental frequency. As the steady-state behavior is being
studied, the representation needs to include only positive sequence data. The shunt
admittance usually includes only the capacitive susceptance (at fundamental fre-
quency) as the shunt conductance for overhead lines is very small. The series
impedance should include both the resistive (real) part and the reactive (imaginary)
part. Correction for long-line effects should be enabled in the power flow program
(or corrected data presented directly). In addition, as power flow is increased through
a transmission line, the average conductor temperature will rise causing increased
line sags, higher line resistance, and increased power losses. This should not be
overlooked if applicable.
Transformer representations should include their leakage impedances and tap
changer settings. Phase shifting transformers should also be represented, where
relevant.
The AC generators are represented as either a constant voltage and power or as a
constant real and reactive power (P,Q) generators. One bus in the network is assigned
as the reference bus (called a slack bus) where the voltage and the phase angle are
specified. Excitation systems and governors are not usually modelled; however in
some cases voltage and power droop control can be modelled. Maximum real and
reactive power ceilings and permissible voltage limits must also be specified.
Loads in the network are usually represented as constant P and Q loads but
sometimes as voltage-dependent P and Q loads, or more detailed complex load
models are required (Ohtsuki 1991; WECC 2012).
Synchronous compensators or other FACTS controllers in the AC network may
be represented as a generator (with P = 0) or variable Q bus where the voltage is set.
Slope characteristics for the different controllers need to be represented, and if the
setting of voltage references and slopes is not automatically or manually
coordinated, their settings need to be carefully considered, to avoid unacceptable

control interactions.
4.2.3 FACTS Controller Modelling Aspects

The vendor is typically responsible for the design of the transformer, but in some
cases the FACTS controller may be connected to the AC network via a tertiary
winding on an existing transformer. The FACTS controller model must include the
leakage impedance of the step-down transformers, if applicable.
The control modes need to be represented. The set points and slopes (e.g., reactive
power or voltage order) for the particular control mode must also be represented.
Similarly, maximum and minimum limits of the FACTS controller output need to be
included.
The FACTS controller appears as a controlled Q output, from the AC network
point of view (a UPFC will appear as a controlled power (P) and Q output). Power
flow programs for FACTS controllers may have both a variable shunt element
between a bus and earth and a variable series element. Specifically, the power flow
models of an SVC and a STATCOM can be a regulated shunt voltage source with
limits with the series element disabled. Control options include voltage at a local or
remote bus and reactive power. Simple models of some FACTS controllers are in the
▶ “Technical Description of FACTS Controllers” part in this Green Book.
A UPFC requires both the variable series and shunt elements to be active. A
TCSC model and a static series synchronous controller (SSSC) model require only
the series element to be active.
Any fixed or breaker switched AC filters, reactors, and capacitors are represented
as shunt susceptance whose value is controlled by the FACTS control system.
4.2.4 Use of the Model

Transmission System Operators (or Network Owners) apply power flow calculations
as one of their main tools to plan day-to-day power interchanges and for transmission
network planning after commissioning of new elements in the system. The power
flow studies should be undertaken by the Project Owner in coordination with the
TSO prior to the release of a technical specification. See ▶ Chap. 3, “AC Network
Control Using Conventional Means” in this Green Book.
Typical objectives of power flow studies when considering FACTS controllers
are:
• Determining if equipment is thermally overloaded under contingency. A FACTS

controller may be able to reduce the loading of equipment by directing power
away from the overload. Typically, series controllers like TCSC, SSSC, or UPFC
could be used to achieve this. They can be represented in a power flow study as a
variable series reactance for the TCSC, or as a variable voltage for the UPFC or
SSSC, inserted in the line.
• Steady-state voltage stability can be studied using a power flow model (i.e.,
power/voltage or reactive power/voltage analysis). A FACTS controller such as
an SVC or STATCOM could help to boost the voltage in areas with low voltage.
Alternatively, a FACTS controller like a TCSC, UPFC, or SSSC could reduce the
network impedance between the area of low voltage and a stronger part of
the grid.
The objective of the study is to determine the effectiveness, the location, and
basic characteristics of the FACTS controller.
4.2.5 Quasi-dynamic Model

Sometimes very slow dynamic aspects of AC systems (such as tap changers or shunt
bank switches) are modelled using successive load flow solutions, spaced seconds
apart. This type of model is known as quasi-dynamic model. These models could be
included as part of a FACTS controller planning study if its operation needs to be
coordinated with slower-acting discrete switching controllers over long periods
(such as a daily load curve).
A quasi-dynamic model is essentially a load flow model with very simple logic
that is calculated between load flow solutions for the slow-acting controllers – such
as tap changers. To ensure these controllers aren’t modelled twice, they must not be
included in the load flow solution. Fast controllers like FACTS controllers are
modelled in the same manner as they are modelled in load flows, as their action is
considered to be much faster than the interval between load flows.
4.3 AC Short Circuit Model

Short circuit calculation is an integral part of any power system planning process as
the calculation is required to determine the present as well as projected minimum,
normal, and maximum short circuit current levels for proper dimensioning of any
equipment to be installed in the power system. The short circuit studies are also
required to find the correct settings for the protection relays. For these reasons, the
network and the component models required for short circuit studies are well
established and maintained by the TSO and NO.
The scope of the short circuit calculation from the perspective of a FACTS
controller project is, however, somewhat different. Whereas the maximum short
circuit level required for component design and rating can often be calculated based
on the common principles applied for any other similar use, special attention needs
to be paid to the criteria applied for calculation of the minimum short circuit current
level. That is because the minimum value affects the design and parameterization of
the FACTS controls.
4.3.2 AC System Modelling Requirements

The AC system modelling requirement is very similar to the requirements set by
power flow calculations. However, in addition to the network data, generator and
load impedance data is also required. Negative and zero sequence data (including
for the network) is also required so that fault current levels for unsymmetrical faults
can be determined. Some series controllers can be designed to move power to

un-faulted phases, if single-pole line trip re-close designs are used.

While some HVDC VSC schemes can provide fault current (typically up to their
steady-state rating), shunt-connected FACTS controllers are typically not expected
to provide any. Series-connected FACTS controllers will not provide fault current
themselves, but they can affect the network impedance and may need to be consid-
ered. The transient torques from discharging the series capacitors can “shake” turbo
generators, but the TCSC can eliminate these by using proper control algorithms as
discussed in ▶ Chap. 8, “Technical Description of Thyristor Controlled Series
Capacitors (TCSC).” The effect of a series-connected controller is likely to be
nonlinear, and for close in faults (i.e., along the line where the series controller is
installed), with high fault currents, the series-connected FACTS controller is likely to
be bypassed, which eliminates the transient torques. For faults on other lines, ride-
through requirements or mitigation actions may be defined.

The short circuit capacity at the terminating bus bars of the FACTS controller for
system intact and for contingencies may already be well known. If not, short circuit
calculations to find this information need to be performed. Specific examples of
applying short circuit studies include:
• AC short circuit capacity levels for expected maximum and minimum operating
conditions for the FACTS controller over their lifetime.
• The minimum short circuit capacity levels at the FACTS controller bus bar for AC
contingency conditions are required for inclusion in the technical specification as
an essential input parameter for the FACTS controller design.
• The short circuit capacity also provides indication of the maximum allowable size
of switched capacitors, filters, or reactors. The AC voltage response to such
switching must be contained within acceptable limits.
4.4 Harmonic Models
A harmonic model of the AC network, as seen from the location where the FACTS
controller will be connected, is used for assessing the impact on harmonics caused
by installation of the FACTS controller. Typically, the model is used by the
vendor to:
• Calculate the harmonic distortion due to harmonic current injections (or in the
case of a VSC the harmonic voltage injection) from the controller. The harmonic
injections will depend on the design of the FACTS controller, which will be
determined by the tenderers.
• Determining the level of amplification of the controller for existing

pre-harmonics. The level of magnification will depend on the design of the
FACTS controller and its filter, if any, which will be determined by the tenderers.
Depending on the type of FACTS controller, i.e., shunt or series connection, the
harmonic model will have a different topology. Figures 1 and 2 show the topology
for a shunt-connected FACTS controller, in this case an SVC. The components in
these figures are:
PCC
Z(h)
Transformer
Z(h) AC Z(h) AC
ITCR_n Z(h)
Z(h) Filters Filters
AC
TSC (LV (HV
System
Side) Side)
Fig. 1 Model for assessing impact of SVC on emissions at the point of common coupling (PCC).
(Taken from TB 766)
PCC
Z(h) Z(h)
Transformer AC System
Z(h) AC Z(h) AC
Z(h) Z(h) Filters Filters Ufn
TCR TSC (LV (HV
Side) Side)
Fig. 2 Model for assessing impact of SVC on magnification of background harmonics. (Taken
from TB 766)
• PCC is the point of common coupling and is the location where the FACTS
controller is connected to the network (i.e., HV side of unit transformer).
• Z(h) transformer – the harmonic impedance of the unit transformer.
• Z(h) TSC – the harmonic impedance of the thyristor switched capacitor (when on).
• Z(h) AC Filters (HV and LV) – the harmonic impedance of filters on the HV and
LV side of the SVC.
• ITCR_N – the harmonic injection from the TCR.
• Z(h) AC System, the harmonic impedances of the AC network through all
considered contingencies.
• Ufn, the background harmonics of the AC system.
In Fig. 1 the model is used to determine the harmonic distortion caused by the
current injection of the TCR at the PCC. The harmonic impedance of the filters on
the LV and HV side is designed to help reduce the harmonic distortion at the PCC.
The worst cases occur when the network impedance and the impedance of the
FACTS controller create a resonance, which may not be at an integer harmonic
frequency if applied to a STATCOM or UPFC which uses a modular multilevel
converter.
In Fig. 2 the model is again used to determine the distortion caused by the
harmonic impedance of the FACTS controller drawing harmonic current from the
background distortion in the network. Again, the worst case occurs when the SVC
components are in resonance with the network impedance.
When background harmonics are measured, the measurements are taken, where
possible, at the PCC. The background harmonics will change when the SVC is
connected. The figure represents one way of modeling. The IEEE SVC (IEEE 1031,
Annex B.5.3.3) and STATCOM (IEEE 1052, Annex B.5.4.3) guidelines discuss the
different representations (IEEE 1031 2011; IEEE 1052 2018).
4.4.1 AC System Model

The harmonic impedance of the AC system as seen from the FACTS controller bus
bar is an essential input to the determination of the harmonic performance of the
FACTS controller. In Figs. 1 and 2, this is the component labelled as “Z(h) AC
System.” The network impedance will vary for credible present and future config-
urations of the transmission system, as seen from the FACTS controller.
The harmonic impedance is either calculated using frequency domain, time
domain, or harmonic domain techniques, typically up to 50th harmonic but increas-
ingly up to 100th harmonic due to the extended application of FACTS controllers
based on voltage-sourced converters, which have high equivalent switching fre-
quency. CIGRE TB 766, “Network Modelling for Harmonic Studies” (CIGRE TB
766 2019), covers the modelling of the most common network components and
discusses key features that need to be considered in the assessment of the harmonic
impedance at the point of connection.
For each harmonic impedance, loci plots can be drawn showing the R vs X
impedances as shown in Fig. 3.
Z [ohm] X [ohm]
400 350
350 300
Parallel 635 Hz 250
300 Resonance
625 Hz
200
250
150 630 Hz
200
100
150 R [ohm]
50
100 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
50 -50
Series
Resonance 698 Hz
0 -100 635 Hz
640 Hz
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
-150
Frequency [Hz]
(a) Impedance vs frequency for one operating condition (b) Harmonic impedance locus from 2 nd to 40th harmonic orders
Z [ohm]
X [ohm]
1000
800
900
800 600
700
400
600
500
200
400
R [ohm]
300 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
200
-200
100
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 -400
Frequency [Hz]
(c) Impedance vs frequency for multiple operating conditions (d) Harmonic impedance loci from 2 nd to 40th harmonic orders
X [ohm] X [ohm]
250 600
500
200
400
150 300
200
100
100
R [ohm]
0
50 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
-100
R [ohm]
0 -200
0 50 100 150 200 250
th th
(e) Harmonic impedance loci from 5 to 7 harmonic orders (f) Harmonic impedance loci from 26th to 35th harmonic orders
X [ohm]
800
2 ≤ h ≤ 40
600
26 ≤ h ≤ 35
400
5≤h≤7
200
R [ohm]
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
-200
-400
(g) Harmonic impedance envelopes
Fig. 3 Example of harmonic impedance in a transmission network locus, loci, and envelope. (a)
Impedance vs frequency for one operating condition, (b) harmonic impedance locus from 2nd to 4th
harmonic orders, (c) impedance vs frequency for multiple operating conditions, (d) harmonic
impedance loci from 2nd to 40th harmonic orders, (e) harmonic impedance loci from 5th to 7th
harmonic orders, (f) harmonic impedance loci from 26th to 35th harmonic orders, and (g) harmonic
impedance envelopes. (From TB 766)
100 200
90 180
5
80 300
160 9
70 4 140 250
13
X (ohms)
X (ohms)
X (ohms)
60 3 120 200 12
7 11
50 100 6 150
2 10
40 80 100
30 60 50
20 40
0
10 20
50
0 0
10 20 30 40 50 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360
R (Ohms) R (Ohms) R (Ohms)
10°
800
14 - 49
600
400 Radius
13 –750 ohms
K(ohms)
200
0
200 400 600 800 10001200 400
–200 R(ohms)
–400
–600
–800 17°
Fig. 4 Harmonic impedance shown in polygon loci
The calculated harmonic impedance for each scenario and operating condition
can be presented in tabular form, but it may consist of a large amount of data. For
the purposes of data exchange, it is more practical to present the information as
envelopes in an R-X plane encompassing all possible operating conditions. The
harmonic impedance data can then be displayed graphically in a single envelope
including all frequencies of interest or as a family of envelopes each comprising
one or more harmonic frequencies. With this approach, it is sufficient to provide a
definition of the envelope boundaries for each harmonic order (or group of fre-
quencies), which simplifies the process for exchange of data and subsequent
analysis.
Various types and shapes of impedance envelopes can be found in literature and
are in practical use (CIGRE TB 766 2019). The selection of a particular envelope
type depends on a number of factors such as the amount and quality of network data
available, the network characteristics and frequency behavior, and the intended
application. Generally, a too conservative approach in determining the harmonic
impedance envelopes results in excessive filtering to fulfilling harmonic perfor-
mance requirements and hence higher cost. In Fig. 4 the harmonic impedance has
been shown as polygon loci.
4.4.2 Background Distortion

The treatment of background distortion, e.g., how the FACTS controller interacts
with the background distortion, also needs to be modelled. The background
distortion is the quantity Ufn depicted in Fig. 2. The background distortion, the way
it is measured and considered for the design and rating of the AC harmonic filters,
can have a very significant impact on the cost of the FACTS controller.
While the harmonic emissions from a FACTS controller may be within the
specified limits, the effective impedance of the FACTS controller will interact
with the background distortion and could cause unacceptable levels of harmonic
distortion at the point of connection through amplification. This is a very impor-
tant parameter that needs to be accurately captured in harmonic studies. This
amplification could be the result of interactions between the FACTS controller and
the grid, and changes in topology of the grid, e.g., during line maintenance and
fault outages, need to be considered.
The background distortion is the existing harmonic content in the power system
caused by the aggregated emissions of nonlinear controllers at all voltage levels
before the FACTS controller is installed. Typically, the background distortion at the
point of connection is calculated from historic measurements. The levels of har-
monics can vary significantly either over a short time or according to season. For
some harmonics, the levels can be quite constant in relation to time and season where
others measured at the same location can vary significantly.
Therefore, recommendation for a “representative measuring period” is system
dependent, but in general it can be stated that measurements should be conducted
for as long as possible, ideally for not less than 3 months, including measurements
of all three phases. If very high background harmonics occur only under certain
system conditions, such system conditions/configurations should be considered
when determining the design and rating of the FACTS controller AC harmonic
filters.
Care should also be taken when measuring background harmonics to use
measurements that truly represent the harmonics observed at the network, and
have not been distorted by the measurement controller. CVTs, for example, are
known to have a characteristic which, if not corrected, will result in inaccurate
measurements even at low harmonic orders, and magnetic VTs would not typically
be able to provide accurate measurements at high orders of harmonic, i.e., higher
than 21st harmonic.

The primary purpose of the model of the harmonic impedance, and the provision of
the background harmonic distortion information, is to enable the tenderers to design
the FACTS controller and the AC harmonic filters, if required.
The measurement of the existing background harmonic distortion is an important
guide to the determination of the harmonic distortion limits that should be included
in the technical specification of the FACTS controller.
Ideally, the tenderers should be able to decide the type of FACTS controller that
would be able to provide the most cost-effective overall solution considering all
performance requirements.
The TSO/NO/owner will have defined harmonic limits that cannot be exceeded in
the AC network, with limits applicable to individual harmonics and overall
harmonics. If these limits are already exceeded, then the opportunity may be taken to
reduce the existing harmonic distortion, even to meet the required limit, but doing so
is likely to increase the cost of the FACTS controller. If the existing harmonic
distortion is below the defined harmonic limits, then the permitted harmonic distor-
tion contribution can be defined in several different ways:
• Overall harmonic performance to stay within the defined harmonic limits consid-
ering the background and the FACTS controller contribution.
• Set limits, typically a proportion of the margin between the defined limits and the
background distortion, for individual harmonics as well as for the total harmonic
distortion. The distortion should consider both the harmonics from the FACTS
controller and magnification, if any, of the background harmonics.
• And many other methods, as set by the Transmission System Operator.
4.5 Transient Stability

A transient stability model is used to model the electromechanical transients in the
network. It is capable of modelling the dynamic swings of the generator rotors, the
slower dynamic swings in the AC voltage, and the dynamic behavior of frequency.
The electrical network is solved using a phasor representation as in load flow pro-
grams. However, the electrical machines are represented in detail by differential
equations on the electrical side, as well as on the mechanical side (Anderson and
Fouad 1993; Kundur 1994; Krause et al. 1995). The electrical part of the machine
model uses an approximation that direct and quadrature axis (d-q) fluxes change
slowly with time (Park 1929). Hence transients such as DC offsets in short circuit
currents cannot be reproduced. The program also considers the dynamic behavior of
control equipment such as FACTS controllers and excitation systems and governors
for AC generators.
A transient stability example is discussed in Appendix C of (CIGRE TB
563 2013).
Comparison with Electromagnetic Transient Models

Both transient stability and electromagnetic transient models are time domain
models. While transient stability models are used for the relatively slow
dynamics, electromagnetic transient models are used for faster dynamics. The
indicative frequency ranges for various FACTS controllers dynamic studies are
shown in Fig. 5.
Transient stability models are used for power oscillations, including local and
inter-area. As the transient stability model uses the load flow admittance represen-
tation of the electrical network, it is not able to represent sub-synchronous resonance
frequencies or higher.
40 MHz
Very fast Lightning overvoltages
Transients switching surges (Disconnectors etc.)
10 MHz
10 kHz
Transients & FACT controller Switching
5 kHz
FACT Controller Harmonics
System Interactions 1 kHz
Ferroresonance
100 Hz
Transformer Switching
Grid Resonance
Protection
Control &
Power Generation 50/
fN 60 Hz Power Station - Line - Load
and Transmission
Oscillations of the Turbine Generator
Subsynchronous Multi-Mass Systems: above approx.
Resonances 300 MW (in thermal and Nuclear Power
10 Hz
Plants, i.e. only “long Shaft Systems”)
5 Hz
Power
Oscillations Rotor Oscillations of Generators
0 Hz
Local Oscillations: > 1 Hz
Inter-Area Oscillations: ≤ 1 Hz
Fig. 5 Frequency bandwidth for typical AC system dynamic studies
4.5.2 AC System Modelling Aspects

Just as in the power flow model, transmission line data in the form of shunt
admittance and series impedance at fundamental frequency is necessary. Parameters
affecting the mechanical dynamics such as rotor and turbine inertia constants and
damping constants must be provided. Exciter, including power system stabilizers
and turbine governor control parameters, should be modelled. Nonlinearities in the
magnetic circuit of the machines must be considered.
If other FACTS controllers, HVDC schemes, large wind or solar parks, or battery
storage systems are present, appropriate models and data to represent their dynamic
behavior as mentioned in CIGRE Technical Brochure 145 should also be included
(CIGRE TB 145 1999).

The FACTS controller model must include the key control system parameters and char-
acteristics, including limits and ramp rates, and any special control loops which are part of
the real installation, e.g., power oscillation damping (POD), flicker control, and dynamic
responses. Any voltage/current limits and ride-through behavior (such as blocking) should
be included, to ensure that the grid code requirements will be met. Optimal gains of the
FACTS controller probably need to be manually adjusted in the simulation tools. Control
instability due to interaction with the power system may be identified in some cases and
operating scenarios, and limits should be included as necessary.

Depending on the degree of AC system dynamic interaction and control that is to be
explored by the Project Owner, some or all of the studies listed below may be
performed. The weaker the network at the location of the proposed FACTS control-
ler, the more study effort is required. The implementation stability functions, such as
power oscillations damping and sub-synchronous resonances control, should be
determined if such potential issues are identified by electromagnetic transient studies
and investigations (Anderson and Farmer 1996).
• Determining the worst-case temporary overvoltage (TOV) and undervoltages that

could occur at the proposed project location with and without the proposed
FACTS controller. This should include the trip of AC lines and of generation.
The impact of and on other AC voltage controllers in the system, such as SVCs,
STATCOMs, synchronous condensers, or mechanically switched filters, capaci-
tors, or reactors, should be investigated. Contingencies in the AC system should
be considered in the TOV studies. It should be appreciated that the TOVobserved
with dynamic and transient stability models may not represent effects of trans-
former saturation or may do so with approximations. Consequently, any solution
selected from the TOV study should be validated with an electromagnetic tran-
sient model that better represents transformer saturation and the resonant fre-
quency impedances in the AC system that might amplify any overvoltage. The
Project Owner should specify the permissible TOV envelope, and the equipment
supplier should design the dynamic compensation accordingly.
• Determining the desired speed of response of the FACTS controller for various
faults, disturbances, and outages of lines or generation in the AC system. For
example, system transient stability might be improved if, for a critical line, trans-
former, or generator outage, the FACTS controller can quickly support the network
during and after the disturbance to reduce its impact. For these purposes, any control
strategy related to under- and overvoltages should be represented in the model.
• In some applications a fast-dynamic response can be provided by monitoring the
AC parameters, e.g., line current or line voltage, overriding the normal closed
loop control. This may be beneficial for the suppression of flicker from variable
loads or generation and to support the system voltage when HVDC schemes
suffer commutation failures. In some cases, the fast dynamic response can be
triggered by signals being transmitted from a remote installation.
• Power oscillation damping (POD) is sometimes the main purpose of a FACTS
installation. A suitably designed AC power system damping function might be
used to modulate the FACTS controller output to dampen oscillations. To
assert damping it should be possible to measure changes to AC voltage phase
angle or frequency at the FACTS controller bus bar or the difference in phase
angle or frequency between different bus bars. The dynamic damping pro-
vided by the FACTS controller may allow significant increase in power
transfer capability in the AC system. However, the studies should check for
potential adverse interactions between the FACTS controller and the system,
and if appropriate solutions should be identified and tested to ensure safe
operation. If there are other FACTS controllers in the system, it may be
necessary to coordinate the responses to avoid system instability. Responsi-
bility for the implementation of this coordination is a complicated issue and is
beyond the scope of this chapter.
• For series controllers a transient model may also be used to determine the swing
currents that may occur for a series-connected controller, such as a TCSC or
SSSC. The swing currents will determine the short-term ratings (i.e., up to 10s) of
the series-connected controller and will need to be coordinated with the bypass
protection. If the FACTS controller has a POD, then this may affect the magnitude
of the swing currents.
The reader is encouraged to read the chapters in the “Technical Description of

FACTS Controllers” parts and the chapters in the “Applications of FACTS Control-
lers,” both of which provide valuable information about the performance of the
different FACTS controllers.
4.6 Electromagnetic Transients (EMT)

Electromagnetic transient models model the power system in its greatest details. It is
possible to investigate a very wide frequency range of transients with these tools
ranging from lightning transients to electromechanical rotor oscillations. All lumped
network parameters as well as transmission lines are represented by their differential
equations and then simplified using trapezoidal (or other) integration method to a
companion circuit form with only resistors and current/voltage sources. The repre-
sentation of each system component depends on the frequency range of the phe-
nomena under investigation, as shown in Fig. 5. This high level of detail means that
EMT models are computationally intensive to simulate, when comparing transient
stability models. Hence in many studies, the system must be reduced in size to
represent only the necessary detail. The use of co-simulation and parallel simulation,
as described below, can significantly increase the speed of EMT simulations. See
also ▶ Chap. 2, “AC System Characteristics” in this Green Book, which discusses
some of the limitations of EMT.
4.6.2 AC Modelling Requirements

Transmission line data are normally entered in geometric and physical form, such as
conductor radius, spacing of phases, height above ground, conductor and ground
resistivity, and so on. If these data are not available, the power flow data can be used
to model a distributed parameter transmission line with frequency-independent
parameters (CIGRE Green Book 2017). Transformers are modelled in three-phase
detail including; the self-impedance and mutual impedance between the windings,
and saturation.
For many preliminary studies, e.g., step response studies, the AC network can be
simplified to a Thevenin equivalent with the Thevenin impedance being adjusted to
provide the desired short circuit ratio (SCR) as shown in Fig. 6a. The Thevenin
source must be adjusted to provide the required AC voltage at the FACTS control-
ler’s AC bus bar. The Thevenin impedance must be adjusted to include the system’s
damping angle, usually in the range of 75–85 at fundamental frequency. When no
a L
b L2
c
R1 L1
R2 R
|Zs| |Zs| |Zs|
R1+R2
R1
ω ω ω
Fig. 6 Thevenin equivalents for AC networks
additional information is available, an equivalent as shown in Fig. 6b may be used.

This equivalent limits the value of the impedance at high frequency, and the three
parameters (L, R1, and R2) allow for an additional degree of freedom, e.g., for the
network damping to be specified at another frequency such as the third harmonic. If a
more detailed frequency response of the system is available, a more detailed
frequency-dependent network equivalent of the network such as in Fig. 6c can be
constructed. In case the FACTS controller has dominant effect on the technical
performance of the power system, it may be necessary to model the AC network
in more detail. The level of detail needs to be defined based on the case-specific
requirements. More detailed AC network representation may include, e.g., the
frequency-dependent transmission lines up to two to three buses from the location
of the FACTS controller and nearby generating stations or other components with
dynamic response characteristics. Modelling the AC network in such greater detail
may become necessary during the commissioning and at a later stage for studies
related to post-disturbance analysis.
4.6.3 FACTS Controller Modelling Requirements

The FACTS controller representation must include the detailed valve switching and
their control system, the step-down transformer if applicable, all switchable reactive
power elements, and any AC filters as relevant. The converter should be modelled
reflecting the switching operation that takes places in response to the commands
from the converter control system. It may not be practical to model every single
valve switching operation, but the model should include a reasonable functional
representation of the performance of the power electronic system.
The controls should be modelled in as much detail as possible. In EMT the
control system and its protective functions including processing and communication
delays need to be represented in detail (besides the items listed above) to provide a
realistic behavior of the FACTS controller in steady state as well as dynamically.
For preliminary studies carried out by the owner, possibly with the help of
consultants, generic control models constructed using the repertoire of control
system building blocks in the program are typically sufficient. However, once the
contract is awarded, more specific models identical to those used by the manufac-
turer are recommended. Many vendors provide libraries of their components within
the EMT program that can be used for such a purpose. A Joint Working Group
B4.82/IEEE is standardizing the interface of simulation models with vendor’s real
code controls and protections embedded within, as opposed to generic models.

When a FACTS controller is added to an electric power system, certain performance
and operational issues that invoke non-fundamental frequency characteristics should
be addressed. The conventional power flow program will be limited in their ability to
accurately address such performance and operational issues for the simple reason
that they are valid at fundamental frequency only. Initially, i.e., before project award,
this work is done with generic FACTS controller models. In the longer term, the
owner is likely to need to perform studies involving the FACTS controller, and
therefore the future contractor should be required to provide fully detailed models as
part of the scope of supply. The final model to be provided by the contractor should
be verified during factory system testing and commissioning.
Studies that may need to be performed using EMT include:
• Fault performance. How the FACTS controller responds to various faults can
only be represented with precision using an electromagnetic transient model.
Faults best represented in EMT include closeup faults at the AC line and at the
converter level. Faults within the FACTS controller also need to be studied. These
studies provide an input to the specification, particularly if the studies show that
fast responses and recovery envelopes are required.
• Impact of harmonic impedance of the AC system. Transformer magnetizing
current inrush occurs after nearby AC faults are cleared. Such inrush currents are
rich in harmonic content and may drive harmonic voltage amplification through
resonant impedances in the system that can impact the performance of the FACTS
controller, often through its protection system if not adequately harmonically
compensated. Typically, the bidders are responsible for ensuring that such ampli-
fications are limited to an acceptable level.
• Control interactions and stability. FACTS control instability can occur for a
variety of reasons including too low short circuit level during abnormal operating
condition and interaction with other FACTS controllers or power electronic
controllers in the vicinity. In order to fully evaluate if control interactions will
occur, it is essential that vendor-specific models are used. If control interactions
are observed when running simulations with generic models, it should be consid-
ered as a risk, and the requirement for a control interaction study being performed
by the vendor during project execution should be added to the specification.
Control adjustments, operating restrictions, or system design improvements can
be investigated to deal with such instabilities. To do so requires functionally
accurate models of the actual controls of the FACTS controller(s) and other
power electronic controllers. This study is typically performed by the contractor
but may be difficult to undertake if detailed models are required from other
equipment suppliers. Very low short circuit capacity under contingency conditions
may also cause instability of the FACTS controller, which also needs to be
investigated during the contract studies.
• Torsional damping. Any turbo generator in the proximity of a FACTS controller
has modes of shaft torsional oscillation that will be excited as a result of an AC
system fault and basically through any sudden change in its steady-state opera-
tion. Normally, these oscillations are damped through mechanical and electrical
losses. A FACTS controller can impact the rate of damping of thermal generator
shaft torsional oscillations and especially the sub-synchronous oscillation modes
below 30 Hz. If the total sub-synchronous damping (mechanical plus electrical)
of any torsional mode becomes negative due to an adverse effect of the FACTS
controller on damping, then adjustments to the controls or other sub-synchronous
resonance amelioration methods need to be investigated, along with consideration
of installing a torsional monitoring system and possibly a sub-synchronous
overstress relay for generator protection. The contractor is typically required to
do studies to identify potential sub-synchronous resonance conditions and, if
found necessary, to change the controls so that positive damping is provided for
sub-synchronous oscillations. The owner will typically provide the necessary data
for these studies to the contractor. See also ▶ Chap. 2, “AC System Characteris-
tics” in this Green Book.
• Insulation coordination. Electromagnetic transient studies with detailed models
of the FACTS controller and the system can be used to coordinate the insulation
design and voltage surge protection. To a certain extent, the stresses on the
insulation systems are impacted by the FACTS controls and protections. The
selection of insulation levels and surge arrester protection for a FACTS controller
is typically the responsibility of the FACTS equipment supplier as an integral part
of the design.
• Switching surge effects. When transformers are energized, the magnetizing cur-
rent inrush can cause deterioration in the AC system’s power quality. Mechanically
switched filters, capacitors, and reactors at or near the interconnection bus, if not
equipped with transient ameliorating strategies such as point on wave switching or
closing inductors or resistors, can cause reduced power quality and even instigate
FACTS controller instability or excessive transients if the short circuit level is too
low. Mechanically switched capacitors cause inrush currents that will distort and
change the AC voltage causing the FACTS controller to respond.
• Fault currents for series controllers. For series controllers, like TCSC, UPFC,
and SSSC, fault current is of particular interest as the fault current will flow
through the controller equipment and their protective devices. It is thus necessary
that EMT is used to determine the fault level, rather than using the short circuit
model of Sect. 4.3. A fault current cycle needs to be included in the specification
to enable the vendor to dimension the equipment during the tender stage.
4.6.5 Co-simulation and Parallel Simulation

Electric power systems are developing with a growing number of inverter-based
facilities in addition to FACTS and HVDC systems. When studying a FACTS
application, existing inverter-based facilities, HVDC systems, and other FACTS

controllers also need to be included in the system model. Speed and accuracy of
the overall simulation as well as confidentiality issues with proprietary user
models are the key aspects that need to be addressed. In summary:
• Transient stability tools represent large portions of the network with reduced
accuracy, and writing new custom/detailed models is difficult.
• EMT tools represent smaller electrical systems in great detail and controls in
precise (exact) detail but are slow to solve using one computer.
• Simulation speeds for both techniques are getting slower as the power system
becomes more complex.
In order to address the above issues, co-simulation and parallel processing can be
used (Irwin et al. 2012).
Parallel processing allows a large EMT model, to be split into sub models with
each run on different cores of the same processor or on separate processors on
separate PCs. An interface, such as a transmission line or transformer, is used to
separate each part of the subdivided models. By running the models on different
cores, the speed of the simulation is greatly increased – as in general the speed is
based on the slowest running sub model. In some tools, it is possible to run these
different EMT models with different time-steps.
Co-simulation (sometimes called hybrid simulation) creates a dynamic interface
between specific EMT and transient stability programs, allowing both types of
programs to be run in the same dynamic simulation. The two programs run syn-
chronously in time, allowing faults to be made on either side and affect the other. It is
possible to use both co-simulation and parallel processing of multiple EMT and
transient stability models together.
Vendor-provided simulation models usually require proprietary protection
through nondisclosure agreements, but the CIGRE/IEEE Working Group B4.82
“Guidelines for Use of Real-Code in EMT Models for HVDC, FACTS and Inverter
based generators in Power Systems Analysis” was formed in 2019 to address this
issue.
4.7 Real-Time Simulation (RTS)
Real-time simulation equipment is normally used by the power electronic manu-

facturers and by some specialist consultants and institutions but is only rarely
available to the owner. A real-time digital simulator can be interfaced with the
actual controls if necessary, by analog to digital (A/D) or digital to analog (D/A)
converters and amplifiers. The real-time simulation models are applied extensively
during factory acceptance testing of the control and protection systems. Its use will
be explained in more detail in ▶ Chap. 20, “FACTS Controller Integration and
Design Studies.”
4.8 Models to Be Provided by the Vendor
The models of the FACTS controller that the owner or TSO will need for the
performance of system studies subsequent to the new FACTS controller entering
service should be detailed in the specification. These models and their maintenance
have been discussed in ▶ Chap. 20, “FACTS Controller Integration and Design
Studies.”
4.9 Other Models and Tools
During the design of a FACTS controller, additional studies such as audible noise,
electromagnetic interference (EMI), loss calculations, and grounding design must
also be carried out. These studies are usually conducted by the manufacturers or
other specialists using specialized in-house tools and are not considered in this
chapter.
5 Cross-References
▶ AC Network Control Using Conventional Means

▶ AC Network Control Using FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems)
Controllers
▶ Application Examples of STATCOM
▶ Application Examples of SVC
▶ Application Examples of the Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor
▶ Application Examples of UPFC and Its Variants
▶ Economic Appraisal and Cost-Benefit Analysis
▶ Environmental Considerations for FACTS Projects
▶ FACTS Controller Integration and Design Studies
▶ Procurement and Functional Specifications for FACTS Controllers
▶ Technical Description of the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) and Its
▶ Technical Description of Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC)
References
Anderson, P.M., Farmer, R.G.: Series Compensation of Power Systems. PBLSH! Inc, Encinitas (1996)
Anderson, P.M., Fouad, A.A.: Power System Control and Stability. IEEE Press, Piscataway (1993)
CIGRE: Green Book on Overhead Lines. Springer, Paris (2017)
CIGRE JTF 36.05.02/14.03.03: AC system modelling for AC filter design – an overview of

impedance modelling, Electra 164, Feb 1996
CIGRE CC02: Guide for Assessing the Network Harmonic Impedance, Electra 167, Aug 1996
CIGRE TB 051: Load flow control in high voltage power systems, Jan 1996
CIGRE TB 139: Guide to the specification and design evaluation of AC filters for facts controllers,
Apr 1999
CIGRE TB 145: Modeling of power electronics equipment (FACTS) in load flow and stability
programs: a representation guide for power system planning and analysis, 1999
CIGRE TB 301: Congestion management in liberalized market environment, Aug 2006
CIGRE TB 310: Coordinated voltage control in transmission networks, Feb 2007
CIGRE TB 504: Voltage and VAr support in system operation, Aug 2012
CIGRE TB 553: Special Aspects of AC Filter Design for HVDC Systems, 2013
CIGRE TB 563: Modelling and Simulation Studies to be Performed During the Lifecycle of HVDC
Systems, 2013
CIGRE TB 700: Challenge in the Control Centre (EMS) due to Distributed Generation and
Renewables, 2017
CIGRE TB 766: Network modelling for harmonic studies, 2019
IEEE Electrification Magazine: vol. 3, number 4, Dec 2015
IEEE: 1031, IEEE Guide for the Functional Specification of Transmission Static Var Compensators,
2011
IEEE-1052: IEEE Guide for Specification of Transmission Static Synchronous Compensator
(STATCOM) Systems, 2018
IEC TR 62001-1:2016, High-voltage direct current (HVDC) systems – Guidance to the specifica-
tion and design evaluation of AC filters – Part 1: Overview
tion and design evaluation of AC filters – Part 2: Performance
tion and design evaluation of AC filters – Part 3: Modelling
tion and design evaluation of AC filters – Part 4: Equipment
Irwin G., Amarasinghe, C., Krocker, N., Woodford, D.: Parallel processing and hybrid simulation
for HVDCNSC PSCAD studies, AC and DC Power Transmission (ACDC 2012), 10th IET
International Conference on AC and DC Power Transmission, 2012
Krause, P.C., Wasynczuk, O., Sudhoff, S.D.: Analysis of Electric Machinery. IEEE Press,
Piscataway (1995)
Kundur, P.: Excitation Systems, Chapter 8. In: Power System Stability and Control. McGraw Hill,
Inc. New York (1994). ISBN 0-047-035958-X
voltage collapse. IEEE Power Eng. Rev. 11(2), (1991)
Park, R.H.: “Two-reaction theory of synchronous machines: generalized method of analysis – part I”
(PDF). Trans. AIEE. 48, 716–730 (1929). Retrieved 13 Dec 2012
Price, P.R.: Geomagnetically induced current effects on transformers. IEEE Trans. Power Del.
17(4), 1002–1008 (2002)
Western Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC) Modeling and Validation Work Group: Com-
posite load model for dynamic simulations, Report 1.0, June 2012
Dr. Bjarne R. Andersen is the director and owner of Andersen

2003. Before becoming an independent consultant, Bjarne worked
commercial VSC HVDC project to use an HVDC overhead line
and a VSC HVDC project for multiterminal operation permitting
multi-vendor access.
Dennis Woodford graduated from the University of Melbourne

in 1967 and obtained a master’s degree from the University of
Manitoba in 1973. From 1967 until 1970, he worked with English
Electric and spent a portion of his time at Stafford in the UK
working on Bipole I of the Nelson River HVDC project. In 1973
he joined Manitoba Hydro and became Special Studies Engineer
in Transmission Planning where he worked on the Winnipeg-Twin
Cities 500 kV interconnection and the Nelson River HVDC pro-
ject, Bipoles I and II.
He joined the Manitoba HVDC Research Centre as Executive
Director from 1986 to 2001 and then he helped start and became
President of Electranix Corporation, a consulting company based in
Winnipeg. He is a registered professional engineer in the Province
of Manitoba and a former Adjunct Professor at the University of
Manitoba. He is a Life Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers and a international member of the National
Academy of Engineering.
Dr. Geoff Love graduated from the University of Canterbury

with a BE(hons) in 2002 and also from the University of Canter-
bury, with a PhD in 2006. From 2006 to 2014, Geoff worked for
Transpower New Zealand, working as a Network Planning Engi-
neer, and also in the development and commissioning of the Pole
3 HVDC project and various STATCOMs in the New Zealand
Grid.
From 2014 Geoff has worked for PSC Consulting, firstly in Read-
ing, UK, and since 2016 in Dublin, Ireland. For PSC Geoff has
worked with various European TSOs and European HVDC pro-
jects. Since 2018 Geoff is the CIGRE-B4 Study Committee mem-
ber for the Republic of Ireland.
Environmental Considerations for FACTS
Projects 18
Bjarne R. Andersen, Bruno Bisewski, Narinder Dhaliwal, and
Mark Reynolds
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788
2 Management of Environmental Issues and Stakeholder Engagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
2.1 Management of Environmental Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
2.2 Project Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
2.3 Stakeholder Engagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
3 Impact of FACTS Controllers on the AC Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
3.1 Impact of Changed Power Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
4 Environmental Impact of a FACTS Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
4.2 Environmental Aspects Related to Site Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
4.3 Environmental Impact of the FACTS Station Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799
4.4 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806
4.5 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806
4.6 Decommissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
5 Audible Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
5.1 Relationship of Performance Limits to Time Duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
5.2 Audible Sound from FACTS Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
5.3 Environmental Influences on Audible Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
5.4 Audible Noise Level Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
B. R. Andersen (*)
B. Bisewski
RBJ Engineering Corporation, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
e-mail: b.bisewski@rbjengineering.com
N. Dhaliwal
TransGrid Solutions, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
e-mail: ndhaliwal@tgs.biz
M. Reynolds
POWER ENGINEERs Inc., New York, NY, USA
e-mail: mark.reynolds@powereng.com

5.5 Sound-Emitting Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813

5.6 Sound Reduction Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
5.7 Operating Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
5.8 Sound Level Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
5.9 Verification of Component Sound Power Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822
5.10 Verification of Sound Levels from the FACTS Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
5.11 Specification of Audible Noise Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
6 Electric and Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
7 Electromagnetic Emissions and Compatibility Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829
7.1 Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
7.2 Electromagnetic (EMC) Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
7.3 Harmonics and Interharmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842
Abstract
This chapter of the CIGRE Green Book on FACTS covers environmental con-
siderations that should be considered during the lifetime of a FACTS controller
project, i.e., from first considering the option of applying a FACTS controller to
the end of its useful life. Many different electrical and other issues need to be
considered, and it is necessary to engage with all interested parties at an early
stage to ensure that the project can be successful.
The chapter is primarily based on CIGRE Technical Brochures covering a
wide range of environmental issues, from which information has been extracted
and edited to make the information appropriate to FACTS controllers. The issues
described in this chapter are relevant to all types of FACTS controllers, i.e., Static
Var Compensators (SVCs), Static Compensators (STATCOMs), Thyristor Con-
trolled Series Capacitors (TCSCs), Unified Power Flow Controllers (UPFC), and
their variants.
These guidelines should be useful to readers seeking to understand the envi-
ronmental issues involved with FACTS controller installations and operation.
Given the wide audience and the numerous possible locations for FACTS con-
trollers throughout the world, it is not possible to address every scenario relating
to environmental impacts. However, it is hoped that the issues addressed in this
chapter will assist planners and developers as they seek to provide cost-effective
and environmentally acceptable solutions for transmission of electric energy.
1 Introduction
Consideration of the environment is an important part of the planning, implementa-

tion, and operation of infrastructure projects. This chapter uses information from
many CIGRE Technical Brochures, but specifically two major sources are CIGRE
TB 508, HVDC Environmental Planning Guidelines (CIGRE TB 508 2012), and
CIGRE TB 202, HVDC Stations Audible Noise (CIGRE TB 202 2002), both of
18 Environmental Considerations for FACTS Projects 789
which have been edited to apply to FACTS controllers. It has been written to assist
planners and potential developers in their consideration of the environmental issues
of FACTS controllers.
The chapter includes an overview of the management and stakeholder engage-
ment activities, which are essential to obtain permits for the development, construc-
tion, and operation of FACTS projects. This is followed by an overview of the
environmental issues that are relevant to FACTS installations. Detailed technical
descriptions of the different FACTS controllers can be found in the Technical
Description of FACTS Controllers section of this book, which includes
▶ Chaps. 6, “Technical Description of Static Var Compensators (SVC),” ▶ 7, “Tech-
nical Description of Static Compensators (STATCOM),” ▶ 8, “Technical Descrip-
tion of Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC),” and ▶ 9, “Technical
tions” and its variants.
Environmental issues can have a significant impact on the viability and the cost of
the controllers as discussed in ▶ Chap. 16, “Economic Appraisal and Cost-Benefit
Analysis,” which provides information about the investment options that planners
should consider when embarking on a system expansion project. ▶ Chap. 19,
“Procurement and Functional Specifications for FACTS Controllers” chapter
describes the information needed for the procurement of FACTS controllers. The
environmental issues related to FACTS controllers should of course also be incor-
porated in the procurement specification.
Environmental requirements are very much driven by government regulations,
specific interpretations of regulations, and company policy/standards. As such, the
region and business environment in which the project will be built dictate the specific
actions and efforts required to address environmental issues and manage environ-
mental risks. Additionally, specific site conditions and parameters, such as proximity
to environmentally sensitive areas, play a role in what and how certain environmen-
tal risks are managed.
Unrelated development in the vicinity of the station and evolving environmental
legislation or directed court orders can also subject the FACTS project to unplanned
environmental risk. For example, residential development in the vicinity of the
station that was earlier considered an isolated site could lead to more stringent
requirements with respect to issues such as visual impact and audible noise, which
might add unforeseen costs to the owners of the controller.
2 Management of Environmental Issues and Stakeholder

Engagement
2.1 Management of Environmental Issues
The environmental issues to be considered during the lifetime of a FACTS project

include:
• The impact that the FACTS controller will have on the operation of the AC
network
– The impacts should be positive from an operational point of view but may in
other respects be neutral, positive, or even negative, depending on the alter-
natives being considered. For example, the FACTS controller may increase the
power handling capability of a transmission line, enabling postponement of
additional lines. However, the construction and operation of the FACTS
controller might have a negative impact on those living close to the new
FACTS controller.
• The impact that the FACTS controller might have on humans, wildlife, vegeta-
tion, waterways, soil, and nearby substations and infrastructure, including:
– Environmental impacts of the components and systems which are used within
the FACTS controller including fluids and gases
– The visual impact of the FACTS controller
– The audible noise of the FACTS controllers
– Electric and magnetic field effects such as from corona and other electromag-
netic interference
2.2 Project Phases
From the inception of a FACTS controller project to the disposal of the controller,
many different environmental issues need to be considered.
2.2.1 Planning and Design

Environmental issues associated with a FACTS project should be addressed early in
the project planning and refined as the project proceeds. Consideration of environ-
mental issues must be an ongoing effort for the life of the project. The environmental
impact of the FACTS controller depends on its design, its physical size, and whether
it is to be constructed on a new site or within an existing substation.
Extensive consultation may be required both in the public domain and with
regulatory agencies. In such cases an appropriate environmental statement/report
should be prepared and discussed widely with local authorities and affected parties to
ensure as much feedback as possible prior to making formal applications for
environmental approvals.
Rigorous examination of all environmental issues and possible mitigation options
is essential at the planning stage. If the developer has little or no experience in the
operation or development of FACTS projects, it may be advisable to engage
consultants, to ensure that all potential environmental risks and challenges are
identified, clarified, and quantified. Any statutory, local, and other constraints in
respect of the proposed FACTS project need to be identified as early as possible,
such that they can be incorporated in the specification of the FACTS controller. Early
input from the prospective providers of the FACTS controller, e.g., to mitigate any
environmental risks, can reduce the time taken during the environmental review
stage and also during the project execution phase.
Major development projects may face a public inquiry, and the environmental
statement will probably come under detailed scrutiny and legal challenge. Therefore,
during the preliminary design phase, all possible environmental issues must be
considered. During this phase, the location of the different components and build-
ings should be selected to as much as possible reduce the environmental impact of
the project. It will be essential to be in a position to demonstrate to all of the
stakeholders that all environmental issues have been addressed.
2.2.2 Implementation
When the specification for the FACTS controller is issued, the potential environ-
mental issues associated with the chosen FACTS controller should be relatively well
known. However, even during the implementation phase, new issues could arise that
might require refinement of the environmental impact assessment.
During the construction and test phases, environmental issues may be verified
through test results, e.g., audible noise and electric and magnetic fields. During the
commissioning tests, the actual audible noise, electric and magnetic fields (EMF),
and electromagnetic interference (EMI) data can be measured and mapped, and if
needed mitigation may be provided where necessary.
2.2.3 Operation and Maintenance

During the life of the FACTS controller, events might occur such as fires, spills of
fluids, or accidental release of substances that may have undesirable environmental
impacts. These have to be appropriately addressed without delay.
2.2.4 Decommissioning
As described in ▶ Chap. 24, “Lifetime Management of FACTS Controllers,” regu-
latory approvals may be required in conjunction with the decommissioning and
removal of the FACTS controller at the end of its operational life. The environmental
impact of removal should if possible be addressed already at the design stage. The
decommissioning will most likely include the disposal of fluid-filled equipment such
as transformers, capacitors, and batteries.
2.3 Stakeholder Engagement
The past few decades have seen large organizations respond more proactively to
environmental issues and increasingly to societal pressures (CIGRE TB 548 2013).
This is a result of increased pressures from stakeholder groups influencing govern-
mental, regulatory organizations and electric power providers. Therefore all electric
system expansion proposals can be expected to be scrutinized or challenged. Some
electricity operators and owners have responded by becoming more open and
transparent in how they relate to the public and other stakeholders.
The stakeholder concerns must be addressed by means of approaches tailored to
the specific stakeholders. This will be influenced by the nature of the project, the
stage of the project life cycle, and the specific stakeholder and organizational
constraints.
A set of key principles for stakeholder engagement in the electricity sector should
be structured as follows:
• The approach to stakeholder engagement should be consistent for all the

company’s construction projects. This approach could be flexible, varying
according to the scale and type of the project, but should still be consistent for
all stakeholder groups and localities. The aim must be to establish trust among
stakeholders.
• All engagements should be clear about the real constraints of the project, what the
engagement and can consider, and what is out of scope. Some issues are marginal
and may have limited additional benefit. To preempt concerns, it may be benefi-
cial to engage key stakeholders (particularly those representing different commu-
nity interests) at the start of a project to address the concerns and avoid future
impacts on the project.
• Identify the key stakeholders early to obtain an understanding of their viewpoints,
needs, and expectations. Also establish the value of their potential contributions
to the project. There should be a clear commitment to community engagement at a
local level. It is also important to define the “voiceless” or “hard to reach”
stakeholders such as those with mobility difficulties, sight or hearing loss, literacy
difficulties, alternative language requirements, or people too busy to engage with
traditional consultation methods. Identify and target these groups specifically.
• Communications to the general public and the key stakeholders might include
providing information through news media; published information sheets or
leaflets and websites; online questionnaires; discussion events; workshops, per-
haps independently facilitated; community panels; etc. The goal should be to
build support for the project by enabling the stakeholders to gain understanding of
the benefits of the project.
Where there are sensitive wildlife populations, for example, specific species
impacts, these considerations may require extra time and study efforts, including
visual and in some cases acoustic modelling to address possible impacts from the
FACTS project.
One advisable technique is to provide on-site measurements of baseline EMF
fields, acoustic sound levels and frequency spectrum, and, if possible, biological and
archaeological assessments of the potential impacts of the associated site work. Early
disclosure of data with recognized experts prior to any public hearings process can
provide a valuable source of real data to counter public misconceptions of the
FACTS project’s impact. Complete data with open correspondence can help alleviate
public fears of the proposed project.
• It is important to manage the expectations of the stakeholders by clearly stating

the objectives and scope of the engagement from the outset. Some aspects of a
project will be “out of scope” for consultation, such as legislative or regulatory
obligations. Similarly, timeframes should be clearly defined at the outset. The

engagement process should be clear and be openly publicized, so that as many
obstacles as possible to the engagement are removed. Project information should
be tailored for the target audiences in format and style, for example, nontechnical
material or specialist, detailed material.
• It is important that stakeholders can see how their comments have been taken into
consideration. Feedback mechanisms should be developed to demonstrate how
views have been considered and addressed. This is not necessarily a simple task
for complex or controversial projects where large numbers of comments may be
received. It is important to demonstrate not only that engagement has taken place
but that it has been an effective part of the process. It is important to be clear about
how views are reflected in, or used to influence, subsequent decisions, processes,
and plans. When comments have been considered but the proposals have not
changed, it is good practice to explain why not.
3 Impact of FACTS Controllers on the AC Network
▶ Chap. 3, “AC Network Control Using Conventional Means” describes how

typical AC networks are controlled. FACTS controllers provide powerful and fast
ways to enhance the control of AC networks. They are generally applied in AC
transmission systems to achieve one or more of the following objectives:
• To increase the power transfer capability between nodes in the AC network

• To control the AC network voltage at specific nodes
• To mitigate the impact of disturbing loads at a given connection point
• To enable power transmission on AC lines at increased distance
• To facilitate the introduction of distributed renewable generation which may not
have sufficient reactive power output capability for voltage control over the full
range of output
The FACTS controllers perform their role by controlling reactive power either
from the line to ground or by injecting reactive power in series with the line. The way
that FACTS controllers achieve these objectives is described in some detail in
▶ Chap. 4, “AC Network Control Using FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Sys-
tems) Controllers.” One type of FACTS controllers, the Unified Power Flow Con-
troller (UPFC), performs both actions, giving them additional functionality, which in
some cases may be beneficial and justifies its higher cost.
As described in ▶ Chap. 16, “Economic Appraisal and Cost-Benefit Analysis,”
the alternatives to FACTS controllers include:
• Addition of a new overhead line requiring an additional right of way

• Addition of a land cable or submarine cable
• Rebuilding overhead lines to operation at a higher voltage
• Uprating or upgrading line conductors for operation with higher current
• Installation of fixed or breaker switched shunt or series-connected capacitors or

reactors (breaker switching involves potentially time delays of many seconds)
• Installation of quadrature booster transformers (QBT) or phase angle regulators
(PAR), which requires many seconds to achieve the control action
• Installation of generation nearer to the loads
These options are likely to require planning consent, as may the construction of a
FACTS controller. However, often the FACTS controller can be located within an
existing substation, which may make it relatively easier to obtain planning consent.
New AC overhead lines that cover long distances are likely to meet more objections
than work within or as an extension to an existing AC substation. In some jurisdic-
tions the planning procedure may cause delays of several years for new transmission
lines and in some places may even prevent the construction of a new line altogether,
whereas it might be possible to install and commission a FACTS controller within in
1.5–2 years.
As also is described in ▶ Chap. 16, “Economic Appraisal and Cost-Benefit
Analysis,” FACTS controllers may be used either to bridge the time gap until
completion of planned infrastructure or as a permanent solution. Some FACTS
controllers can be designed to be mobile or relocatable, which may be a good option
when it is known that the power system is likely to change over time, e.g., because of
an increase in renewable generation.
The environmental impacts of FACTS controllers on the AC system may include
issues such as:
• Power flow changes that might increase or reduce the total system power losses
• Improved AC voltage control
• Enabling transfer of power from more remote locations
• Causing higher current flows on transmission lines
• Using higher voltage on power lines (if upgrading existing line)
• Improving the stability of the power system (increased reliability of the power
system)
If the transmission line can be operated at higher current either within the existing
thermal capacity of the line or by replacing the existing conductors with new
conductors capable of a higher current, with or without modification to the trans-
mission towers, this may avoid the need for an additional line. However, when
replacing the conductors of a given transmission line, it might be necessary to
upgrade the line insulators and/or to mechanically reinforce the tower. The higher
current flows through a line will cause higher magnetic fields around the line which
may require approvals by regulatory agencies.
In order to be able to utilize the higher current capability of the upgraded line, as
described in ▶ Chap. 3, “AC Network Control Using Conventional Means,” it may
be necessary to add reactive power compensation equipment at the line terminals or
insert fixed or switched series capacitors in the line. Full control of the power flow
could be achieved with a TCSC or a UPFC or similar.
The ▶ Chaps. 2, “AC System Characteristics”, ▶ 3, “AC Network Control Using

Conventional Means,” and ▶ 4, “AC Network Control Using FACTS (Flexible AC
Transmission Systems) Controllers” in this Green Book provide information about
the operation of AC transmission systems and the application of FACTS controllers.
The environmental impact of new lines or a conductor upgrade will not be
addressed here. Information about the upgrading for higher current flows or to
enable operation with higher line voltages of transmission lines can be found in
the CIGRE Green Book on Overhead Lines (CIGRE Green Book on OHL 2014) and
in CIGRE Technical Brochure 748 “Environmental issues of high voltage transmis-
sion lines in urban and rural areas” (CIGRE TB 748 2018).
3.1 Impact of Changed Power Flows
The use of FACTS controllers in an AC network will have an impact on the power
flows in the AC network and therefore on the power losses in the AC network. They
may also have an impact on the stability of the AC network.
When loads change, generation is retired, or new generation is added, the
power transfer across some of the lines in the systems will change and might
reach unacceptable levels in some lines, or there may be increased risk of system
instability. As described in ▶ Chap. 3, “AC Network Control Using Conventional
Means,” this can be the result of current flows through the line that might cause a
voltage collapse in the power system or currents beyond what the line can handle
thermally. The current in the transmission lines depends on the configuration of
the system, and sometimes the natural current sharing between lines can leave
some lines overloaded or highly loaded, while others are loaded well below their
capability. Increased transmission line losses might be worth the costs associated
with the reduced efficiency of the transmission network if the added generation
comes from a power source with low fuel costs such as hydro, wind, solar or
nuclear power plants. The TCSC, the UPFC, and to a lesser degree the SVC and
STATCOM can be used to change the distribution of current within the power
system.
Adding a power line between existing nodes in a power system will usually result
in a reduction of the power loss in the network, because the new line will reduce the
current in other lines but the cost and the time to build a new line is substantial. The
environmental impact of a new overhead transmission line will not be treated in any
detail in this book but includes:
• Visual impact
• Audible noise
• Electric fields
• Magnetic fields
• Additional line corridors where vegetation has to be managed
• Hazards to birds and other animals
More details of the environmental issues of overhead lines (OHL) can be found in
references (CIGRE TB 147 1999, CIGRE TB 274 2005, Green Book on OHL 2014).
The Applications of FACTS Controllers section of this Green Book provides
examples of how SVCs, STATCOMs, TCSCs, and the UPFC and its variants have
been used to enhance AC networks, making it possible to transfer more power and/or
obtain improved power system stability, without having to construct new or make
changes to existing transmission infrastructure.
It is difficult to generalize the overall power loss impact that results from the
capability to control power flows within the system by using FACTS controllers,
as systems and their loadings can vary significantly, depending on how the system
is operated. As described in ▶ Chap. 17, “FACTS Planning Studies,” load flow
study programs can be used to determine the power loss distribution in the
transmission network during various operating conditions with and without
FACTS controllers. During normal system operation, FACTS controllers can be
used to minimize the system power losses by optimizing/reducing the reactive
power flows and by routing the power from the generators to the loads in the most
efficient way, i.e., achieving the lowest total power loss possible. Then, when a
contingency arises (e.g., the trip of a power line), the FACTS controller’s main
role is likely to be that of increasing the power that can be transferred on the
remaining lines, and this action may result in increased power loss. However,
without the FACTS controller acting to maintain the power flows, tripping of more
lines due to overload could result in widespread system blackouts (i.e., increased
loss of loads).
As described in the Technical Description of FACTC Controllers section, which
includes ▶ Chaps. 6, “Technical Description of Static Var Compensators (SVC),”
Description of Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC),” ▶ 9, “Technical
tions,” and ▶ 16, “Economic Appraisal and Cost-Benefit Analysis,” the FACTS
controller itself will have power losses that will depend on its rating and design, as
well as on how it is operated during different system conditions. Typically, the power
losses of a FACTS controller will vary in the range of 0.2% to 1.0% of its rating,
depending on its operating condition/loading, but these numbers may vary with
design and the loss evaluation factors used for the specific installation.
4 Environmental Impact of a FACTS Station
4.1 Overview
FACTS controllers require buildings and other structures to accommodate the

installation of the electric equipment required for the controller. Table 1 provides a
matrix of the different FACTS controller characteristics and main components to
clarify the relevance of each of the generic descriptions.
Table 1 Components and characteristics of FACTS controllers

Components, buildings, and UPFC/
structures Section SVC STATCOM TCSC SSSCa
Site selection 4.2 x x x x
Visual impact 4.2 x x x x
Audible noise 4.2 x x x x
Electromagnetic fields and 4.2 x x x x
interference
Converter valves 4.3.1 x x x x
Valve cooling 4.3.2 x x x x
Power transformer 4.3.3 x x x
HV capacitors 4.3.4 x x x x
Reactors 4.3.5 x x x x
Resistors 4.3.6 x x
Platforms 4.3.7 x
Other equipment 4.3.8 x x x x
Construction 4.4 x x x x
Operation 4.5 x x x x
Decommissioning 4.6 x x x x
a
Static synchronous series compensator (SSSC)
4.2 Environmental Aspects Related to Site Selection
Site selection is an important part of the overall management of the environmental

impact of a FACTS controller, as it sets the boundaries and constraints for the design
and construction (CIGRE TB 508 2012).
Considerations should include:
• Land area requirements (sufficient area for equipment, possible further expansion,
desirability of having sufficient land to create noise/visual buffers if adjoining
sensitive areas, e.g., residential).
• Sensitivity of adjoining land uses – important not only for impacts on adjoining
land from the station itself (e.g., audible noise impacts on residential areas and
visual impact in rural and built up areas) but also if a line route into the site is
necessary.
• Transportation and site accessibility – it is of critical importance that the site is
accessible for transport of heavy loads, e.g., large transformers, as relevant.
• Availability of water for cooling of the equipment is desirable but not absolutely
required.
• Geotechnical factors, soil/subsurface conditions may pose problems. Preliminary
geotechnical investigations are always recommended to avoid unexpected costs
of ground remediation and seismic risk, as well as providing good ground
resistivity baseline data.
• Earthquake/seismic risk/geothermal activity, e.g., proximity to fault lines or
active volcanoes.
• Flooding risk.
• Previous land use, e.g., contamination issues may apply.
• Topography – site should be relatively flat to minimize civil works.
• Ecological – avoidance, if practicable, of areas of ecological value.
• Visual/landscape constraints.
• Historical/archaeological/cultural impacts.
• Impact on protected species.
• Ensuring that wildlife cannot access the site and cause flashovers.
• Civil aviation – impacts on flight paths, airway marking and lighting
requirements.
Where possible the site should be part of or adjacent to an existing electrical

substation, with similar characteristics as the new FACTS controller, as it is more
likely that the new construction would be accepted.
Where visual impact will be an important part of the environmental impact, the
architectural design and colors need to be carefully considered. Landscaping,
including planting, can be used to minimize the visual impact of the site, but tall
trees can cause reliability issues. Other measures that can be taken include minimiz-
ing the height of buildings and structures and potentially building the station at a
lower height than the existing site level.
Shunt devices, such as the SVC and STATCOM, are usually connected to the
electrical network via a power transformer. The SVC or STATCOM is typically
located within or in an extension to an existing substation. The transformer will
typically have a high-voltage terminal connected to the line and a lower-voltage
terminal connected to the active part of the FACTS controller. Therefore, the
structural height of most of a shunt-connected FACTS controller and its buildings
can be relatively low. The FACTS controller will, however, require breakers and
switches for its high-voltage side bus bar structures.
Series devices, such as the TCSC, are connected in series with a transmission line
and will typically include large platforms (one per phase) supported on high-voltage
insulators. The active parts of the TCSC are located on the platforms and will include
high-voltage equipment and semiconductor switching equipment, which will have a
visual impact. If the line already has a series capacitor, it may be possible to reduce
the environmental impact by locating the new FACTS controller on an extension to
the existing platform. Typically, a TCSC installation is located within or close to an
existing or planned AC substation.
For the UPFC and the static series synchronous compensator (SSSC), the con-
verter equipment is located at ground level, and a transformer is used to insert the
series voltage in the transmission line. Typically, these FACTS controllers are
located within or close to an existing or planned AC substation.
For all FACTS controllers, the control and protection equipment and the cooling
plant and its heat exchangers will be located at ground level, with fiber optic and
special insulating pipes connecting this equipment to the energized platform levels
or the converter equipment located at ground level.
4.3 Environmental Impact of the FACTS Station Equipment
The characteristics of FACTS equipment installations are very similar, (but typically
much smaller) to that of HVDC stations, so further details can be obtained from
CIGRE TB 508 (2012). While there are significant differences between the various
FACTS controllers, the environmental issues applicable for all types of equipment
are fairly similar. Significant differences between the different FACTS controllers
will be highlighted in each of the following subsections.
4.3.1 Converter and Switching Valves

As described in ▶ Chap. 5, “Power Electronic Topologies for FACTS,” converter
valves or semiconductor switching equipment (valves) provide the controllability of
the FACTS controller. The valves use semiconductors which are controlled by a
control system and protected by a special protection system.
The operation of the valves involves the switching by the semiconductors of high
voltages and currents. This results in audible noise and the production of rapidly
varying electric and magnetic fields and voltages and current which need to be
controlled to prevent interference and malperformance within the FACTS controller
and to minimize the impact on other systems in the vicinity of the FACTS controller.
The FACTS controller valves are normally located indoors in a building or in
containers. This considerably reduces the audible noise observable from outside the
buildings or containers from the valves and also the electromagnetic interference.
TCSC valves are placed in a small building/enclosure on each of the three insulated
platforms, where series capacitors and other equipment are also located.
The environmental issues associated with the valves are as follows:
• Audible noise which is normally contained within the valve hall or valve
enclosure.
• Fire risks, which can be limited but not eliminated by the use of where possible,
low flammability or fire-retardant materials. The valve building is normally
equipped with fire detection equipment and may also have fire protection systems.
• Cooling water treatment system which may require chemicals for purification of
the cooling water.
• When temperatures below freezing can be experienced, the cooling water will
normally be a mixture of pure water and glycol (propylene or ethylene). When
glycol is used, a containment system is normally provided, to ensure that the
glycol will not seep into the ground water.
• Visual impact associated with the need for a building/enclosure to house the
valves.
• Electromagnetic interference (including radio interference), which is normally
contained by the converter building/or valve housing for TCSC systems. This is
achieved by constructing the valve room (enclosure) as a Faraday cage and
inserting high-frequency filters in the connections into and out of the valve
room (enclosure). The required level of shielding effectiveness can be different

between countries and jurisdictions (see Sects. 6.1, 6.3, and 6.4 of this chapter)
• The output current/voltage from the converter is not completely sinusoidal but
contains harmonics of the fundamental frequency. Harmonic filters at the interface
with the AC transmission system or at the FACTS controller output may be required
to ensure that the specified levels of harmonics are met (see Sect. 6.2 of this chapter).
4.3.2 Valve Cooling

Valve cooling is essential for the operation of the valves, as the conduction and
switching of the semiconductors result in power losses in the semiconductors and
auxiliary components, such as capacitors, reactors, and resistors, which are used to
control the waveshape of the current and voltage to which the semiconductors are
exposed. The valve cooling system is designed to limit the temperature of the valve
components to acceptable levels considering the maximum duty of the valve and the
maximum ambient temperature.
The valve cooling system typically consists of two types of components. One is
housed indoor and basically consists of pumps, water treatment circuit, water
refilling system, instrumentation, and an expansion vessel. Other valve cooling
equipment includes outdoor radiators and the associated cooling fans. A typical
valve cooling system contains either pure deionized water or a mixture of deionized
water and mixed glycol systems.
From an environmental perspective, three issues arise from the valve cooling
systems:
• Noise from the pumps and water treatment system, which is normally contained
by the design of the room in which it is located, such that the noise will not
propagate to other locations.
• Noise from the outdoor cooling fans, which is typically mitigated by the choice of
the type of fans used.
• Potential spillage of the cooling medium (which may include ethylene or propyl-
ene glycol) is mitigated by careful handling and the use of retaining basins that
can collect and contain the total coolant liquid capacity, for later proper handling
and disposal.
4.3.3 Transformers
Liquid, typically mineral oil (but vegetable-based insulating fluids are becoming
more common)-insulated transformers, is used to connect shunt FACTS controllers
to the transmission line or bus bar and to insert the series voltage from the UPFC or
SSSC into a transmission line. The transformer design may depend on converter
rating and transportation limitations and may also be influenced by spare parts
requirements.
The environmental issues associated with transformers include:
• Consideration of weight and dimensions when transporting to the site

• This may affect routing and have a temporary impact on traffic.
• Combustible or noncombustible insulating fluids, which may leak or burn

• Containment facilities for the full quantity of transformer oil may be required.
• Water deluge fire suppression systems may be required.
• Containment of seepage or spillage of transformer oil will be required, with
separators of oil and water, to ensure that the oil does not contaminate the
ground water.
• Audible noise emission
• Audible noise from the core and windings may require transformer enclosures
with noise-attenuating panels.
• The cooling plant required for the removal of heat from the transformer oil
requires radiators which may have fans to increase the cooling capacity. Low
speed fans can be used to reduce the audible noise from the fans, if necessary.
4.3.4 Capacitors
Capacitors are a source of reactive power and are used for this purpose in all of the
FACTS controllers such as SVCs, STATCOMs, and TCSCs. They also provide
energy storage and are used in voltage-sourced converters. They may also be used
in harmonic filters, which typically consist of capacitors, reactors, and resistors used
to limit the emission of harmonics from the FACTS controller to within specified
limits.
The capacitor banks used for any of these purposes typically consist of many
capacitor units (or cans), the enclosure being of stainless or galvanized steel. The
cans are typically placed in racks supported by insulators, to achieve the necessary
insulation to withstand the voltage to ground and to capacitor cans at different
potential. The capacitor element is made by winding two aluminum foils and a
number of thermoplastic polymer or paper films. Although some types of capacitors
are dry type, most of the capacitors may be filled with a special insulation fluid,
which is typically flammable. However, the solid dielectric material used in dry-type
capacitors is also flammable. The insulating fluids may also contain dielectric
stabilizers which can be hazardous.
The environmental impacts of the capacitors are:
• Audible noise.
• Visual impact of the capacitor stacks when placed outdoors.
• Fire risks associated with the insulating fluids and the paper or thermoplastic
polymer materials used in the capacitor units. The risk may be reduced by using
fuses (if provided) that disconnect failed capacitors and, in capacitor banks, built
up using multiple parallel and series-connected capacitor cans, an unbalance
detection system which will trip the bank if it is at risk of cascading failure.
4.3.5 Reactors
Reactors are used to absorb reactive power in SVCs and TCSCs. They are used in
STATCOMs and other VSC-based FACTS controllers to control the energy transfer
between the AC system and the converter valves and for control of the rate of change
of current. They may also be used in harmonic filters, which typically consist of
capacitors, reactors, and resistors, and are used to limit the emission of harmonics
from the FACTS controller to within specified limits.
In modern FACTS projects, the reactors are normally dry-type reactors, but some
older FACTS controllers may include enclosed oil-insulated reactors, which need to
be considered similarly to transformers.
The dry-type reactors are typically wound from epoxy-insulated aluminum con-
ductors with glass fiber spacers and aluminum spiders.
Environmental issues in respect of dry reactors are as follows:
• Heavy air pollution can cause tracking across the spacers, which may cause
flashovers. The impact of air pollution can be reduced by using shields that
protect dry-type reactors.
• Dry reactors can be a significant source of audible noise. The audible noise
can be minimized through winding design, e.g., avoiding mechanical reso-
nances at harmonic frequencies. Additionally, the audible noise can be
reduced by the use of shrouds and proprietary winding techniques or by an
outer unwound glass fiber-reinforced plastic (GRP) layer, separated from the
wound layers.
• Dry reactors may be surrounded by strong magnetic fields, which need to be
considered when planning maintenance and other activities close to energized
reactors. Also, conducting materials placed in the vicinity of the reactors may
be heated by currents induced by the stray magnetic flux surrounding the
reactors.
4.3.6 Resistors
Resistors are used in some AC harmonic filters and in the snubber circuits for the
semiconductor switching devices. They are typically produced from metal wires
supported by high temperature ceramics. They are not considered to have any
significant environmental impact.
4.3.7 Platforms
Series-connected FACTS controllers such as the TCSC are generally inserted in the
line termination at a substation but in some cases may be placed in midline locations.
The TCSC equipment for each phase is mounted on an insulated platform, which is
connected in series with the AC line. The TCSC valves, capacitors, reactors, surge
arresters, and other protective equipment are mounted on relatively low-voltage
insulators on the platforms. The cooling plant, main control, protection system,
etc. are located at ground level, usually in a building common to all three phases.
However, some elements of the control and monitoring equipment used to trigger
and monitor the thyristors must be located on the platform. Control and protection
signals and monitoring for the platforms are connected to the overall control and
protection equipment in the control building, using fiber optics, which are run in
environmentally controlled pipes from ground level to the valve enclosures on the
platform. Insulating pipes are also used to bring cooling water from ground level to
the platform level.
The use of platforms creates the following environmental issues.
• Visual impact because of the large structure and its elevation. Typically, the
platforms are installed adjacent to a power station and/or substation, which will
make the visual impact less significant.
• Because of the high elevation of the platform, the audible noise from the platform
reactors, capacitors, and the converter housing/building will project differently
than from ground-based equipment. This needs to be considered when predicting
the audible noise at the substation perimeter and at the nearest noise-sensitive
locations.
4.3.8 Other Equipment

Other equipment installed in a FACTS controller includes equipment which is
generally also found in conventional AC substations as shown in Table 2.
More information about these issues can be found in CIGRE Technical Brochure
221, “Improving the impact of existing substations on the environment” (CIGRE TB
221 2003).
4.3.9 Materials, Fluids, and Gases

Some of the materials, fluids, and gases used in FACTS controllers may have an
environmental impact or have hazardous characteristics. The following sections
Table 2 Mitigation of the potential environmental impacts of substation equipment

Potential
environmental
Equipment impact Mitigation
AC wall bushings Oil/dielectric Fluid containment
fluids if used Use composite bushings and solid
SF6 gas leakage if insulation
used Potential gas leakage monitoring
AC isolating switches Radio interference Distance from sensitive areas, low EMI
(corona, EMI) designs
AC circuit breakers Visual, Visual barriers
SF6 gas leakage Gas leakage monitoring
Audible noise Increased separation, low-noise design,
when operated use of configuration shielding
Distance from sensitive area
Auxiliary power and station Audible noise Housings/noise containment
service equipment Oil/dielectric Oil containment, if applicable
fluids, dry-type Leakage monitoring
SF6 gas leakage
Air handling systems, heating Audible noise Low-noise equipment enclosures
and air-conditioning
AC bus and connectors Radio interference Conservative design Corona rings
Surge arresters, insulators, Radio interference Conservative design Corona rings
conductors, fittings, clamps
identify environmental issues to consider. They also provide guidelines on how to

manage these issues under normal operating conditions and during life extension
decisions.
Insulating Fluids
As described above, some equipment may be filled with mineral oil or other
combustible fluids, necessary for cooling and providing electrical insulation for the
component. Fluid-filled equipment varies in size, and the associated maximum
volumes of fluid typically define the spill containment requirements and the type
of containment. Also, the trend is toward biodegradable insulating fluids such as
vegetable oils. However, these are also combustible fluids.
Fluid-filled equipment related to FACTS controllers include:
• Transformers
• Filter bank capacitor cans
• Transformer bushings
• Oil-insulated reactors or instrument transformers (CVTs, VTs, CTs)
• Cooling system vessels, coolers, and piping
Fluid Spill Containment

The requirement for containment of fluid spills is generally legislated, and the
degree of containment could be dictated by legislation and company standards. Site
location and site conditions play an important role in evaluating appropriate con-
tainment to minimize risk and the consequence of any spill. Planning criteria for spill
containment should be based on existing regulations, anticipated future regulations,
and site-specific hazards such as adjacent bodies of water and should be developed
and should consider the following;
• Size and liquid volume of equipment requiring spill containment

• Type of containment to be used for specific liquids
• Handling of fluids beyond containment infrastructure
• Evaluate central collection system requirements, compare localized holding
vs. collection and centralized separation
• Site discharge
• Removal of fluids from sensitive areas in case of a fire
Note that there are numerous industry standards, guides, and reports along with
local legislation to consult when evaluating fluid spill containment requirements and
developing a strategy.
It should also be noted that there may be specific codes for fluid-filled systems,
and these codes need to be considered in the design of the vessels. This includes
cooling system vessels.
As discussed in ▶ Chap. 24, “Lifetime Management of FACTS Controllers,”
when aging equipment is replaced or upgraded, evaluation of fluid containment
requirements and opportunities to reduce the amount of potentially hazardous

liquids on-site should be included in the development of life extension plans.
Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas (SF6)

Sulfur hexafluoride gas (SF6) is an inert gas used extensively for dielectric insulation
and current interruption in circuit breakers, switchgear, bus work, and other electrical
equipment. Despite the many advantages associated with SF6 gas, including reduced
size of equipment, its use is not without challenges.
SF6 is one of the strongest greenhouse gases mentioned by the Kyoto protocol. It
has global warming potential about 24,000 times greater than carbon dioxide (CO2).
It is also persistent in the atmosphere, having a lifetime of over 3200 years (CIGRE
TB 649 2016).
SF6 gas is heavier than air. It can displace breathable air, thus posing a safety
hazard in confined locations. The toxic by-products released when SF6 gas interrupts
an arc in a circuit breaker are also a concern if released to the environment.
Decomposition products are toxic, and adequate personal protective equipment
and training are essential for personnel safety.
When considering equipment options, the use of SF6 gas and needs for handling,
monitoring, and accounting of gas during the life cycle need to be considered during
decision making.
Halon Gas
Halons have been used in fire protection systems but have been phased out of
production under the Montreal Protocol countries in 1994 except in Article
5 (1) countries where continued production of Halons was permitted through
2009. It is no longer produced.
Since Halon manufacturing was banned, alternative fire extinguishing agents in
the form of non-ozone-depleting gases, clean agent systems, gas-powder blends,
powders, and other not-in-kind technologies (e.g., nongaseous agents) as well as
water-based misting and small droplet systems are now available for virtually every
fire and explosion protection application once served by Halons. In North America a
newer gas called FM200 is the suppression gas of choice and is accepted by most
local jurisdictions.
Refrigerants
Refrigerants are generally classified into one of three substances, chlorofluorocarbon
(CFC), Hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC), or hydrofluorocarbon (HFC). However,
CFC refrigerants are banned from use or production in most countries. CFC refrig-
erants have the highest ozone-depleting rating and are also greenhouse gases. HCFC
were also banned from production or new use since 2010 in most countries, and a
phase out is underway. HCFC refrigerants such as R22 have an ozone-damaging
potential and are also greenhouse gases.
HFC refrigerants may still be used. There is no current ban, but responsible use
and periodic equipment inspections are mandatory. HFC refrigerants have no ozone
depletion potential but do act as a greenhouse gas. Most jurisdictions require

complete gas reclamation for every service or system disposal action.
4.4 Construction
The construction of a FACTS controller is not fundamentally different from the

construction activities of an AC substation. It involves civil works, foundations, steel
and aluminum structures, and erection of heavy equipment. The environmental
issues to be dealt with are:
• Increased traffic on the roads leading to the site

• The transportation of large and heavy pieces of equipment, mainly the
transformers
• Noise due to site works
• Dust
• Unintended spillage of insulating fluids during construction
• Accidents
These issues are similar to those faced when AC substations are being
constructed. The mitigation for these issues is as follows:
• Having in place a health and safety organization

• Having in place an environmental protection strategy
• Applying the relevant safety rules and regulations
• Respecting the local transportation permits
• Applying dust control measures during construction
• Having spill control mitigation techniques in place
• Remaining within the guidelines of noise levels that are applicable to the con-
struction license
4.5 Operation
From an environmental perspective, the operation of a FACTS controller is governed

by meeting the limits that have been applied in the design with respect of noise,
EMF, EMI, and harmonic generation. Therefore, during operation, the only
remaining issues are safety of both the public and the workers and dealing with
unintended spillages. Such issues are not unique to FACTS controllers and are
covered by the utility and the local and national guidelines and rules such as:
• Health and safety rules

• Environment protection strategy
• Spill containment rules
• Wildlife protection measures
4.6 Decommissioning
The issues of decommissioning a FACTS controller are similar to the

decommissioning of AC substations. The guidelines of the manufacturers for end
of life disposal should be followed. In general equipment and materials will be
decommissioned and disposed of as follows:
• Transformers, in principle, will be drained; the oil reclaimed, stored, processed,

and reused; and steel and copper can be recycled.
• Steel structures can be salvaged and sold as scrap.
• Switchgear may be reclaimed and used for other applications; any SF6 can be
reclaimed and reused.
• Control cabinets, cables, and such equipment can be dismantled and sold as scrap.
• Capacitors are these days film type with very little oil and normally do not
represent an issue for scrapping.
• Thyristor and IGBT valves would be disposed of as electronic waste.
See ▶ Chap. 24, “Lifetime Management of FACTS Controllers,” for more

information.
5 Audible Noise
This section is based on CIGRE TB 202 (2002) and has been edited and abbreviated
to provide a brief guide to the specification and evaluation of outdoor audible noise
from FACTS controllers (CIGRE TB 202 2002).
This subsection is intended primarily for the use of utilities and consultants who
are responsible for issuing technical specifications for new FACTS controllers and
for evaluating designs proposed by prospective contractors. Most aspects of the
technical specification of a FACTS controller is addressed in ▶ Chap. 19, “Procure-
ment and Functional Specifications for FACTS Controllers” of this Green Book, but
this chapter provides information for the specification of the requirements in respect
of audible noise.
Audible noise is often a significant issue, particularly if a FACTS controller is
installed where there are noise-sensitive locations in its vicinity. The audible noise
restrictions that may be specified for the FACTS controller can have a significant
impact on the design and cost of the controller. Therefore, the prospective owner
of a FACTS controller needs to consider audible noise from the planning through
to decommissioning. During the planning phase of any project, the allowed noise
limit will be determined by the responsible authorities and will consider the
proximity of habitable dwellings and other noise-sensitive locations. The noise
limits will be set in accordance with accepted standards for audible noise
disturbance.
Audible noise is typically measured in a scale called decibel, dB.1 A weighting is

usually added to the noise measured at different frequencies, to reflect the noise
sensitivity of the human ear at different frequencies, and this noise level is expressed
in the dB(A)2 scale. It should be noted that an increase of 3 dB or 3 dB(A) is the same
as doubling the noise level. Typical noise levels are as follows:
• Near total silence – 0 dB(A)

• A whisper – 15 dB(A)
• Normal conversation – 60 dB(A)
• A lawn mower – 90 dB(A)
• A car horn – 110 dB(A)
• A rock concert or a jet engine – 120 dB(A)
• A gunshot or firecracker – 140 dB(A)
5.1 Relationship of Performance Limits to Time Duration
In general, noise from a FACTS controller is continuous, but there are some noise
sources of the station, which produce impulsive noise, such as circuit breakers and
disconnectors. Critical features of impulsive noise include:
• Peak noise level

• Time duration
• Time of day
• Frequency of occurrence
• Regularity (the same tone every day may be worse than variable tones)
• Single tones
• Time variation of noise impulse
Methods exist for the evaluation of impulsive noise as an equivalent continuous

level. Many federal and regional authorities specify noise limits for daytime as well
as nighttime.
5.2 Audible Sound from FACTS Controllers
Audible sound can be defined as a series of pressure waves in air at frequencies,

which can be perceived by the human ear. Sound may consist of a mono-frequency
acoustic signal (pure tone) or of sounds containing a distribution of frequencies.
1
The decibel (dB) is used to measure sound level. The dB is a logarithmic way of describing a ratio.
Zero dB is the so-called average hearing threshold for the healthy human ear.
2
A-weighted decibels, abbreviated dB(A), or dB(A), or dB(a), are an expression of the relative
loudness of sounds in air as perceived by the human ear. In the A-weighted system, the decibel
values of sounds at low frequencies are reduced, compared with unweighted decibels, in which no
correction is made for audio frequency.
The generation of sound by electrical components is mainly dependent on

vibration in structures caused by electrical stress, either as a result of applied
voltages across the component or the forces arising as a result of current flow
through the component. Most mechanical structures have several structural reso-
nance frequencies. Amplification of the equipment vibrations and thus increased
sound generation may occur if one or several frequencies of the force spectrum
coincide with these structural resonance frequencies.
The converter valves produce voltage and current harmonics, which are applied
across or through the components within the FACTS controller. Thus, sound with
different tones and magnitudes may be excited.
The audible noise may cause a potential nuisance at nearby residential or recre-
ation areas, and this needs to be addressed in the specification and design of the
FACTS controller.
When predicting the audible noise from a FACTS controller, it is necessary to
model not only the sound-emitting components within the FACTS controller but also
the landscape surrounding the station. To allow for imperfections in the modelling
and hence the prediction of the audible noise, it is advisable to have further optional
mitigation measures available, in case the actual noise exceeds the predicted level.
When the FACTS controller enters service, audible noise measurements will
usually be taken to verify the actual levels. The definition of the ambient conditions
at the time of the measurement is essential, which means that the opportunity for
performing correct measurements may occur only within a very narrow timeframe.
5.3 Environmental Influences on Audible Noise
When sound is emitted from a source, the surrounding environment influences how
the sound propagates and is perceived over distance. This section describes those
environmental influences, namely, “background noise,” “topography,” and “meteo-
rological conditions.”
5.3.1 Background Noise

At a proposed location for a FACTS controller, there will always be existing
background noise. Since background noise is a combination of man-made and
natural sounds, each noise source may produce noise either during the day or
night or at some particular time. Background noise levels are usually lowest when
human activities are at a minimum, i.e., between midnight and 4 a.m.
It is desirable to measure the background noise level for a prospective FACTS site
before the construction of the FACTS controller commences so as to determine
whether the level is close to the regulatory maximum or not. It would be important to
consider the influence of the background noise, if the difference between the
prospective audible sound output of the FACTS controller and the background
noise level is less than 10 dB.
Sound level measurements should involve a number of measurements over time
as a single short measurement will not give representative results. The measuring
period should be sufficiently long to cover seasonal variations including times with
frozen ground, if applicable, since a frozen surface reflects sound waves with little
attenuation.
The measurement time for each single measurement of the equivalent sound
pressure level from the sound source shall be at least 10 min. For nighttime
measurements, at least three such measurements, with at least 1 h between the
measurements, should be used to form an energy-equivalent average. For daytime
measurements, at least five different single measurement periods should be used.
5.3.2 Topography
Topography influences sound propagation. Especially noticeable are the reflection,
absorption, screening, and attenuation of sound by land features, such as mountains,
vegetation and trees, and the ground itself. In addition, when there is a difference in
altitude between the station site and the chosen measuring point, the sound propa-
gation will be different from the situation where they are at similar altitudes. For
example, if there is a hill which reflects sound, on one side of the station and low
ground on another side, which may be in the shadow of the sound, the sound
attenuation would vary from place to place even if the distance from the source is
the same.
Therefore, when an accurate calculation of the sound emitted by a FACTS
controller is required, it is important to consider not only the topographical condi-
tions but also the ground cover, such as forest, rocks, grassland, snow, ice, etc.
However, when the land is basically flat and the ground cover is uniform and low
level, it is usually sufficient to calculate the attenuation over distance without
detailed consideration of the topography.
5.3.3 Meteorological Conditions

Over large distances, sound propagation through air can be influenced by meteoro-
logical conditions such as wind, temperature, rain, fog, and snow. In particular wind
and temperature have a great impact on sound propagation. Therefore, careful
attention must be paid to meteorological conditions while measuring sound at the
site and at other specified locations.
• The wind velocity near the ground is usually lower than at higher altitude because
of frictional resistance. This causes a difference between the sound propagation
on the downwind side and on the upwind side. For example, if there is a strong
prevailing wind, sound levels will be lower on the upwind side than on the
downwind side.
• Heated or cooled ground may cause vertical temperature gradients in the atmo-
sphere, which may have a strong effect on sound propagation because sound
travels faster in cool air than in warm air. Consequently, sound attenuation is
reduced when the air temperature is higher than the ground temperature.
• A sound wave propagating through air loses its intensity as the air absorbs its
energy. The attenuation is negligible at lower frequencies but becomes significant
at higher frequencies.
• Experimental evidence has shown that the attenuation of sound by rain or fog is
relatively small. Conversely, background noise levels are increased by the sound
of falling raindrops on a rainy day.
• A surface covered with newly fallen snow has a high absorption coefficient for
sound, but a frozen, bare ground is a good sound reflector.
Typical changes in sound attenuation caused by meteorological conditions are as

follows:
• Up to 20 dB(A) lower sound levels are observed when measured upwind as

compared to measured when there is no wind.
• The effect of low or moderate wind velocities overrides the effect of even large
temperature gradients.
• It is difficult to measure noise levels below 40 dB(A) correctly when the wind
velocity exceeds 3–4 m/s.
• Large difference between dry and moist ground may occur. At low frequencies
(10 dB(A)), lower sound level may be observed on moist ground measured at
63 Hz.
Meteorological conditions may be different from 1 day to the next and from one
area to another, so it is necessary to consider the influence of these conditions very
carefully.
5.4 Audible Noise Level Limits
In almost all countries, there are public regulations or recommendations that specify
maximum allowable noise levels for various classifications of land occupancy.
Different audible noise requirements may apply for daytime and nighttime, with
the nighttime requirements being more stringent.
It is important to mention that the cost implication of changing the noise perfor-
mance limits may be significant, even if the change is only a few dB(A).
Audible noise limits have tended to become more onerous over the years. The
audible noise at the station boundary in older stations is generally around 55 dB(A),
and at the closest noise-sensitive location, it is around 45 dB(A). In the case of new
and future FACTS projects, these figures tend to be much more stringent, with
respective levels of 45 dB(A) and 35 dB(A), i.e., 10 dB(A) less than the older
schemes.
In some cases, the audible noise level is specified as an increase of no more than
3 dB(A) above the existing minimum background level.3 In this case it is
3
In the situation where a specific noise is heard or measured at a given measuring point, background
noise is the sound still heard at the point when the specific noise stops.
recommended that the developer determines and proves that the existing noise levels
comply with the law. This may require acoustic modelling to determine that the noise
levels comply with the proposed limits. Verification should also be performed by
measurements at all noise-sensitive locations. In areas with low background noise
levels, the first approach is reasonable, but in areas with high background noise
levels, the second approach would be recommended.
5.4.1 Acoustic Noise Level Measurement

The following requirements may be specified:
• Number and duration of measurements at single points required to secure a

representative description of the sound level
• Measuring equipment to be used
• Allowable distances between obstacles and microphones
• Weather conditions, e.g., wind direction and maximum allowable wind speed
In addition to these conditions, it is important that the “measurement accuracy” is

described, i.e., the measurement uncertainty. An example of how this may be written
is 45 3 dB(A).
International ISO standards 1996-1 (2016), ISO 1996-2 (2017) and ISO 3746
(2010) provide environmental noise descriptions and measurement methods.
Standards for determining the sound level of specific equipment such as power
transformers (IEC 60076-10 (2016)), for sound level meters (IEC 61672-1 (2013)),
and methods for determination of sound pressure and sound power levels (e.g., ISO
3746) also exist. In North America, IEEE Standards are typically used to define
equipment sound level limits (IEEE C57.12. (2015) 90 for liquid immersed trans-
formers), mitigation of sound levels (IEEE C57.136 (2000)), and for sound mea-
surements (IEEE 656 (2018)).
5.4.2 Location of Required Performance Limits

The location where the required noise limits shall be fulfilled can be:
• At the fence surrounding the FACTS controller or at the border of the owner’s
property
• At a given contour away from the FACTS controller, e.g., on a circle perimeter or
a property border line
• At the border of one or more nearby properties
Each of these options has advantages and disadvantages and impact on the
modelling, measurements, station layout, risks, verification, and costs.
For environmental audible noise concerns, the last approach is preferable as noise
nuisance usually occurs where people live or work. Of course, in the future there
may be houses built on previously uninhabited land. The local Planning Authority
may consider future developments, when setting the limits. Otherwise, future hous-
ing developments should consider the existing noise climate, including the
operational FACTS controller, when planning their development layout and consid-
ering landscape options.
5.5 Sound-Emitting Sources
Efficient noise management requires an understanding of the acoustic behavior of

each sound-emitting component, as well as knowledge of the relative acoustic
strength of each of these sources. The target is to break down the audible noise
requirement for the complete FACTS controller to the component level to allow the
verification of the audible noise level in the component manufacturers’ test facilities
or laboratories. This is because once all the components have been installed, it is
difficult to correctly determine the noise contribution of each individual component.
The major sound-emitting sources of a FACTS controller are:
• Transformers
• Reactors
• Capacitors
• Cooling fans
• Switching devices
• Cooling circuit pumps
• Air-conditioning plant
• Corona sources
5.5.1 Transformers
The noise from a transformer is generated by three sources:
• Magnetic core (noise generated by magnetostriction and joints)

• Electromagnetic forces in windings, tank walls, and magnetic shields
• Fans/pumps of the cooling system of the transformer
Fans and pumps are not strictly part of the transformer and may be supplied by
different manufacturers. However, their audible noise needs to be determined.
In the past, core vibrations had been identified as the main source of transformer
noise. The noise emission was primarily dependent on the rated power of the
transformer and the magnetic flux density in the iron core, but not on the loading.
Technological advances in the core design, such as the use of high quality core sheets
to reduce the magnetostriction and the use of improved core-joint technologies (e.g.,
step-lap cores), have reduced the core noise such that the load-dependent winding
noise, generated by electromagnetic forces, has become increasingly significant.
However, the core noise can be significantly increased if the power electric sub-
system generates low-level DC currents that flow though the windings. This could
substantially increase to core noise because of partial, low-level core saturation.
The normal AC operation of a transformer generates a noise spectrum containing
frequencies, which are typically below 1 kHz. The winding noise at sinusoidal load
current contains almost exclusively double the power frequency (power fre-
quency = fundamental electrical frequency). The core noise frequency spectrum
additionally contains large components of the second to fifth harmonics of the power
frequency, depending on the flux density level. Therefore, the noise of a loaded AC
transformer is essentially dominated by a 100 Hz tone or 120 Hz tone (according to
whether the power frequency is 50 or 60 Hz) superimposed on the no-load spectrum.
5.5.2 Reactors
Reactors are used in FACTS controllers for various functions:
• To provide reactive power absorption, controlled by converters or circuit breakers

• To limit rate of change of current and to control the voltage used for the boost
buck function of the VSC
• In AC harmonic filters, to provide tuning at required harmonic frequencies
• To reduce high-frequency noise propagation in the AC connection (power line
carrier noise and radio interference)
It is common practice to employ air-core dry-type reactor technology, typically

located outdoors, but some are integral parts of the converter valves, for all the above
applications. The following descriptions of the mechanisms of sound generation are
confined to this technology.
The noise generated by air-core reactors mainly results from vibration of the
winding caused by the interaction of the current flowing through the winding and the
magnetic field arising from the reactor current flows. The forces in the winding are
proportional to the square of the current. The fundamental frequency and harmonic
currents will cause vibration at twice the frequency of that component of the current.
The oscillatory forces on the winding cause the reactor to vibrate in the axial and
in the radial direction, causing audible noise. If the forces are of a frequency similar
to the structural resonances within the reactor, the noise level will increase
considerably.
The vibrations of the surface of the reactor radiate to the surroundings as airborne
acoustic noise. The vibration amplitude and the size of the sound radiating surface of
the reactor essentially determine the sound power. The sound power is proportional
to the fourth power of the reactor’s load current. Therefore, it is necessary to consider
the reactor’s harmonic and fundamental frequency currents over the range of oper-
ating conditions.
5.5.3 Capacitors
Capacitors are another noise source in FACTS controllers. Capacitors are used as a
reactive power source, for AC harmonic filtering, for power line carrier (PLC)
circuits, and as capacitive voltage transformers (CVTs). Capacitors are also used in
voltage-sourced converters (VSC) as an energy source/receptor.
Capacitors used in filters and for reactive power compensation are typically racks
of power capacitor cans. In general, it is the can-type capacitor, which needs to be
considered for noise limits. Other capacitor types, e.g., coupling capacitors in power
line carrier (PLC) circuits and capacitive voltage transformers for measurement and
protection, employ porcelain or polymer housings, which generally have much
lower noise output. Capacitors used in VSCs will be subject to current flows, the
frequency of which will be determined by the design of the converter, but are
typically at higher frequency and are typically located in a building.
The parts of the capacitor cans that contribute most to the generation of audible
noise are the tops and the bottoms of the capacitor cans. The sound generation is
essentially one-dimensional, and the sound radiation is mainly confined to the
surfaces perpendicular to the longitudinal direction of the capacitor element package.
The sound power level at a certain acoustic frequency is proportional to the fourth
power of the dielectric stress in the capacitor.
The sound power radiation from a stack of capacitors is essentially dependent on:
• Fundamental and harmonic AC voltage across the capacitors

• The mechanical stiffness of the can
• Mechanical resonance frequencies (of capacitor element packages, housing, and
rack)
• Number of capacitor units
5.5.4 Cooling Fans

Forced-air coolers are normally used in the cooling systems for the thyristor and
IGBT valves. The semiconductors are placed on or between liquid-cooled heat
exchangers (with cooling media of water/glycol and air). Axial flow fans are used
to circulate air across the heat exchanges. Usually several fans are used per cooler
module. The fans are separated from one another by a partition. This enables
stepwise control of the cooler capacity (kW capacity) by switching each fan on
and off according to the cooling demand.
Forced-air coolers are also typically used for large transformers, but smaller
transformers might be cooled by natural convection across the radiators. Free-
standing coolers can be advantageous as they allow enclosure of the transformers
themselves as well as allowing for the easier application of low-noise fans if forced-
air cooling is required. For transformers that are not enclosed, the noise of the
cooling equipment can be insignificant compared with the core and tank noise. For
enclosed or low-noise transformers with forced-air cooling systems, the additional
sound power generated by the cooling fans needs to be considered.
5.5.5 Mechanical Switching Devices

In contrast to the components described above, mechanical switching devices such
as circuit breakers and disconnectors primarily generate audible noise when operated
(low-level corona noise is, however, a possibility.). This noise is short-duration
impulse noise but may significantly exceed the background noise.
The acoustic impulse generated during a switching operation depends upon the
type of switch (e.g., air-blast circuit breakers, oil or SF6 circuit breakers) as well as
on the breaker operating mechanism (e.g., spring-operated or hydraulic-operated).
The level of sound is highest for air-blast circuit breakers, whereas modern SF6
breakers produce a relatively low level of sound. The audible noise produced by the
opening and/or closing of a circuit breaker or opening of a disconnector with arcing
is classified as impulsive noise. The duration of a single acoustic impulse is usually
much less than 1 s.
When considering the impact of impulsive noise, one approach to evaluate
impulsive noise is to express it as an equivalent continuous noise level. The
equivalent continuous A-weighted sound power level of a noise over a time interval
can be derived from the A-weighted sound power levels during the period of the
noise.
The accumulated acoustic and impulse noise during a working day has to be
within the sound level limits established to limit the risk of causing hearing damage
for staff on-site. These limits, which may be taken from local safety directives, are
dependent upon the accumulated sound exposure duration and are usually lower for
higher-frequency sound.
However, the noise generated by switching devices does not normally have a
significant impact on the overall noise level of a FACTS controller since the
accumulated noise is relatively low compared to sources continuously producing
noise. In many cases, AC circuit breakers are operated just a few times per year,
except reactive power control equipment and filter bank circuit breakers, which may
be operated several times daily.
5.5.6 Air-Conditioning Plant

The air-conditioning equipment which is necessary for control and protection rooms,
control rooms, and offices will also emit audible noise, which may need to be taken
into account in the overall station design. The noise level can be controlled by the use
of low speed fans, by strategic location and the provision of noise suppressing
enclosures.
While the direct noise of an air-handling plant is generally contained in a
building, there may still be a substantial residual sound emanating from the inlet
and outlet air vents. The sound emanating from these openings includes airflow and
louver noises and residual noise from the air-handling plant. Sound-reducing acous-
tic louvers are available.
5.5.7 Cooling Circuit Pumps

If cooling system pumps are installed outdoors, they may have to be included in
noise management considerations. If indoors, the sound levels need to comply with
applicable labor regulations; otherwise hearing protection equipment may needed by
station personnel.
5.5.8 Valves
The noise of the converter valves themselves is mainly generated by the magnetic
components such as the valve reactors (snubber reactors). Most valves are located in
buildings, which can be designed to reduce the noise level from the valves emitted to
the environment to an acceptable level.
Special consideration may have to be given to valves which are located on

elevated platforms, e.g., the valves for Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor
(TCSC) schemes. This is partly because the elevated location of the valve may
project the audible noise further. The valves will be enclosed in a building on the
platform, and the noise attenuation characteristics of this enclosure need to be
carefully evaluated.
5.5.9 Corona Sources

Practically all high-voltage connections emit a certain level of corona. For reasons
other than just sound (e.g., radio interference requirements and the risk of flashover),
corona should be limited to low levels, and high levels of corona under fine weather
conditions should trigger remedial actions.
In particularly sensitive sites, it may be necessary to suppress corona levels by
methods such as:
• Use of conservative electrode configurations for the outline design of the com-
ponents including the use of corona rings and larger conductors
• Use of cables or gas-insulated bus bars.
5.6 Sound Reduction Measures
Where components generate significant levels of sound such that noise limits are
exceeded, it is necessary to use sound reduction measures. Ideally sound reduction
should be part of the original design and considered in the station layout and
component design. The aim is to use these two techniques in conjunction to produce
an effective and cost-efficient design.
Sound enclosures include buildings, screens, enclosures, and other methods of
containing and absorbing sound which may be necessary to meet the specified
audible noise requirements. Enclosures or sound barriers are more practical for
higher-frequency noise (above 300 Hz), while low-noise design may be more
suitable for lower frequencies. For a barrier to be effective, the receiver location
must be in the acoustic shadow zone of the barrier.
A number of considerations should be made when using enclosures, for example,
their availability, reliability, impact on cooling, and maintenance and cost. Barriers
will also reduce the cooling efficiency for the cooling systems.
5.6.1 Station Layout

The maximum possible separation between the area designated for sound-emitting
components and the sound-sensitive areas should be chosen. This can be done taking
advantage of the natural topography of the area and the screening effects of the
converter equipment building and other buildings. This principle applies to trans-
formers, reactors, capacitors, and cooling plants.
Some of the other major sound sources, notably pumps and thyristor valves, are
indoor equipment. In general, the level of sound emitted outside the rooms by these
components is not considered a nuisance, and when access is required for inspection
while in service, hearing protective equipment is considered acceptable. Specific
information can be found in the applicable local workplace health and safety
guidelines.
General sound reduction measures, which can be very effective for the whole site,
include:
• Surrounding the site with either a wall or a substantial earth mound

• Building the site in a hollow or locating the site in a suitable valley, preferably
without steep rock sides
Such measures may also have other benefits, such as reduced visual impact.
5.6.2 Transformers
Enclosure of transformers is a well-established technique for sound reduction by
screening and absorption and tends to be very efficient due to the frequency
spectrum of the sound. One common element of transformer enclosures is that the
enclosure design is greatly simplified by having freestanding coolers, which can be
placed outside the enclosure.
Depending on the nature of the enclosure, it will typically give a sound reduction
of up to 14 dB(A) without a roof or 20–35 dB(A) with a roof. However, the sound
reduction is strongly dependent on the construction and surface finish of the enclo-
sure walls and also the relative dimensions of the transformer and the enclosure. It
should be noted that a badly designed enclosure of this type might actually amplify
sound.
An alternative to the complete enclosure of transformers, particularly where blast
and fire containment walls are provided, is the use of sound-absorbing cladding on
these walls.
Where very significant noise reduction is required, a complete enclosure (possi-
bly with two layers) with sound-absorbing material on the inside will be needed to
both contain and absorb the sound from the transformer. Such an enclosure might
provide attenuation of up to 40 dB(A).
5.6.3 Air-Core Reactors

Air-core reactors can be significant sound producers, particularly those in TCRs and
filters. Unlike transformers, they cannot be easily enclosed, as they require free
movement of air for cooling. Apart from the optimization of the acoustic design of
the reactor, the only other easy measure is to optimize their location within the
FACTS controller.
Any noise enclosure must be designed in conjunction with the reactor designer.
Noise enclosures come in two basic varieties – buildings and reactor-mounted
screens.
Buildings must allow substantial heat removal and are often fitted with roof-
mounted fans. Care must also be taken not to create any magnetic loops around the
reactors, which could overheat due eddy currents induced by the reactor’s magnetic
field.
Reactor-mounted sound enclosures are an integral part of the reactor design.
These may vary from a simple extra package on the outside of a reactor to complex
fiberglass housings with an independent support structure and lined with sound-
absorbing material. Such housings may give an attenuation of up to 15 dB(A) but
possibly at a cost exceeding that of the reactors. Since the voltage withstand
capability of the reactor winding must not be compromised, there might be restric-
tions on providing sound shields or enclosures, especially for high-BIL reactors in
wet and polluted conditions.
5.6.4 Capacitors
Capacitor stacks may have a very pronounced directivity, and thus the location,
orientation, and screening technique can be optimized with respect to the acoustic
layout of the FACTS controller.
To limit sound from capacitors, enclosures can be used. The complication for
capacitors is that they are often high-voltage equipment with graded insulation.
Therefore, the enclosure must either observe the maximum clearance requirement
or alternatively be applied in separate sections throughout the capacitor structure.
As is the case with all enclosures, they can be simple non-absorbing barriers or
complex (and expensive) sound-absorbing enclosures depending on the noise
requirements and economic considerations. With partial screening of each rack
level in a capacitor stack, reductions of up to 10 dB can be achieved. Higher
reductions may be achieved by complete enclosures.
5.6.5 Cooling Plant and Other Equipment

The fans used in cooling plants may also be strongly directional from a sound
emission point of view. This may provide the opportunity to orientate the fans in a
direction in which the sound levels are less of a nuisance. Low-noise fans may also
be used.
By selecting the optimum cooler size for a specific application, the optimum fan
speed (typically between several 100 and 1000 rpm), and the number of fans, the
noise level can be kept to a minimum. Low-noise axial flow fans, with large
diameters and operating at low rotational speeds, may reduce emitted noise levels.
Two-speed motors or motors with frequency control for speed regulation may be
employed. The manufacturers are able to optimize the acoustic design of the coolers
by combining adequate standardized cooler modules for which acoustic ratings are
available. Starting noise can be lowered by utilizing the so-called soft-start drives
and variable speed fan motors that can operate at reduced speeds during nighttime or
other sensitive time periods.
While switchgear produces a significant level of sound in its occasional opera-
tion, this is generally acceptable and is no different from a conventional substation.
For particularly sensitive locations, consideration may need to be given to locating
the switchgear in a building.
5.6.6 Component Design

A design to achieve minimum cost for a piece of equipment may not meet the
objective of minimum or acceptable noise power. It may be necessary to change the
design to achieve lower sound power or to use other means to achieve an acceptable
overall design of the FACTS controller in terms of audible noise, in the most
economical way.
One technique, which reduces sound for many types of equipment, is the use of
resilient mountings. By providing vibration isolation, this limits the spread of
low-frequency sound.
It is also important to ensure that the FACTS controller is well maintained. For
components and equipment with moving parts (e.g., fans and motors), increasing
audible noise can be a sign that maintenance, including realignment of rotating parts,
is required. Similarly, if debris and dirt accumulate on cooling plant, this will result
in the running of more fans, with a corresponding increase in audible noise.
5.6.7 Retrofittable Techniques

Some audible sound mitigation measures can be retrofitted after the facility is
constructed if it becomes necessary as described in this section.
Subject to layout, thermal and electrical considerations, it may be possible to erect
noise barriers around equipment which proves to be much noisier in operation than
expected. This is usually significantly more expensive than building the equivalent
enclosure at the construction stage and would involve interruption to the operation of
the FACTS controller.
It is sometimes possible to add additional damping to some components, and this
may provide some sound reduction where it can be shown that the noise is due to an
interaction between the equipment and the foundation or a support structure. This
may either involve modifications to the support structure or the equipment itself,
such as by adding mass. For example, filling the transformer ribs with sand can help
control radiated noise.
5.7 Operating Conditions
The operating conditions of a FACTS controller affect the acoustic noise level
because the load on the equipment, the production of harmonics from the converter,
and to some extent the amount of equipment in operation (switchable reactor,
capacitors, and cooling fans) are dependent on the operating conditions.
The ambient temperature will have an impact on the number of cooling fans in
operation.
The AC system conditions may change over time, e.g., the AC voltage changes,
and the AC background harmonics are not constant.
In some cases, the FACTS controller is capable of being operated with output in
excess of its rated value, but such operation is usually restricted to a defined
maximum time duration that can vary from a number of seconds to hours. Different
noise limits may be defined for operation within the normal operating range and for
operation outside of the normal range.
Unless the FACTS controller is intended to be operated at a particular operating
point for most of its life, the operating conditions for which the noise limits should be
met tend to be those that result in the highest audible noise from the FACTS
controller.
If the FACTS controller is intended to be operated at a particular operating point
for most of its life, different limits could in principle be specified for the particular
operating point and for other operation.
Different noise limits could also be specified for day time and nighttime
operation.
In practice, it is of most interest to the owner to look at the total station noise level,
but it is important to know the output noise power of the different noise sources if, at
a later stage, it should be necessary to take further noise reduction measures.
The owner should specify the requirements in such a way that it is possible to
verify that the requirements have been fulfilled. It is also important to the owner that
documented verification of the noise levels from the FACTS controller is available
for use in case it is requested by the authorities.
5.8 Sound Level Prediction
The prediction of sound levels in the vicinity of a FACTS controller is based on the
sound generated by the equipment on the site and does not include background
noise. The background noise levels vary with the time of day, weather conditions,
road traffic, railway or air traffic, and operation of other industrial installations or
construction work. The background noise levels do not influence the contribution
from the FACTS substation, but the background levels may have a significant
influence on the measurements of the sound levels at locations around the FACTS
controller.
The accuracy of predicting sound levels in or around a FACTS controller is
dependent on reliable acoustic data for the different sound sources on the site.
Furthermore, large buildings or other obstacles acting as sound screens or sound-
reflecting surfaces must be accounted for in any sound level prediction, as these may
obstruct or reflect the sound in different directions. Also, the landscape in the vicinity
of the station affects the sound propagation.
5.8.1 Modelling of Plant

Modelling of the plant requires selection of the important components and structures
and the use of these as input data for a model for calculation purposes. The audible
noise level is normally calculated by the contractor both in the tender and contract
stages.
The station layout defines the location and orientation of all equipment and
buildings on the site. When the FACTS controller is built adjacent to or as part of
an existing AC substation, then the equipment and buildings in the existing
substation also need to be included in the model, as structures, but possibly not as
acoustical sources. If the audible noise from the existing substation is relatively low,
it could be considered to be part of the background noise level. However, if the noise
output of the existing equipment is significant, such equipment may need to be
modelled as an acoustical source. The different types of ground surfaces, e.g.,
asphalt pavement, gravel, or cultivated grass, influence the reflection of sound and
thus also the propagation and need to be included in the model.
Each source of audible noise needs to be represented in the calculation model,
including its sound power, acoustic frequency content, and directivity pattern of
sound radiation.
The calculations will take into account the sound paths and attenuation consid-
ering screening, reflection, ground effects, and atmospheric absorption. The results
of the calculated predicted sound levels can be presented by:
• A graphical presentation of, e.g., sound level contours with equal sound pressure
levels
• A table with predicted sound pressure levels at a number of receivers
The graphical presentation of the calculated results gives an overall view of the
predicted sound pressure levels in and around the station but little information about
which sources are dominating the contribution at specific points.
The tabular result presentation is especially useful if the table also contains the
contribution from each source or group of sources on a total level and for each
frequency, forming a ranking table. If further mitigation is needed, this data would
indicate the equipment upon which noise reduction measures should focus.
5.9 Verification of Component Sound Power Levels
The verification of the sound power levels of all major audible noise sources should
be performed at the factory before the component is installed at site. Once all
components are installed, it is difficult to accurately determine the noise contribution
of each individual component.
The sound power of each component can be determined by the OEM by calcu-
lation, measurement, or a combination of measurement and calculation.
The calculation of the sound power requires a deep understanding of the design of
the component and its materials, the interaction between the forces that are set up in
the component during operation by current or voltage, and the movement of poten-
tial sound-emitting surfaces.
The simplest and therefore the most common method to determine sound power
in the factory is to use sound pressure measurements. This requires an appropriate
sound level meter and a measurement room or free field conditions. It is important
that a sufficient number of measurement points are used to get a good average of the
spatial variations of the sound pressure level. It should be noted that sound pressure
measurements are sensitive to background noise and reflections. The impact on

harmonics may be determined by calculation and in some cases by factory tests.
Another method uses sound intensity measurements. The sound intensity method
reduces the influence of background noise provided that it is constant during the
measurement. This makes it possible to perform measurements in an environment,
which would not be ideal for sound pressure measurements. However, the method is
time consuming and requires more experienced personnel to give an accurate result
but may be the only method by which the noise from specific equipment can be
measured at site (ISO 9614-2 1996).
Sound intensity is defined as the sound power per unit area. Sound intensity level
(SIL) or acoustic intensity level is a logarithmic quantity expressing the intensity of a
sound relative to a reference value. It expressed in decibels and is defined as:

I
SILðdBÞ ¼ 10 log
IO
where:
• I is the measured sound intensity

• IO is the reference sound intensity
The reference sound intensity level is frequently selected as 1 pW/m2 which is

approximately equal to the lowest sound intensity that can be discerned by an
undamaged human ear under room conditions. One method of sound intensity
measurement involves the use of two microphones located close to each other,
normal to the direction of sound energy flow. A signal analyzer is used to compute
the cross power between the two measured sound pressures. The sound intensity is
proportional to the imaginary part of the cross power.
As a final alternative, measurement of the vibration amplitude of a vibrating
structure can give a reasonable estimate of sound power. Two factors which provide
uncertainties are the estimation of the radiation factor and the risk that too few
measuring points are chosen to get a good spatial average of the vibration velocity.
It is not always possible to produce the operating conditions which will exist at
site, as it is difficult to replicate the high currents and high voltages especially at
harmonic frequencies. In test laboratories, it is more practical to excite a component
with one frequency at a time and at a lower value than will occur in normal operation.
The sound power at other operating conditions can then be calculated according to
scaling laws. This is not applicable for transformers because the core noise depends
on the flux density in the core. Therefore, this method is limited to linear systems.
5.10 Verification of Sound Levels from the FACTS Station
There are in practice two approaches to sound measurements in FACTS controllers.

The first approach is to verify the result (in terms of sound pressure level) of the
specified requirements directly, and the second is to determine the sound power
(in terms of sound power level) of the sound sources. The first type of measurement
is often made at some distance from the FACTS Station. In this case the problem is
how to extract the plant sound from the background sound. Often these measure-
ments have to be performed over longer periods of time to get a good time average
where the influence of meteorological influences is averaged out. The difficulty with
the second type of measurements is that there are many sound sources and also high
voltages which may make it impossible to get close to the sound source. The solution
may be to measure at different distances from the sources, as the law of distance then
can be used.
The verification of specified sound levels is normally performed by measure-
ments at the specified noise-sensitive/receiver locations, often corresponding to the
nearest inhabited houses. In cases when the background noise level at the receiver
locations is high, perhaps higher than the allowed contribution from the FACTS
controller, measurements will not give the required information. In such a case,
measurements can be performed closer to the station, between the source and the
receiver. The expected sound level at the receiver can then be calculated based on the
measured level at a point between the source and the receiver. This method can give
reasonably accurate results provided the landscape is fairly smooth, and there are no
obstacles in the transmission paths.
If a suitable measurement point between the noise-sensitive location and the
station cannot be found, sound pressure measurements close to or within the station
would be necessary. Such measurements may however suffer from interference
phenomena due to the complexity of the sound field.
Sometimes measurements between the source and receiver, as described above,
may be impossible to perform due to, e.g., difficult terrain, dense traffic on nearby
roads, or other circumstances disturbing the sound level measurements. Then mea-
surements close to the different sources at site can be done and the source sound power
level calculated. These calculated source sound power levels are then used for pre-
dicting the expected sound pressure levels at the receiver points by calculation alone.
When measuring sound inside or near a FACTS controller, there will normally be
pure tones and electromagnetic fields present. The sound-measuring equipment thus
has to be suitable for this environment. Condenser microphones should be used
because dynamic microphones are influenced by the magnetic fields. Also, the
instruments used for the analysis of the noise data should be of two types: real-
time analyzers for sound level information and frequency analyzers for quantifying
the tonal content and identifying individual noise sources.
The operating point of the FACTS controller sound sources is important because
the sound radiated from the sources is dependent on the currents and voltages present
in the sources during the measurement. Weather conditions can affect the measured
sound levels in a complicated way. When verification measurements are performed,
special meteorological conditions normally have to be fulfilled, e.g., wind direction
and wind velocity.
Depending on operating conditions, background AC harmonics, meteorological
variations, and irregularities in the measurement environment (e.g., reflecting
obstacles), the sound level at any point around a site will fluctuate considerably
during a period of 24 h. Thus sound level measurements should be carried out over
time as discussed above for background noise measurements.
5.11 Specification of Audible Noise Limits
5.11.1 General
▶ Chap. 19, “Procurement and Functional Specifications for FACTS Controllers” of
this book gives guidance on the technical specification of a FACTS controller. The
technical specification typically includes the audible noise constraints that the
FACTS controller should meet.
Before a technical specification enters into the detail of audible noise design
requirements, the boundaries of responsibility between owner and contractor should
first be clearly defined.
In this respect, there are two extreme approaches:
1. The owner defines the acoustic environment, the sound level limits to be satisfied
by calculation, the calculation method, and all parameters to be considered. The
contractor then makes studies and audible noise designs based on this information
and has the responsibility to prove to the satisfaction of the owner that the
proposed design complies with all the specification requirements. The risk of
the FACTS controller not performing according to local or regulatory require-
ments with respect to audible noise, under operating conditions, lies mainly with
the owner.
2. At the other extreme, the owner defines only that applicable regulations shall be
fulfilled, i.e., there must be no audible noise problems. The owner may also
specify field tests to confirm that applicable limits are not exceeded. Most risks in
this case lie with the contractor, but it would be necessary to ensure that the
potential contractor fully understand the applicable regulations and has performed
and provided the necessary existing audible noise measurements and the relevant
audible noise report.
In practice, most technical specifications adopt an approach which lies some-

where between these two extremes. The decision will depend on the strategy of each
individual owner and on the information and resources available to the owner. The
owner should be aware that if the contractor has to assume risks, there would be a
corresponding impact on pricing.
It is strongly recommended that the owner carefully considers the issues of risks
at an early stage and decides on his approach. The boundaries of responsibility and
delivery should then be clearly defined in the technical specification. Failure to make
a clear definition of responsibility, and to ensure that the detailed requirements of the
specification are in accordance with the general definition of responsibility, creates
risks of contractual conflict, delay, and possibly unsatisfactory audible noise
performance.
Most essentially, the specification must define whether the criterion by which the
audible noise performance is to be judged as satisfactory is to be:
• Demonstration by calculation of performance requirements using specified data

• Measurement in the field after commissioning
• A combination of the above
Demonstration by calculation ensures that the worst-case conditions can be taken

into account but are susceptible to erroneous data or flawed or inadequate calculation
methods.
Measurement in the field may be considered as the definitive proof of correct
design, but it may be difficult to make measurements under the most onerous
environmental conditions for which the station has been designed. Also, the effect
of background noise must be taken into account by measuring background audible
noise with the FACTS controller de-energized. Demonstration by measurement
requires that the FACTS controller is built, but it is more difficult to reduce noise
levels retrospectively. Therefore, a combination of demonstration by calculation
followed by field measurement provides the owner with the greatest assurance that
the audible noise performance will be satisfactory.
5.11.2 Information from the Owner

Depending on the boundaries of responsibility as discussed above, some investiga-
tions and measurements may need to be conducted by the owner prior to issuing the
technical specification or may be the responsibility of the contractor. These investi-
gations/measurements would normally include:
• Identifying applicable regulations.

• Obtaining plans for the surrounding landscape, both today and for the future
• Identifying noise-sensitive locations.
• Measuring background audible noise levels at all applicable locations over a
sufficiently longtime to be representative of the environment.
• Determining under what precise conditions the audible noise requirements shall
be fulfilled with respect to operating conditions, e.g., normal operation. In some
cases higher levels of audible noise may be permitted during short durations, e.g.,
overload or emergency conditions.
The extent of studies, factory testing, and field verifications required from the
contractor should be made clear in the technical specification. A minimum set of
studies and verifications will normally be required to ensure that the audible noise
requirements are fulfilled; these comprise:
• Overall sound level prediction

• Calculation or measurement of sound from individual noise sources
• Field verification after commissioning of the FACTS controller
5.11.3 Technical Data to be Supplied by Tenderers and the Contractor

At the tender stage of a FACTS project, the tenderers are normally required to supply
technical data regarding their proposed designs to the owner. This data is used by the
owner to qualify the proposed design technically and to allow comparisons to be
made between competing tenderers. The technical specification should define
exactly what technical data is to be supplied with the tender and during the contract;
otherwise there is a risk that the information supplied by different tenderers will not
show possible weaknesses in design or will not enable fair comparisons to be made.
Particular attention should be paid to the following aspects:
• Method and assumptions for audible noise calculations

• Calculation software used and applicable algorithms
• Sound power levels for each major source assumed in the calculations
• Proposed field verification method
After contract award and during the design and procurement stage of the
project, the contractor will normally produce technical study reports and other
documents covering aspects of the audible noise design. The technical specifica-
tion (or another part of the agreement between owner and contractor) should make
clear whether these are to be approved by the owner and, if so, define an adequate
procedure which allows time for examination of such material by the owner,
possible subsequent modification, and approval, within the intended project
time schedule.
6 Electric and Magnetic Fields
The high voltages and high currents in the main power circuit also give rise to
electric and magnetic fields which need to be considered from a health and safety
point of view. All alternating electric and magnetic fields induce currents in electri-
cally conductive objects, including living organisms. As exposure to the induced
currents within living organisms may have short-time or longtime health or safety
consequences, the exposure levels must be maintained below the guidelines or limits
adopted in the country in which the FACTS controller will be installed.
The limits on electric and magnetic fields within the FACTS controller site and
external to the FACTS controller need to be considered separately based on:
• General public exposure limits

• Occupational exposure limits, which relate to the personnel working at the
FACTS controller
Both public and occupational reference values of magnetic fields are much higher
than the typical magnetic fields found in a FACTS controller except near large
air-core reactors, and therefore, most likely only the magnetic fields near large
reactors need to be considered.
The International Council on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) Guide-

lines (ICNIRP Guidelines 2010) indicates reference levels of electric and magnetic field
for AC systems. Two sets of reference levels are given, one related to “general public
exposure” and another for “occupational exposure (electricity utility workers).” General
public exposure reference levels are lower than occupational exposure levels by a factor
of two for electric fields and a factor of five for magnetic fields. Many regional or
national codes are based on or may use limits similar to the levels provided by ICNIRP,
but some may impose more restrictive levels.
Table 3 shows the ICNIRP and IEEE electric and magnetic field limits as well as
limits at several other locations around the world.
When voltage is applied to an object such as an electrical conductor, the conduc-
tor becomes charged and surrounded by an electric field. Electric fields are usually
measured in volts per meter (V/m) or kilovolts per meter (kV/m).
Table 3 Power frequency (50 or 60 Hz) EMF limits and recommended values
Country/ Standard/ B Limit E Limit
origin document Applies to (μT) (kV/m) Observation
ICNIRP 2010 General 200 5 –
public
exposure
Occupational 1000 10
exposure
IEEE C95.6-2002 General 904 5
(Reaffirmed public
2007) exposure
exposure
Europe Council of the General 100 5
European public
union exposure
Occupational 500 10
exposure
Argentina Res. SE General 25 3
77/1998 public
exposure
exposure
Brazil ANEEL RS No General 200 5 (4.17) Electric field limits
398/2010 public are for 50 Hz (60 Hz)
exposure
Occupational 1000 10 (8.33)
exposure
United NRBP General 100 5
Kingdom Vol. 15. public
No 2/2004 exposure
Occupational 500 10
exposure
Ground-level electric fields near an overhead line are mainly determined by the
line voltage and the distance to the line. The conductor-to-ground clearance and the
conductor arrangement are important factors which have an effect on the electric
field. Likewise, the conductor size and type (single or bundled) may influence the
ground-level electric fields, as will metal or other conducting structures at ground or
high-voltage level. In the case of double-circuit or multiple-circuit lines, the relative
arrangement of the three phases of each circuit is important, especially with regard to
the maximum field values. Since the ground is a good electrical conductor, the
electric field at the ground is perpendicular to it and thus usually has a vertical
orientation close to the ground (Nolasko et al. 2014).
When an electric current flows along a straight wire, the magnetic field lines are
circles centered on the wire. The field strength is proportional to the magnitude of the
current and inversely proportional to the distance from the wire. If the current in
amperes is divided by 2π times the distance away in meters, the field strength is
given in amperes per meter (A/m). However magnetic fields are often expressed in
terms of a quantity called the magnetic flux density which is expressed in units of
Tesla (T). Since the Tesla is a very large unit, micro-Tesla (μT) is typically used when
expressing limits.
In the case of overhead transmission lines, the magnetic field should be measured
in transversal profiles, 1 m above the ground.
In the case of substations, e.g., a FACTS controller, the magnetic field related to
public exposure would be measured at the perimeter of the substation, 1 m above the
ground. The maximum value, independently of the direction, should be recorded.
The designer of the FACTS controller should ensure that the electric and mag-
netic fields are within the permitted levels, as appropriate to the public and the
personnel that work in the station. If the fields cannot be maintained within the
applicable limits, then the access to the affected areas must be restricted. Typically,
the maximum electric and magnetic field levels are shown on layout drawings so that
high field areas can be fenced-off or avoided.
Large air-core reactors, as used in some FACTS controllers, may have significant
magnetic fields. Measurements should be made inside the FACTS controller station
where personnel may be working close to large reactors, e.g., as used in thyristor-
controlled reactors (TCR). Enclosures and/or barriers should be provided to ensure
that personnel will not be exposed to levels beyond the occupational limits.
7 Electromagnetic Emissions and Compatibility Limits
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) means that an electronic or electrical product

shall work as intended in its environment and that the electronic or electrical product
shall not generate electromagnetic disturbances, which may influence other products
in the environment.
FACTS controllers utilize fast switching of either current or voltage to perform
their intended function. This switching creates electromagnetic noise that could
cause interference to nearby electronic equipment within the AC network, unless
Table 4 Common terminology for characterization of the frequency spectrum

Frequency band Frequency range
Subsynchronous frequency range DC to 50 or 60 Hz
Power frequency 50 or 60 Hz
Audible frequency range 61–5 kHz
PLC frequency range 30–500 kHz (North America)
30–95 kHz (Europe)
AM radio-frequency range 525–1710 kHz
Shortwave radio 3–30 MHz
TV frequency range (VHF and UHF) 54–694 MHz
FM radio-frequency range 88–120 MHz
GPS satellites (USA) 1.227 and 1.5754 GHz
Galileo satellites (Europe) 1.57542, 1.117645, 1.20714, 1.27875 GHz
appropriate countermeasures are taken in the design. The electromagnetic noise may
be either conducted along the metallic interconnection at the point of connection to
the system or radiated.
Similarly, the presence of other interfering sources within the system requires that
the FACTS controller must be able to withstand a minimum level of electromagnetic
noise while continuing in normal operation without malperformance or failure.
FACTS controllers may generate interference in a wide frequency range and are
in turn subjected to disturbances that cover a wide frequency range from below the
power frequency to over 1 GHz. This frequency range is subdivided into different
frequency bands that are characterized by the typical usage of the given frequency
band as listed in Table 4.
It is the responsibility of utilities and/or power system operators to ensure the
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) of the whole system and the equipment
connected to it. In this respect the compatibility levels have to be considered as
reference values for the coordination of emission and immunity of equipment
connected to the power network.
Due to the large number of devices in a power system, the compatibility level of
each piece of equipment needs to be considered on a statistical basis, generally
adopting the principle that the adopted immunity level will not be exceeded both in
time and space with a 95% or 99% probability.
The relationship between the adopted compatibility level and the equipment
immunity is illustrated in Fig. 1. Note that planning levels are levels that might be
expected due to the summation of the impacts of multiple sources in the system
which would generally be above the emission levels of individual devices, while
immunity levels of individual devices might be tested above the 95% level (com-
patibility level) of the expected system disturbance levels.
The performance of a given FACTS controller would be defined in terms of its
adherence to limits on electromagnetic emissions, whether conducted or radiated,
Compatibility
Level
Equipment Immunity
Probability density
Level
System Disturbance
Level
Probability =5%
Approximately
Emission Limits Planning Immunity

Individual Sources Levels Test Levels
Disturbance level
Fig. 1 Relationship between emission levels, compatibility, and immunity levels
and the immunity of the FACTS controller to maloperation in the presence of EMI
and or low-frequency interference sources that may exist in the system.
7.1 Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
Electromagnetic interference (EMI) (also referred to as radio-frequency interference

(RFI) when it is in the radio-frequency spectrum) is one aspect of EMC dealing with
radiated interference. EMI is a disturbance generated by an external source that
affects a communication circuit or control system by electromagnetic induction,
electrostatic coupling, or via a conducted signal. Both man-made and natural sources
may generate changing electrical currents and voltages that can cause EMI. The
interference may be a continuous wave interference, single impulse or a train of
impulses.
Impulse EMI may be caused by switching operations or externally generated
from lightning surges, nearby radio or radar stations, cellular phone systems, etc.
Such disturbances may degrade the performance of the electrical equipment or even
cause it to stop functioning.
The high-frequency switching of electrical current and voltage in a FACTS
controller results in the generation of EMI that may need to be limited. The levels
of EMI near the valves and converters of a FACTS controller are very high. The
control and protection circuits situated on the FACTS controller valve are specially
designed to achieve immunity such that they function correctly at these high
interference levels. The valve and converter enclosures and the electrical connec-
tions between the enclosure and the other FACTS equipment are designed such that
most of the EMI is contained in the valve enclosure. This is achieved by either
designing the valve enclosure as a Faraday cage4 and by including high-frequency
blocking filters in the metallic connections to the external equipment or by suitably
protecting the sensitive equipment against radiated and conducted noise.
High-frequency blocking filters may be added to the design of the FACTS
controllers, if necessary, to limit the level of EMI emitted from the station to an
acceptable level, i.e., such that other equipment in the vicinity of the FACTS
controller would not mal-perform (IEEE C37.90.1 2012).
Transient EMI levels within an AC substation can be large, for example, during
operation of a high-voltage disconnect switch (Wiggins and Nilsson 1994). There-
fore, all substation control and protection equipment must be designed to perform
reliably, even in the event of such extreme events within the substation.
Recent field measurements in the USA of radiated EMI in the 100 kHz to
approximately 960 MHz concerning multilevel IGBT-based converters have indi-
cated that EMI filters can be eliminated in some designs of STATCOMs. However,
each design should be evaluated, and space could be allocated for EMI/RFI filters in
critical site locations where emitted levels have the potential to cause interference to
local industrial or residential utility customers (EPRI TR-102006 1993).
7.1.1 Radio and Television Interference (RI)

Radio interference is any effect on the reception of a radio signal due to an unwanted
disturbance within the radio-frequency spectrum.
Common sources of RI within power systems include:
• Corona
• Discharges along insulators
• Sparking at bad contacts
Interference is characterized by different frequency spectra, different modes of

propagation (guided along the conductors or radiated), and different statistical
variations because of varying ambient conditions (CIGRE TB 074-1993; CISPR
TR 18-1-2017, CISPR TR 18-2-2017, CISPR TR 18-3-2017).
Radio interference (RI) is primarily of concern for amplitude-modulated systems
(AM radio and television video signals) since other forms of modulation (frequency
modulation (FM) used for very high-frequency (VHF) radio broadcasting and
television audio signals) are generally much less affected by disturbances (CIGRE
TB 074 1993). Television interference is a special case of radio interference for
disturbances affecting the frequency ranges used for television broadcasting.
4
A Faraday cage is an earthed metal screen surrounding a piece of equipment to exclude or contain
electrostatic and electromagnetic influences.
The potential to cause RI needs to be considered in the design of the FACTS

controller. Design measures to avoid RI might include screening of the valve hall and
application of specific RI filters. In general, it is enough to specify that the FACTS
controller should not interfere with any existing radio, television, or communication
media. The potential for direct interference to GPS signals is very low due to the low
output of most FACTS devices at frequencies above 1 GHz, but there could be some
potential for interference to ground-based enhancements to navigation systems that
use VHF radio signalling.
RI aspects must also be considered in the design of the HV installation/sub-
stations and lines used to link the FACTS controller with the grid. A detailed
discussion and guide to calculation of such effects can be found in CIGRE TB
061 (1997).
It should be noted that corona and other discharges are very hard to simulate and
measured values of RI from actual installations or in laboratories should be consid-
ered sufficient demonstration of compliance. For more information, the user may
refer to an EMC standard such as IEC 61000-6.
7.1.2 Power Line Carrier Interference

Utility power line carrier (PLC) communications facilities may be used in pro-
tection system communications in the 30–95 kHz range in Europe or the
30–500 kHz in North America. When PLC systems are located near the FACTS
controller, they may in some cases experience interference if the FACTS control-
ler emits sufficiently high levels of conducted noise in this frequency range. The
PLC frequency emissions are caused by fast-switching transients of the power
electronic devices that cause trains of impulse noise. FACTS controllers have
traditionally not been associated with PLC interference because the impulse noise
from switching in FACTS controllers has been relatively modest. The trend
however is toward the use of faster-switching devices and transformerless con-
nections of FACTS controllers to the system especially at lower voltages. Both of
these factors could foreshadow increases in the interference levels in the PLC
frequency range as indicated in Fig. 2 although there is a tendency to lower
interference with VSC MMC based controllers.
Based on potential interference levels indicated in Fig. 2, the possibility of PLC
interference from a FACTS controller needs to be considered, and if necessary,
mitigation should be implemented. The mitigation of such interference could involve:
• Installation of PLC frequency blocking or attenuation filters to avoid transmitting

the interfering signal into the AC system from the FACTS controller. Filters to
reduce these higher-order harmonics are typically small and contribute no signif-
icant capacitive reactive power to the network.
• Changing the frequency of the PLC communications link to a different value
where the interfering influence of the FACTS controller is lower.
• Replacing the PLC communications facilities by facilities that are immune to
interference such as fiber-optic communications.
Fig. 2 Comparison of FACTS noise output with other noise sources (CIGRE TB 391)
When specifying the FACTS controller, the owner should compile a list of the
PLC communications facilities within one or two buses of the proposed FACTS
facility including the frequencies, transmit and receive power levels, required signal
to noise ratio, and blocking trap locations and impedance characteristics. The
designer of the FACTS controller will use this information together with the
known output power of the FACTS controller in the PLC frequency range to
determine whether PLC frequency filters or other mitigations would be needed to
ensure that the communications would not be disrupted.
7.2 Electromagnetic (EMC) Compatibility
The specification of the FACTS controller will usually include specific requirements,
with which the design of the FACTS controller must comply in terms of emissions
(EMI) as well as the requirement to perform correctly in its power system environ-
ment which already includes pre-existing levels of electromagnetic interfering
signals.
IEC standard 61000-6-5 (IEC 61000-6-5 (2017)) discusses immunity levels for
power and substation equipment which would be applicable to FACTS controllers
installed in such an environment. The FACTS controller as a whole is significantly
more complex than a single piece of substation equipment and is frequently of
special or unique design where the emission and/or immunity requirements may
be established by engineering practice rather than by comprehensive testing.
Although individual subsystems comprising the FACTS controller may be governed
by limits defined in the applicable standards or may have legislated limits, the final
performance of the overall FACTS controller also has to meet the user-specified
immunity level and emission criteria.
It may be difficult to test whether the complete FACTS controller meets the
immunity requirements. Therefore, the manufacturer may be permitted to demon-
strate compliance using either testing, calculation or simulation, or a combination of
these techniques. It is generally sufficient to demonstrate that the power circuit will
comply with the required acceptance criterion and that the ratings of input circuits
(filters, etc.) would not be exceeded.
IEC standards 61000-2-1 (2018), 61000-2-2 (2018), and 61000-3-3 (2013), are
the general standards which respectively define the different types of disturbance
appearing on power systems and the relevant compatibility levels for low-voltage
(LV) public networks in Europe. These standards are general in nature and not
specifically or solely applicable to FACTS controllers.
On the power supply and input signal side of a FACTS controller, there are a
plethora of existing industrial standards that are applicable to sub-components such
as chargers, power supplies, I/O units, cubicle and cabinet shielding, etc. Thus on the
input side, the user is normally safe to use the presumption of compatibility for
incoming and emitted noise unless the installation is compromised by not following
good practice especially in regard to input filtering, cable shielding, grounding and
bonding, and the use of twisted pair cabling where applicable. The types of incoming
disturbance that may affect FACTS controllers are listed in Table 5.
On the output side of the FACTS controller, i.e., at the point of common coupling
(PCC) with the AC system, the presumption that a FACTS controller would be
entirely compatible in accordance with standards applicable to general industrial
equipment may not be well founded because:
Table 5 Types of disturbances that may affect the input of a FACTS controller
Types of disturbance Typical source of disturbance Test standards
Electrostatic discharge Static buildup on persons IEC 61000-4-2
(ESD)
Radiated electric field Broadcast stations, cell phones IEC 61000-4-3,
IEEE C37.90.2
Electric fast transient Power line switching transients IEC 61000-4-4
bursts IEEE C37.90.1-2002
Surge Lightning-induced power line transient IEC 61000-4-5,
IEEE C62.41.2
IEEE C37.90.1-2002
RF common mode Low-frequency radio stations IEC 61000-4-6
voltage
Power line magnetic field Nearby power line conductors IEC 61000-4-8
Power line dips and Power line load variations and switching IEC 61000-4-11
variations IEC 61000-4-15
(2017)
Ring wave Power line switching and lightning-induced IEC 61000-4-12,
transients IEEE C62.41.2
(a) There are very few product standards that are applicable to specific types of
FACTS controllers. One notable exception is the product standard for variable
speed motor drives IEC 61800-3 (2004) which may be applicable to STATCOM
units that can be implemented using this technology.
(b) The user may wish to specify higher performance requirements for the FACTS
controller than are typical for distribution level or industrial level equipment on
the basis that the purpose of the FACTS controller may be to support the system in
times of extreme contingencies and thus it should not trip when it is most needed. A
typical high-level performance requirement is that a FACTS controller installed on
the bulk power transmission system should not trip for any event where the
generators can remain in operation. This may require that the FACTS controller
be specified, at least for short durations, with very high requirements on:
• Low-voltage ride through
• Voltage dip tolerance (CIGRE TB 412, 2010)
• High-voltage withstand capability
• High current operation during disturbances
• Operation with high levels of voltage unbalance
• Compatibility with high levels of harmonics
• Very high reliability
• Ability to operate in degraded modes
• Other requirement as determined in the planning studies
If the system requirements are not significantly above the normal system require-
ments as discussed above and in the absence of product-dedicated standards for
specific FACTS controllers, the user may refer to the general standards or applicable
portions of related industrial standards to specify the compatibility and immunity of
the FACTS controller. The basic IEC immunity standards for test and measurement
of a number of potentially disturbing signals are listed in Table 6. IEEE Standards
which are applicable to EMC compatibility testing of relays are IEEE C37.90.1-
2012, IEEE C37.90.2-2004, IEEE C37.90.3-2001, and IEEE 1613-2009.
The reader is cautioned, however, that different compatibility levels or immunity
limits may apply in different areas of the world. In the USA, the compatibility/
immunity limits for radiated interference are under the jurisdiction of the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC), and the limits on unintentional radiation from
equipment and the corresponding measurement distances are governed by the Code
of Federal Regulations Title 47 Chapter 15 Subpart B. Canada has a similar body
called Industry Canada (IC).
The bandwidths for the “CISPR limit”5 are according to CISPR 16 (2019).
However, the levels refer to peak value, except in the frequency range 30 MHz to
5
The Comité International Spécial des Perturbations Radioélectriques (CISPR; English: Interna-
tional Special Committee on Radio Interference) was founded in 1934 to set standards for
controlling electromagnetic interference in electrical and electronic devices and is a part of the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). CISPR 16 is published in multiple parts and
subparts. Guidance on its use may be found in the CISPR guide “Guidance for users of CISPR
Standards, 2015”.
Table 6 Basic standards for test and measurement of EMC immunity

Item EMC phenomenon IEC standard
a. Electrostatic discharge (ESD) IEC 61000-4-2
IEEE C37.90.3-2001
b. Radio-frequency electromagnetic field IEC 61000-4-3
IEEE/ANSI
C63.4-2014
c. Electrical fast transients/burst IEC 61000-4-4
IEEE C37.90.1-2002
d. Surges IEC 61000-4-5
IEEE C37.90.1-2002
IEEE C62.45-2002
e. Conducted high-frequency disturbances IEC 61000-4-6
IEEE C37.90.1-2002
f. Power-frequency magnetic fields IEC 61000-4-8
g. Pulsed magnetic fields IEC 61000-4-9
h. Damped oscillatory magnetic fields IEC 61000-4-10
i. Voltage variations, dips, and interruptions IEC 61000-4-11
j. Oscillatory waves IEC 61000-4-12
k. Harmonics and interharmonics including mains signalling at AC IEC 61000-4-13
power port, low-frequency immunity tests
l. Voltage fluctuations IEC 61000-4-14
m. Conducted low-frequency disturbances IEC 61000-4-16
n. Ripple on DC input power port IEC 61000-4-17
o. Unbalance IEC 61000-4-27
p. Variation of power frequency IEC 61000-4-28
q. Voltage variations and dips on DC power ports IEC 61000-4-29
1 GHz where the quasi peak values apply.6 The broadband limit (BB limit) curve
applies to protection of digital communications and is expressed as RMS values. The
bandwidths for the three parts of the lines are broadband, 1, 5, and 20 MHz. For the
broadband (BB) limit, the RMS value would apply. For the others, peak values
would apply. CIGRE TB 391 (2009) provides additional references and standards
information relevant to this area of environmental concern for radiated emissions
from FACTS controllers.
Table 7 shows the limits and measuring distances proposed in the guide for sub-
stations. A corresponding table for connecting lines is also provided in the guide but is
not reproduced here. The measuring distance is defined in Table 7. The differences in
limit values and measurement distances are considered to reflect the difference in
impact. Specific guidance for the electromagnetic interference limits is an area of
ongoing technical discussion. An exhaustive discussion can be found in CIGRE TB
391 (2009), and the recommended limits are shown in Fig. 3 for substations and
equipment for different voltage levels. The FCC and IEC requirements for high-
6
Please consult the relevant standards for the definition of the terms peak and quasi peak.
Table 7 Proposed measurements and distances for substations and equipment
Rating of Limit curve

PEa Measurement 9 kHz to
Voltage level equipment distance (m) 30 MHz >30 MHzb Remark
c
LV domestic Domestic 10 Limit 1 Limit 1 IEC 61000-6-3
1kVA applies
LV industrial Industrial 30 Limit 1c Limit 1 IEC 61000-6-4
110 kVA CISPR 11
applies
2–30 kV 0.11–1 30 Limit Limit 1
MVA 1 + 10 dB
31–100 kV 1–7 MVA 30 Limit Limit 1
2–5 dB
101–170 kV 8–40 MVA 50 Limit 2 Limit 2
171–250 kV 41–200 100 Limit 2 Limit 2
MVA
251–420 kV 201–1000 200 Limit 2 Limit 2
MVA
421–620 kV 1.0–1.5 200 Limit 2 Limit 2
GVA
621–800 kV 6–25 GVA 200 Limit 3 Limit 2
801–1000 kV 36–1000 200 Limit 3 Limit 2
GVA
1001–1200 kV >1000 200 Limit 3 Limit 2
GVA
a
Power electronic equipment including HVDC and FACTS
b
For f > 30 MHz the broadband RMS limit “BB Limit” also applies
c
Tentative proposal that may be applied
frequency emissions have to some extent been harmonized, and limits have been
adopted as shown in Fig. 3. This figure is derived from CIGRE TB 391 (2009) and
is similar to that adopted in IEC 62236-2 (2018). Figure 4 shows the current IEC limits
in magnitude of emission over the frequency range covered by the IEC standard, and
the family of curves shows the effect of separation distance from the emission source to
the calibrated receiving location. Figure 4 also illustrates the positive impact of
including a buffer zone between the FACTS controller and remote “potentially
impacted parties.”
The potential disturbing influence of a FACTS controller may vary with fre-
quency and would depend on the technology applied as indicated in Fig. 2. The
output of non-VSC devices can be significant in the PLC frequency range but drops
off rapidly after about 700 kHz falling to within about 6 dB of the noise levels
associated with corona from normal lines and substation components.
Measurements of the level of EMI in the vicinity of a FACTS controller would be
performed, after it enters service, to demonstrate that it meets the specified perfor-
mance and will not cause disturbance to other nearby equipment. The limits defined
in Fig. 3 would generally apply for FACTS controllers. IEEE/ANSI C63.4-2014
describes measurement of radio-noise emissions from low-voltage electrical and
electronic equipment.
Fig. 3 EMI emission limits for substations and equipment (CIGRE TB 391 2009)
Fig. 4 Recalculation of the limits in IEC 62236-2 for greater separation distance
CIGRE TB 719 (2018) discusses the potential impact of distributed generation

and the proliferation of power electronic devices including FACTS controllers in the
power systems of the future.
In USA and Canada, the applicable limits for other EMC phenomena as noted
in Table 6 may be documented in IEEE Standards rather than IEC standards.
Many of the limits in the USA relating to EMC compatibility for FACTS
controllers would be similar to those applicable for other power electronics

devices such as those associated with distributed generation and can be in found
in IEEE Standard 1547 (2018).
IEEE Standard 1547 also covers requirements related to safety. In Europe and in
countries which normally apply IEC standards, safety-related topics are covered in
IEC 62477-1 (2016) and EN 50178 (1997). Safety may also be regulated by local or
national electrical codes which impose more restrictive limits than are required in
these standards. It is up to the owner to determine and specify the most limiting or
governing requirements for his FACTS controller project.
7.3 Harmonics and Interharmonics
Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or current components with frequencies which are
integer multiples of the fundamental frequency (50 or 60 Hz) at which the electric
power system operates.
Interharmonics are frequencies that are not integer multiples of the fundamental
power frequencies. Interharmonics may be generated by certain types of installations
such as PWM inverters that operate with carrier frequencies that are not integer
multiples of the power frequency.
Distortion of the fundamental frequency voltage or current waveform, called
harmonic distortion, occurs from the normal operation of equipment and loads
with nonlinear characteristics connected to the system. In order to mitigate the
undesirable effects of harmonics and interharmonics such as overheating of gener-
ators and capacitors, limiting the power transfer of transmission lines and telecom-
munication system interference, train control systems, etc., design measures are
normally taken to limit the levels of harmonics and interharmonics that are permitted
to be injected into the AC system.
Equipment utilizing switching converter technology such as FACTS control-
lers generate harmonics. The level and the order of harmonics generated depend
on the configuration and design of the converter and the way it is operated. This
chapter will not go into the details of the generation of the harmonics, but the
reader will be able to get some information on this aspect by reading the Technical
Description of FACTS Controllers section in this Green Book. That section
includes ▶ Chaps. 6, “Technical Description of Static Var Compensators
(SVC),” ▶ 7, “Technical Description of Static Compensators (STATCOM),”
▶ 8, “Technical Description of Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC),”
and ▶ 9, “Technical Description of the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)
and Its Potential Variations,” and others. See also ▶ Chaps. 17, “FACTS Planning
Studies,” and ▶ 20, “FACTS Controller Integration and Design Studies” in this
Green Book for more details.
The harmonics produced by FACTS controllers using thyristor valves are current
harmonics, and the characteristic harmonics will occur at 6n 1 multiplied by the
fundamental frequency for a two-winding transformer connection and at 12n 1 for

a three-winding transformer connection. In a 50 Hz system, using a two-winding
transformer, the characteristic harmonics will be 250, 350, 550, 650 Hz, etc. See
▶ Chap. 6, “Technical Description of Static Var Compensators (SVC)” chapter for
more details. Typically, SVCs use shunt-connected harmonic filters to limit the
emission of harmonics.
Since a TCSC does not use a transformer, the TCSC will generate all odd
harmonics of fundamental frequency, with the triplen harmonics being zero
sequence when the line currents are balanced (Larsen et al. 1994). Please see
▶ Chap. 8, “Technical Description of Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors
(TCSC).” Typically, the emission of harmonics for a TCSC is below the level
where it is necessary to use harmonic filters, since the TCSC is series connected in
the line at high voltage and generally low fundamental frequency current and
correspondingly reduced harmonic current amplitudes injected into the line.
The harmonics produced and injected into the AC power system by voltage-
sourced converters as used in the STATCOM, the UPFC, and the SSSC are voltage
harmonics. Techniques for the reduction of harmonics in the output voltage of the
converter include the use of harmonic cancellation using special transformers to
obtain harmonic reduction and pulse width modulation (PWM) and the use of the
modular multilevel converter (MMC) which provides the combination of the
output waveforms of individual building blocks. See ▶ Chaps. 7, “Technical
Description of Static Compensators (STATCOM),” and ▶ 9, “Technical Descrip-
tion of the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) and Its Potential Variations”
for more details.
Problems related to harmonics fall into two basic categories:
• Harmonic currents are injected into the supply network by converters and other
harmonic sources where they cause system losses. Both harmonic currents and
resulting voltages can be considered as conducted phenomena. The harmonic
voltages in supply systems should be limited to levels that will not result in
adverse effects on sensitive equipment. The harmonic voltages result from the
harmonic currents injected into the impedance seen from the FACTS controller,
which will depend on the harmonic frequency and the configuration of the AC
network, which will change when lines, loads, and generation are added or
disconnected from the network. Therefore, studies need to consider the changing
system impedance and will show if the harmonic currents injected into the system
need to be limited, typically by installing harmonic filters at the FACTS controller
connection to the AC network.
• Harmonic currents in the range between 50 Hz and 5 kHz may induce interference
with communication systems. This phenomenon is more pronounced at higher-
order harmonic frequencies because of increased coupling between the circuits
and because of the higher sensitivity of the communication circuits in the audible
range, the passband for which is 300 Hz to 4 kHz.
The allowable harmonic distortion in a network is normally determined by the

system operator according to either international standards or according to the
relevant grid code.
The contribution to the harmonic levels that the FACTS controller is permitted to
add typically depends on the existing harmonic distortion level and is typically a
fraction of the headroom between the existing level and the maximum permitted
distortion defined in the grid code.
A telephone harmonic factor (THF) or telephone harmonic form factor (THFF)
limit may also be included to ensure that adjacent wired communication lines will
not be adversely affected. This is based on the harmonic current injected in the AC
network, and not on the harmonic voltage at the PCC (CIGRE TB 139 1999).
During the design of the FACTS controller, the contractor will perform harmonic
studies to determine the harmonic impact and, if necessary, to design suitable AC
harmonic filters to meet the specified harmonic limits. These studies will use as
inputs the harmonic impedance of the AC network that have been included in the
technical specification and the harmonic current or voltage that will be injected by
The study results should be provided to the owner and typically also to the TSO
for approval. During and after commissioning, harmonic measurements are typically
made, either by the owner or by the contractor, to prove that the actual harmonic
performance meets the specified requirements for all operating conditions. Guidance
on the applicable limits may be obtained by reference to the local grid code, IEEE
519 (2014) or IEC 61000-3-2.
The harmonic studies that should be performed prior to specification and after
contract award are described in ▶ Chaps. 17, “FACTS Planning Studies,” and
▶ 20, “FACTS Controller Integration and Design Studies,” respectively.
8 Cross-References

References
CIGRE TB 061: Interferences Produced by Corona Effect of Electric Systems (Description of
Phenomena and Practical Guide for Calculation) Addendum to CIGRE Document No. 20, 1997
CIGRE TB 074: Electric Power Transmission and the Environment: Fields, Noise and Interference,
CIGRE. Working Group 36.01 (Corona and Field Effects), 1993
CIGRE TB 139: Guide to the Specification and Design Evaluation of Ac Filters for Facts
Controllers, 1999
CIGRE TB 147: High Voltage Overhead Lines. Environmental Concerns, Procedures, Impacts and
Mitigations, 1999
CIGRE TB 202: HVDC Stations Audible Noise, 2002
CIGRE TB 221: Improving the impact of existing substations on the environment, 2003
CIGRE TB 274: Consultation models for overhead line projects, 2005
CIGRE TB 391: Guide for Measurement of Radio Frequency Interference from HV and MV
Substations, 2009
CIGRE TB 412: Voltage Dip Immunity of Equipment and Installations, 2010
CIGRE TB 508: HVDC Environmental Planning Guidelines, 2012
CIGRE TB 548: Stakeholder Engagement Strategies in Sustainable Development – Electricity,
Industry Overview, 2013
CIGRE TB 649: Guidelines for Life Extension of Existing HVDC Systems, 2016
CIGRE TB 719: Power Quality and EMC Issues with Future Electricity Networks, 2018
CIGRE TB 748: Environmental Issues of High Voltage Transmission Lines in Urban and Rural
Areas, 2018
CISPR Guide: Guidance for users of CISPR Standards, 2015
CISPR 11. Edition 5.1 INTERNATIONAL. STANDARD. NORME. INTERNATIONALE. Indus-
trial, scientific and medical equipment – Radio-frequency disturbance characteristics - Limits
and methods of measurement, 2010-05
CISPR 16 “Specification for radio frequency disturbance measuring apparatus and methods, (16
documents), 2019”
CISPR 16-1-1: Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus and methods
– Part 1-1: Radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus – Measuring apparatus, 2019
CISPR TR 18-1 Radio interference characteristics of overhead power lines and high-voltage
equipment. Part 1: Description of phenomena, 2017
CISPR TR 18-2 Radio interference characteristics of overhead power lines and high-voltage
equipment. Part 2: Methods of measurement and procedure for determining limits, 2017
CISPR TR 18-3 Radio interference characteristics of overhead power lines and high voltage
equipment. Part 3: Code of practice for minimizing the generation of radio noise, 2017
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changes, voltage fluctuations and flicker in public low-voltage supply systems, for equipment
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Dr. Bjarne R Andersen is the Director and Owner of Andersen

commercial VSC HVDC project to use an HVDC overhead line,
and a VSC HVDC project for multiterminal operation permitting
Bruno Bisewski, Electrical Engineer, RBJ Engineering
Corporation
Bruno Bisewski received a BSc degree in Electrical Engineering
from University of Manitoba in 1975. He joined Teshmont Con-
sultants, Inc., in 1976, where he worked for 33 years in various
capacities up to vice president. In 2008 he left to found RBJ
Engineering.
Mr. Bisewski is a specialist with many years of experience in all
aspects of the electrical power transmission industry including
project management, system studies, specification and design,
calculation of electrical effects, design review, cost estimates,
equipment testing, and commissioning of EHV-AC and HVDC
transmission systems. He has provided engineering services,
including preparation and review of specifications, tender evalua-
tion, system studies, design review, witnessing of equipment tests,
and commissioning of HVDC converter equipment and system
tests to a large number of HVDC transmission projects in many
countries including the USA, Canada, New Zealand, Malaysia,
Thailand, and China.
Narinder Dhaliwal received the B.Sc. degree in electrical engi-
neering from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, in 1968 and
M.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from the University of
Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada, in 1974. He joined Manitoba
Hydro, Winnipeg, MB, Canada, in 1974 and worked as a system
study engineer for about 5 years.
He was Senior Plant Engineer for Nelson River HVDC system
from 1979 to 2015. During this time he was responsible for
maintenance and operation of Nelson River BP1 and BP2
HVDC systems. He commissioned all components of the HVDC
system (i.e., controls, valves, valve base electronics, DC controls,
valve cooling, etc.).
He is currently Chief Engineer with TransGrid Solutions. His
areas of expertise are specification preparation, design review,
participation in factory testing, and commissioning.
Mr. Dhaliwal is a member of CIGRE and convener of Advisory

Group AG B4-04 responsible for monitoring the performance of
HVDC systems around the world.
Mr. Dhaliwal is a Registered Professional Engineer in the Prov-
ince of Manitoba, Canada.
Mr. Mark Reynolds is a Senior Electrical Engineer for POWER
ENGINEERs, Inc., and has the experience in the development,
design, implementation, and marketing of AC and DC power
systems. He has specialized expertise in reactive compensation,
FACTS and HVDC systems, and their application to improve the
performance of systems through 500 kV. In 25 years with the
Bonneville Power Administration, Mr. Reynolds was instrumental
in the development and installation of innovative compensation
systems, including FSC, TCSC, and other shunt SVC compensa-
tion systems, as well as the upgrading of the agency’s telecom-
munications and information technology systems.
More recently, served as a consultant with Siemens to develop and
market state-of-the-art AC compensation and HVDC systems,
Mr. Reynolds was one of the principle Working Group members
that drafted and published significant documents covering the
specification development for SVC systems and the field testing
of SVC systems. These recognized industry-wide guidelines
respectively are IEEE 1303 and IEEE 1031.
Mr. Reynolds is active in both IEEE and CIGRE Working Group
activities and has been involved in field commissioning of SVC,
FSC, and STATCOM Systems in the USA.
Procurement and Functional Specifications
for FACTS Controllers 19
Ben Mehraban, Hubert Bilodeau, Bruno Bisewski, and
Thomas Magg
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
2 Selection of Bidding and Contracting Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
2.1 Form of Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
2.2 Bidding Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
2.3 Contracting Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
3 Bidding Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
3.1 Invitation to Tender: Cover Letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
3.2 Instructions to Tenderers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
3.3 Information to Be Submitted by the Tenderers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
3.4 Commercial Conditions and Payment Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853
4 Bid Evaluation and Comparison of Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854
4.1 Evaluation of Proposals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855
4.2 Technical Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855
4.3 Non-technical and Commercial Evaluation: Life Cycle Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 856
4.4 Evaluation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
B. Mehraban (*)
American Electric Power, Columbus, OH, USA
e-mail: bmehraban@aep.com
H. Bilodeau
Retired from Hydro-Québec, Montreal, QC, Canada
e-mail: hbilo@ieee.org
B. Bisewski
e-mail: bisewski@rbjengineering.com
T. Magg
Serala Power Consulting, Johannesburg, South Africa
e-mail: thomas.magg@seralapower.com

848 B. Mehraban et al.
5 Preparation of a Functional Technical Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857

5.1 Objective of Functional Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
5.2 Project Background and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858
5.3 Standards and References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858
5.4 Definitions/Acronyms/Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858
5.5 Scope of Project and Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
5.6 Site, Environmental, and Network Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860
5.7 Performance Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862
5.8 Equipment Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867
5.9 Civil and Building Works Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869
5.10 System Studies and Design to Be Performed by the Contractor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
5.11 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
5.12 Maintenance Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872
5.13 Spare Parts and Special Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872
5.14 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873
5.15 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876
Abstract
This chapter describes the procurement and technical specifications for FACTS
controllers. It includes discussion of types of contracts/commercial conditions,
functional specifications specifying environmental data, AC network data, func-
tional performance requirements, specific equipment requirements, studies to be
performed during contract, and the evaluation of offers.
1 Introduction
This chapter is intended to provide information to utility planners, engineers, and

others, who specify and intend to procure FACTS controllers. The chapter includes a
discussion of the form of specification, bidding strategy and contracting strategy, and
methods of performing the bid evaluation.
Finally the preparation of functional technical specifications for a FACTS con-
troller is described. The objective is to highlight the minimum information to be
specified to ensure safe, efficient, and reliable operation of the FACTS controller
while maintaining the capability to procure future upgrades.
2 Selection of Bidding and Contracting Strategies
2.1 Form of Specification
Procurement of FACTS controller facilities can be accomplished using either a

relatively detailed design specification or a performance-based functional specifica-
tion. These variants are described in (Cigré TB 663 2016) and (Cigré TB 252 2004).
19 Procurement and Functional Specifications for FACTS Controllers 849
As many Owners do not have the expertise to prepare a detailed design specifi-
cation for a FACTS controller, functional specifications have become more common
for FACTS projects procured on a turnkey basis.
The Owner needs to define the substation connectivity, the functional character-
istics, and the required availability. Applicable grid codes and reliability require-
ments imposed by regulators will also need to be listed.
A functional specification would be based on technical studies performed in the
planning phase; see ▶ Chap. 17, “FACTS Planning Studies” in this book. These
studies will define the rating and characteristics of the required FACTS controller.
Other studies will also be performed prior to the completion of the specification to
determine data that is required for the design of the FACTS controller, e.g., short
circuit levels, overvoltage withstand, ride through requirements, overload require-
ments, harmonic impedance, background harmonic distortion, response and settling
time requirements, overshoot, environmental requirements, control requirements, etc.
The bidders can then offer an optimized techno-economic solution in response to
the specification.
However, often the form of the specification is a combination of functional
requirements together with some design requirements. This type of specification
can be expected in FACTS controller projects of some electric utilities or transmis-
sion system owners/operators, because these entities already have established design
practices and standard equipment and would therefore prefer to have components
used in the system with which the Owner (purchaser) and its operating and mainte-
nance staff are familiar. This approach might save on training costs and might also
reduce the need for conventional spare parts.
Some functional specifications may include detailed design requirements for
some “conventional” components, e.g., circuit breakers and other switchgear, but
not for the FACTS controller itself.
When using “functional specifications,” the Owner will rely more heavily on the
bidders for the specific technical solutions. This requires that the Owner is suffi-
ciently knowledgeable to evaluate the viability and risks associated with the pro-
posed design solutions, which may be beyond his experience base. Often, the design
that most economically fits the needs is a unique/custom design, and the Owner may
need to engage specialists to fully evaluate the proposed solutions.
2.2 Bidding Strategy
The bidding strategy will depend on the Owner’s procurement procedures and
regulations and can vary significantly between utilities.
In general, the different approaches used may be one of the following:
(a) One-stage bidding – technical and commercial bid is submitted at the same time.
This approach allows commercial and economic evaluations to take place in
conjunction with the technical evaluation.
(b) Two-stage bidding – technical bid is submitted and evaluated first, and the
commercial bids are requested some time later. A major disadvantage with this
approach is that there is no indication of the cost of the project until after the
commercial bids have been received.
(c) Other approaches based on the Owner’s established procurement procedures.
Regardless of the bidding approach, competitive bidding for a complete turnkey

project can result in lower investment costs and shorter implementation time. The
turnkey procurement approach can also lead to reduced contract administration
effort due to the engagement of a single contractor rather than having to manage
several individual contracts for procurement of discrete components and other
services.
If the Owner is a utility, it might decide to constrain orders to one vendor over a
period to achieve standardization within the network as a fleet management strategy.
This allows a common approach to spare parts, training, operation, and maintenance
practices. This approach would, however, limit the benefits available from compet-
itive procurement.
2.3 Contracting Strategy
When procuring a FACTS device, the Owner has two practical contracting options.
The first and most used is a turnkey “Engineering, Procurement, Construction, and
Performance” (EPC) contract. The second is just to contract for “Engineering and
Procurement” (EP). While theoretically other options such as contracting for
design or manufacture only are possible, these are not often used for FACTS
installations.
The EPC option requires that, in addition to designing and manufacturing
the FACTS controller and shipping the required components from the factory,
the vendor takes responsibility for providing the buildings and civil infra-
structure at site as well as installing the electrical equipment and commis-
sioning it.
The EP option is more commonly used for conventional AC equipment for
substations such as air-insulated circuit breakers and auxiliary power transformers
because this equipment is typically standardized by the owners/operators of trans-
mission and distribution systems.
When considering the procurement of a FACTS controller, the Owner needs to
consider which approach is best suited to its specific circumstances and develop the
bidding documents and specification accordingly.
Table 1 provides a comparison (advantages and disadvantages) of the EPC and
the EP approaches.
The procurement strategy may also include a maintenance contract agreed upon
with the contractor at the time of purchase to cover a defined period.
Table 1 Comparison of EPC and EP contract strategies

EPC EP
Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
Engineer Specification can Vendor has to Design details are Design may not
focus on performance coordinate design made explicit by provide adequate
requirements. Also interfaces and owner detail in time for
requires a smaller activities with Owner’s site
technical support diverse work
staff to support the sub-vendors
procurement
Procurement EPC ensures that the Vendor has to EP also ensures Manufactured
design is provide adequate that the design is
equipment
constructible and internal project constructible andrequirements not
able to be factory management able to be factory
easily
tested as well as tested coordinated with
commissioned at site owner work
Construction All interfaces and Owner may have EP enables owner Project timeline
timing are better capability to have full may be extended
coordinated by the at site for erection control of site
vendor, leading to a and works according
potentially faster commissioning to existing
project practices
3 Bidding Documents
The documents forming part of the bidding package will typically include the
following:
(a) Invitation to tender

(b) Instructions to tenderers
(c) Proposed contractual conditions
(d) Special conditions of contract
(e) Functional technical specification
(f) Technical bid data request and tables
(g) Contractual and commercial data request
As noted above, the bidding documents are typically divided into a number of
sections logically arranged to provide the tenderers sufficient information to provide
a complete and accurately priced bid and to ensure that the responses to the bidding
documents are consistently arranged and contain sufficient detail to fairly evaluate
the bids. The instructions to tenderers typically also include the evaluation criteria.
The special conditions may include penalty/bonus provisions for contractor’s per-
formance and for the performance of the FACTS controllers against guaranteed
reliability and availability measures.
The invitation to tender, instructions to tenderers, and commercial conditions are

briefly described in this section, and the functional technical specification is
described in more detail in Sect. 5.
3.1 Invitation to Tender: Cover Letter
In this document, the Owner states the most important information concerning the
tender and contract, such as a brief description of the scope of the project, project
time schedule, pricing, evaluation criteria, and deadline for the submission and the
duration for validity of the tender as well as contact information.
3.2 Instructions to Tenderers
In this section the Owner would state all the requirements for tender preparation and
tenderer’s responsibilities and obligations. The document would also describe han-
dling of clarifications during the tender period, the interpretations and deviations
from requirements, and the guarantee requirements. The instructions to tenderers
may also include information on the handling of alternative offers or optional items.
The tenderer’s responsibilities in the tender stage would be stated. The tenderer
should make a careful examination of the tender documents and a thorough site
inspection in order to ensure that all boundaries and interfaces to existing network or
substation are known and taken into consideration.
3.3 Information to Be Submitted by the Tenderers
3.3.1 Technical Data Request

Clear guidance should be provided on what should be included in the tender submission.
The information to be provided in the tender submission should be sufficiently detailed
to allow for a proper evaluation to be undertaken and also to provide confidence to the
Owner that the proposed solution would meet the specified performance requirements.
Tenders submitted by tenderers for FACTS projects should include:
(a) Tenders’ understanding of the project and project objectives

(b) Technical description of the proposed solution and the reasons for choosing the
proposed technical solution
(c) List of deviations from the specified requirements including reasons for such
deviations
(d) Single-line diagram of the proposed solution
(e) Layout/general arrangement
(f) Basic design with ratings of main components
(g) Preliminary studies demonstrating that the proposed solution meets the specified
requirements:
• Dynamic performance study

• Harmonic performance study
• Audible noise study
• Radio interference study
• Reliability, availability, and maintainability study
• Losses study
(h) Details of equipment to be supplied
(i) Description of controls and protections
(j) Civil work and building designs
(k) Procedures for factory tests and commissioning
(l) Previous type test certificates
(m) Outline of training to be provided
(n) Outline of documentation to be provided
(o) Spare parts, list, and unit prices
(p) Guarantees for reliability, availability, and maintainability performance
(q) Guaranteed power losses
(r) Provisions for and ease of future upgrade (if applicable)
3.3.2 Non-technical Data Request

The following information is generally included in the non-technical data request:
(a) Tenderer’s reference list

(b) Proposed project schedule
(c) Tenderer’s QA plan
(d) Tenderer’s approach to health and safety
(e) Tenderer’s proposed milestone payment list or comments to the Owner’s pro-
posed payment milestones
(f) Tenderer’s proposed organizational structure
(g) CV’s of key personnel
(h) List of subcontractors and their qualifications
(i) List of deviations to the contractual and commercial conditions
(j) Unit rates for additional study, engineering, and construction
3.4 Commercial Conditions and Payment Terms
Specific discussion of contractual and commercial conditions is not covered in this

chapter as contractual conditions tend to vary widely and many Owners have
established their own conditions of contract and procurement procedures.
The commercial and contractual terms cover financing, payment schedules, and
contract performance issues including resolution of nonperformance issues by the
contractor. A contract based on a functional specification is usually based on a fixed
price for a turnkey delivery.
The Owner should include the proposed payment schedule showing key mile-
stones and percentage of the contract amount that will be paid when the milestones
are achieved. Key milestones typically include down payment, design review stage,
manufacturing and delivery of equipment to the site, start of construction, commis-
sioning, and completion of the project.
The commercial contract also addresses contractor obligations, such as safety and
security, inspection and acceptance of the FACTS controller, project schedule,
change orders, risk of loss, insurance, indemnification, limit of liability, intellectual
property, damages for delay, suspension and termination of contract, materials and
workmanship warranty, compliance with laws, permits and licenses, nondisclosure
agreement, dispute resolution, affidavit of completion, etc.
The Owner should include the standard commercial conditions and any special
conditions that will apply to the contract.
If the Owner does not already have an established set of contract conditions and
procedures for procurement of the FACTS controller, he may choose to adopt or
adapt a set of commercially available contract conditions such as those published by
International Federation of Consulting Engineers (FIDIC).
A number of different FIDIC contract forms are available such as the Silver Book
or the Yellow Book. The Silver Book is focused on turnkey contracts with little
Owner involvement. The Yellow Book “Electrical & Mech. Plant & For Building &
Engineering Works Designed by the Contractor” may also be applicable depending
on the needs of the Owner. Even when using a set of FIDIC conditions as a base, it is
normally necessary to supplement these with particular or special conditions of
contract for the purpose of including guarantee values in the contract.
4 Bid Evaluation and Comparison of Options
After receipt of the tenders, the evaluation team should review the information, the
answers to questions, tables, and related documents provided with each Tender. In
order to ensure that the bid evaluation process will be transparent, fair, and
defendable, an evaluation process and a clear set of evaluation criteria should be
defined.
The evaluation criteria and weighting factors should take into account the capital
cost, power losses, reliability, maintenance, as well as consideration of life extension
costs, e.g., control and protection replacement costs.
In addition to consideration of capital cost, the evaluation team may consider life
cycle cost (LCC). The factors to be used in the LCC for evaluating the bids should be
defined by the Owner and reflect the importance that the Owner attaches to each
aspect. An evaluation formula should be defined which enables both the tenderer and
the Owner to calculate the evaluated cost of the substation.
For example, the load loss evaluation may include a number of different points of
operation, weighted to reflect the duration of time that the FACTS controller is
expected to operate at each point, during normal operation over the life of the plant.
This information is important for the tenderer to compare different solutions which
he may be considering and then choose the one which gives the lowest evaluated cost
for this particular Owner, thus making his offer attractive.
4.1 Evaluation of Proposals
The evaluation of proposals normally consists of a technical evaluation as well as an

evaluation of non-technical contractual and commercial proposals. Sometimes the
commercial evaluation is considered as a separate exercise.
Considerations for the technical and non-technical and commercial evaluations
are described below.
4.2 Technical Evaluation
The goal of the technical evaluation is to compare how well the proposals meet the
requirements of the technical specification and to provide a comparative ranking of
each proposal. This section describes in general terms a process that could be
followed in the technical evaluation of bids received for a FACTS controller.
Having an organized bid evaluation process allows the Owner to efficiently carry
out a comprehensive evaluation within the time available. To this end the following
should be prepared prior to opening tenders:
(a) Evaluation criteria

(b) A scoring system
(c) Checklists and check tables
It is important that the evaluation team is knowledgeable in the various areas of

the specification. Different team members may be assigned to cover selected areas of
the Tender. Each member of the team should know his responsibilities and know the
scoring criteria. Prior to the proposal opening, team members should read the
portions of the technical specification relevant to their assigned responsibilities to
re-familiarize themselves with the technical requirements for the project.
The bidders are required to provide preliminary designs and the results of
preliminary studies to demonstrate that the proposed FACTS controller meets the
specified requirements. These designs and studies are provided for evaluation
purposes only, and the successful bidder should undertake more detailed designs
and studies during the contract implementation stage.
The basic data for the tender evaluation comes from the bidder’s responses to the
questions and requests for information and data in the technical form of the tender.
Additional information may be obtained during the proposal evaluation by requesting
specific clarifications where the information provided by a bidder is insufficient to verify
compliance. Clarification questions by the evaluation team should be kept to a mini-
mum. If the data supplied is sufficiently complete, then further clarification may not be
required at this stage of the evaluation.
During the technical evaluation, each proposal should be evaluated against the
requirements of the technical specification to a level sufficient to verify compliance
by comparing the information submitted with the proposal along with any subse-
quent proposal clarification. Each bid should be scored based on an established
scoring system. In general, no additional credit is given for equipment or perfor-

mance that exceeds the minimum requirements of the specification, unless explicitly
provided for in the specification; otherwise, equipment or performance that exceeds
the requirements should be noted in the evaluation report.
To help in the evaluation, a series of checklists should be created to summarize
the tenderer’s responses to the questions and tables in the form of tender. The
technical proposal evaluation checklists should be based on information requested
in the form of tender and may, at the Owner’s discretion, consider all or only a
selected subset of the requested information. One column should list the minimum
specified requirement for each line item in the table, and one column should be
assigned to each proposal and alternative. Checklists prepared in this manner permit
an easy comparison of each proposal to the specified requirements as well as
highlighting differences between proposals. Comments on specific items for future
discussion during negotiations or areas that require further clarification should be
included within the checklists.
Alternatives to the main technical offer would also be analyzed against the
specified requirements, in the same way as the main offer to establish if they offer
added technical benefits to the Owner.
4.3 Non-technical and Commercial Evaluation: Life Cycle Cost
4.3.1 Non-technical Evaluation

All of the data requested in the non-technical bid data sheets should be evaluated and
ranked. The resultant evaluation would be combined with the technical evaluation
and with commercial considerations as discussed below to arrive at a final evaluated
score and recommended Bidder.
The non-technical evaluation includes assessment of the tenderer’s capability,
experience, project references, and technology as well as project and engineering
organization. The recent financial performance of the tenderer’s company and
project performance may also be considered. This may also be accomplished during
the pre-qualification process, to ensure that only qualified bidders will receive the
invitation to tender.
The capital cost and payment schedule of each bidder should be analyzed and
compared to ensure that the cost to the Owner, including cost of interest during
construction, is accurately determined.
The tenderer’s compliance to the Owners’ contractual terms and conditions is
evaluated, and any deviations are noted for discussions with the selected tenderer.
4.3.2 Life Cycle Cost Considerations

During the evaluation, it may be desirable to calculate and compare the predicted life
cycle costs for the proposed system. Since the statutes covering depreciation, taxation,
and cost recovery allowed by the regulators etc. vary from country to country, and
even locally within a country, it is difficult to provide a uniform method for
determining life cycle costs. However, it is always possible to perform a present value
calculation in which the following costs and perhaps other costs could be included:
(a) Initial cost of the equipment

(b) Future expected costs of:
• Operating and maintenance staff
• Cost of losses
• Cost to replace failed components based on guaranteed failure rates
• Any expected equipment refurbishment (control system upgrades, replace-
ments, etc.)
• Expected disposal costs at end of life
A difficulty in assessing life cycle costs is that future costs are difficult to predict. In
particular, the present value interest factor and inflation adder are guesses at best.
However, if a consistent method is used for comparison of different proposed alter-
natives, the estimate could be useful when weighing the merits of differing proposals.
Due to the uncertainties of future costs related to operating and maintenance, cost
of replacing failed components, refurbishment and end-of-life disposal, usually only
the initial cost of the equipment and the capitalized costs of losses are evaluated.
4.4 Evaluation Report
The results of the technical and nontechnical evaluations should be documented in

an evaluation report or reports, which documents the evaluation considerations and
provides a list of items that should be discussed in more depth during negotiations
with the recommended tenderer.
The main part of the document should provide an overall description of the
technical proposal evaluation. Appendices may be used to describe more detailed
considerations and comparisons between the proposals.
This evaluation report is a valuable resource during the subsequent negotiations with
the recommended tenderer and in discussions with management concerning the selection.
5 Preparation of a Functional Technical Specification
5.1 Objective of Functional Specifications
The objective of a functional specification is to record and communicate to the

stakeholders the performance requirements and high-level equipment requirements
for the desired FACTS controller. The specification states the required reactive power
output ratings, voltage, and/or current ratings and the performance requirements of the
FACTS controller so that these requirements can be addressed by the Bidders.
The characteristics of the AC network in which the FACTS controller will be
connected should be clearly stated. This should include among other things, the
minimum and maximum available short circuit capacity at the connection point. The
normal, contingency, and emergency conditions under which the FACTS controller
is required to operate should be described. It should also identify how the FACTS
controller should perform during and post AC system fault conditions.
The specification should also include information about changes or additions that
are planned near to the point in the system where the controller will be connected.
That is, it needs to include all of the information needed by the suppliers to be able to
design a controller that will work as intended at the connection point taking into
account these potential changes, as far as is reasonably possible.
5.2 Project Background and Objectives
This section gives a brief overview of the background of the project and the project
objectives. This typically includes the reasons why the FACTS controller is required
and its main functional requirements.
5.3 Standards and References
All materials, devices, and equipment provided should generally conform to the
latest applicable standards, codes, or guidelines effective at the date of the specifi-
cation for the FACTS controller. A list of all applicable standards and guidelines
including NESC (IEEE National Electrical Safety Code), ANSI (American National
Standards Institute), IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission), IEEE Stan-
dards (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Standards), local legal
requirements, ordinances, regulations, etc. is typically included in the specification.
5.4 Definitions/Acronyms/Abbreviations
This section of the specification should define all terms that are used in the specifi-
cation. Its purpose is to promote a common understanding to the user of the
specification, particularly in cases where the usage may not quite conform to the
more usual definition in common usage in the industry. The following terms may be
included but the list can be expanded at the discretion of the Owner:
Annual Availability: The annual equivalent availability for forced outages, both total
and partial, in percent is defined with duration in hours ((1-duration of equivalent
outages/8760) x 100%); see ▶ Chap. 24, “Lifetime Management of FACTS
Controllers,” for definitions and calculation methodology.
Bidder or Tenderer: A vendor that is in the business of designing and supplying
FACTS controllers in response to bidding documents prepared by the Owner.
Contract: The contract letter signed by the parties and all documents referenced in
the contract letter.
Contractor/Vendor: The entity contracting with the Owner for the performance of
work. In performing this contract, contractor/vendor should be an independent
body.
Subcontractor: An entity contracting with the contractor for the performance of any
parts of the work.
Deferred Outage: Any unplanned outage that can be deferred for at least 7 days.
Equivalent Outage: Prorated value of a partial outage which is equal to reactive
power limitation divided by the total output capability.
Equipment: All goods, materials, and accessories to be provided under the contract,
including all documentation required by the contract.
Forced var Unavailability (%): The sum of the durations of all unplanned/forced
outages x 100 divided by the duration of the monitoring period.
Forced Outage: Outage of the FACTS equipment, caused by malfunction or
failure of the constituent equipment such as protection and control, etc. that
results in loss of part or all of the essential functions of the FACTS
controller.
Long-Term Planned Outage (Less Than 5 Days): A planned outage that requires
advance notice as defined by the system operator typically 1 month.
Owner: “Owner” means the procurement entity.
Site: “Site” means the Owner’s property, including adjacent bodies of water, upon
which work is to be performed.
Scheduled Outage: A planned outage necessary for preventive maintenance to assure
continued and reliable operation of the system which may result in the planned
temporary loss of part or all of the system.
Scheduled Energy Unavailability (%): The sum of the durations of all scheduled
outages x100 divided by the duration of the monitoring period.
Work: “Work” means all of the contractor’s obligations.
Further definitions and abbreviations may be included, as required.
5.5 Scope of Project and Interfaces
5.5.1 Scope of Project

The scope of the project includes the provision of all studies, design, design review,
manufacture, testing, supply, delivery to site, installation, warranty, provision of
insurance from manufacturers’ works to completion of installation, provision of
necessary permits for, warranty of workmanship and materials, commissioning of
the FACTS controller, provision of drawings, and operation and maintenance man-
uals and training and all associated components for a FACTS controller as required
to provide a fully operational and compliant FACTS controller, as specified. The site,
network, environmental conditions and constraints, performance requirements, spe-
cific equipment, and other requirements are described in further detail in the remain-
der of this section.
5.5.2 Interfaces and Limits of Supply

The interfaces between the equipment to be supplied by the contractor and the
existing infrastructure at the site need to be defined. The interfaces normally define
the limits of supply of the different parties involved in the construction of the FACTS
controller. The interfaces normally include:
(a) Connection point for FACTS controller in the Owner’s network

(b) Preparation of yard area
(c) Power cables, if applicable (repeat data for each power cable circuit)
(d) Auxiliary supplies (AC and DC)
(e) Earthing system, including connections to any existing earth system
(f) Overhead lightning protection
(g) Existing protection systems
(h) Control/SCADA/communications systems
(i) Telephone/Internet
(j) Civil/building interfaces: roads, drainage of sanitary water and surface water,
cable trenches, etc.
(k) Water supply
(l) Connections to Owner’s remote operations center
5.6 Site, Environmental, and Network Data
In most jurisdictions, planning permission will be required for new infrastructure

projects, and the permission may stipulate conditions and constraints for the project.
The specific requirements related to the planning permissions and relevant to the
project should be included in the site data. An environmental impact assessment may
also be required, and any specific environmental requirements should also be
included.
5.6.1 Site Data

Depending on what is required, the Owner should provide a minimum area of land.
The contractor may be responsible for fully developing the site including supplying
its own power to be used during construction. Typically though, a rough graded site
is provided with very clear interfaces defined.
Information on the FACTS site location should include the following
information:
(a) The location of the site, including GPS coordinate data

(b) The maximum available site area
(c) Drawing showing the substation or line, to which the FACTS controller will be
connected
(d) Single-line diagram of the substation where the FACTS controller will be
installed
(e) Geotechnical data for the site
(f) Availability and quality of cooling makeup water or lack thereof

(g) Availability of power during the construction process
(h) Environmental compliance requirements
(i) Constraints on buildings
(j) Access roads
5.6.2 Environmental Data

The specification should include the following environmental data, as applicable:
(a) Site elevation above sea level (m)

(b) Minimum ambient temperature ( C)
(c) Maximum ambient temperature ( C)
(d) Ambient temperature to be used for output rating guarantee ( C)
(e) Maximum snow depth (m)
(f) Maximum frost depth (m)
(g) Maximum humidity (%)
(h) Minimum humidity (%)
(i) Rainfall (yearly average) (mm)
(j) Rainfall (maximum 1 h)
(k) Rainfall (maximum 24 h)
(l) Solar radiation (kW/m)2
(m)Maximum wind speed (m/s)
(n) Keraunic level (maximum strokes per/km2/year)
(o) Seismic requirements
(a) Seismic level: Maximum considered earthquake horizontal acceleration (g)
(b) Seismic level: Maximum considered earthquake vertical acceleration (g)
(p) Air pollution, equivalent salt deposit density (ESDD) (mg/cm2)
(q) Any other specific environmental requirements (e.g., heavy rainfalls, flood level,
sandstorms, etc.)
The limitations on the permissible impact of the FACTS controller on the

environment should also be specified (see also ▶ Chap. 18, “Environmental Con-
siderations for FACTS Projects”):
(a) Audible noise level to be considered at sensitive locations (in terms of dBA and
should clearly identify sound pressure level or sound power level and measure-
ment location)
(b) Maximum allowable electric field (at ground level)
(c) Maximum allowable; magnetic field (in micro Tesla at specified boundary)
(d) Corona and RFI levels
(e) Aesthetic restrictions (e.g., height, color of porcelain, etc.)
(f) Style of building architectural constraints
(g) Archaeological restraints (information and procedures for handling of any pos-
sible archaeological artifacts)
(h) Oil and/or cooling fluid damage prevention (specific drainage and cleanup
requirements)
(i) Laws (national and local)
(j) Regulations (other than laws which the client wishes to be applied on the specific
site)
5.6.3 AC Network Data

The specification should include the AC network data as listed below:
• Nominal AC system voltage, phase-to-phase (kV)

• Maximum continuous AC system voltage, phase-to-phase (kV)
• Minimum continuous AC system voltage, phase-to-phase (kV)
• Continuous negative phase sequence voltage (for performance calculation) %
• Continuous negative phase sequence voltage (for rating calculation) %
• Short time-limited voltage range, with durations (kV, s)
• Nominal AC system frequency (Hz)
• Maximum continuous AC system frequency (Hz)
• Minimum continuous AC system frequency (Hz)
• Short time-limited AC system frequency, with durations (Hz, s)
• Maximum rate of change of frequency (df/dt) (Hz/s)
• Maximum and minimum short circuit level (three phases) for performance
(MVA)
• Maximum and minimum short circuit level (three phases) for design (MVA)
• Maximum and minimum short circuit level (one phase) with durations (kA – max
and min, s)
• Equipment design fault current level (kA, s)
• System neutral grounding (solid/resistance/reactance/ungrounded)
• Basic lightning impulse withstand level (LIWL) (kVp)
• Switching impulse withstand level (SIWL) (kVp)
• Geomagnetically induced current (GIC) (background level) A DC/phase
• Geomagnetically induced current (GIC) (major event level) A DC/phase
• Harmonic impedance data (can be included in an appendix)
• Measured background harmonic voltage data (can be included in an appendix)
• Harmonic performance distortion limits – see Sect. 5.7.3
Further information on the network may be included such as a description of the

network and network equivalent model files that are included with the bid documents
for bid studies or post contract studies and information on protection schemes and
protection settings.
5.7 Performance Requirements
5.7.1 FACTS Controller Output Ratings

The main ratings of the FACTS controller need to be specified including reactive
power output, voltage, and current ratings. The ratings would also include short-time
overload ratings with durations, if required. Continuous and short-time ratings with
and without considering cooling redundancy may be specified.
5.7.2 Step Response and Settling Time

The step response, settling time, and overshoot due to a change in control signal need
to be specified. The minimum and maximum system three-phase short circuit fault
levels for which these responses need to be achieved should be specified.
5.7.3 Harmonic Performance

FACTS controllers utilize switching converter technologies that generate harmonics.
The level and the order of harmonics generated by such systems are dependent upon
the design and the configuration of the FACTS controller.
Maximum allowable limits of harmonics at the busbar where the FACTS con-
troller is to be connected are usually specified by national or regional legislation or
grid code administered by the transmission system operator (TSO). The Owner or
transmission system operator will need to determine and specify specific limits for
the harmonic contribution by the FACTS controller.
Prior to the installation of the FACTS controller, background harmonics should
be measured. These levels will need to be compared with the harmonics measured
with the FACTS controller operating at various levels of output, once the FACTS
controller has been installed and commissioned. The harmonic measurements need
to be taken over specific periods, to account for varying system conditions, seasons,
and shorter-term system variations to yield meaningful results.
Design measures need to be taken to limit the amount of harmonics generated by
the FACTS equipment. Harmonic studies need to be performed by the contractor to:
(a) Ensure acceptable levels of system voltage and current distortions and telephone
interference factors, taking into account existing harmonic levels at the point of
connection. The telephone interference factor may not be applicable in all
jurisdictions.
(b) Ensure acceptable voltage and current harmonic emissions from the device and
immunity to system-generated harmonics by the FACTS controller.
(c) Evaluate the harmonic interactions of the FACTS controller with the power
system under balanced and unbalanced operating conditions.
(d) Determine an adequate filter design, if required.
In order to define performance and rating requirements, refer to:
(a) IEC 61000-3-6 “Part 3: Limits – Section 6: Assessment of emission limits for
distorting loads in MV and HV power systems – Basic EMC publication”
(IEC61000-3-6 2008)
(b) IEEE 519 “IEEE Recommended Practice and Requirements for Harmonic
Control in Electric Power Systems” (IEEE 519 2014)
(c) Cigré Technical Brochure 139, Guide to the Specification and Design of AC
Filters for HVDC Systems (Cigré TB 139 1999)
(d) Cigré Technical Brochure 553, Special Aspects of AC Filter Design for HVDC
Systems (Cigré TB 553 2013)
5.7.4 Radio Interference

FACTS controllers may generate radio-frequency interference. The allowable limits
for radio-frequency interference are usually specified at a certain distance from the
FACTS controller.
See also ▶ Chap. 18, “Environmental Considerations for FACTS Projects” in
this book.
5.7.5 Audible Noise

Audible noise limits need to be specified for the interior and exterior FACTS
controller facilities. Audible noise limits (sound power levels) for individual equip-
ment of the FACTS controller usually apply at a specified distance from the emitting
sources. However, the emission limits are normally verified as a weighted sound
pressure level which may be measured at the boundary fence of the FACTS
controller. Audible noise limits may also be specified at audible noise-sensitive
locations, such as at a residential property. The allowable noise levels will depend
on the local environmental and health and safety regulations. Many local jurisdic-
tions follow the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines in formulating their
requirements.
Usually the contractor will be required to submit an audible noise level study with
the tender documents to demonstrate compliance with the specification. The con-
tractor is normally also required to undertake noise level measurements before and
after installation of the FACTS controller. If the specified noise limits are exceeded,
the contractor may be required to install mitigation measures.
Noise level limits may also be specified for work locations within the FACTS area
for the following:
(a) Indoor control and protection equipment rooms

(b) Accessible areas close to transformers, reactors, filters, capacitor banks, and
cooling systems
Generally the audible sound levels in these areas need to comply with local
occupational health and safety requirements.
See also ▶ Chap. 18, “Environmental Considerations for FACTS Projects” in
this book.
5.7.6 Losses
It is important that the losses of FACTS controllers be evaluated as these can have a
significant impact on the total lifetime cost of the FACTS controller. Typically, to
achieve low conduction losses, it requires more conductor area, and hence more
materials have to be used, which increases cost. Losses are usually monetized by
converting the losses to a capitalized cost of losses value. The capitalized cost of
losses is typically added to the tendered price for the FACTS controller to determine
the overall evaluated price.
Figures for the capitalized cost of losses are usually specified for:
• Capitalized cost of no-load losses unit of money/kW

• Capitalized cost of load losses unit of money /kW
The operating points/ranges at which the losses are to be evaluated need to be

defined and are usually the total loss over the lifetime of the plant and are determined
by considering the percentage of time the FACTS controller is expected to operate at
that level/range of output.
The tenderer should be requested to provide the fixed and variable losses for the
FACTS controller when operating at a number of selected operating points, e.g.,
0, 10, 25, 50, 75, and 100%, of rated output for the following types of equipment, if
used in the FACTS controller:
• FACTS controller system components

• Valves
• Transformers
• Transformer auxiliaries
• Filters
• Cooling system
• Other auxiliaries
The tenderer should also provide a curve showing total loss versus output
reactive/real power for the full operating range of the FACTS controller.
Guaranteed Losses
The tenderer should state values for the no-load losses and for the load losses at the
specified operating points/ranges and ambient conditions. The contractor should
guarantee the equivalent total losses (PE), which shall be calculated as follows:
PE = P0 + PL
where:
P0 is the no-load losses

PL is the load losses
The no-load losses, P0, are the losses in standby operation at 0% loading with the
converters energized and the valves blocked. The load losses, PL, are the total losses at
nominal voltage, frequency, and ambient temperature of 20 C at the respective
transfer level minus the no-load losses, P0. The transformer losses (if transformers
are included in the system) should include losses caused by harmonics, where relevant.
For calculation of harmonic losses, the AC system is typically assumed to be an
open circuit to all but the fundamental frequency component of the current, thus
confining the harmonic losses to the equipment within the FACTS controller
installation.
Verification of Losses
For main circuit equipment, for which the losses are established through factory tests
and that can be considered equivalent to the losses in actual operation, the factory
test results should be used in the listing of station losses.
For equipment where the operational conditions differ from the factory test
conditions (which is the case where harmonics influence the losses), the losses
should be calculated. The guidelines given in IEEE Std. 1158 “IEEE Recommended
practice for determination of power losses in High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC)
converter stations” (IEEE 1158 1991) or the corresponding IEC standards IEC
61803 (1999) and IEC 62751–1 (2018) should be followed.
Loss Evaluation
There are no generally accepted international standards for the calculation and verifi-
cation of the power loss of FACTS controllers. One standard that might be used in
applicable portions is the IEEE guide for the Functional Specification of Static Var
Compensators (IEEE 1031 2000). There are also international standards for the
calculation of the power loss of HVDC systems, and these standards might be used
in applicable portions to calculate the power loss for FACTS controllers. ▶ “Technical
Description of FACTS Controllers” part of this book includes general information
concerning the calculation of the power loss of FACTS controllers. See ▶ Chaps. 6,
“Technical Description of Static Var Compensators (SVC),” ▶ 7, “Technical Descrip-
tion of Static Compensators (STATCOM),” ▶ 8, “Technical Description of Thyristor
Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC),” and ▶ 9, “Technical Description of the Unified
Power Flow Controller (UPFC) and Its Potential Variations.”
The capitalized cost of losses should be added to the capital cost of the FACTS
controller to determine the total evaluated cost.
5.7.7 Reliability, Availability, and Maintainability

The contractor should design and furnish plant and material, which will meet or
exceed the FACTS controller’s specified availability, forced outage rates, and main-
tainability performance based on the expected failure rates and repair time durations
of plant and material within his contract responsibility.
These requirements are typically specified for the following:
(a) Forced outage rate (FOR) – the number of forced outages in the monitoring
period
(b) Forced outage unavailability = XXX%
(c) Scheduled outage unavailability (SA) = XXX%
(d) Maintainability XXX man-hour/year off-line work
(e) Maintainability XXX man-hour/year online work
See Cigré TB 717, Protocol for reporting operational performance of FACTS

Controllers (Cigré TB 717 2018) and ▶ Chap. 24, “Lifetime Management of FACTS
Controllers” of this book for further details.
5.8 Equipment Requirements
5.8.1 General Design Requirements

General design requirements should include consideration of items such as:
(a) Use of equipment whose reliability has already been proven in other similar
projects, where possible
(b) Use of component and equipment redundancy
(c) Use of fail safe and self-checking design features
(d) Provision of adequate facilities for testing, alarms, fault indication, and
monitoring
(e) Use of equipment which does not require special operating and maintenance
environments
(f) Use of modular construction to permit rapid replacement of modules containing
failed components or subassemblies or a design that has a short mean time to
repair
(g) Standardization of components for different locations utilizing the same type of
FACTS controller where practical
The Owner should state all the safety aspects to be taken into account in the
design, during construction, installation, and testing at site as well as for use,
inspection, testing, and maintenance of the substation in use, and should include:
(a) Safety standards to be fulfilled referring to applicable safety codes

(b) Safety regulations of the Owner
(c) Step, touch, and ground potential rise
(d) Hazardous material
(e) Audible noise
(f) Radio interferences
(g) Magnetic fields
(h) Minimum clearances (the safety clearances should be the clearances required if
access is required for maintenance purposes. If the equipment can be maintained
by withdrawing it to another area, clearances can be reduced, provided they
comply with relevant IEC standards for phase to earth and phase to phase and are
proved by impulse testing)
(i) Restrictions on live working
(j) Any other specific safety requirements (substation security requirements, sub-
station lighting, etc.)
5.8.2 Primary Plant Equipment Requirements

The primary plant equipment requirements should specify the internal and national
standards to be applied and any other general high-level requirements for the
equipment that is included in the FACTS controller. These requirements will typi-
cally reflect the buyer’s preferences, if any, concerning the equipment, e.g., to enable
advantage to be taken of the possibility of using equipment similar to that already
used in the buyer’s substations, with which operators and maintenance personnel
may already be familiar (Cigré TB 252 2004).
The primary plant normally includes the following:
(a) AC circuit breakers

(b) AC disconnectors
(c) AC instrument transformers
(d) Surge arresters
(e) Power transformers
(f) Reactors
(g) Capacitors
(h) Semiconductor valves
(i) Valve cooling system
(j) Filters
(k) Bushings
(l) Power cables
(m) Insulators
(n) Steelwork, busbars, clamps, and connectors
(o) Station earthing and lightning protection
5.8.3 Control, Protection, and Monitoring System Requirements

The control, protection, and monitoring system requirements should outline the
high-level requirements for this equipment.
The following are normally specified for control, protection, and monitoring
systems:
Control systems:
(a) Redundancy
(b) Human-machine interface requirements
(c) I/O that may be required for external inputs
(d) Interfaces to remote control and SCADA systems
Protection systems:
(a) Types of protection functions required and adopted redundancy philosophy

(if applicable). It should be noted that the protection of the converter valves
and the converter equipment is typically covered by vendor-specific systems.
Monitoring system requirements:
(a) Sequence of events recorder

(b) Transient fault recorders
(c) Dynamic performance recorders
(d) Power quality recorder
(e) Remote access/control requirements
(f) Cybersecurity requirements
5.8.4 Auxiliary Systems Requirements

Define specific or functional requirements for the following systems:
(a) AC auxiliary supplies

(b) DC systems
(c) Heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems
(d) Site security system
(e) Fire protection
(f) Any special requirements (UMD/UPS)
5.8.5 Other Equipment Requirements

Miscellaneous items:
(a) Junction boxes, terminal boxes, and marshalling kiosks

(b) Nameplates and labels
(c) Outdoor lighting
5.9 Civil and Building Works Requirements
The following requirements are normally specified:
(a) Bulk earthworks

(b) Terracing, roads, and drainage
(c) Seismic requirements
(d) Any specific requirements in respect of offices and rooms for maintenance
activities and storage, etc.
(e) Transformer passive fire protection (transformer fire walls)
(f) Plinths and equipment support foundations
(g) Cable ducts, trenches, and trench covers
(h) Installation of earth mat
(i) Yard stone, kerbs, fencing, and gates
(j) Control and protection building requirements including heating, ventilation, and
air conditioning
(k) Fire protection and smoke detection systems
(l) Site security

(m) Landscaping
It is highly recommended that the Owner performs a geotechnical analysis prior

to releasing the specification. The results of the geotechnical investigation should be
included in the bidding documents to allow the tenderers to determine cost for the
civil works more accurately.
5.10 System Studies and Design to Be Performed by

the Contractor
The contractor should be required to perform all necessary studies to design

the FACTS controller and should submit reports, drawings, and other documentation
of such studies. All studies presented in the bid documents are considered prelim-
inary, and the studies specified in the specifications should be performed upon award
of the contract, and reports should be submitted for Owner’s review.
These studies and reports should include:
(a) FACTS controller steady-state rating design

(b) Transient rating, overvoltage, and insulation coordination studies and design
(c) Overload capability study (if required)
(d) Valve design
(e) Cooling system design
(f) Harmonic performance study
(g) Dynamic performance verification study including optimization of control
parameters
(h) Losses study
(i) Reliability, availability, and maintainability (RAM) study
(j) Control and protection system design
(k) Protection coordination and settings calculation report
(l) Earthing grid and lightning protection study and design
(m) AC and DC auxiliary systems design
(n) Equipment layout and mechanical design
(o) Civil work and building design
(p) Audible noise compliance study
(q) Radio-frequency interference study
(r) Real-time digital simulator control and protection verification studies
(s) Simulation models of the FACTS controller for single-phase and three-phase
system studies software
See also ▶ Chap. 20, “FACTS Controller Integration and Design Studies” of
this book.
5.11 Testing
5.11.1 Equipment Testing

Inspection and test requirements consist of testing at work (type and/or routine tests),
Factory Acceptance Tests (FAT) and Site Acceptance Tests (SAT) for main compo-
nents and sub-systems, commissioning tests, performance verification and accep-
tance tests, as well as extended performance acceptance tests. General procedures
consist of the development and submission of test plans to the Owner for review and
comments, successful completion of the tests by the contractor (witnessed by the
Owner), and the submission of test reports for each test, in accordance with the
requirements.
The requirements for the following are normally included:
(a) A master test plan

(b) Specific test plans for equipment (FAT, type, routine)
(c) Site acceptance test plan
(d) Commissioning test plan
(e) Trial operation
(f) Performance verification and acceptance test plan
(g) Extended verification and acceptance test plan
See also ▶ Chap. 21, “FACTS Equipment Design and Testing” of this book.
5.11.2 Factory Simulator Tests

Factory system tests should demonstrate the proper operation of the control and
protection system by connection of the actual control and protection plant and
material (software and hardware) to be supplied, to a real-time simulator. A subset
of the tests may be repeated as a Factory Acceptance which would be witnessed by
the Owner or his representative.
An adequate representation of the power system under static and dynamic
conditions to which the FACTS controller will be connected should be used for
the tests/studies.
All control, protection, and security monitoring functions should be tested. The
tests should include, but not be limited to:
(a) Verification of each control function

(b) Verification of control linearity
(c) Verification of control redundancy
(d) Verification of the protection system
(e) Verification of overall system performance for minor and major disturbances
(f) Verification of processor loading of all digital controllers
(g) Verification of control of external devices (if required)
(h) Verification of control plant and material performance for supply voltage
(AC and DC) and frequency variations (AC)
(i) Verification of the dynamic performance of the FACTS controller
See also ▶ Chap. 21, “FACTS Equipment Design and Testing” of this book.
5.12 Maintenance Requirements
Two main maintenance strategies that may be considered by the Owner: internal
maintenance and maintenance service contract.
Internal maintenance does not necessarily rely on any outside source to maintain
the installation, but requires well-trained maintenance teams. Training can be done
internally or contracted with the manufacturer or the supplier of the FACTS
controller.
Service contracts are usually the easiest way to handle maintenance on new
equipment. It can be contracted either with the manufacturer or with other companies
possessing the required skills. Contracting with the initial manufacturer is usually the
best technical choice because its teams are well trained and perform maintenance on
many similar installations. However it represents a financial risk because it is
difficult to negotiate prices, and it is also a technical risk if the manufacturer stops
offering maintenance services.
5.13 Spare Parts and Special Tools
The spares required for the FACTS controller may be specified in such a way that a
sufficient number of spares are provided for a certain number of years based on the
expected failure rates of equipment and components. This typically applies to
semiconductors for the valves, capacitor cans, computer equipment, and electronic
cards but may not apply to major parts such as interface transformers, series
reactors, bushings, etc. which have a low parts count and long delivery times.
For these items, the Owner must make an assessment as to whether the outage of
the equipment for long periods of time (up to a year for transformer replacement)
constitutes acceptable performance. If not, then the Owner should specify these
items as mandatory spares.
The reliability, availability, and maintainability study should determine the
requirements for spare parts over a certain number of years (typically 5 years).
The study will determine the requirement for spares based on probabilistic failure
rates of equipment and systems.
The requirement for the contractor to supply any special tools and equipment (that
is normally not readily available from outside sources) should also be specified.
Special tools and test equipment typically include equipment for servicing valve and
valve firing circuits or for control and protection system maintenance.
See also ▶ Chap. 20, “FACTS Controller Integration and Design Studies” for
further details.
5.14 Training
A comprehensive training program is required for all levels of personnel in the

Owner’s organization to provide a solid basis for operation and maintenance over the
life of the FACTS controller. The bulk of this training is specialized and needs to be
provided by the Contactor.
The training program needs to cover all the equipment supplied by the contractor
including valves, valve cooling, control and protection, transformers, auxiliary
systems, switchyard equipment, measurement, operation of the FACTS controller,
interlocking, and safety.
The training program should include classroom instruction on the theory and
operation of the FACTS controller and supplied by the contractor with particular
emphasis placed on valves, valve cooling, and the associated control and protection
equipment. The training programs should also include demonstrations and hands on
maintenance and fault finding training consisting of instruction and active partici-
pation in testing of equipment at the vendor’s factory and at the sites as appropriate.
The contractor must be responsible for providing the appropriate level of training
to ensure that the requirements for health and safety and environmental standards can
be achieved at the site for all equipment within its mandate covering the construction
period, testing, commissioning, and maintenance. The contractor should supply
appropriate training manuals associated with the formal courses.
The formal program must provide appropriate training to all levels of the Owner’s
staff, including management and nontechnical staff, design engineering staff, staff
who will participate in Factory Acceptance Tests, operating staff, maintenance staff,
and commissioning staff.
The training program for the operators should thoroughly familiarize the operat-
ing personnel with the characteristics and requirements of:
(a) Steady-state and transient operation of the FACTS controller

(b) The performance and operation specifications of all equipment
(c) The principles of control and protection
(d) The performance of control and protection systems
(e) The operator control and SCADA system
(f) The operating manual provided by the contractor
Also, a maintenance training program is essential to completely familiarize the

maintenance personnel with the various equipment and sub-systems of the FACTS
controller. Maintenance training should include preventive maintenance as well as
troubleshooting and safety requirements. Maintenance of valves, valve cooling,
transformers, auxiliary systems, and solid-state controls and microprocessor control
systems used in the FACTS station should be emphasized. The program should train
control technicians in the commissioning, operation, and troubleshooting mainte-
nance of microprocessor systems for the controls.
The use of any special tools and test equipment should also be covered. The
program should include hands-on instructions using the supplied equipment in the
factory and/or the sites.
At the completion of the training, the maintenance personnel should be able to

completely and properly maintain the FACTS controller.
5.15 Documentation
5.15.1 General
The specification should require the contractor to prepare and submit to the Owner
for review drawings, design notes, specifications, samples, patterns, or models
showing in detail the design and method of fabrication of the Work so that the
Owner can verify that the proposed design and arrangement conforms to the
Contract. The contractor should identify all such documents and provide a proposed
schedule for their transmittal to Owner in his tender. The schedule should allow the
Owner reasonable, time for review and acceptance of drawings and reports, unless
stated otherwise in the Document Category Review list. If no response and/or
comments are received within the allotted time, the documents may be deemed
accepted. The contractor will review the comments and resubmit the revised docu-
ments for approval and allow a reasonable time for acceptance. Acceptance or lack
of acceptance by the Owner would not relieve the contractor’s responsibility for
meeting all of the specified requirements.
The main design documents to be sent for review are:
(a) Single-line diagram

(b) Switchyard layouts and sections
(c) General layout and architecture of the building(s) (if any)
(d) Technical reports and design reports
(e) Study reports
(f) Equipment specifications for main circuit apparatus
(g) Dimension drawings for main circuit apparatus
(h) Nameplate drawings for main circuit apparatus
(i) Inspection and test plan
(j) Type test reports
(k) Routine test reports
(l) Maintenance and operation guidelines for the FACTS controller
5.15.2 Drawings, Instruction Books, Guidelines, and Other Manuals

The following should be provided:
(a) Index of drawings: Organized by equipment and showing all drawings associ-
ated with each piece of equipment and the relationship between drawings
furnished by the manufacturer and describing existing equipment.
(b) Equipment installation drawings and detailed design specification, wiring, plant
circuit diagrams, schematics, piping and instrumentation diagrams, etc. for the
entire installation. All design calculations should be submitted with the drawings.
(c) Equipment outline drawings showing overall and mounting dimensions, weights,
and stresses.
(d) Equipment drawings showing location and polarity of terminals, clearance and
removing dimension, quantity of oil required.
(e) Overall equipment schematic and wiring diagrams to include physical compo-
nent control cards, panel, terminals, cabling, and wire terminations.
(f) Functional block diagrams, logic diagrams, transfer function diagrams, and
timing charts.
(g) Interconnection drawings: Each circuit continued to other drawings should be
clearly labeled for destination drawing number.
(h) Equipment nameplate diagrams.
(i) Layout and details of cubicle assemblies.
(j) Details of all auxiliary devices including manufacturer’s specifications and
product bulletins where applicable.
(k) Bill of material or parts drawing list.
(l) Shipping outlines and weights.
(m) Shipping lists.
(n) Informational drawings and data for FACTS controller lighting systems.
(o) Manufacturing detail and erection drawings for all steel structures.
5.15.3 Operating and Maintenance Manual Requirements
Operation Manuals
These documents should be provided for all actions that the Operator is expected to
perform during normal and abnormal conditions. Each manual should detail the
procedural instructions required to operate the FACTS controller. These instructions
should be command/response type, written in a concise form and should indicate
how a desired function is to be performed, what response should be obtained, when it
should be performed (frequency and sequence), and where the equipment is located
and how it is identified.
The manual should also indicate any action required if the equipment fails to
perform correctly, including troubleshooting and manual override features. Specific
details regarding unusual features or safety precautions should be included and
highlighted.
Maintenance Manuals
These documents should be prepared for all the equipment. The manuals
should be oriented toward operation and maintenance of the system without
the services of a manufacturer’s representative. Overall, the requirements for
content should be:
(a) Installation instructions and information to supplement the installation drawings.

(b) Preventive maintenance instructions.
(c) Troubleshooting instructions for the replaceable spare parts.
(d) Repair instructions should be provided for the removal, repair, and adjustments
and configuration of spare parts.
(e) Parts information should consist of drawing identification of each replaceable
module.
References
Cigré TB 139, Guide to the Specification and Design of AC Filters for HVDC Systems (1999)
Cigré TB 252, Functional Specification and Evaluation of Substations (2004)
Cigré TB 553, Special Aspects of AC Filter Design for HVDC Systems (2013)
Cigré TB 663, Guidelines for the procurement and testing of STATCOMS (2016)
Cigré TB 717, Protocol for reporting operational performance of FACTS (2018)
IEC 61000-3-6 Part 3: Limits – Section 6: Assessment of emission limits for distorting loads in MV
and HV power systems – Basic EMC publication, (IEC 61000-3-6, 2008)
IEC 61803, Determination of Power Losses in High-Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Converter
Stations With Line Commutated Converters (1999)
IEC 62751-1 Standard | Power losses in voltage sourced converter (VSC) valves for high-voltage
direct current (HVDC) systems – Part 1: General Requirements (2018)
IEEE 1031, IEEE Guide for the Functional Specification of Static Var compensators (2000)
IEEE 1158, IEEE Recommended practice for determination of power losses in High Voltage Direct
Current (HVDC) converter stations (1991)
IEEE 519, IEEE Recommended Practice and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electric Power
Systems (2014)
Ben Mehraban received his BSEE and MSEE degrees in elec-

trical engineering from the University of Missouri and his MBA
degree from Ohio University. He has more than 35 years of
experience in engineering, design, construction, maintenance,
and commissioning of EHV, GIS, FACTS, and HVDC projects.
He joined AEP in 1980, where he was responsible for implemen-
tation of technology projects (FACTS controllers, HVDC, super-
conductivity, etc., many of which were first of their kind),
conducting equipment studies and interfacing R&D with EPRI,
CEATI, universities, and technology manufacturers. He has
authored and published numerous IEEE and CIGRE papers and
is a senior member of IEEE member of several IEEE Working
Groups and past chair of the HVDC-FACTS Subcommittee. He is
currently the chair of WG I5 on “Guide for Specification of
Transmission STATCOM Systems.” He is also a member of
CIGRE.
Hubert Bilodeau graduated from École Polytechnique,

Université de Montréal in 1975. After graduation, he joined Gen-
eral Electric in Peterborough, Canada, and worked as a designer of
static excitation and DC rectifier equipment. In 1981, he joined
BBC Brown Boveri Co. in Montreal as a technical coordinator for
the HVDC/SVC Châteauguay project. At the end of the project, he
joined the parent company in Switzerland. From 1989 until retire-
ment in 2017, he worked with Hydro-Quebec in Montreal as a
control specialist for static compensator, series compensation, and
HVDC. He is a registered professional in the province of Quebec
and Ontario and senior member of IEEE Power Engineering
Society. He has chaired the IEEE High Voltage Power Electronics
Stations Subcommittee of the Substations Committee from 2000
to 2005 and chaired the Working Group (WG) I4 on Static VAR
Compensators from 1997 to 2011.
Bruno Bisewski received a BSc degree in electrical engineering

from University of Manitoba in 1975. He joined Teshmont Con-
sultants Inc. in 1976, where he worked in for 33 years in various
capacities up to vice president. In 2008 he left to found RBJ
Engineering. Mr. Bisewski is a specialist with many years of
experience in all aspects of the electrical power transmission
industry including project management, system studies, specifica-
tion and design, calculation of electrical effects, design review,
cost estimates, equipment testing, and commissioning of EHV-AC
and HVDC transmission systems. He has provided engineering
services, including preparation and review of specifications, ten-
der evaluation, system studies, design review, witnessing of equip-
ment tests, and commissioning of HVDC converter equipment and
system tests to a large number of HVDC transmission projects in
many countries including the USA, Canada, New Zealand, Malay-
sia, Thailand, and China.
Thomas Magg is a registered professional engineer in

South Africa with more than has 27 years of experience in the electric
power industry. Thomas started his career at Eskom and has experi-
ence in the utility, consulting, and equipment supplier sectors. He has
extensive experience in project management and project engineering
of high voltage transmission AC and DC systems in Africa. Thomas
has experience on reactive power compensation and the integration
of large nonlinear loads into transmission systems. He has been
responsible for the project engineering of several large static VAR
compensators (SVCs). Thomas was the technical advisor for the
350 kV high-voltage direct current (HVDC), 300/600 MW Caprivi
Link VSC HVDC scheme in Namibia, which was successfully
completed in 2010.He is presently the senior technical advisor and
lead engineer for the Songo 533 kV HVDC converter station upgrade
project on the Cahora Bassa HVDC scheme in Mozambique. He has
been an active member of CIGRE Study Committee B4 (HVDC and
Power Electronics) since 2006 and has been a member of several
SC-B4 Working Groups. From 2008 to 2014, he was the regular
member for South Africa for CIGRE Study Committee B4.
Part VI
Implementation of FACTS Controllers
FACTS Controller Integration and Design
Studies 20
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882
2 Modelling Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884
3 Studies Performed During the Bidding Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884
3.1 Rating Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
3.2 Dynamic Performance Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889
4 Post-award Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890
4.1 Process Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890
4.2 Equipment Design and Rating Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
4.3 Interaction Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
5 Studies at the Commissioning Stage of a FACTS Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
5.1 Studies Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
5.2 Switching AC Side Filters and Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
5.3 Performance of the Controls Applied for Damping Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
5.4 AC System Fault Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906
5.5 Model Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
6 Studies Over the Operational Life of the FACTS Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
6.1 Process Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
6.2 Transmission Network Planning and Operational Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908
6.3 Post-disturbance Analysis (Model Validation Studies) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
6.4 Pre-specification Studies of New Transmission and Generation Equipment . . . . . . . . 910
B. R. Andersen (*)
D. Woodford
Electranix Corporation, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
e-mail: daw@Electranix.com
G. Love
PSC Consulting, Dublin, Ireland
e-mail: Geoff.Love@pscconsulting.com

7 Model Maintainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
7.2 Challenges to Model Maintainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
7.3 Approaches to Model Maintainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913
7.4 Future Prospects in Modelling and Model Maintainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the studies typically
required following the issue of the specification for a FACTS controller until the
end of its life cycle. The chapter classifies this life cycle into four main phases:
studies performed during the bid process, post-award studies during the design of
the controller, studies performed for commissioning, and studies during the
operational life of the FACTS controller. For each stage the chapter presents the
objectives and the responsibilities of those requiring and performing the studies,
including input data, the studies to be performed, the reason for the studies, and
the use made of the study results.
1 Introduction
▶ Chapter 17, “FACTS Planning Studies” has described the studies that should be
performed if the option of applying a FACTS controller to an AC network is
considered. It has also described the studies that should be performed to provide
the essential input to the functional specification of a FACTS controller, which is
described in more details in ▶ Chap. 19, “Procurement and Functional Specifications
for FACTS Controllers” in this Green Book. This chapter focuses on the studies that
may be performed during the bidding period and until to the end of the operational
period of the FACTS controller. The chapter uses some extracts of CIGRE Technical
Brochure 563 “Modelling of and Simulation Studies to be performed during the life
cycle of HVDC systems” (CIGRE TB 563 2013), with changes and additions as
necessary to make it applicable to FACTS controllers.
The descriptions in this chapter are generally applicable to all FACTS controllers,
but in some instances issues particular to a certain FACTS controller may be
mentioned. The reader can obtain additional information about the different
FACTS controllers in the Technical Description of FACTS controllers section of
this Green Book, which includes the following chapters:

20 FACTS Controller Integration and Design Studies 883
During the bidding process for large FACTS controllers, the bidders will typically
be required to perform studies to demonstrate that the proposed FACTS controller
will meet the specified requirements. The typical bidding period of 6–8 weeks for
small FACTS controllers should be extended to accommodate the time required for
these studies, which may include some or all of the following studies:
• Determination of main circuit parameters

• Simplified dynamic performance studies
• Insulation coordination studies
• AC harmonic performance studies (if relevant)
• Impact of specified audible noise
• Power loss studies
• Expected reliability/availability
Some clients may also require further studies in addition to those listed above.
For FACTS controllers that are less vital to the operation of the AC network, a
reduced number of studies, or even no studies, may be requested, but this could
significantly increase the risks to the project. In this chapter it is assumed that the
FACTS controller will be designed to have a significant impact on the operation of
the AC network.
Following the award of Contract, the successful Contractor will have to undertake
more in-depth and comprehensive studies as listed above. This may include the use
of more detailed models of the AC network including other power electronic
controllers in the network. Furthermore, additional studies as listed below also
need to be performed:
• System Integration Studies to show the FACTS controller will meet its specified
objectives
• Studies of interactions with generators
• Studies of interactions with other power electronic systems in the AC network
• Studies to support commissioning
• Studies to verify the models provided by the Contractor for the use of the Owner
After completion of the FACTS controller and handover to the Owner, the Owner
or the Transmission System Operator (TSO) will be responsible for the network
studies including the FACTS controller. The model of the FACTS controller, which
the Contractor provides to the Owner, should enable the Owner to perform detailed
studies of the behavior of the network including the new FACTS controller.
In the months following hand over of the project, the actual measured performance
of the AC network during and after faults should be compared with the results of
studies performed with the FACTS controller model, using the network that existed
prior to and after the event. This should be performed after any fault or major change.
If the measurements and the studies agree, this will give confidence that the models
provide an acceptable representation of the FACTS controller. If there are significant
differences, such differences should be examined by the Contractor, and if necessary,
changes should be made to the model of the FACTS controller.
After hand over, ongoing maintenance of the FACTS controller models is

required. This can be complicated by the long lifetime of a FACTs controller,
which for the control system can be up to 15 years. Maintaining the compatibility
of the model with future modelling tools requires some care and focus in the
specification. Some issues may be resolved with the work being performed by
CIGRE Working Group B4.82, as will be described later in this chapter.
2 Modelling Tools
▶ Chapter 17, “FACTS Planning Studies” has provided some information about the
minimum requirements for the study tools used for:
• Steady-state power flow

• Transient stability
• Electromagnetic transients
• Real-time simulations
• Harmonics
This information is also relevant to the study tools required during the bidding
process and thereafter, so will not be duplicated in this chapter. However, it should be
noted that the Contractors use additional “tools” and models, most of which will be
proprietary to the Contractor and would not be included in the Contract scope of
supply. These models/tools may include:
• Tools for determining the rating of the individual components of the FACTS
controller.
• Tools for determining the level of harmonics generated by the FACTS controller.
• Parts of the FACTS controller model provided may include so-called “black-box”
parts of the control system, but as a minimum all control system settings including
the gains of the controllers and parameters accessible from the project Human-
Machine Interface (HMI) should be accessible for modification by the Owner.
3 Studies Performed During the Bidding Process
In order to translate a project inquiry document into a technical offer, the FACTS
tenderer performs engineering studies to define the proposed scheme solution. These
studies broadly fall into four categories.
1) Performance and rating studies required to define the FACTS controller equip-
ment specifications and the control strategies. These cover subjects like:
a) Main scheme parameters and converter characteristics
b) AC harmonic filtering
c) The need for Radio/TV and power-line carrier (PLC) filters
d) Basic insulation coordination study

e) Converter valve design
f) AC circuit breaker, isolators, and ground switches requirements
g) Impact on the design of overload and ride through requirements
2) Interaction studies required to demonstrate how the FACTS controller will
interact with the AC network, if specified. It should be noted that constraints
associated with the sharing of detailed network models and information about
other/existing FACTS Controllers and controllable elements may limit the extent
to which interaction studies can be usefully be conducted. Therefore, at the tender
stage the studies should focus on the performance of the proposed FACTS
controller during events that can be easily simulated, e.g., fault recovery, over-/
undervoltage performance, damping performance (with the network model
including other devices provided by the TSO/NO). The studies may cover sub-
jects like:
a) Dynamic performance studies – one important aspect is the impact on the
equipment design of power oscillation damping controllers, when required,
especially for series connected FACTS controllers.
b) Impact of potential interactions with generators, e.g., sub-synchronous tor-
sional interaction (SSTI) or self-excitation, etc.
c) Impact on equipment and control system of potential interaction with other
FACTS controllers or power electronic systems (solar or wind parks, HVDC
schemes, etc.) in the AC network. It should be noted that the quantification of
the impact on the FACTS controller equipment and control system cannot be
quantified without detailed models, and these studies are normally only
conducted at the contract stage. If the Project Owner has performed studies
that quantify the issues, the detailed information should be included in the
FACTS controller project specification.
d) Achievement of specified speed of response of the FACTS controller for
different short circuit levels and configurations
3) Other performance studies required to define the long-term operating costs of the
proposed solution. These may include:
a) Determination of redundancies to achieve the specified reliability, availabil-
ity, and maintainability guarantees and also used as the base for the spare
parts strategy and preventive maintenance plan
b) Power losses, especially important when losses are to be guaranteed or
capitalized
4) Environmental studies to demonstrate compliance with local environmental
constraints:
a) The impact on the equipment resulting from the specified acoustic noise
limits
b) The impact on equipment resulting from the specified limits on EMF (elec-
tromagnetic fields) and EMC (electromagnetic compatibility)
c) Measures to be taken to achieve the specified performance during Geomag-
netic Induced Current (GIC) events caused by geomagnetic storms (might be
part of planning and technical specification preparation studies)
d) Soil investigations if required (this may be part of planning and technical

specification preparation studies)
e) Impact of the specified seismic design requirements
f) Pollution investigations to determine adequate creepage/flashover distance
requirements (might be part of the basic insulation coordination study)
g) Where applicable, resilience of insulators against icing and excessive snow
It should be noted that the items in 3) and 4) above are not covered in this chapter.
3-a) is covered in ▶ Chap. 24, “Lifetime Management of FACTS Controllers”; 3-b)
is covered in the applicable Technical Descriptions, of FACTS controllers chapters,
i.e., in ▶ Chaps. 6, “Technical Description of Static Var Compensators (SVC),”
Description of Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC),” and ▶ 9, “Technical
tions”; and parts of 4) are covered in ▶ Chap. 18, “Environmental Considerations for
FACTS Projects.” chapter. The remaining parts of 4) are general issues that apply to
AC substations and AC networks.
The studies and the vendor’s optimization of the solution with sub-suppliers must
all be performed within the constraints of the bidding period. Only the information
provided as part of the tender specification can be used as the basis for the studies.
Hence, the longer the bidding period allowed and the better the data provided with
the inquiry documentation, the more optimized and hence cost-effective the solution
tendered by the vendor will be.
Compilation of the appropriate AC system information and variations of specified
load cases into the design software (especially for dynamic performance and har-
monic filter studies) can be a very time-consuming process. Typically, only worst-
case studies will be considered during the bid process, i.e., those that show that the
offered design/scope meets the worst-case specified requirements.
Further complication arises from the increasing amount of inverter-based equip-
ment in the AC system. It is not realistic to expect the tenderers to perform the actual
interaction studies during the tender period. However, the tenderer can be expected
to use his expertise to assess:
• The extent of studies necessary during the implementation period

• The impact that such systems may have on the control and protection system
• The impact, if any, on the design of the FACTS controller and its equipment
The issues associated with the performance of the interaction studies are
described in more details in Sect. 4.
Due to the limited time available for the performance of studies during the
bidding period, most studies will be simplified and will rely on the system data
provided in the technical specification and experience from previous projects. The
bidders will balance the risks of the required guarantees and the cost savings or
increases resulting from the additional information that can be obtained by perfor-
mance of specific studies.
3.1 Rating Studies
During the tendering process, the rating studies define the equipment design in terms
of MVA/Mvar, current, voltage, insulation, etc. These studies are therefore a key part
in tendering as the equipment constitutes the largest part of the project cost. The
basis of the design studies will be the data provided in the specification.
One of the main objectives of this study is to demonstrate that the specified
performance requirements are met satisfactorily by the proposed design. Therefore,
special focus is on the development of the circuit and structure of the FACTS
controller, considering all relevant operating modes within normal and extreme
AC system conditions, as well as physical dimensions and weight limitations at
site and for transportation, etc. Options, if required, should be clearly addressed in
the technical specification.
3.1.1 Main Scheme Parameters

The objective of the main circuit parameter study is to determine the range of
operating conditions of the FACTS controller and the ratings of major components
including thyristor/IGBT valves, transformers, reactors, capacitors and AC harmonic
filters (if required), and AC switchgear. The study typically uses the bidder’s
in-house calculating routines.
In the tender study, the steady-state operating parameters of the FACTS controller
across its operating power range are calculated for worst-case operating conditions.
The various applicable operating parameters, equipment tolerances, and measure-
ment errors are varied between studies in order to explore the boundaries of the
FACTS controller operation. Modes of operation (e.g., switchable TSCs, TSRs,
breaker switched components and different system strengths, etc.), specified over-
load, and overvoltage and undervoltage conditions (inherent and short-time condi-
tions) will be considered in the design.
The key output of the study is consistent operating data for the FACTS controller
under different operating conditions, the valve main parameters, and the transformer
rating and configuration. The study will also determine the optimum arrangement of
the FACTS controller, i.e., the number and rating of breaker switched reactive power
component/AC harmonic filters, and their switching strategy, if relevant.
To enable comparison of the different bids, the Owner may set out specific
formats for the required information, e.g., technical data sheets to be filled
in. Single line diagrams and a preliminary layout of the FACTS controller are
typically also required.
3.1.2 Bypass
For series connected controllers such as TCSC, SSSC, and UPFC, the controller will
be bypassed during nearby faults. The design and rating of the bypass is critically
important and will have a significant impact on cost. The system conditions that
result in the maximum fault current for which the bypass should be designed need to
be defined in the specification, and the tenderer will need to ensure that the controller
is sufficiently rated for the expected AC conditions. A fault cycle needs to be
specified for equipment dimensioning by the vendor. These studies should be carried
out using an electromagnetic transient (EMT) simulation program (Anderson and
Farmer 1996).
3.1.3 AC Harmonic Performance

The AC harmonic performance study conducted at the bid stage should define the
approximate filter parameters necessary to meet the AC harmonic performance
requirements specified in the FACTS controller specification. The exact filter design,
including final component values and filter configurations may only be determined
during the implementation phase. In the tender study, the worst-case AC side
harmonic currents generated by the converters are typically evaluated, and an AC
harmonic filter solution, which meets the harmonic limits of the project, is
established. Background harmonic distortion is also typically considered (CIGRE
Electra 164 1996; CIGRE Electra 167 1996; CIGRE TB 139 1999; CIGRE TB
553 2013; CIGRE TB 766 2019).
The main information required for the AC system is the harmonic impedance
envelope curves that describe the variation of harmonic impedance for different
harmonic ranges. The AC system parameters, including the negative sequence
voltage which causes generation of 3rd harmonic and other non-characteristic
harmonic current generation from a thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR), are also
required. See ▶ Chap. 17, “FACTS Planning Studies” in this Green Book for more
information.
For the converter harmonics, the main issues are the converter configuration and
its control, component tolerances, temperature, transformer impedance, etc. The
magnitudes of individual AC harmonic currents generated by the FACTS controller
valves/converter should be calculated over the complete reactive power range.
Typically, the filters are designed using the worst-case harmonics, often requiring a
strategy for the filter design because the background harmonics might be greater than
the harmonics generated by the FACTS controller. The performance of the AC
harmonic filters and their operational losses are then calculated for different AC
system conditions.
High-frequency (HF) filters, i.e., power-line carrier (PLC) filters, may also need
to be installed to meet the specified performance criteria. Usually, the vendor will
determine the need for such filters based on the specified requirements and his
experience from previous projects. The reactive power contribution from such filters
is relatively low but may still need to be considered, to ensure that the overall
reactive power meets the specified criteria.
3.1.4 Insulation Coordination

A preliminary insulation coordination study, based mainly on the vendor’s experi-
ence and practice, is performed to establish the appropriate insulation levels of the
FACTS controller equipment and the selection and placement of surge arresters.
This study determines the lightning impulse withstand voltage (LIWV)/switching
impulse withstand voltage (SIWV), (formerly referred to as BIL/BSL), for the
components of the FACTS controller.
The preliminary voltages used for the creepage distance for insulation, air clear-
ances for equipment, the coordinating currents used for lightning protection, and the
preliminary surge arrester discharge current (the coordinating current) may also be
determined.
Preliminary surge arrester energy requirements are determined primarily based on
data from previous projects but can also be obtained using an electromagnetic
transient (EMT) simulation program.
One particular issue to consider is the sharing of energy between parallel
connected surge arresters, which may be very uneven because of the large nonlinear
characteristic of the current-voltage characteristic of modern surge arresters.
Fundamental frequency overvoltages (FFOV) and temporary overvoltages (TOV)
should also be considered because the potentially high-energy absorption of the
surge arresters during such events can have a major impact on their design. See also
▶ Chap. 2, “AC System Characteristics” in this Green Book, which discusses some
of the limitations of EMT.
3.2 Dynamic Performance Studies
3.2.1 Interaction Studies

Typically, it is not possible to perform detailed studies of interactions between the
proposed FACTS controller and other power electronic systems or controllers in the
AC network during the tendering period. This is partly because of the extent of the
work but also because specific information about such systems may not be available
at that stage. If specific information about such other systems have been included in
the specification, and the tendering period has been extended to accommodate such
studies, tenderers might request incentives to perform such studies, as the detailed
studies would require substantial engineering effort.
The information concerning other power electronic systems or controllers in the
AC network could be used by tenderers to estimate the extent of studies required and
the costs of any mitigations that might be required. In most, but not all, cases the
mitigation would require enhancements to the control system, but in some cases
changes to the FACTS controller equipment could also be required. The cost of the
changes to the equipment, if required, may be difficult to estimate, and how this is
treated would have to be considered in the contract documentation.
3.2.2 Dynamic Studies

The full range of performance for a FACTS controller also requires very substantial
engineering effort, and therefore only a subset of studies is performed during the
tendering period.
The objective of the tender stage dynamic performance study (DPS) is to dem-
onstrate that the proposed FACTS controller’s basic control parameters will able to
meet the specified dynamic performance. This will typically be done using a
simplified representation of the AC network. The tender dynamic performance
study will be used to:
• Confirm stable operation

• Demonstrate that the FACTS controller response is in accordance with the
specified response criteria, including:
– Control system step responses to demonstrate the static characteristics and
response times
– Performance during AC system disturbances including the recovery from AC
system faults
– Demonstration of specified control functions
Bidders will typically use their preferred simulation software and an appropriate
model of the FACTS controller including all high-voltage equipment.
The model of the AC network to be used for the studies should be provided by the
Owner. Information should be provided to enable representations of the AC system
at its maximum and minimum short circuit levels. Considering the difficulties
associated with the sharing of detailed models (particularly nearby devices) at the
tender stage, simpler network models can be provided. If the FACTS controller plays
a critical role in the system requiring further detailing in the frequency domain, a
work-around could be to provide a Frequency-Dependent Network Equivalent
(FDNE) and provide TOV curves and undervoltage curves to be mimicked at
point of connection for the vendor to demonstrate compliance.
If the FACTS controller is located in the vicinity of solar or wind parks, HVDC
schemes, generators, synchronous condensers, or other FACTS controllers informa-
tion should be provided about these installations, including locations, ratings, and
any available technical information. As mentioned above, typically studies including
these components will not be performed at the tendering stage, but the information
need to be provided, such that the tenderer is able to consider these systems in his
estimate of the overall study activities.
If required by the technical specification, bid stage dynamic performance study may
have to be conducted using a very detailed AC network model, provided as part of the
tender specification. This may be the case if the FACTS controller will play a major/
critical role in the dynamic performance of the whole power system or its major part.
The use of detailed AC network models and extensive studies may have implications on
the duration of the bidding process. The number of tenderers may also be lower.
Substantial changes to the AC network model subsequent to the award of contract
may result in claims for additional cost.
4 Post-award Studies
4.1 Process Overview
After award of the contract, the Contractor will perform more detailed and final
studies to validate that the contracted solution meets the performance requirements
specified in the Owner’s technical specification document. Typically, the study
report(s) are provided to the Project Owner for review and acceptance.
The studies to be performed during the contract include all the studies listed in
Sect. 3 of this chapter, with the studies being performed concurrently with each other
and more in-depth, than was performed during the tender stage. In this section the
focus is on the main electrical characteristics of the FACTS controller. These studies
fall into the following main categories:
• Equipment design and rating studies: studies to demonstrate that the equipment
ratings enable the FACTS controller to meet the performance requirements for all
specified conditions.
• System integration studies: studies to demonstrate that the FACTS controller
will interact with the AC network, including other power electronic systems
connected to the AC network, as required and without adverse impact on other
identified power electronic controllers. This includes defining and optimizing the
FACTS controller’s control and protection systems in detail. Detailed modelling
and extensive studies of the AC network including the other power electronic
systems and the FACTS controller might be required.
• Factory Acceptance Test (FAT): FAT demonstrates that the actual controls and
protection implemented perform according to the specifications. This is typically
performed using a real-time simulation facility. The FAT is discussed in detail in
▶ Chap. 21, “FACTS Equipment Design and Testing” of this Green Book.
Transmission network data needs to be provided from the Project Owner to the
Contractor to enable the design studies to proceed. If the Project Owner has a
detailed network model, it is usually made available. This will enable the Contractor
to derive network equivalents especially where EMT-related studies are done. It
should be noted that if the system network model provided at the tender stage is very
different from that provided during the contract, the Contractor may insist on
contractual changes.
Some of the studies may have been performed during the bid phase for the
purposes of preparing the bid and defining the main equipment parameters based
on the data available in the bid documents. However, in the post-award stage, the
studies are redone with a much greater level of detail. Further information is also
normally available at the post-award stage for these studies. The level of detail in the
models of the FACTS controller and its controls during this life cycle phase increases
as the project becomes more defined.
The contract interaction studies may require inverter-based equipment in the AC
system such as wind and solar systems, battery energy storage, HVDC, and other
FACTS controllers to be included. Proprietary information may be embedded in
these inverter-based facilities and may include the same control and protection code
as in the actual equipment. Therefore, distribution of the model to competitors is
typically not allowed. For such equipment, generic models will need to be included
in the AC system information, but the model should provide similar performance to
the actual equipment that it is representing. The technical and commercial specifi-
cation should make it clear whether the Project Owner or the Contractor provides the
generic model. If the Contractor is responsible for the provision of the generic
model, there will still be risks associated with the model, which will result in project
cost increases.
It is advisable that the specification requires the Contractor to include in their
equipment and in the control and protection systems margins that provides a robust
and flexible solution to allow for potential differences between the generic models
and the actual performance of the AC system with the other inverter-based system.
The technical specification should define the extent of the margins required, e.g.,
additional rating of equipment additional processing and I/O for the control and
protection systems, etc. The margins may be necessary in case the FACTS controls
and protection system need to be tuned during the commissioning process but will of
course add costs to the FACTS controller. Nevertheless, the Contractor may not be
prepared to guarantee that the tendered solution will meet the guaranteed perfor-
mance without a detailed model(s) of the other power electronic systems.
If the Contractor of the other power electronic equipment provides an exact
simulation model to the Owner (or to the TSO), the Owner may be able to test the
performance of the new FACTS controller in simulations, even if the model cannot
be shared with the FACTS controller Contractor. In some cases, only the Owner or
the TSO has access to the proprietary models of other controllers in the network.
This issue would be resolved if all Contractors provided black-boxed models for
open use.
The supply contract typically makes the Contractor solely responsible for all the
studies during the post award process, with the exception mentioned above
concerning proprietary models. However, as the detailed design of the FACTS
controller often requires more detailed and extensive information of the AC network
and its operational performance characteristics, the role of the Project Owner as
provider of clarifications and/or additional information for the Contractor is
highlighted. Generally speaking, regular clarification meetings along the design
process to clarify open questions related to the information provided in the technical
specification or the AC network and component models provided by the Project
Owner can be very important to ensure that the FACTS controller design is based on
the correct application of the provided data, the AC network model, and the FACTS
controller’s component models. Additionally, the Owner should expeditiously pro-
vide data and information requested by the Contractor to avoid being blamed as the
reason for any failure by Contractor to meet the delivery schedule. Furthermore,
clarifications or adoption of new/additional requirements may effectively change the
scope of supply and may impact the time schedule and the commercial conditions.
4.2 Equipment Design and Rating Studies
4.2.1 Main Circuit Design

The post-award main circuit design study is a follow-up to the main scheme
parameters study that was carried out during the bid process. The ratings for the
main circuit parameters determined by the study serve as basis not only for equip-
ment requirement specifications but also for all the other post-award studies.
The main circuit design study becomes the central coordination document for the
overall design. Its focus is on major equipment rating, including converter valves,
transformers, reactors, capacitors and AC harmonic filters, and auxiliary support
equipment.
The final design of the actual equipment should consider all the different operat-
ing conditions of the FACTS controller. The specified range of transmission network
voltage variations, variation of short circuit capacity at the point of connection, and
maximum allowed step changes in voltage (power quality) all provides essential
input to the calculations. The manufacturing tolerances and deviations due to
temperature and frequency should be considered when determining the maximum
and minimum boundaries of the equipment parameters. These parameters determine
the maximum continuous voltage or current stresses for particular operating condi-
tions. The specified reactive power (and for the UPFC also the active power) demand
within the different boundaries of the individual affected equipment within the
FACTS controller should also be clearly shown. When switchable reactive power
banks and AC harmonic filters are used, they also need to be considered in these
studies including transient recovery voltage assessments of the associated circuit
breakers.
The main design data from the study covers following main items:
• The rating of the converter valves including specified overload

• Demonstration that the FACTS controller will meet the specified Ride Through
Criteria.1
• The rating of all series and shunt passive devices (reactors, capacitors, and
resistors)
• The transformer data and rating
• Switching strategy for any breaker or converter (e.g., TSC or TSR) switched
branches under different operating conditions.
The study will provide input information to the relevant equipment specifications.
4.2.2 AC Harmonic Performance

The contract stage AC harmonic filtering study determines in detail the AC side
harmonic voltages and currents generated by the converter/valves as a function of its
(their) output. The pre-existing harmonic distortion and the harmonic output from
the FACTS controller is required to establish an AC harmonic filter solution which
meets the specified harmonic limits and to establish the harmonic distortion levels
for rating of the AC filter components, if required. The main outcomes of the study
are the topology of the AC filtering, the AC filter component values, and the voltage
and the current spectra for each individual component required for equipment
1
The Ride Through Criteria usually define a voltage or current profile during which the FACTS
controller shall be capable of staying connected and following which it shall be capable of
immediately resuming normal operation.
requirement specifications. The study requires the harmonic impedance of the AC

network, as seen from the FACTS controller, which is provided by the Owner and is
described in ▶ Chap. 17, “FACTS Planning Studies.”
The AC harmonic filter study establishes the combinations of the AC system and
converter operating conditions, including component tolerances, network frequency,
temperature range, transformer impedance, etc. which would give rise to the max-
imum levels of AC harmonic current or voltage distortion at the terminals of the
FACTS controller. Part of this information, the AC harmonic impedance of the AC
network, is provided in the technical specification, and part of the information is
determined by the main circuit design. The Contractor typically uses in-house
calculations routines and simulation programs for the determination of the harmonic
output and the determination of the worst-case harmonic distortion at the point of
common coupling (PCC).
The magnitudes of individual AC harmonic currents generated are calculated
over the complete reactive power range. The performance of the AC harmonic filters
and their operational losses are then calculated for different AC system conditions
that include AC network contingencies causing fault level variations. The AC
network background harmonic levels must also be known so that their impact on
the filter design and equipment ratings can be considered.
The fundamental frequency and harmonic currents in the individual filter com-
ponents also need to be determined for component ratings, power loss calculations,
and audible noise studies, taking relevant operating conditions into account. This
information will be used by component manufacturers to calculate the harmonic
noise pressure level.
4.2.3 Insulation Coordination

During the contract a thorough and detailed insulation coordination study is
performed to define the appropriate insulation levels of the FACTS controller
equipment. The study establishes an arrester-based overvoltage protective
scheme which covers both transient overvoltages from outside the FACTS con-
troller station and if applicable, from inside the station, e.g., switching or fault
transients stressing the components with high overvoltages. The surge arresters
need to be rated adequately for energy duties which occur during worst-case fault
conditions.
Fundamental frequency overvoltages (FFOV) and temporary overvoltages (TOV)
may also be considered in the insulation coordination studies due to potentially high-
energy absorption of the surge arresters during such events.
The main objective of the study is to establish appropriate final insulation
protection levels for the station’s surge arresters and hence the LIWV/SIWV levels
for equipment. The study will also establish the energy absorption requirements for
the surge arresters. It should be noted that parallel connected gapless metal oxide
varistor (MOV)-type surge arresters do not share energy uniformly, unless specially
designed to do so, because of their high nonlinearity exponent. In fact, it is possible
that one arrester absorbs the majority of the energy dissipation, unless the arresters
have been specially matched. Therefore, the tolerances in the voltage versus current
characteristics of the arresters must be included in the arrester models used in the
study, and studies should be performed considering the worst-case tolerances and
their impact on the energy absorption of all arresters, as well as on the maximum
overvoltages to which the equipment can be exposed.
The short circuit levels of AC the network, AC network voltage ranges, ground-
ing arrangements of the AC substation, and insulation coordination practices in the
AC substation should be provided in the specification.
Creepage distances for equipment are determined from the specified pollution
level and the maximum continuous voltages that can exist across the insulation,
which are usually determined during the rating studies.
The study report will be used to document switching surge, steep front, and
lightning impulse overvoltages under all operating conditions including those
resulting from AC system disturbances, converter valve, and other equipment faults
or control malfunctions. The key information provided from the study should
include the final protective levels of the station surge arresters, the number and
type of surge arresters (input to the arrester requirement specification), equipment
LIWLIL/SIWL, and creepages and clearances on the converter side of the step-down
transformer.
The study report should demonstrate that the selected insulation protective and
withstand levels, discharge and coordinating currents, and arrester ratings and
discharge capabilities are adequate and comply with the requirements of the Owner’s
specifications. The report should also detail all insulation levels and voltages for air
clearances and creepage distances.
4.3 Interaction Studies
4.3.1 Dynamic Performance Study Using Electromagnetic Transient

(EMT) Software
The objective of this study is to demonstrate that the dynamic performance of the
final control methodology and the control parameter settings for the FACTS con-
troller meets the specified requirements when connected to the AC system under
normal and abnormal conditions. That is, the objective is to validate control system
functions and selected parameters and to demonstrate the control performance and
stability of the FACTS controller including response times and fault recovery
(Anderson and Fouad 1993).
The dynamic performance study is performed by using an electromagnetic
transient program and highly detailed, project specific models of the FACTS con-
troller including the selected control parameters. Due to high computational
demands by the detailed FACTS controller model, the system networks may need
to be reduced to a level where the impedance/frequency response time is reasonably
accurate. Close-by electrical elements (e.g., generators, wind and solar farms, battery
energy storage systems, HVDC schemes, other FACTS controllers, etc.) should be
included in the modelled AC network.
Generally, the dynamic performance studies should be carried out in accordance

with the project specific requirements. Typically, the following studies should be
performed for relevant fault levels (minimum and either typical or maximum are
commonly selected).
• Reactive power ramp-up or ramp-down as determined, including the associated

ramp rates in Mvar/s. This may more conveniently be performed during formal
FAT of the control system because of the slow speed of the ramp.
• Power flow control performance (for TCSC and UPFC)
• Reactive power control performance
• Step responses of AC voltage reference/reactive power
• Close-in AC faults
• Faults within the FACTS controller
• Energization of dedicated transformer to the FACTS controller being installed
• Energization of electrically close transformers
There is a trend with modern electromagnetic transient (EMT) software and

parallel processing hardware toward representing large power systems with many
detailed equipment models and a multitude of contingencies to evaluate dynamic
performance of the FACTS controller.
4.3.2 Transient Stability Study

The target of the transient stability study is to demonstrate the performance of
higher-level controls like power oscillation damping (POD) and to ensure the
stability of the AC system. The scope of this study is greatly dependent on the
higher-level controls that are included in the FACTS controller technical specifica-
tion. As a minimum, the study may cover only validation of the performance of the
FACTS controller transient stability model and at maximum may extensively cover
several separate studies addressing the implementation and parameterization of high
level control functions like power oscillation damping, sub-synchronous oscillation
damping for generators, and emergency power flow control (for TCSC and UPFC),
if defined in the specification. Frequency scanning may be performed to determine
the critical frequencies in the system and their damping. The extent of such studies
should be addressed in the FACTS controller technical specification (Anderson and
Fouad 1993; CIGRE TB 051 1996).
For these studies, small-signal (eigenvalue) analysis and transient stability
programs are used. The study models should be a full-scale dynamic transient
stability model of the whole AC power system including all major power plants,
other FACTS controller systems, HVDC systems, wind farms, and other power
electronic controllers in the AC system. For these studies, only the major control
loops of the FACTS controller are typically modelled as the bandwidth of lower-
level controllers is below the time step (execution frequency) of the simulation
tool used.
Depending on the scope of the technical specification, and where applicable, the
following studies should be performed for minimum and maximum fault levels:
• Power oscillation damping and sub-synchronous oscillation damping:

– Evaluating the ability to improve the damping of inter-area and local mode
power oscillations
– Parameter tuning and/or performance analysis
• Response to temporary overvoltages and under voltages:
– Analysis of duration and level of over- and undervoltages is within acceptable
and/or specified limits during major network contingency conditions.
• Investigation of the response to major contingency cases and major faults on the
AC network:
– Verify that the response of the FACTS controller is according to the
specification.
Because of the growing complexity of the AC network with the profusion of

inverter-based equipment operating in the grid, there is increased need for
co-simulation models which combine the electromechanical effects of the transient
stability model together with the higher-frequency effects of EMT models (Irwin
et al. 2012). The EMT portion of the simulation may consist just of specific inverter-
based models added into the RMS2 transient stability model or a whole area
surrounding the facilities of interest that can be carved out from the RMS transient
stability model and replaced by an EMT model. The initialization of the EMT
section or of integrated individual EMT models is from the corresponding power
flow case for the entire system model. Parallel processing with a multiple core
computer or computers is generally used for speed of solution.
Co-simulation options should be assessed based on interactions with other nearby
devices actually being a risk. If co-simulation is considered with an EMT model
representation of only the FACTS controller, care should be taken to find an optimal
approach. It might be that:
• Relevant cases can be run in the EMT study (4.3.1) and other cases relevant for
RMS bandwidth are run in a RMS simulation tool.
• A large portion of the study effort can be run using co-simulation to make the joint
effort of RMS and EMT studies more effective.
The vendor will often have useful insights into this issue, and it may save a lot of
time and effort to have early discussions on how to execute the studies and ensure
common understanding of study scope between the parties.
4.3.3 Impact of FACTS Controller on Sub-synchronous Damping

A study may be required to verify that the FACTS controller will not cause
sub-synchronous torsional interaction (SSTI) or undamped torsional oscillations.
The FACTS controller SSTI study consists typically of two parts: a screening
study and a detailed sub-synchronous damping controller (SSDC) design study. The
2
The RMS model is effectively a fundamental frequency model.
screening study is performed to identify critical power plants interacting with the
FACTS converter controls. The unified interaction factor (UIF) of critical power
plants should be calculated to determine critical units potentially susceptible to a
sub-synchronous torsional interaction risk (EPRI EL-2708 1982; CIGRE/IEEE
guide 1992). If any are identified, further detailed studies should then be performed
using detailed machine data and the detailed model of the FACTS controller and its
control system (Agrawal and Farmer 1979; Katz et al. 1989).
The FACTS controller Contractor must demonstrate that the control system can
provide the necessary damping of oscillations at any frequency in the range defined
by the susceptible power plants. This frequency range can be between 4 Hz and
40 Hz3 (for 50 Hz systems). It is recommended that monitoring and protection of
sub-synchronous oscillations should be considered for installation in power plants
at risk for sub-synchronous interactions with the FACTS controller. See also
▶ Chap. 8, “Technical Description of Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors
(TCSC)” in this Green Book.
The FACTS controller Contractor should undertake studies to determine the risk
of sub-synchronous torsional interaction and if the risks are deemed to be significant
the necessary damping algorithms should be included in the FACTS control system
based on final generator data provided during the contract. The final generator data
should be provided at an early stage, preferably during the bid stage, so that the
damping algorithms are implemented and already available during post-award
studies and FAT testing.
The required generator data for the detailed sub-synchronous damping controller
design study are:
• Electrical data of the generator unit

• Electrical data of the step-up transformer
• Exciter, power system stabilizer, and governor models
• Shaft system model (number of poles, number of masses, mass inertia, stiffness
constants, relative steam power applied to different parts of the turbine)
Generic shaft system models and assumptions on the shaft system model are
inadequate for the detailed studies.
If the data in the above three bullets are known but the shaft system model data
are not available, it is better to provide at least that information as early as possible if
SSTI is a potential risk. In this case, evaluating the electrical damping of the system
in the sub-synchronous frequency range is the way to proceed.
4.3.4 Factory Acceptance Tests for Control and Protection

Factory acceptance tests (FAT) should demonstrate that the control and protection
hardware and software perform according to the specified criteria. These tests are
carried out by connecting the control and protection hardware to a real-time
3
Some nuclear power plants can have a higher mode than 40 Hz (for a 50 Hz system).
simulator (RTS) which contains a representative model of the connected AC net-

works, including other FACTS controllers, wind farms, HVDC systems, etc.
The factory acceptance tests are described in detail in ▶ Chap. 21, “FACTS
Equipment Design and Testing” chapter in this Green Book.
The network equivalents used in the FAT will normally be reduced even further
than those used in non-real-time simulation studies, and the equivalents may contain
infinite sources. Therefore, the performance obtained in real-time simulation may
not be identical to that obtained with non-real-time simulation systems.
The FAT is not a repeat of design studies but rather a confirmation that the design
developed during studies has been implemented in the control and protection system
to be delivered to the sites. The focus of the FAT should be that the controller has
been implemented correctly and that the complete control and protection system
performs satisfactorily. However, the factory acceptance test results should be
compared at least on a general level with the simulation results obtained at the
earlier stages of the design to confirm that the models applied there represent the
actual hardware in reasonable manner.
It is often easier to compare an EMT model with its actual controls and an RTS
model when they are connected to simple AC network models. This ensures that
different simulation platforms with their inherent properties and different AC com-
ponent models are not causing the mismatch. Any significant differences between
the two should be investigated and explained.
When the comparison with the simple AC network is acceptable, the EMT
model can be used for studies of a larger network equivalent, while the RTS
model can be used mainly for proving proper control functional performance.
(Similarly, RMS models are used for full AC network studies and EMT models
are used for selected parts of the full network using equivalents with certain
system borders.)
Since tripping of lines or generators changes the load flow in the AC system, the
suitability of the RTS model might be of limited value because of the limited extent
to which the network is typically modelled. These verifications are normally carried
out during transient stability studies using RMS modelling software. In addition, if
an exact EMT model of the FACTS controller has been provided by the Contractor
prior to the FAT, it can be included in a wide area EMT system model, which would
not be possible with the reduced system for the available RTS.
When the list of FAT tests has been prepared before they take place, and if done in
collaboration with the Owner, they can be pre-tested in both the wide area EMT
model, and with an EMT model of the reduced system. This provides understanding
of the limitations going into the FAT and using the reduced system model.
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, one challenge in providing a wide area EMT
system model to the Contractor is that some of the equipment models in the wide
area system may be covered by non-disclosure agreements, which may prevent such
models from being provided to competitors. However, the Owner of the FACTS
controller may have agreements to study all facilities in the wide area model. Hence
the need to ensure that the reduced system model being used for the FAT will be
acceptable when operating on the grid. The testing of the operator interfaces also
presents an ideal opportunity for the Owner’s operating personnel to become familiar
with the operation of the system.
The main outcome of the FAT is confirmation that the equipment is ready to be
brought to the site, i.e., the equipment performs the control system functions
correctly and parameters are set properly. It offers validation of stability, fault
recovery, and other control functions typically used in FACTS controller systems.
If dynamic performance studies are not performed separately then FAT is also a
confirmation that the equipment meets the specified static and dynamic performance
characteristics including response times, fault recovery and other control functions
implemented, if any.
5 Studies at the Commissioning Stage of a FACTS Controller
This section describes the studies required for planning the commissioning tests that
are required to demonstrate the validity of the design of the FACTS controller and its
implementation. Ideally all or most of the relevant study cases relevant for commis-
sioning should be included in the requirements on the dynamic performance study,
which are performed at worst-case conditions. However, some studies may be
repeated to reflect the actual system conditions at the time of commissioning.
Commissioning tests are carried out following a dedicated test program without
or with a limited number of special/additional studies provided. To some extent
commissioning tests are performed during FAT using load flow models (AC system
equivalents).
A detailed description of the tests that should be conducted at the commissioning
stage of a FACTS controller is presented in ▶ Chap. 22, “Commissioning of FACTS
Controllers” of this Green Book. Some of the commissioning tests that validate the
dynamic operation of the FACTS controller could significantly impact, especially if
unsuccessful, the AC system performance. Therefore, studies must be performed to
quantify the impact for the actual system conditions and to evaluate the most feasible
way to conduct the tests.
The studies performed before the commissioning tests provide a reference for the
expected outcome of the commissioning test. Depending on the extent of FAT,
references for the expected FACTS controller performance may also be available
based on the results of the FAT.
Significant deviations between the results from the commissioning test and the
related studies or FAT records require careful analysis, which may result in changes
to the model of the FACTS controller or the AC network model. The deviations may
in some cases require changes of the FACTS controls, following which the impact of
the changes to the validity of model and the FACTS controller performance in
general should be carefully evaluated.
If the FACTS controller has a very significant impact on the performance of the
transmission network, the performance of the FACTS controller may need to be
demonstrated during commissioning tests using real system disturbances. Such tests
may be required to demonstrate that the actual performance of the FACTS controller
as part of the transmission system(s) fulfils the specified requirements. Despite these
tests potentially having considerable impact on the transmission network,
performing the tests according to detailed plan may be the preferred option as the
alternative may be to wait for a similar real system event.
One aspect worth emphasizing is that the ongoing restructuring of the electricity
business, and especially the separation of generation from transmission, have made it
more difficult for the FACTS controller Owners to make specific arrangements for
the commissioning tests. This is especially true for those tests that may have
significant impact on voltage levels and power quality. As the commissioning
period, especially considering the system level tests only, is quite short, it is possible
that suitable operating conditions required for conducting, e.g., AC system fault
recovery or POD control tests, may not be available during the commissioning
period. Thus, some commissioning test and studies may eventually become post-
commissioning tests.
5.1 Studies Overview
For most parts the system performance and system interaction-related commission-
ing studies follow the structure of the design studies and factory acceptance tests.
The main scope in the commissioning related studies is, however, to determine
feasible ways to conduct the commissioning test such that the performance of the
FACTS controller can be tested and validated and the impact of the tests on the other
network users does not become too severe. The results of the design stage studies
and factory acceptance studies are often not even applicable to the commissioning
studies in a straightforward manner, as the commissioning tests are conducted under
typical operating conditions and not under contingency conditions, whereas the
design stage studies must be conducted under the most extreme conditions described
in the technical specification.
The studies or study related factors required at this stage of the FACTS controller
life cycle are as follows:
• Development of appropriate AC network representations describing the network

operating conditions during the period of commissioning.
• Maintaining the FACTS controller models that incorporate possible changes and
improvements that are implemented during the off- and on-site commissioning of
the FACTS controller as well as during steady-state operation tests. This also
includes maintaining the models and updating the calculations incorporating
changes made during on-site dynamic performance evaluation.
• The Contractor must define the possible operating and switching conditions for
different commissioning test. The more severe influence the tests have on oper-
ating conditions, the more extensive studies are required and also the more
restrictions are imposed on the performance of the tests. However, the dynamic
performance studies are likely to have covered the worst-case conditions, so
major study activities should not be required.
The most interesting and demanding commissioning stage studies considering the
planning of the commissioning from a system operation perspective and from
FACTS controller model validation point of view include:
• Switching of AC side reactive power banks (if any) and transformers

• Performance of secondary controls applied for damping improvement (SSDC,
POD)
• Fault ride through/recovery of FACTS controller system
The commissioning test intended to validate the operation of slower secondary

controls on the AC system performance should also be evaluated, but it may be
possible to verify this during the more severe and faster tests. Additionally, the
impact of a sudden loss of the FACTS controller due to transient and temporary
overvoltages should be studied. This event might be considered in connection with
fault recovery and AC system stability related studies and, thus, might not require
separate studies.
Although most of the studies are conducted at the design stage using EMT type
programs, at the commissioning stage, the effect of the surrounding AC network
must be checked. This might, depending on the structure of the FACTS controller as
well as on the surrounding AC network, require studying the full electromechanical
dynamics and control interactions with other facilities within the transmission
network. This basically requires the use of a transient stability program plus
co-simulation with EMT.
The following information is required for the studies:
• Customer loads (especially sensitive) and generation units nearby the FACTS
controller
• Nearby protection and control systems
• Series compensation and nearby inverter-based facilities
The information that will be required for the studies are described in the next
sections.
It should be noted that additional tests and studies (i.e., as part of the FAT or
commissioning studies and evaluation of test results) increase costs and impact the
overall time schedule. In general, all system relevant and important tests should be
performed in line with the studies performed before and tested during FAT. Relevant
input data and information should be provided at an early stage of the project,
preferably during the tender/bid stage. Commissioning studies or verifications after
commissioning are mainly performed to investigate unexpected occurrences or
events as well as to test design modifications.
At the commissioning stage, the responsibility of the simulation studies can be
divided according to the two main objectives of the commissioning stage studies:
• The Project Owner (or the utility) should be responsible for all analysis related to
the evaluation of feasible conditions for different commissioning tests. This is
because the Owner has access to the system models, information about the
sensitive customer loads, and other equipment that might be affected by the
tests conducted during the commissioning period. The Owner also has the
capability to evaluate the effect of possible sudden loss of the FACTS controller
connection on the system stability. The Owner should also avoid scheduling
maintenance of critical network components during the commissioning period
since this might prevent the most severe tests to be conducted. The commission-
ing stage studies should be started well in advance of the commissioning test
period, to facilitate operational planning for the tests.
• The Contractor should be responsible for providing:
– All changes in configuration and parameterization in the FACTS controller
system, controls
– All changes to FACTS controller models that have been made during the FAT
and during the commissioning period.
– The Owner should be informed immediately about any changes to the FACTS
controller model so that the commissioning studies may, if required, be
updated correspondingly and possible changes to test plan or the system
operation can be implemented as soon as possible.
Most importantly close cooperation and exchange of information are required

between the Owner, the Contractor, and the utility that own and/or operate the
transmission network during the whole commissioning period. It is to the Owner’s
benefit to maintain an accurate record of all changes as they are made.
5.2 Switching AC Side Filters and Transformers
The first stage of commissioning of a FACTS controller system is the connection of

any AC side reactive power elements, AC harmonic filters, and transformers for the
first time to the AC network.
All modifications implemented by the end of FAT should be included in the
control and protection system documentation and the real code in the EMT FACTS
model should be provided prior to commissioning. Updating of pre-specification
and/or repetition of design stage studies should be avoided.
The objective of the test should be to evaluate if, under certain operating
conditions or sequences of events, switching of reactive power elements/filters and
transformers will violate the voltage level or power quality criteria. Considering that
the FACTS controller most likely fulfils the design criteria, violations might be
considered unlikely. However, in case the components to be switched are relatively
large, it will be beneficial to check the effect of component switching on voltage
levels and power quality under the projected system conditions during commission-
ing. Information regarding the expected voltage changes, especially in the transmis-
sion level voltage, will be beneficial for network operators, operators of nearby
generation units, and operators of process industry as well as for other nearby
network customers.
As in other commissioning stage studies conducted using EMT, the model

applied in DPS is probably adequate, but the actual operating and switching condi-
tions during the commissioning must be considered.
5.3 Performance of the Controls Applied for Damping

Improvement
Some FACTS controllers can provide power oscillation damping (POD) and/or
sub-synchronous damping controls (SSDC) and sub-synchronous control interaction
(SSCI). These controls are most typically provided in the series FACTS controllers
such as the thyristor-controlled series compensator (TCSC), the unified power flow
controller (UPFC), and its variants, including the series static synchronous compen-
sator (SSSC), but the static var compensator (SVC) and the Static Compensator
(STATCOM) can also provide this function as has been described in ▶ Chaps. 12,
“Application Examples of SVC,” ▶ 13, “Application Examples of STATCOM,”
▶ 14, “Application Examples of the Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor,” and
▶ 15, “Application Examples of UPFC and Its Variants” in this Green Book. Such
damping control is provided by the FACTS controller either by changing the
effective series impedance of the line by a series connected FACTS controller or
by changing the AC voltage amplitude and the reactive power flow in the line using a
shunt connected FACTS controller. The series controllers are more effective than the
shunt controllers, but the shunt controllers can impact more lines at the same time.
The effectiveness of POD function of a shunt controller depends on its location and
the measured input signal (CIGRE TB 111 1996).
From a study perspective the POD, SSDC, and SSCI are the most interesting
secondary controls of FACTS controllers as their testing requires extensive system
studies. The fundamental reason for this is that POD, SSDC, and SSCI are applied to
improve the damping of electromechanical and sub-synchronous oscillations,
respectively, and their effect on system stability might be crucial under certain
operating and switching conditions. Validation of the true damping effect of
damping controls may be considered of great importance so that their damping
effect can be accounted for.
Mistuned damping controls may have a significant adverse effect on damping and
could significantly contribute to instability of electromechanical or sub-synchronous
oscillations.
As the primary testing of the damping effect at site may be very challenging to
arrange, a proper functional testing (using, e.g., signal injection) during factory tests
may be considered as reasonable proof to justify the operational use of the damping
controls. However, the importance of the controls from the perspective of the
transmission system should be the decisive factor determining the extent of testing
required at the commissioning stage.
The main objective of the study, in addition to FACTS controller model valida-
tion, is to define the system conditions under which the damping effect of POD,
SSDC, and SSCI controls can be validated in a reliable manner.
In the studies related to POD testing, the two main objectives are first to find
reasonable approaches for exciting the electromechanical oscillatory modes and,
secondly, to identify the operating conditions under which oscillations with
sufficiently high amplitudes can be excited. The TSO/NO should be able to
identify these operation scenarios in advance, and they have better knowledge
of and access to the network than the Contractor. The main factors to be varied and
evaluated during the study are those that have the most significant effect on the
damping of the electromechanical oscillation modes. Examples of such factors are
power transfers through the main AC transfer corridors, the status of power system
stabilizers, and other POD controls. The accuracy of the studies relies on
obtaining reliable generator parameters and tuning parameters of automatic volt-
age regulators (AVR) and power system stabilizers (PSS). The key output of the
study is basically a combined list of possible events capable of exciting oscilla-
tions and ranges of operating conditions under which the test can be conducted so
that the damping effect of the POD controls can be validated in a reliable and safe
manner.
The SSDC testing studies have very similar objectives and key output as the POD
studies. The operating and switching conditions suitable for validating the damping
effect as well as the system events or other similar source of excitation of
sub-synchronous oscillations must be evaluated in the SSDC commissioning studies.
The SSCI testing studies are needed when other inverter-based equipment
and/or series compensation are located in the area of the FACTS controller and
may cause control interaction with the FACTS controller. This may only be
observed with EMT using the real code of controls and protection embedded
within the inverter models.
The main difference between the POD, SSDC, and SSCI tests is that the operating
conditions required by the POD tests are in many synchronized areas dependent on
the power flows within the AC system, which is determined by the situation of the
electricity market. If the market situation is such that the power transfers required to
excite oscillations with amplitudes high enough for validation purposes cannot be
made available during the commissioning period, then the POD-related test will be
delayed until the conditions indicated by the studies is obtained. In case of SSDC,
the required operating conditions are more dependent on the availability of the
nearby unit for interaction testing as well as possibilities to alter the switching
conditions so that the testing conditions indicated by the SSDC studies can be
obtained. SSCI may only show up during contingency studies under various
power flow conditions.
In case of system-wide measurements (e.g., from a wide-area measurement
system), the recordings from the damping validation tests can be applied as part of
a continuous process that system operators perform to validate their dynamic power
system simulation models.
The network model applied in the study can basically be the one that the utility
applies for analysis of day-to-day transfer limits. The possible outages of the large
generating units and the transmission lines scheduled over the period of commis-
sioning test should be considered in the analysis. For evaluation of the SSDC
commissioning test arrangements, EMT analysis, preferably using models applied at

the stage of FACTS controller SSTI, SSCI, and SSDC tuning studies can be used.
5.4 AC System Fault Tests
One of the most important performance criteria for the FACTS controller is related to
fault recovery performance and staged tests may be conducted to validate that:
• The measured performance of the FACTS controller during recovery fulfils the
criteria set in the technical specification
• The performance is in line with the results of the analysis conducted during
design studies and factory acceptance tests
Staged AC system fault test may have severe adverse effect on other network
users, especially those having loads susceptible to rapid variations in the voltage
level. Therefore, justifying the need for the fault tests requires very detailed analysis
regarding the possible test arrangement (e.g., with respect to special switching
conditions, time of the day, impacts to voltage quality at sub transmission voltage
levels, etc.). See also CIGRE Technical Brochure 97, “System Tests for HVDC
Installations,” (CIGRE TB 97 1995). See also ▶ Chap. 22, “Commissioning of
FACTS Controllers” of this Green Book.
From the perspective of modelling, the main objective of the study is to validate
the recovery performance using EMT and transient stability model(s) during and
after AC system faults. The study should also evaluate the possible impacts of the
staged faults on the other network users and on the system stability (CIGRE TB
145 1999).
The key outputs of the study can be considered as follows:
• AC network switching conditions that limit the effect of the staged test on other
network users (especially those having sensitive loads)
• AC network operating conditions that allow the test to be conducted without risk
of subjecting the AC network to instabilities
• Type and location of the staged fault so that the above objectives are addressed
After the test has been conducted, the EMT and transient stability models of the
FACTS controller can be validated with respect to the fault recovery performance.
Based on the measurements, especially if wide-area measurements are available the
performance of other power system component and system model in general can also
be validated.
The EMT model applied in DPS must be updated so that the study can be
conducted using the typical operating and switching conditions. The system-wide
impacts of a successful or unsuccessful fault test must be evaluated in detailed using
the full-scale transient stability model and co-simulation model (if applicable) of the
AC power system.
5.5 Model Validation
The test results should be compared with the study results or field tests as part of the
validation of the models. See also ▶ Chap. 22, “Commissioning of FACTS Con-
trollers” in this Green Book which includes several examples of commissioning
validation tests for FACTS controller models.
6 Studies Over the Operational Life of the FACTS Controller
6.1 Process Overview
After successful completion of the FACTS controller commissioning tests, the

normal commercial use of the FACTS controller can begin. Maintenance studies
during the operational life of the FACTS controller can be divided into three different
groups that are described more in detail in the following sections:
• Transmission network planning and operational studies

• Post-disturbance analysis and model validation studies
• Pre-specification studies of new transmission and generation equipment or
FACTS controller refurbishment
One common item for all these groups of studies is that the prerequisite for
obtaining credible study results is the availability of a validated and fully operational
FACTS controller model. The availability of the models required for the operational
phase studies should be addressed in the FACTS controller specification. It’s worth
recognizing that on a daily basis typically only the models suitable for load flow and
transient stability and co-simulation studies are used for transmission network
planning and operational studies. However, the long-term need for other types of
models like EMT should be considered in the technical specification for any FACTS
controller project. The technical specification should include the requirement for the
Contractor to provide an EMT model and a transient stability model, preferably
before commissioning.
At the stage of the FACTS controller design (including factory testing) and
commissioning the model of the FACTS controller will be used and tested exten-
sively as discussed in Sects. 4 and 5, and after the commissioning process the
FACTS controller model is typically ready to be used for network planning and
operational studies. However, while all the most severe and challenging operational
conditions and disturbances described in the specification can and should be tested
during factory testing, at the site the extent of model, validation is usually limited
mainly to tests that have minor or modest impact on the transmission networks.
Therefore, as described in Sect. 6.3, the further model validation should be carried
out in connection with post-disturbance analysis. This analysis should be performed
after every major disturbance to evaluate and validate the models of the transmission
network, the FACTS controller, and other components (e.g. wind farms, generators,
other power electronic controllers, etc.) to achieve models that can provide the true
behavior of the transmission network. Faults recorders associated with the FACTS
controller should have suitable trigger conditions, agreed with the Contractor.
The FACTS controller specification should define the models required for the
main study purposes of the Owner and the TSO.
Another issue affecting the availability and usability of the models is their
maintainability. To guarantee the maintainability of the models and consequently
their usability over a full life cycle of the FACTS controller or even until the
refurbishment of the FACTS control and automation system (15–25 years) presents
a true challenge from the FACTS controller modelling perspective due to contin-
uous development of simulation programs and platforms applied to run the pro-
grams. The model maintainability topic is further addressed in Sect. 7.
The analysis of the transmission network, both planning and post-disturbance
related, is the responsibility of the network Owners and the Operator(s) responsible
for the development and operation of the transmission network.
6.2 Transmission Network Planning and Operational Studies
The bulk of the system studies conducted by Transmission System Operators consist
of transmission network planning and operational studies. The planning studies are
conducted typically for various time frames:
• Long-term scenario-based planning for bulk power transmission investments

• Mid-term investment planning for regional transmission adequacy and security
• Short-term operational planning for maintenance and construction-related con-
gestion planning
• Near real-time or real-time system security analysis for congestion and transmis-
sion capability analysis
The tools applied for the studies vary mainly depending on the inherent charac-
teristics of the transmission network, which defines the required system analysis
tools to manage the different planning and operational aspects. Also, the approaches
applied for long-term planning or congestion management may impact the analysis
and consequently the FACTS controller modelling requirements (CIGRE TB
301 2006; CIGRE TB 700 2017).
FACTS controller models are typically required for the planning and operation
studies (as outlined in the Sect. 2 of ▶ Chap. 17, “FACTS Planning Studies.” The
studies are most typically carried out using different load flow and short circuit
analysis tools and different transient and/or small-signal stability tools. Common for
all these studies is that the AC transmission network and its equipment is modelled
based on the best available knowledge and in widest practical extent so that the
impact of the all-relevant power system component will be considered in the
analysis. This can be considered as a continuous process supported by the post-
disturbance analysis described in Sect. 6.3.
The main modelling requirement for an existing FACTS controller is straightfor-

ward; the model needs to be validated, and they should represent in a realistic
manner the relevant characteristics of the FACTS controller considering the scope
of the study. Whereas such requirements are obvious for production of credible
results, the requirements might cause the computational burden of a single FACTS
controller model to become relatively high. In fact, the computational burden may
become a significant issue if several detailed FACTS controller models must be
included as a part of a large AC network model. In such cases FACTS controller
models representing only the most relevant performance characteristics might be
needed, and such needs must obviously be addressed at the stage when writing the
technical specification. Parallel processing with or without co-simulation is a cred-
ible and now state-of-the-art way to deal with computational burden resulting from
more detailed models. From the FACTS controller modelling perspective, other
projected FACTS controller projects in the mid- and long-term planning stage
studies also need to be considered. Obviously, for the projected/planned new
FACTS controller projects, no detailed and validated FACTS controller models are
available. Therefore, for those studies generic FACTS controller benchmark models
that are available for shunt and series FACTS controller systems may be used.
However, the benchmark models represent performance characteristics of a typical
FACTS controller, which may not be applicable to the future FACTS controller,
particularly if it will have a significant impact on the performance of the power
system on a local or a system-wide level. In such cases it might be beneficial to
contact FACTS controller vendors to obtain models that provide more realistic
performance characteristics for those special cases. The results of these planning
studies often provide important information for the pre-specification studies.
It is the responsibility of the designers of future power electronic-based facilities
to ensure that their product will perform acceptably with this FACTS controller as
existing equipment. With the rapidly changing electric power system, it is virtually
impossible to predict what it will be. For example, as aging infrastructure is retired,
its replacements will be structured and controlled differently with more power
electronics that is integrated into a digital control of things.
6.3 Post-disturbance Analysis (Model Validation Studies)
In general, the fundamental objectives for post-disturbance analysis are to:
• Establish understanding of the power system performance and its components

under stressed and/or extreme conditions
• Validate the models that are used for design, planning, and operation of the
transmission network and its equipment
Although the nature of the post-disturbance studies varies widely because differ-
ent disturbances are interesting from the perspective of different power system
phenomena as well as for different power system components, the basic study
flow and requirements are the same for all the approaches.
The post-disturbance analysis for model validation purposes has four main pre-
requisites, which are:
1. Disturbance recordings of relevant system parameters and with adequate sam-

pling resolution considering the phenomena of interest and the models to be
validated.
2. Equipment and component models providing enough flexibility so that the
parameters and the structure of the models can be varied or the component models
can be replaced by more accurate ones.
3. AC network model with relevant level of detail and extent required by the
analysis of the disturbance in a relevant manner.
4. Information of the pre- and post-disturbance operating conditions of the relevant
equipment and relevant parts of the transmission network.
From the FACTS controller modelling perspective, both the availability of

suitable FACTS controller models and the fault recorders (at least transient fault
recorders and power swing recorders with adequate recording capacity and capabil-
ity) should be addressed when writing the FACTS controller specification. The role
of the FACTS controller considering the performance of the transmission network
and possible interactions between the FACTS controller and other power system
components should be considered when creating the specifications and when deter-
mining the triggering criteria for the recorders.
6.4 Pre-specification Studies of New Transmission

and Generation Equipment
During the life cycle of a FACTS controller system, it is likely that the transmission
network will change including other FACTS controllers, new/upgraded lines, gen-
eration equipment, or solar or wind power plant. In addition to the typical feasibility
stage studies related to network adequacy and stability, large scale projects might at
the feasibility study stage require special studies, for which more detailed FACTS
controller models than the ones used in typical transmission network and operational
planning studies. Therefore, a more detailed, transient stability and EMT simulation
model of the FACTS controller systems becomes more important. Furthermore, the
model provided at the project stage might not be useful after 5–10 years unless the
model is maintainable, which should be dealt with as appropriate already at the
specification stage.
The FACTS controller model may become part of the AC network model for
specification and implementation studies of future FACTS (and other) controllers.
When specifying the models for a FACTS controller, the ability to use the controller
model, including by other Contractors, needs to be considered.
The detailed FACTS controller model also becomes important when the time
comes to refurbish the control and automation system of the original FACTS
controller.
7 Model Maintainability
7.1 Introduction
The network operators apply the FACTS controller models for three main purposes:
• Operational planning
• Post-disturbance analysis
• For various network planning-related studies
Especially, in case of new large generators, wind farms or FACTS controllers

being planned for installation in the vicinity of existing FACTS controller systems,
detailed FACTS controller models for the existing systems are required for the
studies, to guarantee that the future system will operate satisfactorily and safely
and that no adverse interactions will arise under any operating condition. Therefore,
valid FACTS controller models and valid power system component models in
general are critical tools for transmission network planning, design and operation.
Addressing the models’ maintainability issues must therefore be considered through-
out the FACTS controller’s life cycle.
Model maintainability is very important especially seen from the power system
planning and operation point of view. However, thoroughly validated, realistic
models are worth nothing in case the program, software or platform on which the
model has been created is lost or left unsupported some years after the models were
delivered.
The Owner of the FACTS controller is responsible for the upkeep of the models.
However, in case of merchant FACTS controller systems, the Owner of the system
rarely uses the model, but the models are required by the network operator. In such
cases arrangements and/or bilateral agreements between the Owner of the FACTS
controller and the network operators are required. These issues should be addressed
in the technical specification as well as in the connection agreement of the merchant
FACTS controller system. Some network operators outline their requirements for
merchant FACTS controller systems in their grid connection requirements that are
typically included in the connection agreement.
In this section general aspects related to modelling requirements and model
maintainability are addressed, different approaches to overcome the problems
related model maintainability are presented, and possible development trends are
discussed.
7.2 Challenges to Model Maintainability
Model maintainability is a very challenging topic. The inherent problem is related to

the fact that the estimated operating life of FACTS controller can be up to
30–50 years, whereas significant new version of power system analysis programs
may be released every 2–5 years. However, the expected life of the control system is
typically only 10–15 years, and when the control system is replaced, the new control
system needs to be validated again, and models would be produced.
Although compatibility with the older version and related custom models is
evidently one of the issues that are addressed in development of new versions of
simulation software, compatibility of the custom component models cannot be
guaranteed as the platforms and the operating systems applied to create and to
operate software change all the time. An obvious way to overcome the software
and the platform related issues would be to provide the detailed models with open-
source code, so that the source code could be re-compiled or syntax modified
depending on the nature of the changes that come along with the new software
platforms and operating systems. This, however, would require:
• The utility using the model to maintain skilled personnel to deal with the source
code
• The FACTS controller vendors to hand over trade-secret information
Both options are challenging and difficult to achieve in practice considering the
competitive business environment. It will be necessary that black-boxed models of
power electronic equipment with the actual code of their controls and protections
embedded within and updated as needed be available to connect to any simulation
software through standardized connections, which are not yet available at the time of
this publication.
The upkeep of the models has a number of challenges. First of all, if the Owner of
the FACTS controller or the utility operating the FACTS controller systems do not
have all of the information needed for the detailed modelling, they cannot keep the
models up to date. To what extent it is reasonable to expect a utility to attain, hold,
retain and nurture the expertise needed for maintaining the models is an economic
and strategic issue. Therefore, the Owners and the network operators need to
understand the factors affecting the FACTS controller performance so that the
requirement set for the models can be identified and compromises reached for the
modelling work.
Another significant issue is related to the fact that the maintainability is not
managed only by a few parties involved with the use of project specific FACTS
controller models but also the vendors of the computer operating systems and
programming platforms affect the maintainability of the models. If the changes in
the operating systems and/or in programming platforms change in a manner that
affect the compatibility of the compiled models (or their subroutines), the usability of
the model may be lost due to reasons that are not dependent either on the vendor of
the simulation tool, the Contractor of the FACTS controller model, the Owner of the
FACTS controller, or the network operator.
Related to this, a similar challenge, perhaps of a somewhat smaller scale, is
related to the fact that the simulation tools and development platforms are not
developed by the same companies that are obliged to provide the simulation models.
This issue can, at least in principle, be managed better if the cooperation between the
Contractors of the FACTS controllers and the vendors of the main simulation tools is
close, as the simulation tools are becoming more and more deeply integrated into the
FACTS controller design process.
Since Contractor provided simulation models usually require protection of pro-
prietary data through non-disclosure agreements, CIGRE Working Group B4.82
“Guidelines for Use of Real-Code in EMT Models for HVDC, FACTS and Inverter
based generators in Power Systems Analysis” which is also being coordinated with
an IEEE Task Force, was formed in 2019 to hopefully agree a solution to this issue.
The desired end objective is to develop the basis for a standard that would establish a
format for Contractors to supply their various equipment models into a secure
Dynamic Link Library (DLL) for all main EMT and hopefully transient stability
programs. Some Contractors may still require their DLL model to be treated as
proprietary for use only through non-disclosure agreements.
In this way, transient stability through co-simulation with EMT models or in just
EMT simulations will have FACTS and inverter-based equipment models function-
ing for studies. The EMT DLL would essentially be a “black box” and have the
actual control and protection codes embedded that reflect into the transient stability
co-simulations or EMT-based simulations. If an update to the control and protection
code of a FACTS controller is implemented by its Contractor, perhaps as a request of
its Owner or transmission operator, then a replacement DLL would have to be made
available.
Considering the standard that will hopefully develop out of the DLL approach
being promoted by CIGRE Working Group B4.82 and the associated IEEE Task
Force, the above challenges will be mitigated for EMT FACTS models with revised
DLLs being updated and made available by the responsible Contractors. A benefit is
the DLL could run on most EMT platforms and reflected into transient stability
models operating with co-simulation if connection direct to transient stability pro-
grams is not possible. One possibility is a registry be developed and managed for
non-proprietary DLL models indicating from where they can be downloaded. Who
would manage such a registry will need to be determined!
7.3 Approaches to Model Maintainability
In this section four different approaches to provision of the project specific models
are presented:
• Black-box models and dynamic linked libraries (DLLs)

• Provisions of the source code
• Simplified response models to complement detailed models
• Replica of control and protection systems cubicles
7.3.1 Black-Box Models

Basically, all detailed models provided by Contractors are black-box models to
some extent, as the detailed information regarding the implementation of algo-
rithms applied in signal processing and control implementation is typically
considered as trade secrets. The typical approaches vary from full black-box
models to partial black-box models. In full black-box and DLL models, the
whole FACTS controller model is provided as closed source code, and users are
only able to access the model through an interface providing some settable
parameters (e.g., selection of control reference values, parameters of secondary
controls or activation and deactivation of secondary controls) and fixed measure-
ment channels providing the information of the behavior of the main control
signals and AC system quantities, e.g., AC voltage.
The inherent problem with black-box or DLL models is related to changes in the
software environment where the simulation program and the black-box model are
operated. In this context it is worth also mentioning problems related to the usability
of the black-box models. Usability problems are typically related to studies that
would require modification of the parameterization or the structure of the secondary
controls. Such problems may be overcome by addressing these needs in the technical
specification in connection with the model. Black-box models may also inhibit
conducting sensitivity analysis in cases where, for example, performance of network
expansion studies addressing, e.g., the installation of new converters in the vicinity
of the existing FACTS controller, is considered. The black-box models may also
complicate the debugging of the simulation models in case the results indicate that
the performance of the FACTS controller model does not align with the expected
performance. To avoid such a situation, the way the model should be documented as
well as the extent of closed-source code related to FACTS controller model to be
delivered should be addressed in the technical specification. The standard to evolve
out of the CIGRE Working Group B4.82 and the IEEE Task Force will require all
EMT programs to conform to a process that will allow DLLs to connect directly in to
any EMT program.
Additionally, as the level of detail of the control and protection system is
typically very high because the black-box model may contain the full control
and protection algorithms as implemented, the computational burden of black-
box models may become very high. Consequently, simulations may take very long
unless modern parallel computing of EMT simulation is applied, which is rapidly
becoming standard practice. However, the high level of detail results in complex
models.
Simplified response models may be used to manage the computational burdens.
Whereas the response models tend also to make the use of the model more straight-
forward, the loss of details emphasizes the need for the users to understand the effect
of the simplifications on the simulation results obtained using the simplified model.
Furthermore, a DLL model will generally contain all the accuracy of the FACTS
controller and respond accordingly in EMT simulations with the potential to
perform the same as when in the actual power system. Each DLL can be loaded
into its own computer core for parallel operation with its calculation time step
independent of the main EMT network simulation calculation time step. This will
ease the computational burden.
7.3.2 Provision of the Source Code

One solution to maintain the model during the life cycle of the equipment is for the
Owner to get the control system source code. The rest of the data, i.e., the parameters
of the electrical component, should be available in the technical documentation of
When the source code is provided to the client, the Contractor can provide the
design environment and source code of the control system so that the source code
could be re-compiled or syntax modified. In some cases, the source code is in the
form of a graphical block programming language. The Contractor can provide the
client with the complete software environment to generate models or DLLs from the
source code.
To overcome the software- and the platform-related issues, the Contractor can
provide the client with the detailed description of the control and protection system.
This description can be provided in the form of detailed block diagrams. A
non-disclosure agreement can be signed to assure confidentiality.
Model delivery can include:
• Complete environment that enables generation of the detailed model from source
code to static or dynamic linked libraries.
• Source code of the complete control and protection system used to generate the
detailed models.
• A support period covering the developing environment and source code. During
this period the supplier is responsible for maintaining similarity between the real
controller and the source code provided to the client. These can be the same using
a DLL model with embedded source code that would be updated and re-released
when the actual FACTS controller source code is revised.
• A documentation of the environment including a description of the functions used
to generate the detailed model or DLL.
However, Contractors are often reluctant to provide customers with source

code, especially for new technologies. Sometimes an agreement can be made
between the client and Contractor in order to provide the source code sometime
after the equipment installation. It is also possible to create agreements between the
Contractor and the client that result in passing the source code to the client in
response to certain pre-defined circumstances, e.g., the insolvency of the
Contractor.
7.3.3 Simplified Response Models to Complement Detailed Models

Simplified response models in which the control system model does not involve
highly detailed representation of the implementation, but the components of the
FACTS controller have been modelled using the same models of individual compo-
nents as in the detailed models. Instead, the Contractor-specific implementation of,
e.g., synchronization and measurement algorithms has been replaced using generic
well-known modelling approaches. Although the high level of detail, such as the
fault recovery performance, may be lost, the objective of the replacement is that the
response model provides similar general response characteristics as the highly
detailed models. Transient stability models include some of this simplification as
part of their representation of the AC network.
Due to the open nature of the implementation of the general models, the model
maintainability issues are inherently addressed. Even if the source code level might
not be accessible in a straightforward manner, the structure and the parameters are
typically known, which allows implementation of the response model even using
new simulation environment.
Simplified response models can be considered also to offer several advantages.
Due to open-source code or open structure of the models, they are easy to modify,
and thus, they serve well as planning models. As a result of the lower level of detail
involved in using the response models as compared with detailed models, the
computational burden encountered using the response models might be significantly
lower. This could be beneficial if the component models are required for analysis of
large interconnected systems. Such issues may arise along with the increase in the
number of large wind farms, models of which are presently black-box models
causing high computational burdens.
The obvious drawback related to the use of simplified models is that they are less
realistic and using them involves apparent risks of erroneous results since the system
may not be completely correct for the studied system event. Such risks are increased
if there would be a need to use the simplified model to study the possible interactions
between the existing FACTS controller modelled using a simplified model and new
FACTS controller or any controllable components (wind, solar, HVDC, energy
storage, etc.) modelled using detailed model. Use of simplified models for such
detailed design studies may result in false implementation of control or protection
features, which may have severe consequences due to unwanted or unexpected
operation of both new and existing equipment. Therefore, for such component or
protection design study purposes, the detailed models should be available or should
be made available.
The most typical application of the FACTS controller model is for the operational
planning and network planning purposes where modelling risk may be considered to
be low if the FACTS controller does not have a decisive impact on the performance
of the transmission network. As more inverter-based technologies are installed
within the transmission network, the potential for control interaction between their
controllers increases. Exact models may become necessary.
However, even if the use of a response model for daily system studies
is considered adequate, it requires an in-depth knowledge about the true perfor-
mance and response characteristics of the studied component so that the validity
of the results can be evaluated based on the simulated response of the component.
However, knowing the true behavior of the studied system is an inherent
requirement involved in system performance analysis and simulation, as all the

models are approximations of the true behavior of the components. Upkeep of such
information by the users of the response models is a challenging task.
Requiring the FACTS controller Contractor to provide the following information
may help in understanding when simplified and detailed models are recommended
for respective study.
• Bandwidth at which the accurate representation can be expected

• Single phase/three phase representation
• Excluded control functions
• Saturation effects
7.3.4 Replica of Control and Protection Systems Cubicles

In order to facilitate maintenance and operation of the control and protection
system of the FACTS controller systems, a replica of the control and protection
system’s cubicles can be included in the scope of supply. The control system
replicas allow the customer to have an exact copy of the control systems cubicles
in their training or laboratory facilities. Control systems replicas are connected to a
real-time simulator in order to perform different network and protection perfor-
mance studies or for operator training purposes. This option is sometimes specified
for HVDC systems, but because of the relatively high costs of the required real-
time simulator (RTS), it is rare for FACTS controllers, unless the Owner already
has access to an RTS. To reduce costs of the replica, the replica is sometimes
simplified by removing aspects like redundant controls. A detailed model for the
power electronic valve can also be included; this typically includes a simulator for
the modelling of the converter valves, typically realized using a field-
programmable gate array (FPGA) for FACTS controllers based on chain-link
voltage-source converter.
A replica may be used to investigate and validate upgrades of the control cubicles
for the converters. For each upgrade, an upgrading procedure can be written by the
Contractor. If a specific upgrading procedure is required, the procedure can be
validated, when applicable, by the client using the replica before the upgrade of
the control cubicles is performed. The use of a control systems replica can be very
helpful for maintenance of the control system models. These replicas can be used as
references to validate model updates during the life of the FACTS controller
equipment.
Wide area EMT simulations are becoming more standard for system studies with
increasing numbers of inverter-based facilities and FACTS controllers. Each
inverter-based facility when modelled accurately in a DLL along with parallel
simulation of large, wide area networks is an alternative to hardware-based control
system replicas for system studies. This is a much lower cost option for system
studies with DLLs in EMT rather than acquiring hardware-based control systems
and an RTS.
7.4 Future Prospects in Modelling and Model Maintainability
As electric power systems become integrated with fast responding controllers such
as FACTS controllers, wind farms, HVDC systems including LCC and VSC, as well
as DC grids, system inertia is effectively being reduced. The challenge with system
inertia decreases is that the AC frequency control becomes more difficult, and the
possibility of inter-area oscillations increases. The above fast responding power
electronic controllers are often not well modelled in transient stability fundamental
frequency (RMS) programs because in their models, fast responding control loops
are not represented or represented using approximations. Consequently, there is an
increasing need for accurate EMT models of these systems, but even those would be
inadequate if they do not accommodate full electromechanical performance charac-
teristics. Therefore, there is a need to combine the best of both transient stability
(RMS) models and EMT models that allow the area and controllers of interest to be
accurately investigated in studies to ensure a good understanding of system perfor-
mance when the actual facilities are brought into operation.
The reduction of system inertia and short circuit capacity with the proliferation of
inverter-based generators and controllers will be remedied with grid forming
inverters. Such inverters need to be able to regulate transient power which is
generally not possible with FACTS controllers. A shunt FACTS controller such as
a STATCOM with a battery connected to its DC circuit could function as grid
forming (Irwin 2018).
In order to ensure the best performance of the AC system at the customer level
with a network with fast responding HVDC systems, wind farms, and FACTS
controller systems, special network controls will be required. Such special network
controls could among other things act on the fast responding controllers to maintain
the AC voltage and dampen interarea power swings. At the high-voltage level,
special network controls may come under the generic term of “smart grids.” The
design and modelling of special network controls will become the new challenge in
the field of power system studies. It will also require Contractors to make available
accurate models of the equipment they have supplied for installation in the networks,
even if they interact or have to operate with other controllers built by competitors.
8 Cross-References
▶ Application Examples of STATCOM
▶ Application Examples of SVC
▶ Application Examples of the Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor
▶ Application Examples of UPFC and Its Variants
▶ Commissioning of FACTS Controllers
▶ Environmental Considerations for FACTS Projects
▶ FACTS Equipment Design and Testing
▶ FACTS Planning Studies
▶ Lifetime Management of FACTS Controllers

References
Agrawal, B.L., Farmer, R.G.: Use of frequency scanning techniques for subsynchronous resonance
analysis. IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-98, Issue: 2, IEEE
(1979)
Anderson, P.M., Farmer, R.G.: Series Compensation of Power Systems. PBLSH! Inc., Encinitas
(1996)
Anderson, P.M., Fouad, A.A.: Power System Control and Stability. Piscataway, N.J.: IEEE Press
(1993)
CIGRE CC02: Guide for assessing the network harmonic impedance. Electra 167, Aug 1996
CIGRE JTF 36.05.02/14.03.03: AC system modelling for AC filter design – an overview of
impedance modelling. Electra 164, Feb 1996
CIGRE TB 051: Load flow control in high voltage power systems, Jan 1996
CIGRE TB 111: Analysis and control of power system oscillations. Task force 07 of Advisory
Group 01 of Study Committee 38, Dec 1996
CIGRE TB 139: Guide to the specification and design evaluation of AC filters for facts controllers,
Apr 1999
CIGRE TB 145: Modeling of power electronics equipment (FACTS) in load flow and stability
programs: a representation guide for power system planning and analysis, 1999
CIGRE TB 301: Congestion management in liberalized market environment, Aug 2006
CIGRE TB 553: Special aspects of AC filter design for HVDC systems, 2013
CIGRE TB 563: Modelling and simulation studies to be performed during the lifecycle of HVDC
systems, 2013
CIGRE TB 700: Challenge in the control centre (EMS) due to distributed generation and renew-
ables, 2017
CIGRE TB 766: Network modelling for harmonic studies, 2019
CIGRE Technical Brochure 97: System tests for FACTS controller installations, Aug 1995
CIGRE/IEEE guide for “Planning DC links terminating at AC locations having low short-circuit
capabilities, part I: AC/DC interaction phenomenon,” 1992
EPRI Report EL-2708: HVDC system control for damping subsynchronous oscillations. Final
report of project RP1425-1. Prepared by General Electric Company, Oct 1982
Irwin, G.D.: Wind/Solar/VSC/Statcoms and other inertia-less controllers – how to fix weak system
SCR problems. ESIG Blog https://www.esig.energy/wind-solar-vsc-statcoms-and-other-
inertialess-devices-how-to-fix-weak-system-scr-problems/. 20 Dec 2018
Irwin, G.D., Amarasinghe, C., Kroecker, N., Woodford, D.: Parallel processing and hybrid simu-
lation for HVDC PSCAD studies, Paper B6.1, AC and DC power transmission (ACDC 2012),
10th IET international conference on AC and DC power transmission, Birmingham, UK (2012)
Katz, E., Tang, J., Bowler, C.E.J., Agrawal, B.L., Farmer, R.G., Demcko, J.A.: Comparison of
SSR calculations and test results. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 4, Issue: 1, IEEE
(1989)
Dr. Bjarne R. Andersen is the Director and Owner of Andersen

commercial VSC HVDC project to use an HVDC overhead line,
and a VSC HVDC project for multi-terminal operation permitting
initiated several working groups in the area of HVDC grids. He is
an Honorary Member of CIGRE and was the 2012 recipient of the
Dennis Woodford graduated from the University of Melbourne

in 1967 and with a Master’s degree from the University of Man-
itoba in 1973. From 1967 until 1970, he worked with English
Electric and spent a portion of his time at Stafford in the UK
working on Bipole I of the Nelson River HVDC project. In 1973
he joined Manitoba Hydro and became Special Studies Engineer
in Transmission Planning where he worked on the
Winnipeg–Twin Cities 500 kV interconnection and the Nelson
River HVDC project, Bipoles I and II.
He joined the Manitoba HVDC Research Centre as Executive
Director from 1986 to 2001 when he helped start and became
President of Electranix Corporation, a consulting company based
in Winnipeg. He is a registered Professional Engineer with the
Province of Manitoba and a former Adjunct Professor at the
University of Manitoba. He is a Life Fellow of the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers and a foreign member of the
National Academy of Engineering.
Dr Geoff Love graduated from the University of Canterbury

with a BE(hons) in 2002 and also from the University of Canter-
bury, with a PhD in 2006. From 2006 to 2014, Geoff worked for
Transpower New Zealand, working as a network planning engi-
neer and also in the development and commissioning of the Pole
3 HVDC project and various STATCOMs in the
New Zealand Grid.
From 2014 Geoff has worked for PSC Consulting, firstly in
Reading, UK, and since 2016 in Dublin, Ireland. For PSC Geoff
has worked with various European TSOs and European HVDC
projects. Since 2018 Geoff is the CIGRE-B4 Study Committee
Member for the Republic of Ireland.
FACTS Equipment Design and Testing
21
Hubert Bilodeau, Bruno Bisewski, Manfredo Lima, Shukai Xu, Bo Lei,
and Ben Mehraban
Contents
1 Project Management During Planning and Design Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922
1.1 Duties of the Owner’s Implementation Team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923
1.2 Vendor’s Project Management Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
1.3 Contracting Strategies and Contract Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
1.4 Contract Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929
1.5 Project Implementation Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930
H. Bilodeau (*)
Retired from Hydro-Québec, Montreal, QC, Canada
e-mail: hbilo@ieee.org
B. Bisewski
e-mail: bisewski@rbjengineering.com
M. Lima
S. Xu
e-mail: xusk@csg.cn
B. Lei
Energy Storage and Power Electronics, HVDC and Power Electronics Department, EPRI of China
Southern Power Grid, Guangzhou, China
e-mail: straight__b@163.com
B. Mehraban
American Electric Power, Columbus, OH, USA
e-mail: bmehraban@aep.com

922 H. Bilodeau et al.
2 FACTS Equipment Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934

2.1 General Testing Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934
2.2 Primary Equipment Factory Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936
2.3 Control and Protection Equipment Factory Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941
2.4 Discrete Protection System Tests (Not Embedded in Control System) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956
2.5 Cooling System Factory Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956
2.6 Site Testing and Commissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956
2.7 Performance Monitoring Period: Reliability and Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956
3 Example of FST/FAT Tests for the Ceará Mirim SVC in Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
3.1 Ceará Mirim SVC Main Circuit Component Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
3.2 Ceará Mirim SVC Closed-Loop Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
3.3 Ceará Mirim SVC Additional Control Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 959
3.4 Degraded Modes of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960
3.5 Coordination Between Electrically Close SVCs to Avoid Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960
3.6 Real-Time Hardware-In-The-Loop (HIL) Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962
3.7 Step Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963
3.8 Performance Under Strong Disturbance Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966
Abstract
This chapter covers the period from project conception to completion of factory
testing, primarily from the viewpoint of the client/purchaser (owner) of the
FACTS system. It includes discussion of:
• Owner’s planning and project development

• Project management (owner and vendor)
• Technical review of contractor’s studies and design documents
• Primary equipment testing – type tests, batch tests, and routine tests
• Control system tests – factory system tests (FST) and factory acceptance tests
(FAT)
• Operating, maintenance, and fault-finding manuals
• Factory testing of control and protection
1 Project Management During Planning and Design Phases
A typical sequence of project stages from initial concept to commercial operation

would include the following phases and related activities:
(a) Project development and pre-award phase

• Planning studies to define project need and location
• Ratings
• Overall functional performance objectives
(b) Specification, evaluation, and award phase
• Detailed performance and equipment requirements
21 FACTS Equipment Design and Testing 923
• Environmental requirements
• Codes and standards
• Limits of supply and interfaces
• Contract conditions
• Bidding documents
• Evaluation and award
(c) Project implementation phase
• Design studies, calculations, drawings, and documentation
• Construction
• Main circuit and control equipment testing
• Site equipment installation
• Commissioning and site performance verification
(d) Commercial operation phase
At each stage of the project, different groups or personnel within the owner’s
organization may be involved in the project to provide input and guidance and make
decisions concerning technical and commercial aspects of the project.
It is assumed that the owner would assign a project sponsor to oversee the entire
acquisition process from initial planning to commercial operation. At each phase of
the project, the project sponsor would set up or configure the management and
engineering team with distinct areas of responsibility so as to carry out the required
activities within that project phase and ensure a smooth handoff to the team
performing the next phase of the project.
In setting up the teams, the project sponsor may draw on expertise within the
following groups:
• Project management
• Legal and finance groups
• Network planning
• System development and performance group
• Engineering and technical design
• Environmental and regulatory approvals group
• Network operations group
• Asset management and maintenance group
If the owner’s organization requires outside assistance in any area, the project
sponsor would identify the needs and make arrangements to obtain the required
assistance at each stage of the project.
1.1 Duties of the Owner’s Implementation Team
The project management group performs an integrative function tying together all of
the other activities. This group will lead the implementation of the project by
managing the planning process and leading the stakeholder consultations as

required. The project management group will also determine the contracting strat-
egy, scope, interfaces, and limits of supply in the constituent contracts forming the
complete project. The group will manage internal resources and specialist outside
resources in addition to managing the contract and overall project schedule after the
vendor has been selected. Feasibility studies to investigate any environmental
constraints that may be necessary as part of the footprint planning are also managed
by this group.
The legal and finance groups would provide the project manager with legal
financial advice to efficiently manage the procurement process and to choose the
best procurement strategy that ensures value for money for the owner. These groups
will also provide the contractual and commercial conditions of contract and will also
obtain financial approval and arrange project funding if required.
The function of the network planning group is to perform the studies that
first identify the need for an SVC or FACTS controller. The planning group
would establish the general characteristics and evaluate the required and allo-
wed operational parameters from a system performance perspective and iden-
tify a suitable node and transmission voltage level for integration of the FACTS
controller into the AC system. The technical design task should provide a list of
functional requirements that will constitute the inputs for the engineering
design. It is expected that the network planning group would define the
following:
• Steady state and short-time ratings for both supply and absorption (and energy
storage if applicable)
• Required speed of response for transients
• Reliability requirements and consequence of outages
• Location and voltage of the interconnection
• Date when the facility would be required
A specialized system development and performance group would normally

perform more detailed technical performance studies and investigations to fully
define the conditions under which the FACTS controller would be required to
operate. These activities would be aimed at defining AC system characteristics at
the point of coupling:
• Power quality requirements (such as voltage change on switching)

• Response and recovery time requirements
• Technology selection
• Low-voltage ride-through requirements
• Equipment high-voltage withstand requirements
• Overvoltage limiting requirements
• Maximum and minimum short circuit levels
• Maximum and minimum steady state and short-time system voltage and
frequency
• System unbalance and negative sequence component
• System harmonic impedance, pre-existing harmonic levels, and harmonic perfor-
mance requirements
• Value of losses
• Daily or annual load/output characteristics of the FACTS controller
The engineering and technical design group would review the data provided by
the planning and system performance groups and ensure that the new FACTS
controller can be successfully incorporated into the selected substation location. Its
tasks would be to develop the preliminary equipment design and specification by
translating functional requirements into equipment design while taking into account
one-line drawings, site access, site layouts and constraints, environmental require-
ments, applicable codes and standards, civil design, protection, performance require-
ments, operator control, interfaces, reliability, major spares and redundancy,
construction, and commissioning and maintenance.
The engineering design group would compile data such as site and environmental
conditions, equipment specifications, maintenance and spares requirements, inter-
faces and limits of supply, etc.
To the extent that these are known, the studies, reports, drawings, and other
documentation required by the owner would be specified in detail in the contract
documents so that there is a common understanding of the requirements. The final
contingent of studies and reports to be prepared would be discussed and agreed
during the bid evaluation and contract award period.
Operational planning and strategies–securing outages for maintenance and con-
struction, Control/SCADA requirements and cybersecurity requirements are under
the responsibility of the network operations team. Their involvement still continues
beyond commissioning.
The asset management group and maintenance group should be involved in final
acceptance of the equipment. It is critical to engage this group early in order to
ensure that the FACTS controller will meet the required standards and service
specifications and meet all maintenance requirements. The asset management
group may define preferred vendors for certain components (i.e., batteries, test
switches) in order to standardize certain equipment across the owner’s complete
system (fleet management). It also needs to be satisfied that the equipment will meet
the long-term performance goals.
After the planning specification has been completed, further data and require-
ments need to be compiled to define requirements such as site and environmental
conditions, equipment specifications, maintenance and spares requirements, inter-
faces and limits of supply, etc.
A typical owner project team structure and workflow for a FACTS project is
shown in Fig. 1.
926
Owner’s Project Team

Planning Consents
Project Mangement and Stakeholder Feasibility Study
Contract and Schedule
Consultation
Issues being considered:
Interface, Standards, etc.
General
Network Planning SVC Installation/
characteristics and
and System Outage Equipment Design
From System Perspective allowed technical
Development Planning
parameters
Functional
Technical Design
Requirements
Review
Engineering Design Best Strategy

Procurement Commissioning
Operational Applied
Planning and
Issues being considered: Securing outages for
Construction and Commissioning, Control/SCADA
Strategies
requirements, Cyber Security, etc.
Network Operations
Financial and Legal
and Commercial
Requirements
Finance and Legal

Obtain
Financial Approval
Define Preferred vendors for some equipment

Asset Management Final Acceptance of Equipment
Fig. 1 General owner’s team structure and workflow for a FACTS project
H. Bilodeau et al.
1.2 Vendor’s Project Management Structure
The vendor’s project team is for the most part a matter of its internal concern.
However, the owner will have interest in the following key personnel that will
interface with the owner’s implementation team:
• Overall project manager

• Lead technical designer for main circuit design
• Lead technical designer for control and protection
• Site managers
• Lead personnel of major subcontractors
The bidding documents would generally require that the bidder provides CVs and
references for all key personnel so they can be considered in the evaluation. Key
personnel will be required to attend pre-award meetings. Change of key personnel by
the vendor generally requires the owner’s agreement.
1.3 Contracting Strategies and Contract Packaging
When the limits of supply have been defined, the owner’s project management team
can define the contracts needed to implement the project and related equipment.
Often there are parts of the equipment such as the AC switches and circuit breakers
that could be designed and procured by the owners engineering team, and these
would be identified as being outside of the main vendor contract. However, the
vendor would be asked to identify in his bid if there are any special requirements for
this category of equipment.
For most of the other equipment, there could be implications on rating or
performance, and therefore, to ensure that design responsibility will not be disputed,
the owner realistically has only two practical contracting options:
(a) Turnkey engineering, procurement, and construction (EPC) contract – in this

type of contract, the vendor is assigned design responsibility for the whole
design as this represents the lowest risk for the owner. In practice, most owners
do not opt for arms-length turnkey contracts and will have their own engineers
and specialists review the design with the option to require changes before the
design is finalized. This ensures that the owner’s requirements would be accom-
modated in the project but requires that the owner spend more time in specifi-
cation and bid evaluation to avoid the potential for contract extras. However, this
process may also lead to contract modifications and price adjustments.
(b) Engineering and procurement and testing contract (EPT) – in this type of
contract, the owner would assume responsibility for certain aspects of the design
and supply such as civil works and building and would handle construction and
equipment installation. The vendor would provide the design and supply of main
circuit equipment, control and protection equipment, and cooling equipment as
well as providing installation supervision, commissioning, performance guaran-

tees, and warranty. This type of contract can be advantageous if the owner has its
own work force.
Other options are theoretically possible, such as contracting for design or man-
ufacture only (to another’s design) or using the owner’s engineering staff to procure
selected items of equipment such as the coupling transformer, but these are not
recommended in practice as they would require the owner to assume design respon-
sibility for virtually the whole design. For most owners, this would represent an
unacceptable risk of project delay and also potential for failure to achieve desired
performance.
1.3.1 Bidding, Bid Evaluation, and Award

Bidding is typically done in three ways:
(a) One stage bidding – technical and commercial bid is submitted at the same time.
(b) Two stage bidding – technical bid is submitted in the first stage; commercial bid
is submitted after technical bid evaluation is closed.
(c) Three stage bidding – the technical bid is submitted in two stages to align
technical solutions. Commercial bid is submitted when the second stage of
technical bid evaluation is closed.
All of the above approaches are valid and have been successfully applied for
procurement of FACTS controllers. Generally, two stage bidding and three stage
bidding require more time and effort to implement but tend to result in better defined
solutions as there would be more possibility to adopt ideas and suggestions by
vendors before freezing the configuration.
A complete set of bidding documents typically consists of the following:
(a) Instructions to bidders

(b) Technical specifications
(c) Technical bid data request
(d) Proposed contractual conditions
(e) Special conditions of contract
(f) Contractual and commercial bid data request
Depending on the owner’s level of knowledge and experience, the information

requested in the bid data request documents may be quite extensive. In order to
sufficiently progress the design to a point where the cost of the project can be
adequately estimated and to provide sufficient information to adequately estimate
the cost, the bidder must perform engineering studies and design during the bidding
period. Any reports prepared during the bid would be included in the proposal
to support and summarize the rating and features of the proposed FACTS
configuration.
As the bid period is normally very short, the owner should make every effort to
provide timely responses to queries from the bidders. The owner should avoid
making large addenda or major changes during the bidding period unless absolutely
necessary. In view of the effort involved in preparation of a detailed bid response, it
is not uncommon for bidders to request an extension of the bidding period. Owners
should consider this when developing a bid schedule.
To ensure that the bidders understand the bid evaluation process, a set of
evaluation criteria and description of the process should be defined by the owner.
Generally, the evaluation criteria would be included together with other instructions
in the instructions to bidders. The evaluation criteria would also include a disclaimer
cautioning that the owner reserves the right to make adjustments in evaluation
criteria at his sole discretion.
Cigré has described an approach for establishing a ranking system that could be
used in a technical bid evaluation (Cigré TB 663 2016). However, the owner would
normally develop his own rating or ranking criteria to ensure that the outcome of the
bidding process will correspond with his project objectives.
The bidders will be required to perform a set of studies to demonstrate that the
FACTS controller meets the specified requirements. Although at this stage, the
studies are considered by the owner to be preliminary and for evaluation purposes
only, it should be kept in mind that the pricing is based on the documented design
and assumptions. If the later final studies deviate significantly from the initial design,
cost adjustment might need to be considered.
Typically, during the bid review process, a meeting would be arranged with each
of the bidders to clarify technical and contractual or commercial questions. Before
the meeting, the originally submitted bids would be reviewed by the owner, and a set
of questions and requests for clarifications would be sent to the bidders. During the
meetings, both bidders and owner would have their experts discuss these open
questions. After the meetings, the bidders may be asked to finalize their technical
and commercial bids to adjust them in conformance to the discussions during the
meetings.
On receipt of the final bid clarifications, the bid evaluation can be completed, and
negotiations would begin with the selected bidder or bidders. Further meetings
would take place during the negotiation period, and any remaining questions or
changes in scope and contractual conditions would be agreed together with any
required changes in schedule and or price.
1.4 Contract Preparation
Finalization of contract documents would take place after the bid negotiations have
been completed. There are two primary methods of contract preparation:
(a) Conforming of the bidding documents – modification of the bid specification and
contractual conditions to conform to the finally agreed scope, schedule, and
prices agreed during the bid evaluation and negotiations. Normally selected
portions of the vendor’s bid submission would be included in the contract as
well. All back-and-forth discussions prior to finalization would be eliminated in
the interests of clarity.
(b) Compilation of the time sequential history of changes which the parties have
agreed in bid evaluation and contract negotiations. The final contract would
consist of the complete record of documents, minutes of meetings, and corre-
spondence exchanged through the whole period which would encapsulate the
final agreement and also the intervening non-finalized discussions.
Most owners and vendors prefer the method of conforming of the technical
specification as it normally results in an easier contract to interpret and administer,
although it requires more effort to modify and compile the contract documents.
Regardless of which method is adopted, the order of precedence of the contract
documents must be stated in the contract to avoid later difficulty in reconciliation of
any differences in content or interpretation among the constituent documents.
1.5 Project Implementation Phase
Once the contract has been signed and the project has been awarded, a kickoff
meeting would typically take place. The main goals of this meeting are to establish
lines of communication between team members, reporting requirements, and sched-
ule of meetings. In the owner’s organization, the team may be the same as the team in
the pre-bid and planning stage.
Preliminary discussions on project scheduling and milestones will also take place.
If the owner is aware of constraints on delivery times due to local climate conditions
affecting site access, this should be indicated. A typical project schedule is indicated
in Fig. 2.
In carrying out the equipment design, the vendor would perform the contractually
required studies plus additional studies as required for his purposes, perform calcu-
lations, and produce reports and drawings to demonstrate that the equipment meets
the requirements of the project.
Design review meetings between the owner and vendor would be held during this
period to discuss preliminary study results and final report study results as summa-
rized in the following section. Interfaces and especially interface with owner’s
protection and SCADA systems should be addressed during this stage. This includes
in-depth discussions about controls, protection, electrical interlocking, key
interlocking, and the respective control points and alarms “points” I/O list.
A conceptual work flow assuming the owner is engaging consultant personnel for
design review is shown in Fig. 3. If the owner has his own personnel, the consultant’s
role would be filled by the owner’s engineers and experts. The work flow indicates
that several reviews and revisions may occur before a final design is achieved.
Depending on the nature of the comments, a substantial effort may be needed on
part of both the owner and vendor to maintain the schedule.
Fig. 2 Typical project schedule

Owner
Review
Initial Submittal Consultant

Consultant
of Document Compiles
Review
from Contractor Comments
Owner
Review
Contractor
Consultant
Re-submittal of Satisfactory Approve
Review Yes
Document
No
Meeting
With Contractor Comments to
to Discuss Contractor
Comments
Optional
Fig. 3 Conceptual work flow diagram for design review phase
The schedule for equipment procurement and manufacturing should be carefully

monitored by both the vendor and owner to avoid delays in the overall project
schedule. It is imperative that orders are placed for long lead items like interface
coupling transformers as early as possible.
FACTS equipment must be factory tested before being delivered to site. The
testing of all FACTS-related primary equipment consists of routine tests and type
tests. The factory tests of the control and protection system would consist of
functional and dynamic performance testing. More details are given in the next
section.
A site management team reporting to the project manager is responsible for the
installation, pre-commissioning, and commissioning. Pre-commissioning and
commissioning tests include individual equipment tests and subsystem tests.
Commissioning tests are conducted with the FACTS operating as “complete system”
and connected to the owner’s power system.
This step typically requires a significant amount of vendor-owner interaction and
coordination since tests may require specific system configurations (i.e., transmis-
sion lines opened, remote capacitors switched) or specific system loading conditions
(i.e., heavily loaded system in mid-day hours or light loaded system in the evening
hours).
Training is performed as per the directives given in the specification. Efforts
should be made to conduct operator training before commissioning starts and
sometimes earlier. Equipment and maintenance training can occur during the factory
test or witness test period. It can also be deferred until after commissioning. A
session can also be planned a few months after commissioning once more field
experience has been acquired.
Several aspects of the design need to be reviewed before the start of manufactur-
ing. Technical documentation related to equipment design, studies, and engineering
requested from the vendor shall demonstrate that the equipment meets system
performance and specified criteria. The reviews of this technical documentation
can be carried out remotely based on reports and drawings sent by electronically
or other means, by telephone or video conference, or by a face-to-face meeting.
Face-to-face meetings are recommended for important and complex aspects of the
design. Reviews must be properly documented in the form of minutes or review
reports to ensure that identified issues can be resolved. These technical reports cover
several design aspects of system, electrical, control and protection, mechanical, and
station design. The test and inspection program is an essential document to be agreed
upon before tests described in the next section are performed. The documentation
should be received well before the review meetings to allow sufficient time for
review.
Technical reports covering various categories of the design can be summarized as
follows:
• System design
– Component ratings studies (main data) and tolerances
– Switching devices rating
– System dynamic performance studies (from digital program)
– Harmonic performance and filter ratings including resonance and harmonic
instability
• Electrical design
– Insulation coordination and overvoltage studies
– Electromagnetic transients
– Power line carrier and radio interference
• Control and protection
– Control functional specification and strategies
– Protection coordination and settings
– Control equipment hardware design
– Control communication
– SCADA and data exchange
– Interfaces
• Mechanical design
– Cooling system
• Station design
– Substation design (layout, bus bar design, electrical clearances, etc.)
– Grounding study
– Short circuit calculation and transient
– Station services, auxiliary power, load calculation, coordination, and settings
• Test and inspection program
After the design review, the vendor should update the relevant documents and
submit them to the owner for final approval/acceptance.
2 FACTS Equipment Testing
2.1 General Testing Requirements
Factory tests are carried out to validate the manufacturing quality of equipment and
components including switching devices, primary equipment components, control
and protection systems, operator interface and monitoring, communications, cooling
systems, and auxiliary supply components.
Factory tests fall into the following recognized categories as defined in interna-
tional standards (e.g., IEEE Standard 1031; IEC 61954 and IEC 62927) and in some
cases national standards:
• Type tests
• Special tests defined by the owner or designer for a particular application or duty
• Routine tests
• Batch tests
Primary equipment testing consists primarily of type tests and routine tests in
accordance with applicable standards. Type tests are performed to demonstrate
fitness for the required duty. Type tests can be classified into a number of major
categories, some of which may not be mentioned in the main standard applicable to
the equipment:
• Dry and wet dielectric withstand tests

• Operational tests and environmental tests
• Mechanical strength and short circuit withstand tests
• Material compatibility tests
• Accelerated aging tests
• Flammability tests
Dielectric tests are carried out to verify the high-voltage withstand capability of
the components of the equipment or component. Operational tests are carried out to
verify the turn-on (if applicable), turn-off (if applicable), and current and thermal
withstand related capabilities of the components. Environmental tests are carried out
to demonstrate the capability of the equipment to operate within conditions similar to
the expected conditions at the project site. These may include:
• Dry or damp heat tests for control and protection equipment

• Extreme cold test (circuit breakers)
• Ice breaking capability (disconnect switches)
• Insulator contamination and heavy rain withstand tests (outdoor equipment)
• Seismic withstand tests
• Flammability tests
• Audible sound tests
Routine (or production) tests are factory tests performed by the manufacturer on
all equipment to demonstrate the integrity of the manufacturing process. Routine
tests are largely defined in applicable standards, but the manufacturer may include
additional tests at his discretion or for monitoring of internal processes.
The manufacturer’s internal routine tests would generally include materials
testing on receipt. This testing is to verify the quality of materials received from
his sub-vendors and may include basic functional checks, dimensional checks,
material purity or cleanliness checks, go/no-go withstand tests, partial discharge
tests, and pressure tests as applicable.
Batch tests are a type of routine test performed on certain categories of equipment
in which there is a high parts count such as capacitors, metal oxide varistors (MOV)
blocks, thyristors, insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBT), freewheeling diodes,
etc. Batch tests are performed on a subset of the total manufactured items. Batch tests
may be particularly applicable if the manufacturing process is naturally performed as
a series of batch runs. Test levels and acceptance criteria in batch tests may be more
severe than in routine tests.
The factory test of the control and protection systems would be classified as an
operational test and requires specific consideration since this equipment could have a
large impact on the reliability performance of the FACTS controller. Reliability and
availability is of significant interest to both the owner and contractor and is fre-
quently the subject of contractual guarantees. In addition to applicable industry
standard sub-component type tests, the testing would also include demonstration
of the integrity of the control and protection hardware and software, tests of dynamic
and steady-state performance, as well as test to prove the functionality of interfaces.
The owner’s engineering group and equipment specialists would be responsible for
defining the required tests and conducting design reviews and inspections. The owner’s
team may require that a certain quality control standard such as ISO 9001 be followed
for the project as a whole of for particular items of equipment. In preparing the
specification, the owner’s engineering group would compile and list all of the required
tests, applicable standards, and special tests if needed. Some frequently overlooked
aspects regarding testing that should be considered when preparing a specification are:
• A standard may not exist for a given piece of equipment, or the standard may be
under development or revision at the time.
• More than one standard may be applicable to a given piece of equipment for
different tests. This could include multiple IEC standards or a combination of IEC
standards, local country standards, and IEEE Standards.
• Many standards include clauses where there needs to be discussion and agree-
ment between owner and vendor on test levels and acceptance or pass/fail criteria.
• The owner and vendor may have differences in interpretation as to the require-
ment of a standard.
To the extent possible, these questions should be addressed in the specification

and formally covered in the contract.
The owner’s requirement for new type tests for primary equipment, as opposed to
accepting recent type test reports on similar equipment, should be stated in the
technical specification as this would affect the overall project schedule and price.
New type tests may not be required on items of equipment that are of same
design, insulation class, and comparable rating to the contract equipment. Existing
type test reports may be accepted if the equipment tested was identical to the
equipment offered; the equipment is to be under the same or lower stresses than
the equipment already tested provided the relevant equipment standards have not
changed. To facilitate the review as to whether existing type tests are applicable to
the contract equipment, the vendors would need to provide a comprehensive report
describing the past tests and demonstrating that the stress levels tested are compa-
rable or higher to those needed for the contract equipment.
The owner must also ensure that his representatives be allowed to witness any or
all routine tests and all type tests performed as part of the contract. The owner should
understand that insisting on a large number of new type tests would require a large
commitment in personnel time, cost, and effort to witness and review all of the tests.
This could affect project cost and schedule but would also represent a training
opportunity for his personnel.
2.2 Primary Equipment Factory Testing
2.2.1 Power Electronic Switching Device Modules

Type testing of a power electronic valve design for SVC and FACTS is a lengthy and
costly process due to the number and complexity of tests required. The application of
stress levels significantly higher than typical in-service conditions means that there is
a risk of test failures that would require time and effort to resolve and retest.
Consequently, most vendors prefer not to perform new type tests for converters if
the converter design is similar to previously tested designs and the voltage, current,
or thermal stress levels for the specified design are lower than for designs that have
been previously tested.
Many owners however prefer that the power electronic valves be fully type tested
for their project on the basis that a converter valve is a system of many components
where small changes in component design, component placement, or
sub-component vendor may affect the withstand, performance, or reliability.
Another factor to consider is that the standards are frequently revised to incorporate
new information and experience and thus a test in lieu based on a previous version of
the standard may be less complete or less onerous.
The requirement to carry out new tests can become the subject of lengthy
discussions between the vendor and the owner. Therefore, it is appropriate that the
owner requires that the vendor quote the type testing of the power converter valves
as a separately priced optional extra to the contract. In this way, it gives the vendor
the opportunity to make his case for forgoing new tests while giving the owner the
option to insist on new tests should he consider that the technical risk warrants the
additional cost, which would be transparent in this case. The decision to perform
new tests should be taken at the bid negotiation stage so that the cost and schedule
impacts can be incorporated in the contract. This requires that the vendor submit his
prospective type test information together with the bid and that the owner consider it
during the evaluation.
Different standards for testing power electronic valves may be applicable
depending on the technology of the converters (current commutated or gate turn-
off). The following standards are available for different technologies and topologies
of equipment:
• IEC 61954 defines type, production, and optional tests on thyristor valves used in
thyristor-controlled reactors (TCR), thyristor-switched reactors (TSR), and
thyristor-switched capacitors (TSC) for power system applications forming part
of static VAR compensators (SVC) and thyristor-controlled series capacitors
(TCSC). The requirements of the standard apply both to single valve units (one
phase) and to multiple valve units (several phases).
• IEC 62927-2017 applies to self-commutated valves, for use in voltage-sourced
converter (VSC) for static synchronous compensator (STATCOM). It is limited to
electrical type and routine production tests. The tests described in this document
are based on air-insulated valves. For other types of valve insulation, the test
requirements and acceptance criteria must be agreed between the purchaser and
the vendor.
• IEC 61800-3-2017-adjustable speed electrical power drive systems part 3 EMC
requirements and specific test methods (for STATCOMs comprised of PWM
drive system modules).
• IEC 60146-1-1-2009-Semiconductor converters – General requirements and line
commutated converters – Part 1-1: Specification of basic requirements and test
requirements for complete convertor equipment and assemblies of standard
design.
• IEC 60146-1-2-2009 Application guide giving additional information on test
conditions and components for special design.
As a general rule, the latest version of the standards that are available for the
specific equipment or configuration should be used unless the equipment under test
has been specified for specific compatibility with earlier versions of the standard.
Converters based on forced commutated semiconductors may have basic prop-
erties such as very low input impedance which make it impossible to directly adopt
test methods for electrical withstand tests applicable to valves with high input
impedance such as static VAR compensator (SVC) valves (Sheng et al. 2016).
If a directly applicable standard does not exist for a given technology or
topology of FACTS converter, it may be necessary to specify tests based on
applicable portions of a number of similar standards. The final list of tests, test
procedures, and acceptance criteria would, in this case, be a matter for discussion
and agreement between the vendor and owner. Optimally, this special test proce-
dure would be finalized during contract negotiations to avoid later cost and sched-
ule implications.
2.2.2 Interface Transformers

Not all FACTS controllers require an interface transformer, but for those controllers
that require an interface transformer, the tests of these power transformers used to
interface the FACTS controller to the AC system would depend on its function and
stresses in the respective scheme. If the interface transformer is not exposed to any
DC voltage offset during operation, then it can be considered to be an AC power
transformer. In such case the test procedures would be similar to conventional
transformers, in accordance with IEC and IEEE Standards (IEC 60076 or IEEE
C57 12.90).
There are several considerations which may distinguish an interface transformer
from a standard power transformer as follows:
• The secondary winding must be designed to operate over an extended range of

voltage. This may include requirements for short-time overvoltage withstand in
excess of the AC system voltage range or a requirement for degraded mode
operation without the controllable reactive device such as a thyristor-controlled
reactor (TCR) in operation. In the case of a SVC interface transformer, the voltage
range at the secondary can be significantly greater than would be considered
normal for a distribution transformer, and therefore neither the design nor the tests
would be adequately covered by the transformer standards.
• As an example, consider the case where the transformer has a natural impedance
of 10% on the SVC output base and the AC system requirement includes
continuous operation at 10% AC system voltage variation and a requirement
for degraded mode operation without the TCR. If the TCR is not in service, the
transformer must be rated for the full output of the fixed capacitors connected at
the secondary bus.
• The transformer may be subjected to significant harmonic loading especially in
the case of resonance.
2.2.3 DC Capacitors
All DC capacitors must be tested according to the relevant standard. There is no
standard applicable for dry type self-healing VSC DC capacitors with a high
operating voltage. IEC 61071 (2007) is the most applicable, but it is limited to
operating voltage up to 10 kV in practice. The limit was acknowledged in a previous
revision, IEC 61071-1 (1991), but not in present revision IEC 61071 (2007).
However, design and test factors are not adopted for a higher voltage, and thus the
limit still must be considered applicable. In view of this, the following test procedure
has demonstrated to be proficient for dry type self-healing DC capacitors used as
energy storage in VSC transmissions.
A. Routine tests
1. Capacitance measurement and tan δ measurement
As per IEC 61071 clause 5.3
2. Voltage test between terminals
As per IEC 61071, clause 5.5.2
The capacitance shall be measured before and after the test and the values
corrected to the same dielectric temperature.
3. AC voltage test between terminals and case
As per IEC 61071 clause 5.6.1
4. Measurements of grading resistor
The resistance of the grading resistor shall be measured according to IEC
61071, clause 5.7. The resistance of the grading resistor(s) shall be verified
by measuring the voltage decay of a capacitor unit. Expected time at which
the voltage decay should be measured is in the range of R*C seconds, where
C is the unit capacitance and R the grading resistor resistance. The terminal
voltage following the R*C function shall not deviate more than 1%.
5. Sealing test
As per IEC 61071, clause 5.8. The capacitor units shall be visually inspected.
B. Type tests
1. Thermal stability test as per IEC 61071 clause 5.10
2. Surge discharge test as per IEC 61071 clause 5.9
3. AC voltage test between terminals and case as per IEC 61071 clause 5.6.2
4. (Only applicable for capacitors with metallic container and with terminals
insulated from container)
Voltage test between terminals as per IEC 61071, clause 5.5.3, states that the
capacitance shall be measured before and after the test and the values corrected to the
same dielectric temperature. The test shall be performed on at minimum 6 units.
Failure of one single unit is permitted. Self-healing breakdown is permitted, but no
puncture or flashover.
2.2.4 Phase Reactor

Two-level or three-level VSC converters may be tested in accordance with section
8 of IEC 60076-6. However, a few additions and modifications are required to reflect
the stresses by the specific nature of the converter voltage.
A. Routine tests
• Measurement of winding resistance.
• Measurement of impedance.
• Measurement of losses.
• Lightning impulse voltage test. The type test on the phase reactor must be in
accordance with IEC 60076-6 section 8.
• Test of the tightness of the liquid cooling circuit for reactors with directly
liquid cooled winding (if any).
B. Type tests
Measurement of losses is performed at fundamental frequency and at all signif-

icant harmonic frequencies. Since an air-core reactor is a linear device with regard to
the current magnitude, the losses may be measured at any current level and corrected
to the rated harmonic current. As the eddy losses vary with frequency the losses have
to be measured at the fundamental and all harmonic frequencies of the current

spectrum;
Temperature rise test is conducted at loss equivalent AC current. The loss
equivalent current is derived from the loss measurement at fundamental frequency
and harmonic frequencies using a specific formula.
2.2.5 Other Equipment

Other equipment such as isolating transformers, grounding banks, auxiliary trans-
formers, instrument transformers, measuring devices, AC breakers, AC capacitors,
disconnectors, arresters, etc. should be type tested according to the associated
standards which are specific to conventional equipment.
2.2.6 Environmental Testing

Environmental testing is considered for assessing the ability of electrical and elec-
tronic equipment to operate under severe climatic and electromagnetic conditions.
A series of standards governed by IEC 60068 prescribes the appropriate test
procedures for measurements and testing the equipment under extreme dry/wet heat
and cold environment. The standard consists of three parts: General and Guidance
(IEC60068-1), Tests ((IEC60068-2) and Supporting Documentation and Guidance
(IEC60068-3).
The electromagnetic radiated and conducted noise generated during the operation
of switching devices and circuit breakers can disrupt the low power electronics. The
equipment must also be designed to remain in operation when subjected to electrical
fast transient/bursts on supply, signal, control, and earth ports. These tests are
covered in the series 61000-4 of IEC standards. The industrial environment in
which each equipment to be tested is being subjected must be stated in the specifi-
cation. This will determine the test criteria corresponding to the level or class
established for the equipment. The following standards are those typically referred
for type testing electronic equipment associated to FACTS installation.
IEC61000-4-2 Electrostatic discharge test

IEC61000-4-3 Radiated electromagnetic field immunity test
IEC61000-4-4 Electrical fast transient/burst
IEC61000-4-5 Surge immunity test
IEC61000-4-6 Conducted disturbances immunity test
IEC61000-4-8 Power frequency magnetic test
IEC61000-4-9 Pulse magnetic field
IEC61000-4-10 Damped oscillatory magnetic field
IEC61000-4-16 Immunity to conducted common mode disturbance
IEC60255-22-1 HF disturbance test with damped oscillatory wave (1 MHz burst)
IEC61000-4-12 Oscillatory waves (ring waves)
IEC60255-4-11 Voltage interruptions
IEC60255-21-1, 2 Resistance to vibration and shocks
The equipment is also routinely tested in the factory for dielectric and impulse test
voltage according to IEC60255-5.
2.3 Control and Protection Equipment Factory Testing
Factory testing of the control and protection systems is performed by the vendor in the
factory prior to shipment to site to verify the hardware and software integrity. These
tests provide final demonstration of the static and dynamic performance specified by
the owner and adjusted and reaffirmed during the design review stage. The tests are
also known as “hardware in the loop” tests as the actual control hardware and software
or sometimes an exact replica (if the actual controls have already been shipped) would
be tested together with a digital model of the AC system.
These tests consist of two sequential stages as follows:
(a) Factory system tests (FST) which are internal tests by vendor. These tests are
comprehensive and are aimed at ensuring that all equipment and software are
functional, wiring is correct, transducers, output relays, and all interfaces,
interlocking, protections, and communications systems are working. The empha-
sis at this stage is to ensure completeness and functionality. Finally, the perfor-
mance of the system is tested with a set of cases in which external signals or
disturbances are applied to the control systems and the response is compared
with the requirement. Any deficiencies noted are corrected to the extent possible.
(b) Factory acceptance tests (FAT) – this is generally a repeat of all or portion of FST
witnessed by owner with emphasis on the performance aspects rather than
functionality.
2.3.1 Factory System Tests (FST)

Different approaches have been used to verify FACTS controller dynamic perfor-
mance. Typically, dynamic performances of the installation are first validated on a
digital program which requires an exact model representation of the control system
and the related strategies. The dynamic performance study being subjected to the
design review process provides a tool to confirm system performance prior to
manufacturing of the real control system. A test program must be agreed upon to
demonstrate the performance. A final verification of the system with the actual
control and protection hardware and software is then performed at the factory by
running the real control systems connected to a real-time simulator.
For the factory system tests (FST), the real-time simulator accurately repre-
sents the steady-state, dynamic, and transient behavior of the power electronic
controllers, including valve protective functions. A network equivalent together
with the FACTS model must be modeled on the real-time simulator. Functional
performance tests may be done using a reduced network model. Dynamic
performance studies could also be conducted partly or totally on a real-time
digital simulator as opposed to being conducted first on a digital program
provided the manufacturing schedule permits it. However, some tests requiring
specific configurations for which real-time modeling may not be available must
then rely on digital programs to validate the performance.
Prior to commencing the FST with the real control systems, the list of proposed
tests must be agreed upon with the objective to demonstrate the proper functioning
of all control, protection, monitoring, and other systems. The objective, a descrip-
tion of the test methodology, the appropriate control parameters and settings,
signals and variables to be recorded, and success criteria must be stated clearly
for each test listed in the program. Static and dynamic tests should aim at
demonstrating the response of each specific function. These tests must include
all system events that will test the dynamic performance of the FACTS thoroughly.
The test program will include some or all tests prescribed for the dynamic
performance study conducted on a digital program. The test program would also
include a component that is similar to the one that will be repeated at site during
commissioning.
However, since the concept of risk is virtually nonexistent on a simulator, these
tests should be carried out under normal operating conditions and also under more
severe conditions for equipment, network, and control systems. Even simulated
system faults can be included in these tests. The operating conditions of the
FACTS equipment and of the grids must be within the limits described in the
appropriate section of the specification. The representation of the AC network and
the components must be provided by the owner.
2.3.2 Factory Acceptance Tests (FAT)

The factory acceptance tests (FAT) may consist of a repeat of all or portion of the
FST witnessed by the owner. Some utilities may choose to purchase an exact replica
of the control system (with or without redundancy if applicable) to carry out
additional functional tests deemed necessary on their own real-time simulator in
addition to validation of commissioning procedures and training. The final dynamic
performance tests may be performed on an EMT-type model which will include an
extended AC system, provided that the EMT model of the FACTS is accurate and
has been benchmarked against the real-time simulator tests.
Some of the tests that must be carried out for typical FACTS equipment are listed
below; the list is nonexhaustive, and the vendor must add any additional tests
deemed necessary.
(a) Basic function test of control and protection

• Start-up test
• Shutdown test
• Trip tests
• Control and protection tests
• Sampling zero drift and measurement accuracy check
• Manual intervention test
(b) Control mode functional and switching tests
• Manual reactive power control test
• Constant reactive power control test
• Automatic constant voltage control test

• Voltage control test during system voltage perturbation
• Response time tests
• Check voltage variation-based start-up criterion in dynamic voltage control mode
• Control stability check in weak system conditions
• Automatic gain adjustment test
• Check of influence of control parameter variation on system performance
(c) System control mode transfer checks
• Constant voltage control to constant reactive mode switch
• Transient voltage control mode switch
• Zero reactive power control to constant voltage control mode switch
• Local control to remote control switchover
(d) Control and protection check
• Subsystem over-current protection
• Overvoltage protection on the low voltage side
• Undervoltage protection on the low voltage side
• Abnormal input signal (VT fail)
• Hardware failure protection
• Synchronization loss protection
• Synchronous phase sequence protection
• Over and under frequency protection
• Power failure protection
• System halt protection
• Test for control and protection equipment sensitivity to interference
(e) Staged fault tests
• Transient balanced three-phase fault
• Transient single-phase fault
• Transient two-phase fault
• Permanent single-phase fault
• Permanent two-phase fault
• Permanent three-phase fault
• Delayed clearing, breaker fail, etc.
• AC system trip while running
• Interaction tests to demonstrate absence of interactions with other devices in
the AC system
(f) Degraded mode tests
• Test to ensure transition to degraded mode for trip of some LV bus equipment
• Tests of voltage and reactive power control in degraded mode
• Transition to normal mode on restoration of the equipment
2.3.3 Testing Setup
AC Network Representation
The network representation of the AC system used for design studies of the SVC or
FACTS controller normally represents a very small subset of the system. This
approach is helpful to reduce setup time and to avoid lengthy and laborious testing
and debugging of the system model. The system models are normally defined by the
owner and included in the technical specification. The owner is in the best position to
define equivalent system models as he will be most familiar with the system
configurations, system protections, and short circuit levels. The owner will know
the location of sensitive loads, dynamic swings, and other facilities that could
interact with the new FACTS controller. Typically, two network equivalents may
be defined for dynamic studies using three-phase digital real-time simulators and
also non-real-time simulation platforms. The network model for functional checking
on the real-time simulator may be smaller than the network defined for dynamic
performance studies.
Important characteristics of the network equivalents include the ability to match
maximum typical and minimum short circuit levels under which the FACTS con-
troller will be required to operate together with the ability to match the low-order
harmonic characteristics of the system. The network equivalents may include:
(a) Simple network model – this is an equivalent consisting of one to three buses
used for real-time dynamic testing and control development as shown in Fig. 4.
This equivalent may be used for simulations of the dynamic performance
during the bid period. The use of three buses rather than a single bus allows
the simulation of faults that are some distance away from the FACTS controller
as well as reduction in short circuit strength by clearing one branch when the
fault is cleared.
(b) Detailed network model – a larger equivalent consisting of between 10 and

50 buses which would allow actual outages of nearby lines and circuits and
monitoring of voltages at critical load buses. It would also allow for simulation
of interaction with other voltage control buses. When truncating the system at
Local Load
Including
Dynamic Load
Branch1
P1+jQ1
M PM1+jQM1
Branch2 Branch3
Bus 1 Local Bus 4
Bus 3 Capacitors
C1
Facts
C2
Device
PCC
Bus 2
Fig. 4 Simple network model for bidding and production tests

the boundaries of the retained system, it is necessary to model the mutual

impedances between the retained buses so that realistic voltages would be
obtained within the network when lines are taken out of service during the
studies. The network modeled should be large enough to include critical
nearby buses where performance needs to be met and should also include
nearby controllers whose performance could be affected by the new FACTS
controllers so that interaction studies can be performed. A typical example is
example is described in section 3.5.
Larger system models (usually full system models as defined by the local
transmission system operator) are normally provided to the contractor by the
owner for use in single-phase network simulation programs such as PSSE.
Controls and Protection Setup

The actual FACTS system controls or an exact replica of the controls should be used.
Replica controls are controls implemented using exact hardware and software
duplicates of the actual controls. Replica controls may be used in the event that,
due to schedule or other reasons, the actual control systems manufactured for the
project cannot be used.
Digital and Analog Signal Interface

The interface between the FACTS controls and other systems may be provided by
discrete logic or direct connection of analog signals. This may include:
• TFR signals
• Discrete relay trips
• Switch status
The TFR could be connected if desired, but the status of the switches and other
digital signals would be simulated.
The hardware of the cooling system controls is not normally included in the FST
and FAT of the FACTS control systems because the interface is normally simple,
consisting of limited number of digital and analog signals such as:
• Start and stop of pumps

• Trip of the converter due to total pump failure or leakage detected
• Inlet and outlet temperatures of the cooling fluid at the semiconductor valves
• Coolant flow rate
These interface signals would be simulated or monitored in the factory tests in

sufficient detail to check the response of the affected FACTS system controls and
protections. Similar functional tests need to be repeated in the field when the actual
hardware of the FACTS controls and cooling controls are interconnected.
Electronic Interfaces
Electronic interfaces would be provided as follows:
• FACTS controls to valve base electronics (VBE)

• VBE to FACTS valves
• FACTS controls to high-speed acquisition to interface to the network interface in
the RTDS
The valve base electronics (VBE) or firing controls (FC) would be the actual
contract hardware, while the valve would generally be represented by a small low
power device or devices in the same configuration as the actual semiconductor
converter valves.
Human Machine Interface and SCADA Interfaces

The human machine interface (HMI) would be the actual interfaces and hardware to
be delivered under the contract. The custom software for the project would be
installed on the HMI. Control points, analog control settings, and alarm lists
would be the same as the final design values. All communications links and
interfaces would be configured and installed as in the actual system. Supervisory
control and data acquisition (SCADA) interfaces to remote control locations would
also be included in the test setup.
2.3.4 Hardware and Software Integration Test (Functional)

Hardware and software integration tests are required to verify the integrity of the
hardware implementation and the basic functionalities.
The first step always consists of a visual check of all components included in the
control cabinet including wiring and terminals. The appropriate software is down-
loaded to processors, input/output (I/O)-cards, etc. Bus communications for all
connected circuit boards are then checked. These tests are usually performed with
the control system connected to a digital simulator similar to the arrangement shown
in Fig. 5. The diagram does not show redundant systems in the interest of
maintaining clarity.
A simple three bus-AC network representation is sufficient for these valida-
tions. However, some of the preliminary verification of the scaling of all digital
inputs and outputs, the scaling and offset of all analog inputs and outputs,
the dynamic range and linearity and the appropriate scaling of all current
and voltage measurement can be conducted independently without a connection
to a simulator.
The test program can be divided into two parts to verify the communication
between the controller and the gateway and between the gateway and the
SCADA or remote system. Other types of interfaces that can be checked without
RTU/
SCADA and HMI
Gateway
Workstation HMI Server
FACTS Control Racks Communication
Fast Loop Control

Regulator
FACTS Controls
Protections
Thermal Models
Slow Loop Control VBE

Switchgear Control Phase A
Sequencing
Phase B
Fast Analog General Field Phase C

Data Acquisition I/O
RTDS
Transient Switch Cooling Valve Model

Fault Status Control
Recorder and
Discrete
Relays
AC Network Status, Alarms and Events
Fig. 5 Typical setup for FST and FAT of control and protection systems
the need of a simulator include the interface between the control system and the
switching device:
• Measurement quantities
• Verify I/0 range and linearity
• Control system internal faults (power supply, I/O, watchdog, etc.)
• Redundant system changeover (if any)

• Validation of software functions
• Check of interlocking
• Communication from/to (HMI – control system-redundant system-switching
device interface and electronics)
Control system faults of specific components are verified with the operation of
internal supervision. It includes the loss of power supply, of all I/O, and internal
faults detected by the watchdog. The redundant system changeover if applicable
would be verified under various contingencies.
After the integrity has been validated, testing can continue with the validation of
the control system functionalities under static and dynamic conditions.
2.3.5 Verification of Steady-State Operating Characteristics

Static tests are those performed to verify the basic characteristics, the open-loop
control command, and various functionalities:
• Control characteristics in different control modes (VxI, VxQ, etc.)

• Control sequences (start-up, shutdown, emergency stop)
• Black starting (if applicable), etc.
• Operation modes – parallel mode, degraded modes, and manual mode
• HMI control points, events, and alarms (local-remote)
• Control system internal faults and loss of transducer signals
• Protective functions implemented in the control systems
Control Characteristics
It is recommended to first verify the FACTS controller’s main data and that all
operation points are met according to the specification taking into account compo-
nent tolerances. First the control references are verified. For shunt compensation it
simply consists in verifying that the control reference (V, I, Q) follows the
corresponding measured entities, while the control is in a blocked state. Verification
of operation in manual mode could be done prior to this.
The control characteristics such as the VxI or VxQ curves similar to those
shown in Fig. 6 are then validated with the specified slope values and voltage
references by ramping the system voltage slowly, while the FACTS control is in
the automatic voltage control mode. Parameters should be set to achieve the best
linearity over the whole range of the FACTS system’s operation. The relationship
between the control signal and the actual signal seen from the point of coupling
must be calibrated. Minor adjustments may be required at site. The switching
points of different branch elements must be observed carefully. Current or
voltage limits by control action (if applicable and if the response of these
functions permits) are confirmed in accordance with the technical report.
All specified operating modes should be verified such as parallel modes of
operation or degraded modes and the automatic reclosing function (if applicable).
21
1.3 H 1.3
TCR Blocked
Full Capacitve 1.2
1.2
1.1 G I 1.1 G
C F C F
B 1.0
10 E B 1.0 E
A D A D
0.9
09 0.9
09
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
FACTS Equipment Design and Testing
0.6 0.6
0.5
Voltage at PCC (pu)
0.5
Voltage at PCC (pu)

0.4 0.4
Current Limit Current Limit
0.3 Transient Overload 0.3 Transient Overload
Specified Continuous 0.2 Specified Continuous

0.2 Operating Region
Operating Region
0.1 0.1
Capacitive Inductive Capacitive Inductive
1.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 1.0

SVC Current (pu) STATCOM Current (pu)
Fig. 6 Typical voltage/current characteristics of SVC and STATCOM operating mode

949
Control Mode
All control modes should be tested to confirm functionality and performance (volt-
age control, reactive power control, current control, etc.). These tests are to verify
that the output of reactive power or of real power is in accordance with the control
characteristic under the respective control mode and that the desired control objec-
tive such as AC voltage or reactive output can be achieved. It should also be verified
that the output is also unaffected when the control mode is transferred from one
mode to the other, for example, from automatic to manual and vice versa.
Sequence Control
The sequence control consists of direct control commands performing a sequential
logic for operations as start-up, shutdown, and emergency stop. The objective of
these tests is to check if the start-up and shutdown logic of the FACTS controller is
done correctly considering the different status of the cooling system and the various
interlocking with breakers, disconnect switches, and operating modes. Various status
of the cooling system can be simulated for this test in the factory. It is important to
confirm that the desired output of reactive power during start-up (typically at
minimum or zero Mvar) has been reached with minimum disturbance.
For VSC-based FACTS controllers, it is important to test the sequence for pre-charge
of the DC capacitor voltages (on simulator model). Depending on the application, the
black start sequence, normal starts and stops, degraded mode start and stop, automatic
reclosing, or any other special sequences should be included in the test program. The
shutdown sequence must be achieved without endangering the equipment and with all
the appropriate protective actions but without generating any DC offset which could
prevent or delay the opening of the main breaker. Priority should be given first to testing
the emergency shutdown to ensure that the system can be stopped rapidly.
Operator Controls Interface (HMI) Factory Testing of Alarms and Events

The communication interface between the various workstations as operator or
engineer and the control system and the event recorder has been previously verified.
The remaining tests consist in the validation of all events and alarms, local and
remote on the HMI, or the owner’s remote system with the proper time distribution
and synchronization. The level of priorities is validated.
Control and Protective Functions

Typical control and protection functions are listed below. However, it should be
noted that some of the mentioned control and protection functions are not applicable
to all FACTS controllers. Thus, the owner and the vendor should modify the list of
tests as needed.
1. Control functions
(a) Gain supervision
(b) Gain optimization
(c) Secondary voltage limiter
(d) Primary voltage limiter
(e) TCR current limit

(f) Loss minimization
(g) TCR DC current control
2. Bypassing
(a) Insertion (automatic or manual) and reinsertion
(b) Lockout
(c) Temporary block insertion
(d) Operation of disconnect switches
(e) Low line current
3. Strategies
(a) Undervoltage
(b) Overvoltage
4. Protective functions and actions
(a) Capacitor overvoltage (TSC)
(b) Valve overvoltage
(c) DC capacitor overvoltage
(d) Subharmonic resonance (SSR)
(e) SSR mitigation
(f) Power oscillation damping
(g) Harmonic current protection
(h) Capacitor unbalance
(i) Platform fault
(j) Varistor failure
(k) Bypass switch failure
(l) Pole disagreement
(m) Thyristor redundancy
(n) Thyristor failure
(o) Thyristor reactor failure
(p) Controllable subsegment failure
(q) Cooling system failure
(r) Bypass gap failure
(s) Protection and control system failure
(t) Current and voltage sensor failures
(u) Capacitor overload
(v) Varistor excessive energy
(w) Varistor overtemperature
(x) Bypass gap protection
(y) Valve overvoltage
(z) Valve overcurrent
(aa) Valve junction temperature (calculated)
(bb) Valve reactor overload
5. Supervision functions
(a) Valve temperature monitoring
(b) Trigger pulse
(c) Synchronization
2.3.6 Dynamic Performance Tests

The dynamic performance tests are intended to demonstrate that the dynamic
performance and response of the FACTS control and protection systems are in
accordance with the specifications when subject to different contingencies and
events. The most representative tests for validating the dynamic performance are
described in this section.
Step Response
The step response test is a mean to characterize the closed-loop control system of shunt
compensation devices. The objective is to quantify the dynamic behavior under small
disturbances. The system response is a function of the gain of the regulator, the control
slope, and the network impedance at the FACTS point of common coupling. Step response
is normally performed on a simple network model and can also be repeated on a more
complex AC system model. Two approaches can be used for this test during the FST and
FAT tests:
(a) Injection of an external stepped signal into the controller at the reference input or
at the feedback summing junction
This method consists in varying the control reference in a step smaller than
0.05 pu and observing the output of the regulator. This approach makes it easier to
compare the resulting output with the expected theoretical result. For this test, one
typically sets the voltage controller to an initial reactive power output (preferably
other than 0.0 pu output). The injection could be programmed internally into the
application software and made available to the engineer’s interface.
(b) Varying the AC system voltage at the point of coupling in a step
This method is representative of a system voltage fluctuation.

It is always advisable to first proceed with an open-loop test (i.e., no feedback from
the network) to first characterize the control regulator independently from the network
short circuit level or equivalent impedance. The slope and regulator gain settings can
be confirmed by comparing SVC response to the expected theoretical value. This test
consists in fixing the measured voltage response at the input of the regulator to a
constant (1 pu). By proceeding at different operating points, it can be easily deter-
mined, for instance, if the gain is constant over the complete range or if a strategy had
been used to reduce the gain at some specific switching points (e.g., TSC switching).
An example of a step response demonstration for a STATCOM responding to 2% step
changes in reference voltage (up-down-up) is given in Fig. 7. The response time is
about 30 ms without overshoot, and, because a slope of zero is used, there is no steady-
state voltage error other than introduced by measuring tolerances.
Then, one can proceed with a closed-loop step response at different settings of the
regulator gain factor and slope for various network impedance values. A preliminary
parameter setting for the regulator gain can be determined. At this stage any
Fig. 7 STATCOM response to 2% steps in reference voltage
computer models of the FACTS controller should be benchmarked against the actual
controls to ensure that the same performance is observed in the models.
Fault Recovery Response

Various types and duration of AC faults (single, three-phase, single or two-phase with
loss of circuits), external transformer, and shunt reactor energization can be performed
with different network considerations and more complex AC system model.
Figure 8 illustrates FAT results on a real-time simulator of a three-phase fault
result of a 35 kV/200 Mvar STATCOMs in 500 kV substations installed by China
Southern Power Grid (Hong Rao et al. 2016).
Tests of Interaction with Other FACTS Systems

When fast-acting controllers are located in close proximity to one another, there is a
possibility of interaction between the controllers, leading to degradation of perfor-
mance of both controllers, hunting, operation at a limit, or control instability. An
example of coordination between electrically close SVCs to avoid interaction is
given in Section. 3.5.
Tests of DC Overvoltage Limiting Controls

Under certain fault conditions for a PWM three-level STATCOM, step changes in
STATCOM output at fault clearing and the DC capacitors can become overcharged
potentially leading to a trip. The test is performed to verify that the DC voltage be
limited by control action.
Typical results from a FAT test are shown in Fig. 9. As the STATCOM continues
to conduct current during the fault interval the DC voltage drops throughout the
fault and then there is a sharp increase in DC voltage at fault clearing. The DC
voltage overshoot does not come close to the trip level (6 kV in this case) in part
Fig. 8 HVDC power recovery with and without STATCOM

Fig. 9 Variation in STATCOM DC capacitor voltage during and after a three-phase fault
because the voltage of the capacitors has dropped as it tried to support the AC bus
voltage during the fault.
Overvoltage and Undervoltage Ride-Through Tests

These tests are performed to demonstrate the capability to ride through the over- and
undervoltage profile specified and to confirm the various control actions according to
the specified strategies. Overvoltage profile can be applied by modifying the source
voltage under different conditions and contingencies. The voltage variation can be
applied with an over- or under-frequency profile at the same time of the overvoltage
sequence.
The undervoltage can be applied with a similar approach or by applying a single-
or three-phase fault followed by an overvoltage profile. The voltage level as limited
by control action can also be verified under these conditions.
In the case of a long three-phase fault, the DC capacitor of a STATCOM can drop
very low unless the STATCOM is blocked. However immediate blocking is not
desirable since the STATCOM will not provide support during the fault. Hence it is
necessary to block after a time that corresponds to a reasonably long fault (e.g.,
backup clearing time up to 0.5 s) and then wait for the long fault to clear before
resuming. Even after blocking the DC capacitor, voltage would continue to decline
due to the bleed resistors. In the case that very long ride-through duration is
specified, the DC capacitor size may be governed by the ride-through requirement.
The variation in DC capacitor voltage during a three-phase fault is shown in Fig. 10.
The DC capacitor voltage falls rapidly at first, while the STATCOM is trying to
support the AC voltage, but after some time the STATCOM is blocked, and the
voltage declines much more slowly due to the discharge resistors. A successful
restart is achieved for this fault which is slightly shorter than the maximum specified
3-second ride-through requirement.
Fig. 10 Variation of
STATCOM DC capacitor
voltage during 3-s ride-
through test
2.4 Discrete Protection System Tests (Not Embedded in Control

System)
Injection tests of protection system not embedded in control system as normally

performed for conventional equipment are required to confirm settings and trip
functionality. However, protection trips must be coordinated with control system
actions especially those regarding the undervoltage and overvoltage strategies.
2.5 Cooling System Factory Tests
The hardware and software of the cooling systems would be subjected to an

independent set of factory tests separate from the FACTS main control system
factory tests.
2.6 Site Testing and Commissioning
Some of the FAT tests may be repeated during site testing and commissioning.
2.7 Performance Monitoring Period: Reliability and Reporting
Audible noise, filter performance, control system performance, and control stability
could be monitored closely during a trial operation which may overlap with the
commissioning period. However, after the start of commercial operation and during
the warranty period, design aspects that are the subject of special performance interest
and which may have contractual guarantee levels in the special conditions of contract
would be monitored. Failure to meet the guaranteed values may require the contractor
to perform remedial work and or to pay liquidated damage amounts. Items that may be
covered by special guarantee clauses in the special conditions may include:
• Failure to achieve required ratings

• Failure rates of power semiconductor devices, modules, or capacitors larger than
guaranteed values
• Failure to achieve guaranteed reliability and availability targets
• Failure to achieve audible sound targets
3 Example of FST/FAT Tests for the Ceará Mirim SVC in Brazil
3.1 Ceará Mirim SVC Main Circuit Component Design
The SVC equipment installed on Ceará Mirim a city located in the Northeast of
Brazil is designed to supply the specified nominal reactive power values (75 Mvar
inductive to 150 Mvar capacitive) for any voltage value at PCC in the range of
230 kV 5%. The indicated reactive power values are based on 0.95 pu voltage at
the point of common coupling (PCC).
The Ceará Mirim SVC is composed of the elements described below:
• 230/15 kV, 150 MVA step-down transformer, three single-phase units, grounded
star-delta connection, with one spare unit
• Two thyristor-controlled reactors (TCR) of 51.077 Mvar each, delta connection
• Two thyristor-switched capacitors (TSC) of 61.423 Mvar each, delta connection
• Two 13.577 Mvar capacitive filters tuned to the fifth and seventh harmonics,
ungrounded star connection
Each TCR consists of three single-phase air-core reactors, divided into two half-
coils and three water/glycol-cooled single-phase thyristor valves, using 125 mm
electrically triggered thyristors.
Each TSC consists of three single-phase capacitor banks, three single-phase
inrush current limiters, and three water/glycol-cooled single-phase thyristor valves,
using 125 mm electrically triggered thyristors. Metal oxide varistors are used to limit
overvoltages in TSC thyristor valves.
3.2 Ceará Mirim SVC Closed-Loop Control System
The SVC closed-loop control system provides a coordinated operation among TCRs
and TSCs currently available through the determination of SVC current order, to
match the existing electrical system requirements. Thereafter, a TCR current order
value and a TSC switching requirement are determined. A typical SVC for power
system application has two operation modes, the voltage control mode, where the SVC
varies the current injected into PCC to keep its terminal voltage at the value defined by
the operator, and the manual control mode, where this equipment operates as a fixed
AnBnCn 3 An MAF RmsAn RmsAn

X2 (2”Halfperiod)
X
0.333
Bn RmsBn + 3phRmsMeas
X2 MAF X +
(2”Halfperiod) +
RmsBn
Cn MAF RmsCn RmsCn

X2 X
(2”Halfperiod)
Fig. 11 SVC main controller input signal generation
Fig. 12 SVC closed-loop control system final stage
current manually adjusted by the operator. A signal conditioning is required to convert

AC currents and voltages measured at PCC into RMS signals. As shown in Fig. 11, the
system control voltage is obtained from the mean value of the phase to ground RMS
values of the AC voltages measured at high-voltage busbar, to select positive sequence
voltage values, and to remove negative sequence ones.
These signals are squared and applied to MAF-PLL (moving average filter phase-
locked loop) filters. At this step, the negative and zero sequence components and the
harmonics are removed, owning to the squared calculation of these signals produc-
ing a DC signal.
As shown in Fig. 12, the set of gains described below is applied to the signal
VERROR. SCL gain corrects the error signal, calculated as the difference between
signal 3phRmsMeas and the reference voltage set by the operator, based on the
dynamic short circuit level measured at SVC high-voltage PCC, providing that the
performance parameters related to SVC step response should be achieved as follows,
in compliance with industry standards and practices.
• Maximum percent overshoot (MPO) of 30%

• Maximum rise time (Tr) of 33 ms
• Maximum settling time (Ts) of 100 ms
The gain optimization (GO) algorithm is based on the scheduled application of a

small disturbance at SVC output signal and in the measurement of the relationship
between voltage and reactive power errors corresponding to this disturbance, the
so-called gain test. Based on SVC output signal magnitude and polarity measured
during gain test application, SCL gain value will be increased or reduced.
The second control loop, called Gain Controller (GC), aims to preserve SVC
stable operation if oscillations are detected in its output signal by reducing KGC gain
value from its normal value set to 1.0 until such oscillations are satisfactorily
damped. SVC main control loop is typically based on a proportional-integral
(PI) controller action, with parameters adjustable through the values of SCL and
KGC gains. This controller is bypassed if SVC terminal voltage (230 kV) falls below
a value defined by studies, forcing this equipment to operate with 0 Mvar output,
constituting the so-called Undervoltage Blocking Scheme to be described in the next
sections. As shown in Fig. 12, the required SVC current (ISVC) is then distributed
among the values corresponding to the available controllable elements (TCR and
TSC) and harmonic filters. The TSC current is determined based on the switching
limits defined for these elements, which have a discrete control strategy (ON/OFF).
The TCR current is continuously varied between its maximum and minimum
limits, based on the thyristor firing angle value defined by SVC closed-loop control
system. These elements are responsible for the continuous control of the reactive
power injected by the SVC into the power grid. The equipment control system can
be specified as two fully redundant control units, producing a 100% redundancy
level.
3.3 Ceará Mirim SVC Additional Control Loops
(a) Undervoltage blocking scheme
This scheme forces the SVC to operate at 0 Mvar if its terminal voltage drops down a
pre-set value for a time interval also predetermined, which corresponds to block two
TSCs and a TCR, the remaining TCR being used to compensate the filters
susceptance, resulting in 0 Mvar at the high-voltage point of common coupling
(PCC). Consider that the SVC used in this description has two TCRs, two TSCs, and
two single-tuned filters connected at its low-voltage busbar. This function aims to
prevent the SVC operation at strongly capacitive points, generally associated with
electrically close faults, thereby possibly contributing to increase the overvoltages
associated to fault clearing. Detection of this scheme operation level is achieved
using the mean RMS values of the three phases of the high-voltage busbar voltage
for balanced three-phase faults and the minimum RMS value of this voltage for
unbalanced faults. The SVC is released to voltage control mode when this signal
reaches a value higher than the blocking level plus a hysteresis defined during the
system design stage. This way, undervoltage blocking scheme is able to operate for
local and remote and balanced and unbalanced faults. The aforementioned blocking
and unblocking levels can be modified based on short circuit level (SCL) measured
at PCC. It is up to the customer to activate this logic or not. In order to ensure that the
thyristor valve trip is always safely carried out, the SVC has also a low-voltage
undervoltage blocking scheme that blocks TCRs and TSCs if one of the phase-to-
phase RMS voltages falls below a value previously defined by design. After a time,
interval defined by the manufacturer (e.g., 2 s), if the low-voltage busbar voltages do
not recover to values greater than 0.3 pu, for example, an SVC shutdown sequence
will be initiated.
3.4 Degraded Modes of Operation
The SVC used as an example for this description (Ceará Mirim SVC) offers the
possibility of automatic operation in degraded modes if some elements at its
low-voltage bus are unavailable, producing a high degree of flexibility and avail-
ability to the equipment operation. A valid degraded mode corresponds to a config-
uration where, although the reactive output power limits are reduced, it is possible to
continuously vary SVC output power while keeping SVC harmonic levels below the
specified limits. In this manner, a valid degraded mode requires the presence of at
least one TCR and two filters or one TCR, one TSC, and one filter. Thirteen valid
degraded modes are available in this case. The selection of valid degraded modes is
performed automatically by the SVC control system based on the status of its various
elements, via its high-voltage busbar bay and low-voltage busbar-motorized inter-
rupters. In case of an invalid degraded mode is produced, the SVC automatic
reclosing function is blocked. The automatic reclosing function can be activated or
deactivated via the human machine interface (HMI).
3.5 Coordination Between Electrically Close SVCs to Avoid

Interaction
As shown in Fig. 13, used as an example for this description, the Extremoz SVC
( 75 Mvar to +150 Mvar, 230 kV) was represented in RTDS studies based on
information provided by Chesf, a Brazilian transmission utility, which owns this
equipment. The Extremoz SVC represents an independently controlled susceptance
installed electrically close to the SVC in test, Ceará Mirim SVC, whose presence
makes it difficult to determine the voltage/reactive power sensitivity coefficient at
Ceará Mirim 230 kV busbar, especially during this equipment gain test.
If the Extremoz SVC operates in manual mode, the Ceará Mirim SVC Gain
Optimizer behaves satisfactorily. However, in scenarios where the Extremoz SVC
operates in automatic mode, the Ceará Mirim SVC performance may be affected.
This effect was identified during Ceará Mirim SVC step response tests after the
activation of its Gain Optimizer and becomes more critical in system configurations
with reduced SCL (Lima et al. 2012). This influence is expected, due to the electric
proximity between Extremoz and Ceará Mirim SVCs (about 30 km in the
studied case).
~ ~ ~ ~
JOAO JOAO CEARÂ CEARÂ JOAO JOAO
CÂMARA III CÂMARA III MIRIM MIRIM CÂMARA II CÂMARA II
TR1 TR3 TR5
E LINE 1 LINE 5
TR2 TR4 TR6
SC2 SC1
U. DOS VENTOS U. DOS VENTOS

TR7
GARANHUNS LINE 6
EQV1 GARANHUNS C. GRANDE III
CE TR8 E
EV LINE 2 LINE 3
SR1
LOAD 1 LINE 4
U. DOS VENTOS
SR3 TR9
E
C. GRANDE III
TR11
TOUROS TOUROS CGE REDUTO
TR12 SR2 TR10
LINE 7 LINE 17 E
EXTREMOZ
LINE 8
CE
LINE 9
E LOAD 2
NATAL III NATAL III LEGENDA
EQV2 500 kV 69,0 kV
LINE 10 LINE 12
LOAD 3 230 kV 34,5 kV
EV
138 kV 13,8 kV
LINE 11 LINE 13
E Geração Eólica
CE Comp. Estático
C. GRANDE BD
LINE 14 CGD-BD
~ Geração Térmica
LOAD 4 EQV3 EV Equivalente
LINE 15 EV
LINE 16
Fig. 13 Electrical network representation in RTDS for the studied case
When there are two SVCs operating electrically close to one another, the gains of
their closed-loop control systems must be adjusted considering the dynamics of the
power grid and the influence of the neighboring SVC to meet the specification
requirements (Lima et al. 2012, 2014). Thus, measurements of power grid voltage
sensitivity and reactive power should be made to allow the definition of adequate gains
As noted above, this process is implemented by the Gain Optimizer (GO) control
loop. The sensitivity coefficients of the electrical power grid measurements are based
on the injection by the SVC of a short duration pulse to modify the susceptance and
measurement of the associated change of voltage or reactive power. However, if a
second SVC operates electrically close to the one whose GO is active, the apparent
power network response will be masked by the response of the second SVC. As a
result, the measurement made during the gain test will be inaccurate, thus producing
an incorrect gain adjustment. A strategy to address this issue is based on the
implementation of a control scheme and a fast telecommunication link between the

electrically close SVCs that inhibits the main control loop of the SVC that is not
performing its gain test at that instant (passive SVC), forcing this equipment to
operate in manual mode for a very short time by applying a small dead band on its
main controller.
If a major disturbance is applied in the electric power grid at this time, the dead
band is deactivated, and the passive SVC immediately resumes operation in voltage
control mode, without waiting for the gain test performed by the active SVC to be
completed. In this case, the gain test should be rescheduled.
The main features of this scheme are distributed algorithm, interface between the
hardwired SVCs for the essential signals, and additional information transmitted via
DNP3 protocol. Due to the 30 km of electric distance between the Ceará Mirim and
Extremoz SVCs, it was possible to consider the same short circuit levels for both
equipment 230 kV busbars. This way, the active SVC (Ceará Mirim), when
performing its gain test, informs the passive SVC (Extremoz) the short circuit
level resulting from this test. Extremoz SVC then uses this value to determine its
gain value. Even considering that Extremoz and Ceará Mirim SVCs were supplied
by different manufacturers, the approach here described can be implemented without
sharing any specific gain calculation strategies of each SVC, safeguarding the
confidentiality and intellectual property aspects associated with each project.
3.6 Real-Time Hardware-In-The-Loop (HIL) Tests
(b) Preliminary tests
The initial testing stage was carried out considering a simplified modeling for the
electric power grid, using Thévenin equivalent sources that correspond to the
maximum and minimum short circuit levels defined in the design stage. Figure 13
shows a single-line diagram of the network corresponding to the maximum short
circuit level studied. The following values were considered for the three-phase short
circuit level of Ceará Mirim 230 kV busbar used as example in the presented case:
(a) Minimum level of 1966 MVA corresponding to the operation with minimum
generation, degraded network
(b) Maximum level of 4902 MVA corresponding to the operation with maximum
generation, normal configuration
The tests were initiated by verifying the performance of functions associated to SVC
protection and open-loop operation such as start-up, shutdown, transition between
control modes, transition between redundant control systems, slope change, and auto-
matic reclosing, changing the short circuit level between the maximum and minimum
values abovementioned here when required by the tests. In addition, the protection
functions associated to the closed-loop control system were tested, especially:
• Undervoltage blocking scheme at high-voltage and low-voltage busbars

• SVC output susceptance monitoring
• Transition from manual control mode to voltage control mode and vice versa
• SVC emergency shutdown
Then, voltage x current and voltage x reactive power characteristic curves related
to SVC high-voltage busbar were plotted. In conclusion, gain optimization (GO) and
gain control (GC) functions described below were tested, as well as the functionality
of the joint operation scheme between the Extremoz and Ceará Mirim SVCs
described previously.
3.7 Step Response
During the step response tests, the Ceará Mirim SVC presented compliance with the
specified performance parameters for the range of short circuit levels calculated at
PCC defined during design stage. The step response tests were performed by varying
the values of slope, step magnitude, and initial reference voltage for Ceará Mirim
SVC. For Extremoz SVC, a 5% slope was used.
Step response tests were carried out for the Ceará Mirim SVC considering a
complete representation of the electrical power grid, for minimum (1966 MVA-SCL
low) and maximum (4902MVA-SCL high) short circuit levels at SVC PCC, con-
sidering the Extremoz SVC ( 75 to 150 Mvar, 230 kV) shown in Fig. 13 connected
in automatic (ON) and disconnected (OFF). Table 1 presents the most relevant
results of these tests.
Violations are observed in the settling time (Ts) values with Extremoz SVC in
automatic mode (Cases 7, 8, and 11). There were no violations in the other perfor-
mance parameters (percent overshoot and rise time) in all tests performed. The step
Table 1 Ceará Mirim SVC step response

Case SVC Slope VREF1 VREF2 Ts Tr PO VREF3 Ts Tr PO
# SCL ETD (%) (pu) (pu) (ms) (ms) (%) (pu) (ms) (ms) (%)
1 Low Off 2 0.9761 0.9957 87 19 0.28 0.9761 79 29 0.17
2 High Off 2 0.9761 0.9957 75 25 0.13 0.9761 78 30 0.17
3 Low Off 2 0.9761 0.9957 90 20 0.29 0.9761 97 24 0.30
4 High Off 0 0.9850 0.9957 169 26 0.15 0.9850 121 32 0.26
5 Low Off 0 0.9850 0.9957 117 21 0.19 0.9850 157 23 0.26
6 Low Off 2 0.980 1.004 56 25 0.26 0.980 90 22 0.37
7 Low On 2 0.980 1.004 128 17 0.54 0.980 134 19 0.47
8 Low On 2 0.980 1.020 1800 23 2.94 0.980 127 11 1.14
9 High Off 2 1.000 1.0152 60 24 0.10 1.000 89 23 0.10
10 High On 2 1.000 1.0152 99 20 0.24 1.000 80 22 0.24
11 High On 2 1.000 1.0261 132 24 0.86 1.000 57 17 0.16
response test is based on the approximation by a second-order system of the

equivalent system formed by the electric power grid and one SVC for small
disturbances application. This approach, however, should not be valid when we
have the presence of two or more SVCs. In this case the criteria here presented
regarding the performance parameters specification should not be valid. For the tests
with 0% slope (Cases 4 and 5), violations for settling time value were also observed.
Since the Ceará Mirim SVC operation with 0% slope is not recommended by the
manufacturer due to the Gain Optimizer (GO) presence, such violations were
considered not relevant for the tests results evaluation (Lima et al. 2014).
Based on these considerations, the specified performance parameters for the
Ceará Mirim SVC achieved during the step response tests were reported. The indices
1, 2, and 3 indicated in Table 1 correspond to the signal values recorded before the
step, after applying the step and after its removal.
3.8 Performance Under Strong Disturbance Conditions
The Ceará Mirim SVC response during the occurrence of the disturbances in the
electric power grid here identified as “strong disturbances” and listed below was
analyzed during the RTDS tests, for transmission system configurations
corresponding to minimum and maximum short circuit levels and complete network,
considering the Extremoz SVC in automatic mode. Slopes of 2% for the Ceará
Mirim SVC and 5% for the Extremoz SVC were adopted:
• 230/69 kV, 150 MVA transformer energization at the Extremoz substation

• 500/230 kV, 450 MVA autotransformer energization at the Ceará Mirim
substation
• Single-phase, two-phase to ground, and three-phase to ground faults application
in Extremoz-Ceará Mirim, João Câmara II-Ceará Mirim, Extremoz-Natal III,
Extremoz-Campina Grande III, and Campina Grande BD-Campina Grande III
230 kV transmission lines, cleared in 100 ms with fault line opening, considering
Ceará Mirim SVC undervoltage blocking scheme activated and deactivated,
changing the fault terminal application
• Single-phase, two-phase to ground, and three-phase to ground faults applica-
tion in João Câmara III-Ceará Mirim, Ceará Mirim-Campina Grande III, and
Garanhuns-Campina Grande III 500 kV transmission lines, cleared in 100 ms
with fault line opening, considering the Ceará Mirim SVC undervoltage
blocking scheme activated and deactivated, changing the fault terminal
application
• 150 Mvar/500 kV busbar shunt reactors switching in Ceará Mirim and Campina
Grande III substations
In the above listed simulations, 230 kV undervoltage blocking scheme settings for
Ceará Mirim SVC indicated in Table 2 were used.
Table 2 Ceará Mirim SVC 230 kV undervoltage blocking scheme settings

SCL Block (pu) Release (pu) Block delay (ms) Release delay (ms)
Low 0.6 0.65 5.0 10.0
High 0.5 0.55 5.0 10.0
40
S1) VLVA
20 S1) VLVB
S1) VLVC
0
–20
–40
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
400
S1) 230B
200 S1) 230C
S1) 230A
0
–200
–400
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
4000
Gainlag
3000
2000
1000
0
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
Time (second)
Fig. 14 3F-G fault Extremoz – Ceará Mirim 230 kV TL, high short circuit level at PCC. 15 kV and
230 kV voltages; Ceará Mirim SVC gain
Figures 14 and 15 show selected signals corresponding to a three-phase to ground

fault in Extremoz-Ceará Mirim 230 kV transmission line, RTDS simulation, Ceará
Mirim terminal, and maximum short circuit level, cleared in 100 ms with line
opening. The Extremoz SVC operates in automatic mode with a fixed gain value.
Just after the fault application, the Ceará Mirim SVC moves to its capacitive limit,
switching in both TSCs. However, the voltage sag associated to the fault leads to the
operation of its 230 kV undervoltage blocking scheme, forcing this equipment to
operate at 0 Mvar through the blocking of these elements.
During the fault application time interval, one can see the DC-trapped current
flowing into TCR1 that arises when the voltage at 15 kV busbar drops down to
zero and the integral of the voltage applied to this element becomes momentarily
constant, giving rise to the circulation of a continuous component of current
through the reactors. This component disappears shortly after fault clearing
and voltage recovery at 230 kV busbar. At the fault clearing, both TCR currents
are increased, leading the Ceará Mirim SVC to operate at medium inductive
points.
Significant overvoltages are not observed at Ceará Mirim 230 kV busbar, even
considering the line opening by the protection. The short circuit level at Ceará
Mirim 230 kV reduction due to the line in fault switching off causes oscillations in
4
IT CR1AB
2 IT CR1BC
IT CR1CA
0
–2
–4
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
4
IT CR2AB
2 IT CR2BC
IT CR2CA
0
–2
–4
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
2
ISVCA
1 ISVCC
ISVCB
0
–1
–2
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
2
Isvcordlag
1 ITCRordLag
–1
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
Time (second)
Fig. 15 3F-G fault Extremoz – Ceará Mirim 230 kV TL, high short circuit level at PCC. Ceará
Mirim SVC TCR and 230 kV currents. Ceará Mirim SVC total and TCR current orders
the output signal of this equipment, leading to the Gain Controller

(GC) operation (close to t = 1.4 s), which reduces the SVC gain until desired
damping of these oscillations is achieved. The Extremoz SVC operates satisfac-
torily during and after fault clearing. No adverse interactions are observed
between the SVCs. Based on these results, one can say that with the Ceará
Mirim and Extremoz SVCs contribution, a stable steady state after fault clearing
is obtained.
References
Cigré TB 663: Guidelines for the Procurement and Testing of STATCOMS, August 2016
IEC 60068: Standards for Environmental Testing
IEC 60068-1: General and Guidance
IEC 60068-2: Tests
IEC 60068-3: Supporting Documentation and Guidance
IEC 60076-1: Power Transformers – Part 1: General
IEC 60076-6: Power Transformers – Part 6: Reactors

IEC 61071-2007: Capacitors for Power Electronics – Edition 1.0
IEC 61071-1-1991: Power Electronic Capacitors – Part 1: General
IEC 61800-3-2017: Adjustable Speed Electrical Power Drive Systems – Part 3: EMC Requirements
and Specific Test Methods
IEC 61954 -2011/AMD2-2017 Amendment 2: Static Var Compensators (SVC) – Testing of
Thyristor Valves
IEC 62927-2017: Voltage Sourced Converter (VSC) Valves for Static Synchronous Compensator
(STATCOM) – Electrical testing
IEC/TR 60146-1-2-2011: Semiconductor Converters General Requirements and Line Commutated
Converters Application Guide
IEC60255: Electrical Relays
IEC61000: Family of IEC Standards on EMC
IEEE C57 12.90: Standard Test Code for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power and Regulating
Transformers
IEEE Std. 1031-2011: IEEE Guide for the Functional Specification of Transmission Static VAR
Compensators (ANSI)
ISO 9001:2015: Quality Management Systems – Requirements
Lima, M., Alves, F., Oliveira, M., Eliasson, P., E., Aberg, M., Bauer, J.: Static Var Compensators
Performance Evaluation Studies for Systems with Strong Presence of Fixed Series Capacitors:
The Example of Tucuruí – Manaus 500kV Interconnection, XII Symposium of Specialists in
Electric Operational and Expansion Planning (SEPOPE), Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil, May 2012,
Procedures in DVD
Lima, M.C., Eliasson, P.-E., Brisby, C.: “Considerations Regarding Electrically Close Static Var
Compensators Joint Operation and Performance”, XIII Symposium of Specialists in Electric
Operational and Expansion Planning (SEPOPE), Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil, Procedures in DVD,
18–21 May 2014
Rao, H., Xu, S., Zhao, Y., et al.: Research and application of multiple STATCOMs to improve the
stability of AC/DC power systems in China southern grid. IET Gener. Transm. Distrib. 10(13),
3111–3118 (2016)
Sheng, B., Danielsson, C., et al.: Electrical Test of STATCOM Valves B4.210, Cigré (2016)
Hubert Bilodeau Senior Control Engineer, HVDC and FACTS,

Retired from Hydro-Québec
Hubert Bilodeau graduated from École Polytechnique, Université
de Montréal in 1975. After graduation, he joined General Electric in
Peterborough, Canada, and worked as a designer of static excitation
and DC Rectifier equipment. In 1981, he joined BBC Brown Boveri
Co. in Montreal as a technical coordinator for the HVDC/SVC
Châteauguay project. At the end of the project, he joined the parent
company in Switzerland. From 1989 until retirement in 2017, he
worked with Hydro-Quebec in Montreal as a control specialist for
static compensator, series compensation, and HVDC. He is a regis-
tered professional in the province of Quebec and Ontario and senior
member of IEEE Power Engineering Society. He has chaired the
IEEE High Voltage Power Electronics Stations Subcommittee of the
Substations Committee from 2000 to 2005 and chaired the Working
Group (WG) I4 on static VAR compensators from 1997 to 2011.?
Bruno Bisewski Electrical Engineer, RBJ Engineering

Corporation
Bruno Bisewski was born in Winnipeg, Manitoba, in 1953 and
received a BSc degree in Electrical Engineering from the Univer-
sity of Manitoba in 1975. He joined Teshmont Consultants Inc. in
1976, where he worked in for 33 years in various capacities up to
vice president. In 2008 he left to found RBJ Engineering.
Mr. Bisewski is a specialist with many years of experience in all
aspects of the electrical power transmission industry including
project management, system studies, specification and design,
calculation of electrical effects, design review, cost estimates,
equipment testing, and commissioning of EHV-AC and HVDC
transmission systems. He has provided engineering services,
including preparation and review of specifications, tender evalua-
tion, system studies, design review, witnessing of equipment tests,
and commissioning of HVDC converter equipment and system
tests to a large number of HVDC transmission projects in many
countries including the USA, Canada, New Zealand, Malaysia,
Thailand, and China.?
Manfredo Lima Senior Engineer, Electrical Engineering Prac-
tice, Chesf (Recife, Brazil), Adjunct Professor, Pernambuco Uni-
versity (Recife, Brazil)
Manfredo Lima was born in Recife, Brazil, in 1957 and received a
BSc degree in Electrical Engineering from Pernambuco Federal
University (UFPE) in 1979, an MSc degree in Electrical Engineer-
ing from the same University in 1997, and a PhD degree in
Mechanical Engineering with emphasis on automation systems
from Paraíba Federal University (UFPB) in 2005. He joined
Chesf in 1978, where develops projects in the areas of power
electronics, FACTS devices, power quality, control systems, elec-
tromagnetic transients, and HVDC transmission. In 1992 he joined
At present he is the Chesf representative on Cigré Brazil SC B4
Power electronics and HVDC Links and is a founding member of
the Brazilian Electric Power Quality Society (SBQEE).
Shukai Xu Senior Engineer, HVDC and Power Electronics,

Deputy Director of HVDC and Power Electronics Department of
EPRI of China Southern Power Grid and Deputy Executive Direc-
tor of State Key Laboratory of HVDC Transmission Technology
of China
Shukai Xu received his bachelor degree and PhD degree from
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, both in Electrical Engineer-
ing, in 2002 and 2007, respectively. After graduation, he joined
EPRI of China Southern Power Grid (CSG) in Guangzhou, China,
and worked as an engineer of DC De-icing, STATCOM, HVDC,
and VSC-HVDC system. From 2011 to 2013, he worked on the
35 kV/200 Mvar STATCOMs for power system application
which were installed in four 500 kV substations of load center in
CSG to enhance regional power system stability. As the technical
director, he studied the application of VSC-MTDC technology,
including the system design, integration, control strategies, etc.,
and finally developed the world’s first VSC-MTDC project in
2013 – Nao’ao VSC-MTDC. He also developed a back-to-back

VSC-HVDC project in the 500 kV backbone network of CSG,
which is rated at 350 kV/1000 MW and was put into operation in
2016. At present, he is studying the ultrahigh VSC technology and
LCC-VSC-HVDC technology, which can be applied into the
three-terminal 800 kV/8000 MW–3000 MW-5000 MW
Wudongde HVDC project in CSG.
He was a member of CIGRE B4.53 and now is an IEEE
member.?
Bo Lei Engineer, Energy Storage and Power Electronics,

Engineering.
Bo Lei received his Bachelor degree and Master degree from Hunan
University, Changsha, China, both in Electrical Engineering, in 2011
and 2014 respectively. After graduation, he joined EPRI of China
Southern Power Grid (CSG) in Guangzhou, China and worked as an
engineer of MW-level Energy Storage, Power Electronic equipment,
HVDC and VSC-HVDC system. From 2014 to 2015, he worked on
the 10 kV/2 MW transformer-free Battery Energy Storage System
which was directly connected to 10 kV bus in a distribution network
of CSG to provide load shifting service and enhance network reli-
ability. As the core member, he has drafted IEEE P2030.2.1 for
guide of battery energy storage application in electric power system
and joined maintenance work of IEC 60919 for LCC-HVDC control
and protection from 2015 to 2017. He has also joined the work of
several Chinese standards on FACTS and HVDC applications. At
present, he is working on the system design of 25MWh-level sec-
ond-use battery energy storage system and the ultra-high VSC
technology and LCC-VSC-HVDC technology, the latter would be
applied into the three-terminal 800 kV/8000 MW–3000 MW-
5000 MW Wudongde HVDC project in CSG.?
Ben Mehraban Staff Engineer, American Electric Power

(Columbus, Ohio)
Ben Mehraban received his BSEE and MSEE degrees in electrical
engineering from the University of Missouri and his MBA degree
from Ohio University. He has more than 35 years of experience in
engineering, design, construction, maintenance, and commission-
ing of EHV, GIS, FACTS, and HVDC projects. He joined AEP in
1980, where he was responsible for implementation of technology
projects (FACTS controllers, HVDC, Superconductivity, etc.
many of which were first of their kind), conducting equipment
studies, and interfacing R&D with EPRI, CEATI, universities, and
technology manufacturers. He has authored and published numer-
ous IEEE and CIGRE papers and is a senior member of IEEE,
member of several IEEE Working Groups and past chair of the
HVDC-FACTS Subcommittee. He is currently the chair of WG I5
on “Guide for Specification of Transmission STATCOM Sys-
tems.” He is also a member of CIGRE.?
Commissioning of FACTS Controllers
22
Babak Badrzadeh, Andrew Van Eyk, Peeter Muttik, Bryan Lieblick,
Bo Lei, Thomas Magg, Shukai Xu, and Marcio M. de Oliveira
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973
2 General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973
2.1 General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973
B. Badrzadeh (*)
Australian Energy Market Operator, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
e-mail: babak.badrzadeh@aemo.com.au
A. Van Eyk
ElectraNet, Adelaide, SA, Australia
e-mail: vaneyk.andrew@electranet.con.au
P. Muttik
GE Grid Solutions, Sydney, NSW, Australia
e-mail: peeter.muttik@ge.com
B. Lieblick
AMSC, Devens, MA, USA
e-mail: NetworkPlanning@amsc.com
B. Lei
Energy Storage and Power Electronics, HVDC and Power Electronics Department, EPRI of China
Southern Power Grid, Guangzhou, China
e-mail: straight_b@163.com
T. Magg
S. Xu
e-mail: xusk@csg.cn
M. M. de Oliveira

972 B. Badrzadeh et al.
2.2 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974

2.3 Measurement Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975
2.4 Role of Power System Modelling and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977
3 Four-Stage Commissioning Tests for FACTS Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978
3.1 Checks on Equipment Prior to Commencement of Commissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979
3.2 On-Site Equipment Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980
3.3 Sub-system Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
3.4 System Commissioning Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988
3.5 Grid Compliance Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
4 Typical Commissioning Tests for SVCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015
5 Typical Commissioning Tests for STATCOMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031
5.3 Practical Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035
6 Typical Commissioning Tests for UPFCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038
7 Commissioning of TCSC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
7.1 Pre-commissioning Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
7.2 Sub-system Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041
7.3 System Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042
7.5 System Interaction Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044
7.6 Special Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044
7.7 Power Oscillation Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045
8 Model Validation Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
8.1 SVCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
8.2 STATCOMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056
Abstract
The purpose of commissioning is to establish that the installed FACTS

controller performs as expected and complies with the specified and expected
performance requirements, culminating with grid compliance testing. Successful
completion of the commissioning tests is generally a prerequisite for unrestricted
operation.
Commissioning tests require testing of the plant, starting from individual
equipment items, sub-systems, and up to the entire integrated system. The
commissioning will also validate model data by comparison of test results with
studies performed beforehand. Accurate modelling of the FACTS controller is
fundamental to ensuring that future power system studies adequately demonstrate
the network behavior, including the FACTS controller.
This chapter discusses the entire suite of commissioning tests conducted as
part of commissioning a new or upgraded FACTS controller.
22 Commissioning of FACTS Controllers 973
1 Introduction
This chapter describes the commissioning and compliance testing of FACTS control-
lers. The chapter sets out the general requirements for commissioning a power system
plant. A four-stage process comprising equipment, sub-system, system commission-
ing, and grid compliance tests is discussed as applied to all FACTS controllers. These
include some tests conducted by the FACTS controller manufacturer at the factory and
all those required by the owners or system operator until the FACTS controller is
permitted to operate unrestricted. See ▶ Chap. 21, “FACTS Equipment Design and
Testing” of this Green Book for more details of the factory tests.
The chapter then provides several practical examples of commissioning tests for
SVCs, STATCOMs, UPFCs, and TCSCs. These cover a variety of approaches and
requirements in different countries. Finally, the chapter presents examples of model
validation analysis by comparing measured and simulated responses of FACTS
controllers.
2 General Requirements
2.1 General Principles
The purpose of commissioning tests is to establish that the installed plant performs as
expected and complies with the specified and expected performance requirements.
Please see the Procurement and Functional Specification of FACTS Controllers
chapter in this Green Book for further details.
The commencement of commissioning generally requires completion of design
and desktop studies including system impact studies. Successful completion of
commissioning tests is generally a prerequisite for the plant to remain connected
to the power system and operate unrestricted.
The commissioning tests include a range of tests, measurements, and simulations
to demonstrate the performance and behavior of the installed plant.
Commissioning tests require testing of plant and systems across a range of levels
from individual equipment items, sub-systems, and up to the entire integrated system
to ensure that the integrated behavior of various plant and control systems and their
interactions is understood, captured, and verified to be as expected.
The commissioning tests are generally preceded by a number of factory tests, type
tests, off-site tests and on-site equipment, and sub-system tests. These tests have to
be completed prior to the final on-site commissioning of the FACTS controller.
FACTS controller testing is conducted for several reasons including:
1. Commissioning tests: to establish that the installed plant performs as expected

and complies with the performance requirements.
2. Model verification tests: to validate model data and ensure that the plant models
are representative of the installed system. Accurate modelling of the FACTS
controller is fundamental to ensuring that future power system studies adequately
demonstrate network behavior.
The commissioning of a new or upgraded plant that interacts with the power
system is an essential stage in the process of connecting a FACTS controller to the
power system. The underlying principles for the commissioning of all generating
systems, FACTS controllers, and HVDC links are the same. As the first stage of the
commissioning process, a commissioning plan must be developed and submitted to
appropriate authorities for approval as required for performing online tests.
Commissioning tests will require connection to the power system, and so neces-
sary arrangements have to be made with the affected owners and system operators.
Temporary test connections and special instrumentation may be required to capture
information during commissioning. The tests need to be planned well in advance as
they require coordination of many different entities (system operators, switchyard
operators, vendor, and owner’s engineers). A cooperative approach should be taken
by all parties involved to ensure that commissioning is undertaken in a manner that:
• Does not adversely affect other network users

• Does not adversely affect power system security or quality of supply
• Minimizes the risk of damage to the equipment of other network users
The connecting party is responsible for specifying and undertaking commission-

ing tests and providing evidence to owner/system operator that demonstrates the
performance of the plant.
This chapter discusses the entire suite of commissioning tests conducted as part of
commissioning a new or upgraded FACTS controller. For example, the key tests of
interest to the network operator/independent system operator are primarily those
categorized as grid compliance tests in this chapter.
The general principles applied for the commissioning of a FACTS controller are that:
• It provides evidence that the plant can remain safely connected to the power system,
and it meets the technical performance requirements specified in the connection
agreement and/or in the technical specification of the FACTS controller.
• It makes possible a comparison of the actual recorded results with the results from
design studies or modelling, with the two indicating close correlation. This might
require special simulation studies in which the state of the assumed power system
is adjusted to match the actual power system state at the time the tests are
performed in order to validate the modelling assumptions.
2.2 Documentation
• Test procedures for each test

– The commissioning plan include a list of commissioning tests to be under-
taken, providing system operators for each with:
A description of the purpose of the test, outlining (1) the equipment under test;
(2) which performance aspects will be assessed; and (3) what comparison
against model will be assessed
What measurement equipment is required
Any specific network conditions requirements
• Inspection and test plan (ITP)
– An ITP must include all information covered by test procedures, however,
with significantly higher level of details primarily intended for those parties
directly carrying out the commissioning tests.
• System study report/pretest simulation studies
– Pretest simulation studies to be carried out prior to the conduct of online
commissioning tests to determine appropriate operational conditions for all
online tests and to identify and manage the impact of the power system
security or other network users
• Commissioning test schedule
– A test schedule must include all planned activities from the pre-energization
phase to returning the plant to unrestricted commercial operation. The follow-
ing information is generally included:
Power output expected for each test at each hold point. Some owners/system
operators may identify specific points in the commissioning plan, at which
the applicant must submit results for review and approval prior to pro-
gressing further with the commissioning. Broadly, any offline and factory
acceptance tests (FAT) results need to be submitted and approved prior to
the first energization of the FACTS controller to the system. Depending on
the size and impact of the FACTS controller, one or more hold points may
be required for the online tests. Hold points may be defined based on the
output power or based on type of the tests, e.g., step-response vs. system
disturbance tests. This process allows the demonstration of technical per-
formance requirements through testing at various pre-agreed output levels.
It is expected that independent equipment is installed to collect test results
separate from the device under test.
A list of all compliance assessment and model validation tests conducted,
including:
• Offline tests
• Online tests for all hold points
• Interim and final test reports
2.3 Measurement Systems
The following information needs to be provided for the measurement equipment and
where the equipment is going to be connected:
• Manufacturer, model, and serial number of the equipment.

• Type of equipment:
– Continuous monitoring, or event triggering, or manual triggering or others.
– Some measurement equipment may need to remain connected after comple-

tion of commissioning in order to measure the long-term power-quality sig-
nature of the device and to capture actual network fault events.
• Location of measurement equipment:
– Point of common coupling (PoC), i.e., after the high-voltage side of the plant
transformer
– Immediately after the output of the converter, i.e., before the FACTS controller
transformer
• The setting of the instruments for each test must be specified.
– Voltage source converter (VSC)-based technologies generally employ fast-
acting power electronic converter controls. High-speed measurement equip-
ment is therefore required to capture the dynamic response adequately. The
typical sampling rate of such measurement equipment is over 10 kHz. This
may require special instruments that can accumulate high-frequency data for a
long time window.
• The format for the data to be used for the analysis and storage of the captured data
must be specified.
• The following data and information are often required by the owner/system
operator:
– All preprocessed measurement (raw) data.
The minimum sampling rate for any measurement using digital instruments
should be 4–20 times the upper analog cutoff frequency for any noise filter
(by Åström and Wittenmark 1990).
To avoid aliasing the data, it is necessary to filter the analog signals before
sampling the signal to be measured.1
The analog prefilter should be selected to sufficiently attenuate the noise
higher than the Nyquist frequency associated with the sampling rate.
The resolution of the analog to digital digitizer should be sufficient to reduce
the errors associated with the quantization caused by a limited word length
of the digital date to an acceptable level.
Comparison of data captured by means of digital systems might not be
possible unless the data sampling instances are synchronized and differ-
ences in transmission delays are considered. Differences in analog prefilters
for different digital data acquisition systems can also cause phase errors. It
might then be necessary to perform a data resampling before any compu-
tations can be performed on the joint data sets.
The raw data sets captured must be kept unchanged. That is, any computations
have to be performed on copies of the raw data.
The amplitude and phase errors of CTs and VTs must be considered when
making power system measurements.
1
Note that modern digital instruments such as digital oscilloscopes do not have adaptive cutoff
filters built into the instrument. If in such a system the sweep time is increased, high-frequency noise
can easily be captured and lead to aliasing of the data.
That is, for measurements of 50 or 60 Hz data, the analog cutoff frequency

should be at about 120–150 Hz, and the minimum sampling frequency
should be 480–600 Hz. If the AC quantities are highly distorted, a higher
sampling frequency would be advisable.
For harmonic spectra measurements, narrow-band spectrum analyzers with long
integration time to achieve accurate harmonic measurements should be used.
For measurement of firing time differences between different switching
devices, the uncertainty in determining the time for a firing pulse depends
on the sampling interval. That is, if a 10 kHz sampling system is used, the
uncertainty in determining the time of the firing pulse is 50 μs and for
100 kHz sampling, the uncertainty would be reduced in half.
– Scaling factors for all measured signals.
– No post-processing on raw measurement data must be performed. That is, all
data processing should be performed on copies of the raw data.
• Acceptance testing report for measurement equipment.
• Valid and up-to-date calibration certificate of measurement equipment.
• Signals to be measured at each measurement location.
• Where multiple recorders are to be used, details on how measurement results will
be synchronized.
• Measured voltages must be available in the forms of three-phase instantaneous
waveforms, three-phase root-mean square (RMS), positive-sequence RMS, and
DC quantities for DC components, e.g., DC links in a UPFC.
2.4 Role of Power System Modelling and Simulation
Simulation studies focusing on the commissioning activities are often carried out to
determine appropriate operational conditions for all online tests with a view to
identify and manage the impact of the commissioning process on the power system
security (see also ▶ Chap. 20, “FACTS Controller Integration and Design Studies”
in this Green Book). Simulation studies are often an integral part of the commis-
sioning program and conducted prior to (pretest simulation study), during (for
interim test reports), and after the completion of commissioning tests (for final
commissioning report and model validation report).
The studies performed before the online commissioning tests provide an under-
standing of the expected outcome of the commissioning tests. Factory acceptance
tests (FAT) will provide some useful information on the expected impact; however,
the boundary conditions for on-site testing need to be re-assessed before the tests,
using full-scale transmission network models that cannot typically be used in factory
acceptance tests (FAT) due to real-time simulation (RTS)-related limitations.
Furthermore, due to tight commissioning schedules and constantly varying trans-
mission network operating conditions, on-site and off-site tests cannot always be
carried out under the same conditions. To determine the exact parameters and
specifics of the online tests, the interconnected power system should be represented
in sufficient detail in simulation studies.
Commissioning tests that aim at validating the dynamic response of FACTS

controllers may significantly impact the power system performance, especially if
unsuccessful, and thus, these studies must be performed to evaluate the most feasible
way to conduct the tests.
Depending on the application/phenomenon under consideration, fundamental
frequency phasor domain root-mean square (RMS), or electromagnetic transient
(EMT)-type simulation tools may be used.2 In some cases, staged faults on the
actual system may be performed for the purpose of validating the system and control
behavior. Detailed EMT studies would be required in this case. Common practice for
EMT studies is to use a reduced-order network equivalent of the interconnected
power system.
Many owners/system operators require an overlay of measured and simulated
response of the FACTS controller for online commissioning tests. Deviations
between the results from the commissioning test-related studies and the actual
recordings from the commissioning tests require careful analysis. Material devia-
tions may result in changes in the models of the wider network and/or of the FACTS
controller. Deviations may also in certain cases require changes in the actual control
system after which the impact of the changes on the validity of the model and the
performance of the FACTS controllers should be carefully evaluated.
The performance of the FACTS controller may also need to be demonstrated during
commissioning tests using real system disturbances, or some tests may need to be carried
out under exceptional operating conditions. Although these tests may have considerable
impact on the transmission network(s), performing the tests according to detailed plans
may be the preferred option as the alternative is to wait for a similar real system event.
When the FACTS controller’s performance can have a significant impact on the perfor-
mance of the transmission network, simulation models will need to be validated thor-
oughly over the entire intended operating range of the FACTS controller, as it may not be
practical to perform the test in the actual power system. Validated simulation models are
therefore used to predict the response of the FACTS controller to various types of
disturbances. A comparison between simulation models and real field test results is a
useful way to obtain confidence in both the simulation models and the performance of the
actual systems. Any discrepancy should be evaluated and corrected if needed (Grund
et al. 1990). Flaws in the model can have significant adverse implications on power
system operation as well as on our understanding of the power system performance.
3 Four-Stage Commissioning Tests for FACTS Controllers
Prior to commencement of commissioning, a number of checks are performed to

ensure that the equipment has not been damaged during transport or installation and
that the installation has been performed in accordance with the specified requirements.
2
Power system analysis programs are typically using just the positive-sequence systems as defined
by Fortescue in the calculations.
The commissioning philosophy for FACTS controllers is divided into the four
main subsections shown below. Each test subsection should be executed in
sequence, with successful completion of each test stage before proceeding to the
next group of tests. Tests on different equipment and sub-systems might be possible
to proceed in parallel with each other.
1. Equipment tests
2. Sub-system tests
3. System commissioning tests
4. Grid compliance tests
Equipment and sub-system tests are “pre-commissioning” tests completed before

energizing the high-voltage equipment. Equipment tests confirm the equipment has
been installed correctly and is in the correct physical and operational state to safely
proceed. Sub-system tests confirm subgroups of equipment are performing properly
to ensure expected operation of the equipment and control systems before further
commissioning steps.
System commissioning tests include high-voltage energization and qualification
of the essential high-voltage equipment functions. Emphasis is placed on the safety
of the people and on the security of the power system during these tests, which are
conducted to characterize the electrical performance of the equipment, typically in a
fixed operating state or under operator control. It is a common practice to include
backup protections set for high-speed operation and protective breakers in the
unlikely event that energizing the equipment for the first time results in teething
issues for the main protection.
Grid compliance tests specifically evaluate the overall performance of the equip-
ment with regard to system reactive power capability, high-level grid controls, and
other specialized control systems. Note that grid compliance tests discussed in this
chapter reflect common practices adopted by several system operators worldwide.
However, several factors such as the size, location, and specific functionalities
intended from the FACTS controllers under consideration and specific requirements
from the system operator might result in increased or reduced requirements from one
application to another. Examples provided in this chapter should not therefore be
considered as the exclusive or universal suites of tests that should be applied for grid
compliance testing of all FACTS controllers. Further information can be found in
(CIGRÉ Technical Brochure No. 447 2011; CIGRÉ Brochure No. 663 2016; CIGRÉ
Brochure No. 697 2017; IEC 60143-4 2010; IEEE Std 1031, 2011; IEEE Std 1303
2011; IEEE Std 1534, 2009).
3.1 Checks on Equipment Prior to Commencement

of Commissioning
At the end of the installation of equipment and sub-systems, a number of inspections

and checks will be performed. The objective is to ensure that the equipment has not
been damaged during transport or installation and that the installation has been
performed in accordance with the specified requirements. The checks rely heavily
on adherence to the manufacturers’ pre-supplied equipment installation checklists.
This includes the following:
• Inspection of equipment after site arrival: Visual inspection of all system compo-
nents. Inspect equipment for signs of shipping or installation damage. Cross-
check all major system sub-components were delivered and installed. Confirm
nameplate ratings. Verify spare parts were shipped where applicable.
• Installation checks: Ensure auxiliary equipment is correctly installed, properly
grounded, and has the necessary electrical and magnetic clearances. Cross-check
the equipment has been installed in accordance with electrical and mechanical
drawings. Verify that all wiring is correct and perform functional tests of the
auxiliary power systems, cooling systems, space conditioning (heating and
cooling), control equipment, and protective relays.
• Mechanical tests: Confirm each sub-component is solidly mounted and safely
installed. This includes ensuring that the securing requirement is at the specified
torque and that outdoor components and controls are properly sealed. Similar, the
tightening torque of each power circuit electrical connection must be checked
with a calibrated torque wrench.
• The tightness of all screw terminals inside, for example, a marshalling kiosk, if
used, is checked. TUG test is performed on low-power cable connections (ribbon
cables, terminal blocks, other wiring).
3.2 On-Site Equipment Tests
On-site equipment tests are intended to validate that the equipment has been installed
on-site as designed and specified. The tests rely heavily on adherence to the
manufacturers’ pre-supplied specifications and prior test results.
On-site testing may include typical substation equipment such as transformers,
disconnecting and grounding switches, circuit breakers, instrument transformers,
arresters, capacitors, reactors, resistors, auxiliary equipment, wall bushings, insula-
tors, busbar, protection relays and instruments, cables (power and control), and
HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air conditioning) equipment, converter valves,
converter cooling equipment, and control equipment. This is typically considered
as pre-commissioning or equipment installation tests.
Existing standards and utility practices should be used for commissioning this
equipment, where applicable. Note that in the case of FACTS controllers delivered
via skid, package, or trailer, many of the tests can be fully performed as part of the
factory acceptance test (FAT), thereby minimizing the amount of on-site installation
verification and testing. Any design modifications made during the installation
process must be approved by the owner and documented as part of the commission-
ing report with reference to the appropriate drawings and documents. Detailed
checklists with the expected results of all equipment tests should be provided prior to
testing and compiled into the commissioning documentation.
These tests can also be divided into insulation and characteristics tests. The
insulation tests generally include withstand tests using meggers or special test sets
using, for example, 10 kV test voltages. Some insulation tests might be required to
be conducted by the owners on high-voltage AC or DC systems at a lower than
factory insulation test voltages to ensure no insulation damage has occurred. The
outcome would either confirm the withstand capability or breakdown will occur. The
insulation withstand tests should be conducted after the insulating characteristic tests
are passed. The characteristics tests generally refer to all other tests.
Equipment tests generally include the following tests; however, it may vary
depending on the type of FACTS controller:
• General Installation and Wiring Tests

– The purpose of these tests is to verify the installation as a whole.
– The installed equipment must be inspected visually.
– The nameplates of all equipment must be checked and cross-referenced with
appropriate documentation.
– The position and electrical connection of the equipment must be cross-referenced
with documentation. The clearances to other objects must be checked.
– The earthing (grounding) of the equipment support structure must be verified
visually and with appropriate measurements.
– Insulation resistance tests must be performed as required.
• Capacitors
– As general above.
– The capacitance of each capacitor unit must be measured and cross-referenced
with documentation.
• Reactors
– The reactance of each reactor unit must be measured and cross-referenced with
documentation.
• Surge Protection Equipment
– The capacitance of each surge capacitor unit must be measured and cross-
referenced with documentation.
• Instrument Transformers
– Functional tests including winding ratio and polarity tests etc. are performed
following detailed commissioning instructions.
• Disconnectors and Earthing Switches
– The contact pressures, mechanical alignment and operation of the blades must
be checked. The operation of the auxiliary contacts must also be verified.
Motor operated switches possibly with remote control options require special
checks and if needed adjustments as per manufacturer’s instructions.
• Power Transformers
– The installation, processing, and testing of large power transformers normally
follow specific, detailed instructions provided by the manufacturer or as
required by the owner. This covers an extensive list of checks and tests
covering windings, cores, tap changers if any, bushings, oil quality if relevant,
and many other checks and tests.
– Auxiliary supply voltages and current consumptions should be measured.
– Functional tests must be performed following detailed commissioning
instructions.
– For FACTS controllers with more than one transformer, e.g., UPFCs, the tests
are generally repeated on both series and parallel transformers.
• Circuit Breakers
– The installation, processing, and testing of large high-voltage circuit breakers
normally follows specific, detailed instructions provided by the manufacturer
or as required by the owner. This covers an extensive list of checks and tests
that are applicable for each individual type of breaker.
– Functional tests must be performed following detailed commissioning
instructions.
• Thyristor/IGBT Valves
– Functional tests are to be performed following detailed commissioning
instructions.
– Tests should be conducted according to applicable IEC standards or equivalent
local standards, for example:
SVC: IEEE Std 1303 – 2011 “Guide for Static Var Compensator Field Tests”
• Earthing System
– The purpose of these tests is to verify the installation of the earthing system
installed in the FACTS controller.
– Each piece of equipment shall be appropriately earthed (IEEE Std 80 2015).
– The same applies also to concrete reinforcement steel bars in the vicinity of
dry-type reactors. In general these shall be designed as per local regulations or
IEC 61936 (2014).
– Specific safety rules apply to fences installed around reactors and capacitor
banks located close to ground. Safety key interlock systems might be installed
to prevent anyone to enter the area where the ground clearance is less than
required by the standards for personnel safety. This might also include animal
guards.
• Thyristor Bypass Switch (Applicable to UPFC)
– The purpose of this test is to ensure that the thyristor bypass switch can be
correctly closed and turned on to protect the converter valves during, for
example, line faults.
• Start-Up Resistor (if Applicable)

– The purpose of this test is to ensure safe and correct operation of start-up
resistance, which might be inserted in series with the converter valves.
– Resistance measurements tests are undertaken to ensure correct value of the
start-up resistance.
3.3 Sub-system Tests
Sub-system tests evaluate the performance of groups of interrelated equipment into

progressively larger functional systems. The tests should eventually evaluate the
performance of the largest subgroups of equipment possible, including the coordi-
nation and interfaces between different groups of equipment. Complete operation of
entire sub-systems is evaluated with additional emphasis on control, protection,
measurement, and communication systems of a given sub-system. Checks should
be performed on as many sub-systems as feasible. Testing is reliant on the provided
manufacturer test plan along with the appropriate checklists and tables for docu-
mentation. When the FACTS controller is delivered via skid, package, or trailer,
testing of many functional sub-systems are already fully evaluated during the FAT,
and the amount of on-site verification and testing can be minimized and focused on
detecting shipping damages. In this case simplified sub-system tests can be run to
confirm that the system has arrived fully functional and confirm separate
sub-systems.
Sub-system tests begins with inspecting and functional testing of safety systems
with full point-to-point checks. Next, power supply circuits to each equipment
subgroup are energized, starting up the auxiliary control systems. Verification of
instrument transformer and other transducer sensor calibrations and polarities, and
the mappings and phasings between the physical connections of each sensor that
they correspond to the correct physical and functional locations, should be made
prior to the sub-system commissioning. Afterward each system’s mechanical and
electrical interlocks, sensors, alarms, trips, control system reaction, transfer trips, and
secondary systems should be checked, as practical.
The sub-system testing activities generally consist of the following checks and
activities3:
• Converter Valve Systems

– Check valve modules are installed according to design drawings and mechan-
ical specifications.
– Confirm phasing of converter control cables and auxiliary power to control
panel.
3
This might be classified as installation tests by some owners.
– Verify that all sensor inputs to the control system are connected. Check
labelling and routing of all voltage, current, temperature, humidity, and flow
sensors against construction prints and mapping to control system.
– If applicable, review coolant circuit connections per construction drawings.
– Check resistance and/or clamping force between the valve contacts.
– Valve phases, busbars, and busbar connections are checked.
– Measure grading circuit/snubber circuit electrical characteristics and
continuity.
– Check for AC and DC grounding continuity and resistance.
– Check clearance distances between all energized parts and ground, such as
between valves and metal components.
– Test insulation performance through dielectric voltage withstand or partial
discharge tests.
– Check power supply to valve control systems.
– Check version, settings, and parameters of control system software to verify
that it is as per system design.
– Check response of alarm, trip, interlock, and warning systems including
system redundancy.
– Testing of converter valves and their firing control systems.
– Checking of tuning of all AC and DC filters, if relevant.
• Auxiliary and Control Equipment
– Check that cabling and supply equipment are installed according to design
drawings.
– Check protection settings of upstream and internal power distribution circuits.
– Check operation of fire suppression equipment, alarms, and building or enclo-
sure auxiliaries.
– Check operation of auxiliary heating and cooling systems.
– Check power supply to equipment and internal power distribution circuits.
– Check version, settings, and parameters of control system software to verify
that it is as per system design.
– Check network communication systems.
– Check of batteries and battery chargers.
– Check measuring and monitoring system values and calibration.
– Check response of alarm, trip, interlock, and warning systems along with
system redundancy and transfer trip. Review remote control systems.
– Check communication between systems and remote equipment.
• Cooling Systems
– Check that cooling system is installed according to design drawings and
mechanical specifications.
– Check auxiliary equipment including valves, louvers, fans, and pumps includ-
ing positions, rotation direction, and flow direction.
– Check the quality of cooling medium supplies.
– Check network communication systems.
– Check measuring and monitoring system values, calibration, and mapping to
controls.
– Cooling system valve fittings, flow paths, and pressure tests.

– Testing of alarms and warning signals, failover mechanisms to redundant
systems.
After successful pre-commissioning of each sub-system, if additional testing

effort is deemed necessary and the testing is feasible based on the converter topology
and rating, then staged low-voltage energization testing may be performed.
Although testing occurs at a low voltage, the tests should be treated with the same
care for personnel safety, as high-voltage testing. Low-voltage testing can be accom-
plished through low-voltage AC energization of the magnetic voltage transformers
to check control system measurements. Energization of the entire valve system
through the phase reactors at a reduced voltage can also be used to check phasing
and measurement systems, phasing of the connection transformer, and control
system firing circuits. During testing the DC system will be charged through the
freewheel diodes, and modification of the DC circuitry and controls may be neces-
sary. Alternatively, if sufficient DC supply equipment is available, energization of
the DC system can be used to generate an AC waveform at the converter terminals.
Sub-system tests generally include the following tests; however, it may vary
depending on the type of FACTS controller.
• Cooling System
– The equipment and installation should be visually inspected. Nameplate
values are cross-referenced with appropriate documents.
– The tightness of all terminals and connections must be checked. The earthing
of the equipment support structure is to be verified visually and with appro-
priate measurements.
– The cooling units must be filled with appropriate coolant and de-aired. It is
important to filter the cooling fluids after filling the system to remove all of the
debris that might have been left behind inside the fluid tubes or pipes during
the installation. Conductivity checks on the cooling fluids should be made to
ensure that the fluid is suitable for energization of the cooling system. Func-
tional tests are to be performed, and quality control measurements must be
checked.
• Auxiliary Power System
– This system includes the low-voltage AC, DC, and uninterrupted power
supply (UPS) power systems with their associated batteries.
– The equipment and its installation should be visually inspected. The tightness
of the terminals is checked.
– Earthing of the equipment frame must be verified visually and with appropriate
measurements.
– Functional tests are to be performed as per detailed commissioning instructions.
• Control and Protection Systems
– These include the FACTS controller’s control, protection, recorders, valve
base, and other connection cubicles. The equipment and installation should
be visually inspected.
– The tightness of all terminals must be checked. The earthing of the cubicle
must be verified visually and with appropriate measurements.
– Supply voltages and current consumptions should be measured.
– Functional tests must be performed for each cubicle. These include complete
operational tests on protection relays, control system, and fault recorder.
• Cabling
– All cables must be visually inspected. Special attention should be paid to the
cable’s shield earthing. The grounding of the cable shields shall be checked.
For higher-voltage AC systems such as those at or above 220 kV, some owners
require the shields on cables that are routed out into the switchyard to be
grounded at both ends. For control systems double-shielded cables are often
used in which case the inner shield must only be grounded at one point to
avoid ground loops and also prevent as much as possible common mode noise
being injected into the cable (Wiggins and Nilsson 1994). The continuity of
each core should be checked with a multimeter, and the correct connection
point must be verified. The insulation of each cable should be verified with
insulation resistance measurement.
– The installation of all optical fiber bundles with trunking or equivalent
mechanical protection should be verified.
– A point to point test must be performed on optical fibers.
• Current and Voltage Measurement System
– The earthing of each circuit must be checked. Appropriate current or voltage
can be injected into each CT secondary winding to test the magnetization of the
CT core, but the ground connection for CTs is often made where the CT
conductors enter the control building. No test should be performed to energize
the secondary of a VT because this will inject very high and dangerous
voltages on the buses connected to the primary side of the VT.
– The polarity and magnitude must be verified from each associated cubicle.
Polarities and magnitudes must also be verified from the human-machine
interface (HMI), protection relays, and fault recorder.
• Hard-Wired Digital Input/Output
– Both states of each FACTS controller’s protection and control system digital
input signal must be tested.
– Each signal is observed from the HMI screen, protection relay,
cooling unit, or other receiving device so that the complete signal path gets
verified.
– Digital outputs are tested similarly. The output is activated and deactivated
from the protection and control system.
– The signal is observed at the remote end by verifying that the intended
response is shown by the device. It is required that the complete signal path
is verified.
– A test energization using 120 or 220 V ac power connected to the negative (or
positive) side of an ungrounded or resistance-grounded station battery
system should be made to verify that no digital input to any protective or
control system device operates falsely since such false operations could lead to
false tripping of multiple breakers simultaneously in the station. During such a

test, no wiring or other test tasks are to be performed.
• Communication Links Within the FACTS Controller
– The purpose of these tests is to verify the operation of all communication links
within the control and protection system. These links include protection relays,
cooling unit, and valve base communication.
– Digital signals should be tested by activating and deactivating them at the
sending end and observing the HMI screen.
– Analog signals are verified by comparing the values shown on the sending
device and HMI screen. It may be necessary to inject voltages or currents to
achieve this.
• Interface to SCADA System
– The purpose of these tests is to verify the operation of the interface between the
control and protection system and the SCADA system.
– Digital signals should be tested by activating and deactivating them at the
sending end and observing the receiving end.
– Analog signals are verified by comparing the values shown on the sending and
receiving ends.
– It is acceptable to test the signal paths partially by simulating the signals
in the sending end, as long as sufficient overlap exists with the already
tested signal paths. All digital and analog data points must be checked.
• Communication Link with Remote HMIs
– The purpose of these tests is to verify the operation of the interface between
local HMI and remote HMI personal computers (PC).
– The link between local and remote HMI either works completely or not at all,
so no signal-by-signal testing needs to be performed.
– The capability to download digital fault recorder (DFR) records to
remote HMI must be checked. It is important that the security of these links is
checked since this could be a backdoor allowing hackers to enter the system.
• Firing Systems for Converter Valves
– Firing signal path for the thyristor/GTO/IGBT valves and for individual
components of the FACTS controller is checked.
– Light pulses are sent from the control system, and all firing fibers must be
checked at the valves. However, special test provisions would be needed to test
the firing pulses if light-fired thyristors are used.
• Interlocking
– The purpose of these tests is to verify the operation of electrical and mechan-
ical interlocking arrangements of the complete FACTS controller. This
includes, for example, key interlock systems used to prevent unsafe access
to fenced in areas.
– During these tests the FACTS controller is isolated from the HV busbars with
disconnectors. Each ready-to-run state and other condition must be tested.
– The FACTS controller is set to ready-to-run state by simulating necessary
signals. The FACTS controller is then started. Breaker closing and correct
operation of the FACTS controller must be verified.
– Interlocks to prevent opening of disconnect switches when the circuit breakers

are closed or to close grounding (earthing) switches when the disconnect
switches are closed must be checked.
3.4 System Commissioning Tests
System commissioning tests are the first stages where the FACTS controller as a
complete system is evaluated to ensure it is in accordance with the owner’s/system
operator’s specifications. System commissioning should not commence until all
equipment tests and sub-system tests are successfully completed and the results
accepted, as the sub-systems must be fully operational before evaluating the perfor-
mance of the complete system.
Common requisites for the start of all testing are:
• Pretest AC system and equipment conditions are confirmed.

• Confirm measurement systems are ready.
• Confirm required test personnel are ready.
• Confirm the grid operation state is ready.
• Perform trial test rehearsal to confirm good communication and coordination of
the test team.
This is the first stage in the commissioning process where the FACTS controller’s
high-voltage equipment is connected to the larger electric power system. Given the
potential impacts on personnel safety and the interconnected power system, the
procedure must contain:
• Safety: Explicit instructions when unsafe conditions may exist. Identify key
safety checks for test operators, field crews, and equipment before proceeding
with energization and during the test procedure.
• Communication: Prior to testing, define the communication channels to be used.
A primary point of contact should be assigned for the network operators/inde-
pendent system operators, transmission or asset owners, all field service person-
nel, and the equipment manufacturer representatives supporting the testing.
• Authorization: Identify the team lead responsible for executing each step and for
obtaining any external authorization, if required, from the system operator or
other parties before proceeding with commissioning tests.
• Equipment or grid limits: Establish the maximum levels of current injection
and/or expected voltage variations during each test. These limits should be well
established before the testing takes place via system studies and simulation.
Define any grid conditions or system limits under which the test should not
proceed. If necessary, limit the Mvar injection to below full rating, or test smaller
converter sub-systems if the equipment design allows.
• Emergency operating tests: At any time during the commissioning procedure,
grid conditions may change, and unexpected interactions or other safety concerns
may occur. Establish procedures to safely stop the testing, and shut down the
equipment in the event of an emergency or malfunction.
• Test instructions: These are Instructions on how to configure, monitor, and
operate the equipment during the testing procedure. Include diagrams and soft-
ware screenshots as applicable. The test instructions should also clearly identify
any switching sequences or sequences of events that must be initiated by test
operators from multiple organizations. Switching sequences should have an
associated switching diagram showing the equipment state for each step.
The remainder of this subsection describes system commissioning tests that

applies to all types of FACTS controllers unless explicitly stated otherwise.
3.4.1 System Energization Tests

This section presents the process based on the commissioning of a STATCOM. For
other FACTS controllers, such as the SVC and the TCSC, references to the DC
voltage may not be relevant.
• Purpose
– First energization of the plant to verify that the plant and equipment can be
energized with high voltage.
– To verify that the equipment has been installed correctly.
– To energize the FACTS controller’s high-voltage equipment and supply
system.
– Demonstrate the start-up sequence of the equipment, and train operators with
start-up procedures.
– Evaluate performance of DC capacitor4 pre-charge equipment and DC voltage
regulation controls, when relevant.
– Demonstrate current injection capability of the equipment under manual
operator control.
– To demonstrate the de-energization sequence of the DC capacitor system,
when relevant.
– Note that the exact sequence and types of commissioning tests performed
depend on the technology, layout, and configuration and as such should adhere
closely to the provided test plan.
• Pretest Conditions
– A complete set of safety checks and visual inspection has been completed.
Confirm all temporary grounds have been removed. Check that all ground
switches are open.
Check equipment grounds, grounding transformers, and system grounds are
established per system drawings.
4
All descriptions including the term “DC capacitor” apply to voltage source converter (VSC) based
FACTS controllers such as STATCOMs.
Any alarms, interlocks, or safety features that were previously disabled for the
purposes of sub-system testing are fully activated.
All line switching components such as breakers and disconnects are in the
correct pre-defined operating positions.
– Visual inspection of all high-voltage equipment and areas to check that they
are ready for energization and that no workers are present and that no tools,
ladders, etc. have been left in the substation or indoors in valve rooms.
– Visual inspection of all control and protection systems and auxiliary systems to
check that they are ready for energization.
– Check that all fencing and barriers preventing access to high-voltage areas are
installed and that all gates are locked.
– Check that the appropriate warning signs have been installed.
– Carry out a final trip test before first energization.
– Long-duration pre-energization items have been completed such as no-load
transformer soaking and DC capacitor reforming5 as needed based on manu-
facturer recommendations, or appropriate time is allocated in the commission-
ing procedure.
– The control systems are in the correct pre-energization control mode and are
fully operational.
– Measurement systems are online and operational.
– Valve, transformer, and other cooling systems should be online and
operational.6
– Determine any impacts on the AC network of switching in any AC filters.
– Obtain permission to proceed with tests from system operator/control center
including a confirmation that the AC supply network can supply and absorb
the necessary levels of reactive power as defined in the pre-commissioning
studies or establish reduced operating levels.
– Confirm AC supply voltage at the point that FACTS controller connection is
within the expected operating range.
– The equipment will be energized in accordance with the owner’s high-voltage
operating instructions and system operator’s requirements.
• Methodology and Procedure
– Energize the power transformer with no load. If there are no breakers or
disconnectors downstream (on the converter side) of the transformer, it is
5
Electrolytic capacitor reforming is performed on the DC link capacitors within the STATCOM.
When an electrolytic capacitor is left discharged for an extended period of time, e.g., between the
FAT and commissioning, the oxide layer within the DC capacitors begins to degrade. The oxide
degradation can reduce the dielectric strength between the capacitor terminals and may result in a
short-circuit/large inrush current upon applying rated DC voltage when restarting the FACTS
controller. Capacitor reforming is accomplished by slowly ramping up the DC voltage over time
to reestablish the oxide layer.
6
The risk of static electrification of large transformer may require that only a subset of the cooling
pumps for the transformers are operated until the transformer has reached normal operating
temperatures.
recommended to disconnect the buswork between the transformer and the rest
of the downstream equipment. If not already completed, allow sufficient time
for transformer soak in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
– With all converter side disconnects and breakers open, energize the bus
upstream of the phase reactors and valves.
– Energize any harmonic filtering equipment with due consideration for poten-
tial ferro-resonance conditions. Monitor voltages during filter energization to
evaluate short-circuit strength. Monitor harmonic current through the filter
circuits. Confirm supply voltage recorded by the control systems shows the
expected phasing, and the positive-sequence voltage is near nominal.
– If relevant, activate the DC capacitor system pre-charge circuitry to boost the DC
voltages. Use of the pre-charge system, if available, limits the inrush current
through the freewheeling diodes during AC energization and typically consists
of limiting resistors or an external DC supply. If an external DC supply is used,
verify DC voltages are near the expected pre-charge values and valve monitor-
ing system reports acceptable values from all sub-components.
– Close the disconnectors and breakers supplying the phase reactors and valves,
or reconnect the buswork as relevant.
– Verify positive-sequence system voltages are near nominal, and cross-check
voltage and current sensor calibration.
– Enable the DC capacitor voltage regulation controls, or boost circuitry and
ramp the DC system to the nominal operating voltage.
– Initial rated current injection tests:
Place the FACTS controller, either full or partial converter blocks, in a
controlled test mode.7
Set the FACTS controller to operate in an idle state injecting 0% of rated
current.8
Increase current injection set point to +10% of rated current.9
Record voltage and current AC and RMS waveforms in the valve, converter,
and harmonic filters. Record real and reactive power measurements along
with the system harmonic measurements. Confirm the measurements are
within the expected operating ranges and the symmetry between the valve
branch currents.
Wait for the valves and cooling system to achieve thermal equilibrium. Note
any temperatures outside of the expected operating range.
Monitor grid conditions to confirm they are within pre-defined limits provided
by the TSOs.
7
For a TCSC controller, this would mean to energize the capacitors but to keep the TCR branch
open, which might lead to SSR. Therefore, prior to making this test, studies have to be made to
make sure that, in this mode, no SSR can arise.
8
For TCSC controllers, this would mean keep the valves blocked.
9
For TCSC controllers, this would mean increase of boost level in small steps (e.g., 5%) up to
design levels.
Provided the transmission system conditions are acceptable, increment the

current injection set point by another +10% of system rating. Repeat until
rated current or allowed reactive power injection limit is achieved. Repeat
test decrementing current injection set point in 10% increments.10
Based on the system conditions, it may be necessary to limit the maximum
current injection to below the rated value by testing valve subgroups and
limiting the incremental current increase to less than +/ 10%.
– At this point, it may be appropriate to test the system de-energization
sequence.
Block the FACTS controller and place in an idle state.
Open the circuit breakers upstream of the converter.11
Confirm the operation of the DC system clamping circuits for converter-based
systems to discharge the DC system.
After de-energizing a converter, there may be a waiting period for pre-charge
and DC clamp circuits to cool down. For converter-based FACTS control-
lers, the interlocking functions of the over temperature function for any
pre-charge or DC clamp circuits need to be tested.
• Measured Quantities
– System control states such as pause, stop, running, breaker statuses, etc.
– Critical protection system alarms and warnings.
– Three-phase AC waveforms (instantaneous and RMS) measurements of grid,
transformer, and converter/semiconductor switch voltages and currents. Trig-
ger high-speed records of each switching event or change in current injection
or absorption set point.
– DC system voltages, DC pre-charge and clamp circuit current flows
(if relevant), and temperature.
– Valve and cooling system performance including temperatures, pressures, and
flow rates.
– During the tests, inspect and monitor equipment for abnormal noise or poten-
tial arcing.
– Currents in any filter branches.
– Currents in all protection and metering circuits.
– Check transient fault recordings for switch in and switch out and for inrush
currents on transformers and filters.
– Circuit breaker counters and surge arrester counters after de-energization.
• Acceptance Criteria
– AC system and harmonic filters are successfully energized.
– Pre-charge circuitry (if used) performed acceptably and DC inrush and over-
shoot were acceptable.
10
For TCSC controllers, this would mean decrease the boost level an appropriate amount for
each step.
11
For TCSC and UPFC controllers, a bypass breaker needs to be closed to bypass the series sections.
– Current and voltage through the harmonic filters (if used) and valves within the
acceptable range.
– No abnormal performance or adverse impact on supply or control systems.
– The FACTS controller reaches target current injection.
– De-energization sequence successful with DC system (if used) discharged.
– No trips or flashovers have occurred.
– No protection has mal-operated.
– Sequence of events is correctly displayed on the sequence of events recorder.
– No incorrect trip or alarm events are displayed on the sequence of events
recorder.
– No incorrect surge arrester operations.
– All measured quantities are displayed correctly.
– All transient fault recordings are as expected.
– Synchronizing has functioned correctly for circuit breakers fitted with syn-
chronizing relays.
– No unacceptable corona, sparking, vibrations, or audible noise12
3.4.2 Environment, Noise and Interference Immunity, and Emissions

• Purpose
– To measure and demonstrate compliance with each of the following aspects
with the statutory requirements/standards and/or specified limits:
Audible noise (AN)
Radio-frequency interference from all sources (RFI)
Television interference (TVI)
Power-line carrier (PLC)
Telephone-line carrier (TLC)
Magnetic field strength
– Study/calculation results are available which estimate the expected level of
interference following FACTS controller’s commissioning.
– Results are available for any of the abovementioned aspects measured
during FAT.
– Any potential interference-sensitive equipment in the surrounding area is
identified, and coordination is made with respective operators.
– Determine physical locations of measurement systems.
– Identify the bandwidth and measurement techniques, correction factors, accu-
racy, and antenna type.
– Any potential interference mitigation device used in the FACTS controller is in
service.
– FACTS controller control and protection systems are confirmed to be immune
from all potential sources of interference.
12
See the Environmental Considerations for FACTS Controllers chapter in this book for more
information.
– Tests instrumentation and data acquisition systems are available.

– Measurements have been conducted to determine background interference
levels.
– Determine operating modes and environmental conditions at which the mea-
surements need to be conducted.
– FACTS controller is energized with all criteria under pretest conditions met.
– Repeat the tests with various levels of reactive power generation and
consumption.
– Establish and conduct testing at any potential special conditions which might
result in maximum interference.
– Background (pre-connection) and post-connection measurement of various
noise and interference factors including:
Audible noise (AN)
Radio-frequency interference from all sources (RFI)
Television interference (TVI)
Power-line carrier (PLC)
Telephone-line carrier (TLC)
Magnetic field strength
– Demonstrate compliance of each of the above aspects with the statutory
requirements and specified design limits.
3.4.3 Heat Run Tests

• Purpose
– To demonstrate that equipment operating temperatures are within design limits
at maximum thermal loading and maximum ambient temperature conditions
– To verify the impact of overheating on the materials and main components in
different steady-state conditions
– Network able to accept steady-state operation at maximum inductive and max-
imum capacitive reactive current output, and where applicable real power flows,
preferably during daily maximum ambient temperature conditions.
– The FACTS controller is in service but in local manual control.
– The coordination control of different FACTS controllers is off in the controller
under test, if relevant.
– Pretest conditions are confirmed.
– Confirm the measurement systems are ready.
– Switch in the FACTS controller to be tested (if needed, another FACTS
controller unit, if available, can also switch in to offset the impact of the test
on the grid).
– Configure the control system to manual control mode at a normal reactive

power output (specified by projects, 0.5 pu is recommended).
– Wait until the response settles.
– Configure the control system to positive rated reactive power output.
– Wait until the response settles, and maintain the operation for a certain time
window (generally specified by projects, 2 h are recommended).
– Disable redundant cooling equipment, e.g., pumps and fans on step-up trans-
former and semiconductor device valve cooling system, and any other redun-
dant heat exchanger elements.
– Commence recording of measured quantities, and move the FACTS controller
output to the condition for maximum thermal loading of equipment and
associated connections; continue recording until temperatures stabilize.
Maximum transformer currents
Maximum harmonic filter currents
Maximum valve cooling thermal loading
– Perform infrared camera scanning of equipment, buswork, and connections to
look for excessive temperatures.
– View test data file to ensure it has been successfully saved.
– Reconfigure the control system to default control mode.
– Ambient air temperature away from heat exchangers
– Transformer oil temperatures and fiber-optic sensor hot-spot temperatures, if
fitted
– Number of cooling pumps and fans in operation
– Valve cooling inlet and outlet temperatures, flow rates and pressures, and
thyristor/GTO/IGBT junction temperatures from thermal analog protection if
available
– Inlet and outlet temperature of the cooler banks
– Reactive power output of FACTS controller
– Flow in the main water circuit
– Conductivity of water
– Water level in make-up tanks
– Maximum temperatures to be below design parameters, allowing for increase
in ambient air temperature from test conditions to maximum design ambient.
– No SER alarm has been raised during the test.
– The total voltage harmonics distortion rate (THD) and the distortion at indi-
vidual harmonics are within the acceptable range defined in the specification.
– The system performance is stable and consistent with the simulated value and
grid connection requirements.
– No semiconductor device failure occurs.
– No leaks have occurred in the cooling system.
– No abnormal alarms and trips have occurred.
3.4.4 Redundancy Tests

• Purpose
– To the extent it is possible and practical, verify redundancy function of FACTS
controller’s control and protection system.
– To verify redundancy function of FACTS cooling system parts such as pumps,
fans, and controls.
– To the degree it is possible and practical, verify the redundancy of AC and DC
auxiliary systems by forcing transfers to the alternate path.
– The voltage on different buses is stable and consistent with the grid connection
requirements.
– The FACTS controllers are in service but in local manual control.
– The coordination control of different FACTS controllers is off.
FACTS Controller Control and Protection Redundancy Test

– Switch in the FACTS controller.
– Simulate the loss of the master control and protection system, and check whether
the switch between master and slave system is smooth.
– Wait until the response settles, restore the system, and repeat the test on the slave
system.
– Simulate the converter control unit loss of the master control and protection
system, and check whether the switch between master and slave system is
smooth.
system.
– Simulate the case of loss of the master control and protection system I/O, and
check whether the switch between master and slave system is smooth.
system.
– Simulate the abnormal communication case between converter control unit and
I/O of the master control and protection system, and check whether the switch
between master and slave system is smooth.
system.
– Simulate the abnormal communication or communication interruption case
between the master and slave system, and check whether the system function
remains normal.
FACTS Controller Cooling System Redundancy Test

– Configure the control system to constant reactive power control mode to measure
target reactive power output (specified by project).
– Simulate the simultaneous alarm of low outlet pressure and inlet pressure of the
main pump, and check whether the redundant pump is activated.
– Wait until the response settles, and restore the system.
– Simulate the automatic changeover of the current pump, and check whether the
redundant pump is activated.
– Wait until the response settles, and restore the system.
– Check the manual switch to redundant pump is performed.
– Simulate the power loss of current pump, and check whether redundant pump is
activated.
– Simulate the power loss of the redundant pump, and check whether the FACTS
controller is tripped.
– Make one of the cooling fans in operation unavailable and check the alarms. If all
fans were not in operation at the start of the test, another fan should automatically
be started, and the incoming water temperature should be kept at the same level.
(if applicable).
– Critical protection system alarms and warnings (if applicable).
– Three-phase AC waveforms (instantaneous and RMS) measurements of grid,
transformer, and converter voltage and current. Trigger high-speed records off
each switching event or change in FACTS controller current injection or
absorption set point (if applicable).
– DC system voltages, DC pre-charge and clamp circuits current flow
(if applicable)
– Valve and cooling system performance including temperatures, pressures, and
flow rates (if applicable).
– During the testing inspect and monitor equipment for abnormal noise or
potential arcing (if applicable).
– No SER alarm from other parts not tested has been raised during the test.
– The deviation of reactive power output between theoretical value and actual
measured value should be strictly within acceptable range (typically within
1%).
– Changeover to redundant systems occurs smoothly, and all redundant systems
are operating as normal.
– Incoming water temperature is maintained, assuming the FACTS controller

keeps its operating point during the tests.
– No trips are present.
3.4.5 Loss Determination Tests13

The total power loss of a FACTS controller is typically guaranteed at specific
operating conditions, as required by the specification of the FACTS controller.
Please see the Procurement and Functional Specification for FACTS Controllers
chapter of this Green Book. The direct measurement of power losses of FACTS
controllers may not be practical, but if it is attempted, it requires special, calibrated
transducers with very high accuracy and high resolution.
• Purpose
– To confirm total loss levels are within the expected range.
– To identify any malfunctioning or under functioning equipment leading to
higher system losses.
– Confirm that the FACTS controller system and auxiliary components can
adequately dissipate heat and maintain equipment within its thermal rating at
the maximum loss operating points.
– Note: Although measurement of power losses may be included in the commis-
sioning tests, measurement of power losses for each component will depend
significantly on the system operating state, environmental conditions during
testing, and sensor accuracy. When considering guaranteed levels of power loss,
it is a standard practice to use the measurement results from factory-type tests on
equipment in conjunction with calculations and values recorded during FAT.
– Network conditions are within the required limits.
– All measuring transducers and equipment required for loss evaluation are fully
operational.
– Test reports, measurements, and calculations are available from the FAT of the
key components listed below, as applicable. Ensure available documentation
includes assumptions on system operating state, ambient conditions, and
supply system assumptions including voltage and harmonics.
1. Power transformer no-load and full-load losses.
2. Valve, phase reactor, and DC losses over the full converter operating range.
3. Losses of any shunt devices including capacitors, reactors, and harmonic
filter banks include harmonic losses if specified by the owner.
4. Control power supply losses.
5. Cooling and heating system losses.
6. Other station service and auxiliary loads.
13
Loss determination tests are not performed on all FACTS installations but may be performed
in cases where the customer requires measurements of the losses to confirm a functional
specification.
– Note: It may be possible to perform this test in conjunction with other tests
where the FACTS controller output is varied throughout its specified range,
provided that the worst-case loss conditions are represented.
– Identify worst-case operating points for equipment losses. Note some equip-
ment may show the highest losses when other components are at lower loss
operating points.
– Identify locations of metering equipment. Place on as many electrical supply
points as feasible, including auxiliary, cooling, heating, and other service loads.
– Operate the system to achieve the operating conditions specified for the power
loss evaluation. Allow time for the system to work at the specified points for
long enough to make useful measurements.
– Calculate the guaranteed losses based on the test results from FATs, recorded
losses, harmonic conditions, system voltage profile, and ambient conditions
during testing. FAT results and calculations for worst-case grid and ambient
conditions are typically used for items 1–3 in the section above. Items 4–6 can
be based on direct measurement and cross-checked with the predicted value in
the guaranteed loss.
– Real power consumption or losses of the following equipment:
Control power supply
Cooling and heating system
Other station service and auxiliary loads
– Monitoring of environmental conditions that may impact system losses includ-
ing ambient temperature, barometric pressure, and humidity
– Losses are acceptable and their total value is within the guaranteed values.
– System operated as expected with no alarms, and recorded temperatures
remained within the acceptable range.
– No sub-systems or equipment demonstrated higher losses than expected.
3.5 Grid Compliance Tests
This subsection describes system grid compliance commissioning tests that applies
to all types of FACTS controllers.
3.5.1 STATCOM or SVC Steady-State Characteristic Tests14

• Purpose
– To demonstrate that the FACTS controller is capable of operating up to its
specified limits in the continuous operating mode, from maximum Mvar
capacitive to maximum Mvar inductive
14
Similar test sequences will be adopted for TCSC and UPFC tests.
– To verify voltage droop and reactive power output of the FACTS controller
according to V-I curve in steady state
– FACTS controller initial voltage droop of near zero.
– Observe the difference between the target voltage and FACTS controller’s
primary voltage due to droop settings.
– Plot V-I, V-Q, and ΔV-Q (where ΔV = Vmeasured-Vref) characteristics.
– Repeat the above step with the nominal droop and a larger than the nominal
droop.
– Repeat the tests with strong and weak source power system conditions (high
and low fault level conditions).
– Repeat the test until the system voltage has been reduced to the initial value.
• Constant Reactive Power Control Mode
– Configure the control system to constant reactive power control mode, and set
a reactive power output and its slope reference (generally specified by projects,
0.1 pu reactive power per test step is recommended) to the system reactive
power output reference.
– Repeat the test until capacitive and inductive reactive power from zero to rated
value has been tested.
– FACTS controller’s primary voltage (instantaneous, RMS, and sequence)
– FACTS controller’s reference set-point voltage
– FACTS controller’s current output and commanded current
– FACTS controller’s reactive power output (Mvar)
– Critical protection system alarms and warnings
– Measured and calculated ΔV-Q curves overlap each other as much as possible.
– ΔV-Q for the nominal droop follows a linear relationship.
– The change of voltage setting and reactive power output to target V-I curve is
correct in constant voltage control mode.
– The accuracy of reactive power output to target value is within acceptable
range (typically 1%) in constant reactive power control mode.
– The accuracy of reactive power output run-up and run-down slope is correct in
constant reactive power control mode.
3.5.2 Simulated/Staged-Fault Tests

• Purpose
– Application of a staged/simulated fault to verify the expected response of
FACTS controller when connected to the wider network can be a controversial
issue. Staged-fault testing is usually more appropriate for weak connection
points. For strong connection points, the benefits obtained from staged-fault
testing may be overshadowed by the potential higher risks to overall system
security and higher risk of customer disruptions.
– Several methods exist for implementation of staged-fault testing.
These include sacrificial conductor (fuse-wire) method, dropped conductor
method, and direct-earthing method. The prime advantage of the fuse wire
is its simplicity, and the major disadvantage of the dropped conductor
methods is that the fault duration and impedance are not fixed due to the
resulting long-arc flash. A like-for-like comparison of measurement and
simulation results can therefore be problematic.
The use of a direct-earthing method eliminates both of these issues. Addition-
ally, with this method, the impacts on operational health and safety of testing
personnel can be more preemptively controlled. Application of staged-fault
testing using the direct-earthing method has certain advantages relative to the
post-event analysis of naturally occurring faults including controlled fault
location and time (of test event) and controlled fault duration. However, the
severity is probably more severe due to a higher dv/dt resulting from voltage
breakdown faster than the normal arc travel time.
– Staged-fault testing is the most accurate and comprehensive means of deter-
mining the FACTS controller’s response to actual network faults. However, its
potential adverse impact on the overall power system must be carefully
assessed, and staged faults should be done selectively with the objective to
verify simulation results and thereby the FACTS controller model. Application
of simulated faults during FAT or long-term monitoring of the FACTS con-
troller’s response with high-speed recorders to naturally occurring distur-
bances following completion of the commissioning tests are the more widely
used alternatives. However, in circumstances where the precise response of the
FACTS controller’s during and after the faults is a critical part of the overall
system stability, owners/system operators may prefer to conduct a staged-fault
test upon completion of the commissioning tests rather than waiting for a
natural system disturbance. Additionally, such tests would allow confirming
correct and intended operation of the FACTS controller and relevant network
protection systems. Other conditions at which staged/simulated fault testing
may be conducted are when there are significant concerns on accuracy of
simulation models.
– Determine fault locations.
– Confirmation that fault clearance times are consistent with the most typical
fault durations in the power system to which the FACTS controller is
connected.
– Determine the timing of the tests, accounting for the time of day when least
disruption to other users will be caused, time when system conditions are as
required, and the time when all necessary personnel are available.
– All FACTS controller components are in service and functional.
– Control and protection system tests are complete.
– A program of tests should be produced prior to the tests, and it must be agreed
with all parties within the utilities who may be affected by the tests, including
approval from the real-time power system operator.
– Results of simulated fault results from FAT are available.
– Simulated system network response of the staged-fault tests replicating the
exact operating conditions is available.
– Any temporary control and protection changes (including the use of additional
backup protection) in the surrounding network is implemented and tested.
– Any temporary changes in the network configuration, e.g., back-feeding the
loads, are implemented and tested.
– The predicted stresses applied to all FACTS controller components are con-
firmed to be within the design limited.
– Tests instrumentation and data acquisition systems are available. Ensure dupli-
cate recording systems as it is highly undesirable to repeat these tests due to the
failure of the measurement systems.
– Configure the control system to steady-state voltage control mode to a normal
reactive power output (generally included in the project specification and test
specification).
– Reconfirm the test team are ready.
– Confirm AC system voltages, fault level, and power flows are within the range
determined by pretest simulation studies.
– Apply unbalanced faults15 and balanced faults (if necessary).
– Apply close-in (low-impedance) and remote (high-impedance) faults.
– Check the system control and protection performance.
– Faults within the FACTS controller can also be applied. However, as the
staged-fault tests are often required by the owner/system operator, any faults
within the FACTS controller is of second priority.
– Ensure all necessary tests are complete considering that this test cannot be
repeated many times due to cost, equipment stresses, and potential system
security implications.
15
As they occur more often on a transmission network, single-line-to-ground faults should be
preferred. Also their asymmetry will likely exercise more functions of the control and protection
systems.

– Check and restore the faulted line.
– Dismantle line-related testing and measuring equipment.
– Voltage and current measurements (instantaneous, RMS, and sequence)
including phase angle where applicable at each measured bus, critical protec-
tion signals, alarms, and warnings, e.g., over- and undervoltage protection
– Main sequencing signals, e.g., pause, stop, trip, breaker opening, and closing
status
– Current order
– Commanded current magnitude and phase angle
– FACTS controller and surrounding network remain stable and connected
during and after the fault including for extreme under- and overvoltages for
which the FACTS controller is required to remain connected.
– No spurious operation of protective relays should occur.
– Temporary and transient overvoltage must be maintained within limits set by
the owner/system operator and the limits determined by insulation coordina-
tion studies.
– Speed and amount of reactive current contribution must be consistent with the
connection agreement/specified requirements and study results.
– Close-in (low-impedance) faults: FACTS controller unblocks immediately
after the fault clearance.
– Remote (high-impedance faults): FACTS controller remains in continuous
uninterrupted operation without any blocking/tripping/pausing.
3.5.3 Power-Quality Tests

The availability of existing measurement equipment for the power-quality measure-
ments needs to be organized well before the start of commissioning, as special
equipment is needed. The type of power-quality meter should be agreed between
contractor and the owner. Isolation transducers are required for each measuring
device to eliminate interference.
The minimum quantities that should be measured are the phase-to-ground volt-
ages and for the UPFC and the TCSC also the line-side currents. Measurements
should be made first with the FACTS controller disconnected or bypassed to
determine existing system harmonic levels. Afterward, the FACTS controller should
be inserted at its minimum operating level and incrementally stepped through its
entire continuously designed operating range with harmonic measurements taken at
each incremental step. This allows for harmonic performance evaluation across the
entire range of operation. This process should be repeated for as many different load
conditions as possible, specifically heavy- and light-load conditions, which might be
difficult to achieve at short-term notice. If possible, measurements should also be
made with different transmission configurations and lines out of service to determine
the influence on harmonic flow.
• Purpose
– To confirm that the following power-quality indices are compliant with rele-
vant jurisdictional requirements and national/international standards:
Harmonics
Short-term and long-term flicker
Voltage unbalance
Telephone interference factor (TIF)
IT product factors
– The FACTS controller can withstand grid power-quality distortions and
respond as expected.
– Operation of the FACTS controller, during either switching or continuous
operation, does not cause any harmonic resonance issues or excessive har-
monic injection.
– Demonstrate the effectiveness of harmonic filters.
– Network conditions are within the required limits.
– Background power-quality measurements are available.
– Study results are available which estimate the contribution of the FACTS
controller to achieve various power-quality indices.
– Study results are available demonstrating that the FACTS controller’s
switching does not cause any harmonic resonance issues or excessive har-
monic injection.
– All necessary harmonic filters are operational.
– Any additional specialized measurement systems are available.
– Measurements of background power-quality signatures are complete.
It is generally expected that the background power-quality data is available
from the relevant network operator. If the background power-quality mea-
surements are not available, a background power-quality test at the PoC
should be performed before the online commissioning tests begin. It is
often required that steady-state continuous measurements must be
conducted at the PoC for at least 1 week. These measurements must be
conducted with all items of the FACTS controller disconnected.
– The second stage of measurements is conducted following completion of
background measurements where the FACTS controller remains connected
to the grid. The second stage may take several days or several months as
agreed with the relevant owner/network operator. This stage comprises con-
tinuous measurement of various power-quality indices and does not involve
any intrusive tests.
– The following operating conditions are expected to be covered during the
online measurement stage:
Various reactive power generation and consumption profiles.
Various network voltages, demands, and outage scenarios (as naturally occurs
during the continuous measurements).
Extremes of ambient conditions (as far as possible).

Various operating modes of the FACTS controller.
Any special condition generating maximum power-quality distortion.
– Three-phase instantaneous current and voltage measurements
– Individual harmonic and inter-harmonic currents and voltages up to the fre-
quency specified by the system operator.
Both magnitude and phase angle (generally only required for VSC-based FACTS
controllers) of individual harmonic components need to be measured.
– Voltage unbalance, also known as second harmonic or negative-sequence
voltage component.
– Total harmonic distortion.
– Telephone interference factor (TIF) (if required).
– IT product factor (if required).
– Distortion/noise in the PLC frequency range (if required)
– Measurement of quantities required to allow calculation of the short-term and
long-term flicker indices
– Measurements confirming that all measured quantities are within respective
acceptable limits defined in the project specification.
– FACTS controller’s harmonic filters and any additional shunt banks or filters
are operated within their design limits and are not overloaded.
3.5.4 Network Switching Tests (External Mechanically Switched Shunt

Bank Control)
• Purpose
– To verify the time-domain response of the overall FACTS controller voltage
control system when subjected to an external system disturbance
– To confirm that post-disturbance steady-state voltages are maintained within
statutory limits
– To demonstrate that network switching does not result in excitation of any
harmonic resonances
– To assess compliance with respect to the required rise time, settling time, and
damping time
– To confirm stability in the entire operating range including operation at the
limits
– To obtain sufficient data for validation of the FACTS controller simulation
model
– The static reactive power devices are in service but in local manual control.
– Ensure pretest simulation studies have been conducted confirming no adverse
impact on system stability or other nearby plant. These studies are also
expected to establish the maximum and minimum permissible FACTS con-
troller’s connection point voltage and the maximum size of the reactor/capac-
itor that can be switched in/out without violating the acceptable voltages.
– Any network outages that might require the tests to be aborted is understood
and coordinated with the network operator.
– For FACTS controllers with a power oscillation damping (POD) controller,
ensure POD is in service.
– Pretest simulation studies have been conducted to verify that the changes in
network voltage and reactive power would not adversely impact the area to
which the FACTS controller is connected.
– Energize the FACTS controller.
– Configure the control to local control mode.
– Switch in a nearby network static reactive power device, such as a shunt
capacitor or reactor (note that this test is only possible if a suitable nearby
static reactive power device is available in the network).
– Switch out the static reactive power device.
– Switch in another static reactive power device (if available).
– Switch out the second static reactive powers device.
– Allow at least 10 s pre-triggered recording and at least 60 s recording time after
the response has settled at its steady-state value before the next test (step)
commences.
– Voltage reference set point
– Susceptance reference set point
– Three-phase instantaneous and RMS values at the connection point
– Reactive power output
TSC output (for SVCs)
TCR output (for SVCs)
– Frequency
– POD output (if applicable)
– Overlays of measured and simulated responses show close correlation between
measurement and simulation.
– The FACTS controller is able to return to stable operation after each step
change.
– Response is adequately damped.
– Settling time of the voltage response is consistent with the simulated value and
3.5.5 Step-Response Tests

• Purpose
– To verify the time-domain response of the main voltage control loop (AVR)
and any other auxiliary loops, e.g., POD (if applicable) when subjected to step
changes in the control system
– To assess compliance with respect to the required rise time, settling time, and
halving time
– To confirm capacitive and inductive limits of the FACTS controller
– To confirm stability in the entire operating range including operation at the limits
– To calculate the rise time and settling time of the FACTS controller
– To obtain sufficient data for validation of the FACTS controller’s simulation model
– To verify that the FACTS controller can be remotely controlled by the power
dispatch center and performs normally
– To confirm correct switchover from TSC to TCR and vice versa (for SVCs only)
– Ensure pretest simulation studies have been conducted confirming no adverse
impact on system stability or other nearby plant. These studies are also
expected to establish the maximum and minimum permissible connection
point voltage for the FACTS controller and the maximum permissible step
size without violating the acceptable voltages.
– Any network outages that might abort the tests are understood and coordinated
with the network operator.
requirements.
– The FACTS controller units are in service but in local manual control (if more
than one FACTS controller at the same connection point).
– The coordination control of different FACTS controller units is off
(if applicable).
• FACTS Controller in Constant Voltage Control Mode
– Switch in a FACTS controller unit in the capacitive operating range.
– Configure the control system to constant voltage control mode.
– POD is on (if applicable).
– FACTS controller’s slope (droop) is set at the nominal value.
– Confirm the terminal voltage and reactive power are in steady-state conditions.
– Apply +/ 2.5% steps16 to the voltage control set point initially, and ensure
step responses are stable.
– Repeat the +/ 2.5% voltage set-point step tests for the redundant control lane
in the case of duplicate controls.
16
The step sizes required should be determined by power system simulation studies. Smaller steps
may need to be applied depending on the size of FACTS controller and system strength.
– Allow the terminal voltage and active and reactive power to reach steady-state
conditions.
– Step the voltage set point back to its original value.
– Confirm the terminal voltage and active and reactive power have reached
steady-state conditions.
– Apply +/ 5% steps to the voltage control set point in the same manner as the
+/ 2.5% steps (if possible).
– Repeat the +/ 5% voltage set-point step tests (if possible).
– Download and check measurement data.
– At least 10 s pre-triggered recording required and allow at least 60 s recording
time after the terminal voltage reached new steady-state conditions before the
next test (step) commences.
– Repeat the above tests with POD off.
– Repeat the tests for outputs of zero and inductive.
For SVCs ensure the switchover from TSC to TCR and vice versa is tested, if
relevant.
– Perform the tests with both AVR channels.
– Repeat the tests with change of predetermined control system parameters if the
measured response differs from the expected response (must be agreed with
system operator/owner).
– Repeat the test with lower fault level conditions, i.e., at times with lowest
number of nearby synchronous generation online (must be agreed with system
operator/owner).
• FACTS Controller in Constant Reactive Control Power Mode
– Same as above except that the control system is configured to constant reactive
power control mode and tests are performed with small reactive power output
steps, typically 0.2 pu and 0.6 pu are applied (subject to power system
simulation studies confirming no adverse impact on system stability due to
these changes in reactive power).
– Three-phase voltage and current measurements (instantaneous, RMS, and
sequence) including phase angle were applicable at each measured bus.
– FACTS controller current output and commanded current magnitude and
phase angle.
– Voltage reference set point.
– Susceptance reference set point.
– Frequency.
– Measured voltage response signal should comply with rise time, overshot, and
settling time defined in the technical specification.
– FACTS controller is able to return to stable operation after each step change.
– The measured response is stable and consistent with the simulated value (when
overlaid) and grid connection requirements.
– To verify that the FACTS controller is remotely controlled by the power
dispatch center and performs normally.
3.5.6 Parallel Operation Tests (if Applicable)

• Purpose
– When multiple FACTS controllers are installed at the same site or electrically
close to each other, parallel operation mode can be enabled to ensure that all
FACTS controllers contribute equally to the regulation of the power system
and any risk of hunting between the units is removed. Under parallel operation,
one FACTS controller is normally the master unit, while the others are the
followers.17 Parallel operation requires communication between the FACTS
controllers to enable the transfer of setting data and regulator status informa-
tion from master to follower units.
– All components of all FACTS controllers under considerations are in service
and functional.
– Check that critical control system settings are copied from the master FACTS
controller to the follower FACTS controller in order to ensure that there are no
inadvertent conflicts in the settings of the units.
– Check that the master FACTS controller regulator status (such as Vref set
point) is also copied to the follower unit to ensure that the FACTS controllers
contribute equally to regulation.
– Test instrumentation and data acquisition systems are available.
– Change from independent to parallel operation mode. The transition should be
“bumpless” with the follower FACTS controller regulator settings matching
the master unit after initiation of parallel mode. Subtle variations in regulator
gain and slope on the follower unit prior to enabling parallel operation are
useful to demonstrate the correct transfer of regulator settings from master to
follower (gain, slope, and Vref set point).
– Change from parallel operation to independent operation. The transition
should be “bumpless.”
– Starting and stopping of master FACTS controller in parallel mode. The
follower FACTS controller should switch to parallel when the master is started
and back to independent when the master is stopped.
17
FACTS controllers in close proximity to each other may require exchange of operating states
between the controllers to operate optimally. If not, the control characteristics must be tuned
assuming that all of the controllers are operating normally, which may lead to suboptimal perfor-
mance of the controllers.
– Starting and stopping of a follower FACTS controller with the master in

parallel mode. The follower FACTS controller should start in parallel mode.
The master FACTS controller should not change mode.
– Trip of the master FACTS controller while in parallel mode. The follower
FACTS controller should remain online and switch to independent control
mode. The follower FACTS controller regulator should compensate for the
loss of contribution from the tripped master FACTS controller.
– Tripping of the follower FACTS controller while in parallel mode. The master
FACTS controller should remain online and compensate for the loss of
contribution from the follower FACTS controller.
– Loss of communication between the FACTS controllers. The FACTS control-
ler should switch to independent control mode and remain operational.
– Step-response tests in parallel mode. The two FACTS controllers should
respond in almost identical fashion to one another.
– Testing of external reactive device switching in parallel and independent
control modes. The control approach for external banks may vary for parallel
and independent control modes, and therefore the confirmation of correct
operation of the bank switching controls under both modes is required.
– Susceptance reference set point
– Three-phase instantaneous and RMS values at the FACTS controller connec-
tion point
– Frequency
– As specified above in this section for each particular test demonstrating correct
and expected operation of parallel mode.
3.5.7 POD on/off Tests

• Purpose
– To demonstrate positive contribution of the FACTS controller to damping of
inter-area modes of oscillations without compromising the FACTS controller
large-signal performance
– Pretest measured damping of oscillations is adequate (sufficiently above zero).
– Pretest small-signal stability studies are conducted to determine the duration
and system conditions for which the POD can be switched on and off. The
study results with the POD off should correlate with the pretest measured
damping performance.
– Any network outages that might abort the tests is understood and coordinated
with the network operator.
– Devices that measure small-signal damping of inter-area oscillations in real

time are set to produce alarms to the power system operators if the damping of
oscillations during the test degrades below a permissible level allowing the
operator to make a decision on whether or not to abort the tests.
– If simulation studies have been performed that show that the POD function can
be disabled safely, then the POD may be switched on and off, e.g., every 3 h
over a 24-h period.
– During periods with POD both off and on, a voltage disturbance (e.g., by
switching a nearby shunt reactive device or applying a system transformer tap
change) is applied to the system, and measurements are recorded. This pro-
vides time-domain records to compare performance with and without
the POD.
– To avoid any impact on the system, it is recommended that the POD gain is
initially set at low values and gradually increased during the test.
– Testing should be aborted if network conditions become unsuitable or system
damping degrades below the permissible level identified by pretest studies.
– Three-phase instantaneous and RMS values at the FACTS controller connec-
tion point
– Frequency (this requires a linear-frequency transducer with low noise) Grund
et al. (1990)
– Damping of inter-area modes of oscillations (by owner/network operator)
– Overlays of measured and simulated responses show close correlation between
measurement and simulation.
– Operation with POD increases the existing level of system damping.
– Operation without POD does not reduce the existing level of system damping.
3.5.8 Automatic Gain Reduction Tests

• Purpose
– The gain of an FACTS controller is designed to optimize the rise time, settling
time, and overshoot of the regulator controls for the range of system conditions
under which the FACTS controller is normally required to operate. Under
extreme and rare operating conditions, characterized by significant reduction
in the system fault level below that for which the regulator gain is designed,
undesirable overshoot in the regulator controls may be experienced and could
result in under-damped oscillations in FACTS controller output. Gain reduc-
tion controls may be included in FACTS controllers to enable the management
of such conditions by monitoring the overshoot of the voltage regulator and
automatically reducing the regulator gain for conditions where multiple con-
secutive overshoots beyond a pre-defined threshold are observed. Once acti-
vated, resetting of gain reduction controls may either be automatic or operator
initiated depending on the manufacturer design. In the case of operator-
initiated reset, it is important that the power system be returned to acceptable
operating conditions prior to resetting the gain reduction control. Failure to
observe this requirement would result in additional voltage oscillations and
retriggering of the gain reduction controls. Operator instructions should be
prepared that describe the system conditions necessary to prevent gain reduc-
tion triggering.
– System conditions for which the gain supervision controls are required to
operate could be beyond system intact operating conditions. In some circum-
stances it may neither be desirable nor necessarily possible to test the operation
of the gain supervision controls with the FACTS controller connected to a
power system. In such circumstances real-time digital simulation tests are
undertaken to confirm the correct operation of the gain reduction controls.
Such tests are conducted as part of FAT. By performing these tests in the
laboratory, functional testing of the gain reduction controls can be achieved.
– None if done during FAT.
– Review FAT results to determine the most appropriate operating conditions
where the tests can be conducted without adverse impact on system stability.
– Reduce the system strength (short-circuit capacity) at the FACTS controller
connection point to reach the threshold at which automatic gain reduction
starts.
– Confirm that following the introduction of a disturbance, the regulator control
overshoots for a sufficient time and magnitude to trigger the operation of the
gain supervision controls.
– Check the FACTS controller gain is automatically reduced due to the action of
gain reduction control (or is reduced as a function of system fault level
reduction depending on operating philosophy of the automatic gain reduction
method).
– FACTS controller becomes stable again.
– FACTS controller’s gain reduction alarm is raised.
– Restore the system to normal.
– Reset the gain to normal.
– Three-phase FACTS controller’s currents
Three-phase TSC currents (for SVCs)
Three-phase TCR currents (for SVCs)
– Three-phase FACTS controller’s voltages
– Three-phase connection point voltages
– Three-phase connection point currents
– FACTS controller’s reactive power output
– Gain reduction is automatically asserted within the required timeframe.
– FACTS controller regains stability once gain reduction takes effect.
3.5.9 Mechanically Switched Shunt Bank Control

• Purpose
– To verify control of mechanically switched capacitor (MSC) and reactor
(MSR) banks
– To confirm component switching is acceptable without restrike or any other
abnormal response
– To evaluate the performance of additional shunt bank control features such as
point-on-wave switching
– To evaluate the performance of the FACTS controller’s control features such as
soft switching
– Steady-state voltage levels and reactive power capability of the grid have been
verified.
– MSC and MSR commissioning and functional testing have been completed.
Verification that the control wiring from the control system to the shunt bank is
correct, prior to energization.
– Mechanically switched shunts and associated control system have been
commissioned, and upstream equipment, control systems, and protection
systems are energized and operational.
– If applicable, specialized shunt switching equipment such as point-on-wave
switching is enabled.
– Under manual operator control, with control system regulation functions
disabled:
Close an MSC or MSR. Confirm the correct device is switched in service, and
examine the recorded waveforms for any abnormal response.
Confirm control lockout systems are activated that prevent repeated opening or
closing the capacitor or reactor.
Wait for the system conditions to settle. Observe reactive power output of the
shunt.
Open the MSC or MSR under test. Examine the recorded waveforms for any
abnormal characteristics that may indicate restrike or any other opening or
closing failure.
Repeat the above test with each MSC or MSR device.
– Under full automatic control:
Enable MSC and MSR control sub-systems.
Increase the reactive power generation or absorption of the FACTS controller
in appropriate increments to the defined thresholds where a shunt would be
switched in service.
Observe the shunt switch command and timing. Wait for system conditions to
settle.
Decrease the reactive power generation or absorption of the FACTS controller
in appropriate increments to the defined thresholds where a shunt would be
switched out of service
Observe the shunt switch command and timing. Wait for system conditions to
settle.
– AC voltages and currents (both RMS and instantaneous), reactive power
outputs.
– Control mode and reactive power reference set points.
– Opening and closing of shunt bank under manual control are successful.
– No evidence of restrike or abnormal currents or reactive power injection.
– Under automatic control the capacitor bank or reactor is switched at the
expected operating point.
– Soft-switching control of the capacitor bank or reactor shows smooth
exchange between reactive power output of the FACTS controller and the
shunt bank with no step change in voltage or reactive power, if applicable.
– Point-on-wave systems are functional and minimize voltage transients, if
applicable.
3.5.10 System Interaction Tests

These tests are often conducted when the FACTS controller is in close proximity of
thermal power plant, whereby an adverse interaction could result in sub-synchronous
torsional interactions or when there are other FACTS controllers and power elec-
tronic interfaced plant which could result in a risk of sub-synchronous control
interactions. If there is any adverse interaction due to sub-synchronous oscillations
(SSO), then the affected plant or plants may be equipped with SSR protective relays,
and this is generally identified during earlier stages of project execution.
It is desirable to test the control algorithms during the FACTS controller’s
commissioning. However, it might be difficult to achieve system configurations
and scenarios that create the necessary conditions for evaluating the risk of
sub-synchronous control and torsional interactions, but in at least one case, it has
been done (Piwko et al. 1994). Furthermore, these interactions could result in
excitation of system resonances, and development of excessive oscillations across
the power system and multiple power system plant, which, if not carefully managed,
could result in adverse impact on the physical integrity of the plant. For these reasons
such tests may not always be permitted by system operators.
When a FACTS controller is deployed to provide damping of sub-synchronous
oscillations, it may not be possible to evaluate at site the improvements in the
electrical damping at sub-synchronous frequencies unless the necessary system
conditions are created and a comparison is done between the tests without and
with the FACTS controller. In case of traditional sub-synchronous resonance, when

these tests are not practical, an alternative may be to install mechanical sensors on the
critical generator shafts well before the FACTS controller commissioning and to
identify low damping of a critical mode. These measurements should be continued
after the FACTS controller’s commissioning to continuously verify the improve-
ments on the total (mechanical + electrical) damping on these modes with the
FACTS controller in operation.18
The FACTS controller’s dynamic capabilities can also be evaluated using real-
time simulators, interfaced with the control system to be installed at site. These
studies will help to effectively predict the system response as well as to determine the
required system operating points and limits necessary to create appropriate system
test conditions at site. After making sure that the FACTS controller has had its
functionalities tested and that no issues have been found related to the performance
that could compromise the integrity of equipment and system, the interaction tests
can be done during the commissioning phase to demonstrate the FACTS controller’s
control system performance to events that could occur during its lifetime.
4 Typical Commissioning Tests for SVCs
This section provides results from typical commissioning tests performed on SVCs.
Please also refer to ▶ Chap. 6, “Technical Description of Static Var Compensators
(SVC)” in this Green Book.
4.1.1 Heat Run Tests

Figure 1 shows a heat run test for a TCR-/TSC-type SVC where the reactive power
output (QSVC) is set to a value corresponding to maximum loss dissipation in the
single cooling circuit serving both the TCR and TSC. The TCR and TSC currents are
seen to be almost equal. The inlet water temperature rises and oscillates as the first
cooling fans (F1) are switched in and out. The outdoor ambient temperature
increases, and the second batch of cooling fans (F2) come into operation and hold
the inlet water temperature to the thyristor valves and the thyristor junction temper-
atures (TjTCR and TjTSC) to well below their design limits. The heat run ends
before 14:00 when the SVC output rises as the TCR current is reduced. The
subsequent tests include a trip of the AC supply to the water cooling plant to
demonstrate safe shutdown of the SVC. (Note that the inlet temperature and the
main flow temperature are almost identical.)
18
This is not feasible for wind power park systems where multiple turbines are installed.
70 70
Main Flow Temp
Return Temp
60 Outdoor Temp 60
Inlet Temp
50 50
Degrees C
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
100 5000
Tj TCR
90 Tj TSC
ITCR
80 ITSC 4000
70
3000
Degrees C
60
Amps
50
2000
40
30
1000
20
10 0
9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
1 300
Conductivity
Flow
250
0.8
200
Conductivity uS
0.6
Flow I/m
150
0.4
100
0.2
50
0 0
9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
4 0.5
F1
3.5 F2
QSVC 0.4
3
0.3
2.5
QSVC
On
2 0.2
1.5
0.1
1
0
0.5
0 −0.1
9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
Fig. 1 Site recordings of heat run tests

4.1.2 Degraded Mode of Operation (if any Specified)

• Purpose
– The purpose of these tests is to verify the operation of the SVC in degraded
modes. Operation in degraded modes may be possible if some elements
become unavailable, but the FACTS controller can still provide some contin-
uous uninterrupted operation. A valid degraded mode corresponds to a con-
figuration where, although output limits are reduced (automatically by the
control system) when compared to the rated values, it is still possible to
continuously vary SVC output power while keeping SVC harmonic levels
below the specified limits.
– Degraded operating modes should be tested with an SVC branch or harmonic
filter taken out of service, as relevant.
– A valid degraded mode usually requires the presence of at least one TCR and
some filtering.
– The SVC is de-energized and set to a degraded mode. The SVC is energized,
and correct operation is verified.
– Original and reduced Mvar capabilities
– Harmonic levels
– SVC stop and start sequences conform to specifications in degraded mode.
– Continuous operating range in degraded mode conforms to the specifications.
– SVC output can still vary but in a narrower range.
– Harmonic levels are below the statutory limits.
4.2.1 Offline Transfer Function Tests (if Applicable)19

• Purpose
– The objective of the offline test is to test the SVC control system response to a
low-frequency sinusoidal voltage error and verify the frequency domain trans-
fer function characteristics of the power oscillation damper (POD) loop. This
test is generally conducted as part of FAT with an RTS representing the
network and providing terminal voltage feedback. On-site offline testing is
limited to the response of the POD loop from its input up to the SVC automatic
voltage regulator (AVR) proportional integral (PI) control input.
19
Online transfer function tests may be performed but may adversely trigger oscillatory modes
in the power system at points far from where the FACTS controller is installed (Piwko et al. 1994).
– The test is expected to:

Cover a frequency range of 0.1–20 Hz
Provide measured values of transfer function gain and phase, where the gain
relates the ratio of the output to input magnitudes when both are expressed
as per unit values
Provide measured values at a minimum of 20 frequency steps, where the ratio
of adjacent test frequencies does not exceed 1.3
– An error signal dV (sinusoidal wave) with a frequency range from 0.1 to 20 Hz
and a magnitude between 0 and 0.001 pu is applied to the SVC automatic
voltage regulator (AVR) proportional integral (PI) control input.
– The response variation magnitudes (half of the RMS peak-peak ranges) and
phase relative to the input of the network side voltage (VHV), Isvc (HV side),
and QSVC are plotted against the frequency of dV.
– The Isvc order signal from the SVC PI control section and phase difference of
dVHV and dV are also plotted in the frequency domain.
• Repeat the test on channel 2 of SVC AVR.
– Voltage error input (dV)
– SVC current order output
– TCR current order output
– POD input(s)/output (if applicable)
– Overlays of frequency domain measured and simulated responses show close
correlation between measurement and simulation (see Sect. 8.1 for model
overlays for both the AVR and POD loops).
– Comparison of tests with POD on and off demonstrates positive contribution
of the POD in damping of oscillations.
4.2.2 Steady-State Characteristic Tests

Figure 2 compares the measured and ideal ΔV-Q characteristic of an SVC with a
nominal droop of 5% demonstrating good correlation between the measurement and
simulation. The underlying V-I and V-Q curves used to develop Fig. 2 are shown in
Fig. 3. Note that the blue squares are calculated from measurements and the dotted
line is the response expected from control settings. The measurements deviate
slightly from the expected line due to errors in measuring the small voltage deviation
in the presence of transient variations in SVC output due to network changes.
SVC Characteristic (5% Slope)

2.5
1.5
Vhv (%)
1
0.5
0
−40 −30 −20 −10 0 10 20 30 40 50
svc Output (Nvar)
−0.5
−1
−1.5
−2
Calc delta V Expected delta V
Fig. 2 Measured and calculated ΔV-Q curves for a voltage droop of 5%
V-Q curve
230
228
226
224
222
220 V-Q curve
218
216
214
212
-40 -20 0 20 40 60
Fig. 3 Measured V-I and V-Q characteristics for 5% droop for high fault level conditions
4.2.3 Step-Response Tests

Figure 4 provides guidance on various start and end points chosen in the SVC
capability diagram for the voltage set-point step-response tests.
In this example, the SVC has a swing range from 50 Mvar inductive to 250 Mvar
capacitive. A, B, and C in Fig. 4 are specified operating points for the SVC and are
defined as:
• A – SVC output of 250 Mvar capacitive for 1 h in every 24 h at nominal voltage

after continuous operation at 150 MVA
• B – SVC output of 150 Mvar capacitive continuously at nominal voltage
• C – SVC output of 50 Mvar inductive continuously at nominal voltage
The SVC can operate in the area enclosed by the red and blue boundary lines.
In Fig. 4 the red dashed line indicates the approximate threshold for switching the
TSC on and off.
Arrows inserted in the figure indicate typical tests commonly carried out on
SVCs, with the start and end points of the arrows showing notional levels of Mvar
at which the step-response tests will be conducted.
Figure 5 shows the response of a transmission connected SVC during commis-
sioning tests for a +/ 2.5% voltage step-response test. Figure 6 shows a zoomed-in
Fig. 4 Typical step-response tests conducted on SVCs

1.095
VRef
VResp
1.09
X: 6.666 X: 8.668
Y: 1.085 Y: 1.085
1.085
1.08
V [p.u]
1.075
1.07
1.065
1.06 X: 8.486
0 5 Y: 1.06
15 20
[s]
Fig. 5 Comparison of reference and response (network) voltage
X: 6.666
VRef
Y: 1.085 VResp
1.085
1.08
V [p.u]
1.075
X: 6.678
Y: 1.07
1.07 X: 6.6
Y: 1.071
1.065 X: 6.748
Y: 1.062
1.06 X: 6.8
6.55 6.6 6.65 6.7 Y: 1.0616.8
6.75 6.85 6.9 6.95 7
Time [s]
Fig. 6 Comparison of reference and response (network) voltage (zoomed in for the step down)
version focusing on the 2.5% step-response test. These figures indicate that the
resultant voltage change at the SVC connection point voltage is less than 1%. This is
due to the strength of the interconnected power system to which the SVC is connected.
Table 1 Calculation of rise time and settling time for voltage step-response test (negative step)
Initiation
Vresp
t [s] of a Step
[p.u.]
[s]
Start
1.071 6.666
Value
10% Start
1.07 6.678
Value
Final
1.061
Value
90% Final
1.062 6.748
Value
Raise time [10% - 90%] [s] 0.07

Settling Time [s]
0.082
[Initiation of a Step - 90%]
Applying the same step size with the same voltage droop at a weaker connection point
would have resulted in a larger variation in the connection point voltage.
The measured rise time and settling time of the SVC AVR loop are 70 and 82 ms
for this particular operating condition as highlighted in Table 1. Repeating the test
with different SVC voltages, network operating conditions, and generation dispatch
pattern showed a variation of up to 25 ms for both the rise time and settling time,
while all control parameters remain the same for the two tests. Note that IEEE Std
103, 2011, recommends a response time (time taken from 0% to 90% voltage) of
50 ms, and a typical settling time of 250–300 ms is expected. This SVC was installed
in a jurisdiction at which this IEEE recommended practice is not used, and the rise
time was made slower to cater for the connection point’s system strength.
Figure 7 illustrates zoomed-in version for the +2.5% step response. Measured rise
time and settling time are 78 and 92 ms for the positive voltage set-point step-
response test as indicated in Table 2.
Figures 8 and 9 present overlays of measured and simulated response of
susceptance reference set point and SVC reactive power output. These figures
demonstrate good correlation between the study and the test. Note that the initial
error between the measurement and simulation is due to the fact that the simulation
has not reached its initial conditions at t = 0 and takes a few cycles to achieve correct
initial conditions. From this point onward, the measurement and simulation provide
an almost one-to-one match.
Figure 10 compares the time-domain voltage response of an SVC with POD on
(blue) and off (green) for a 1% voltage step-response test, with POD gain set at 50% of
the design value. The output of the POD control loop (second trace) and frequency
variations (third trace) are also shown. In this example, the input signal to the POD is
derived from measured frequency. The step test is evident in the frequency
1.085 VRef
VResp
1.08
1.075
V [p.u]
X: 8.8
X: 8.758 Y: 1.072
Y: 1.071
1.07
1.065 X: 8.68
X: 8.6 Y: 1.062
Y: 1.062
1.06 X: 8.666
8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6
Y: 1.06 8.7 8.8 8.9
Time [s]
Fig. 7 Comparison of reference and response (network) voltage (zoomed in for the step up)
Table 2 Calculation of rise time and settling time for voltage step-response test (positive step)
Initiation
Vresp
t [s] of a Step
[p.u.]
[s]
Start
1.062 8.666
Value
10% Start
1.063 8.68
Value
Final
1.072
Value
90% Final
1.071 8.758
Value
Raise time [10% - 90%] [s] 0.078

Settling Time [s]
0.092
[Initiation of a Step - 90%]
measurement deviating in sympathy to changes in the bus voltage. The POD off
VRESP signal (green) is provided as a reference to the expected voltage regulator
behavior in the absence of the POD control signal. Note that in this case the duration of
the step response differs between the POD on and POD off measurements. The
2
Measured
Simulated
1.5
1
QSVC [p.u]
0.5
-0.5
0 5 10 15 20
Time [s]
Fig. 8 Comparison of measured and simulated susceptance reference
2
Measured
Simulated
1.5
1
QSVC [p.u]
0.5
-0.5
0 5 10 15 20
Time [s]
Fig. 9 Comparison of measured and simulated SVC output (Mvar)

S1:TF
1.046
1.044
S1:VRESP [pu]
S2:VRESP [pu]
1.042
1.04
1.038
1.036
1.034
0x 10-3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1.5
1
S1:POD_dVref [pu]
0.5
-0.5
-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
49.98
49.97
S1:FREQ [Hz]
49.96
49.95
49.94
49.93
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Fig. 10 SVC VRESP (positive-sequence voltage at 275 kV bus) POD on with 50% gain (blue)
vs. POD off (green)
sampling rate applied for the measurement of the POD output signal is the cause of the
somewhat reduced resolution of this trace. It is demonstrated that the transient
performance of the voltage regulator is not degraded by the activation of the POD
control and that the bandwidth of the POD is appropriately configured to reject
transient disturbances.
4.2.4 Network Switching Tests

Figures 11 and 12 show responses obtained during commission tests where the SVC
is used to switch out and in an external reactor bank located in the same 275 kV
substation. The following quantities are shown in each plot:
• Positive-sequence SVC connection point voltage VRESP (pu)

• POD output POD_dVref (pu)
• Frequency FREQ (Hz)
• Susceptance reference set-point BREF (pu)
These figures indicate a small change of approximately 0.5% in the SVC bus
voltage following switching in/out of the reactor bank due to the system strength at
the bus to which the SVC is connected. In each case the SVC responds as expected
by reducing or increasing the susceptance reference set point. In this example, the
POD control uses frequency as the input signal. The switching of the reactor bank is
evident in both the VRESP signal, as the SVC acts to counter the change in 275 kV
bus voltage and as a deviation in the measured frequency as a result of changes in the
1.05
S1:VRESP [pu] 1.048
1.046
1.044
1.042
1.04
1.038
1.036
0x 10-3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1.5
1
S1:POD_dVref [pu]
0.5
-0.5
-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
50.025
50.02
S1:FREQ [Hz]
50.015
50.01
50.005
50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-0.2
-0.25
S1:BRER [pu]
-0.3
-0.35
-0.4
-0.45
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Fig. 11 Response to an external reactor bank switching off at 2.1 s
1.046
1.044
S1:VRESP [pu]
1.042
1.04
1.038
1.036
1.034
0x 10-3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1.5
2
S1:POD_dVref [pu]
-2
-4
-6
-8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
49.95
49.945
S1:FREQ [Hz]
49.94
49.935
49.93
49.925
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-0.2
-0.25
S1:BREF [pu]
-0.3
-0.35
-0.4
-0.45
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Fig. 12 Response to an external reactor bank switching on at 1.2 s

bus voltage. The action of the POD is shown to not impact on the transient
performance of the voltage regulator controls.
4.2.5 Simulated/Staged-Fault Tests

With the SVC running in the voltage control mode and a reference voltage of 1 pu,
two-line-to-ground (LLG) and three-line-to-ground (LLLG) faults were applied at
the SVC HV bus for ten and seven cycles, respectively. The system voltage and the
SVC response are shown in Figs. 13 and 14. For the LLLG fault, the SVC
connection point voltage drops to zero, whereas a residual voltage of approximately
0.35 pu is retained for the LLG fault. These figures indicate that the SVC was able to
successfully ride through the faults.
The duration of the fault and that it affects all three phases can be seen from the
first and the last traces. The ITSC traces show the TSC is turned on to counter the
initial voltage drop but is then blocked to prevent excessive transients on voltage
recovery. The ITCR traces show the trapped DC current in one phase of the TCR on
Fig. 13 Three-phase-to-ground staged-fault test

Fig. 14 Two-phase-to-ground stage fault test
the loss of voltage until voltage recovery where the TCR current is increased to
ensure the turned on TSC does not cause excessive voltage.
The duration of the fault and that it affects only two phases can be seen from the
VHV2rms and ifa/b/c traces. The ITSC traces show the TSC is turned on to counter
the initial voltage drop but then blocked to prevent excessive transients on voltage
recovery. The ITCR traces show there is no trapped DC current due to the residual
AC voltage during the fault. On voltage recovery the TCR current is increased to
ensure the turned on TSC does not cause excessive voltage.
4.2.6 Parallel Operation Tests

Figure 15 shows an example of tests conducted to demonstrate successful operation
of two identical SVCs when paralleled. Quantities shown in this figure include Vref,
BREF, VRESP (positive-sequence controlled bus voltage), and summated SVC
reactive output (QSVC). The response of the master and the follower SVCs are
highlighted in blue and green, respectively.
File: TFR SVC1_MAINA_HECT 0 20161112 15;50;47_157000

1.044
1.043
VRESP [pu]
1.042
1.041
1.04
1.039
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
1.042
VrefTot_FoSvc [pu]
VRefT ot [pu]
1.04
1.038
1.036
1.034
1.032
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
-0.05
BREF_FoSvc [pu]
-0.1
BREF [pu]
-0.15
-0.2
-0.25
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
-0.25
-0.3
Qsvc_sum [pu]
-0.35
-0.4
-0.45
-0.5
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Ctrl_Released
Parallel_released
SyncVolt_Released
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time [s]
Fig. 15 Vref set-point change via ramping function to demonstrate successful parallel operation of
the two SVCs, traces from top to bottom: voltage set-point step applied, total voltage, susceptance,
and reactive power with SVCs in parallel operation and indication of parallel mode of operation
throughout the test
For these tests it was necessary to apply the disturbance via a change to the Vref
set point on both SVCs. This was necessary because the application of a step change
via the master SVC HMI would not be passed to the follower SVC when operating in
parallel mode. Therefore, applying a step to the master would have resulted in the
follower SVC acting to counter the step applied by the master SVC, as it works to
maintain the Vref set point. However, application of the disturbance via a change to
the Vref set point on the master SVC is passed to the follower when operating in
parallel mode. This approach results in a ramp as shown in Fig. 15 due to the ramp
rate settings that are applied to the SVCs. Correct operation of the two SVCs in
parallel mode can be observed in Fig. 15 with the follower SVC’s output, as
highlighted in green in the second and third graph below, closely matching the
master SVC, as shown in blue in the second and third graph below. Additionally, the
status shown at the bottom of this graph shows that the SVCs are operating in
parallel mode throughout the test.
4.2.7 Automatic Gain Reduction Tests

Figure 16 shows automatic gain reduction test results from FAT. The SVC
approaches the verge of instability when the system fault level is reduced at
approximately 1.6 s. This is evident from large initial oscillations associated with
the original SVC gain. The automatic gain reduction control then takes over and
Fig. 16 Automatic gain reduction test results from FAT

reduces the SVC gain as indicated by a reduction in the SVC current order. Sustained
oscillations with very small magnitude can be observed after gain reductions take
over. These oscillations can be generally permitted until fast-start units are brought
online to increase the available fault level, following which the original gain is
resumed.
5 Typical Commissioning Tests for STATCOMS
Generally, commissioning standards and procedures for SVCs and VSC HVDC can
be adapted to STATCOM commissioning (CIGRÉ Technical Brochure
No. 447 2011; IEEE Std 1303 2011; CIGRÉ Brochure No. 697 2017; CIGRÉ
Brochure No. 663 2016), as technology-specific guidelines are still emerging. For
general information on STATCOMs, refer to ▶ Chap. 7, “Technical Description of
Static Compensators (STATCOM)” in this Green Book.
This section provides information about some additional commissioning tests that
should be performed on STATCOMs, where applicable.
5.1.1 Unbalanced Current Injection Tests

• Purpose
– Injection of unbalanced or negative-sequence current is a critical function of
many STATCOM systems, when they are included as part of the specification.
Generally, there is one and in some designs more steps of transformation
between the voltage or current controller input and the point of STATCOM
current injection. The STATCOM control system must account for the phase
rotations due to the transformer winding configuration and vector group to
assure that the current injection phase angle is correct.
– Controlled injection of negative-sequence current is used to confirm the
transformer winding arrangement, cabling, and control system parameters
checking the phase rotations are accurate and that negative-sequence current
is injected at the correct angle during further compliance testing and future grid
events.
– Background system unbalance is within the acceptable levels, and it is con-
firmed that additional voltage unbalance due to testing will not violate any
network standards or unbalance criteria.
– Inform network operator of unbalanced system testing.
– Determine the amount of positive-sequence current that results in a pre-
determined level of voltage increase in the order of 1–2% and that is in
accordance with the networks allowable negative-sequence voltage limits.
– Under operator manual control, increment STATCOM current reference set

point (balanced) toward the calculated reference level until the desired voltage
change is achieved.
– During the test, limit negative-sequence injection duration to reduce adverse
impacts on nearby customer equipment. Short-run durations or pulses are
sufficient for this testing so long as the impacts on the upstream system
conditions are captured, typically in the order of seconds or less.
– Under operator manual control, set the STATCOM negative-sequence current
reference set point (unbalanced) to 50% of the positive-sequence reference set
point and at a 0 phase shift.
– Change the relative phase angle between the negative and positive-sequence
current references in increments of 30 between 0 and 330 .
– Test each module or converter system with separate converter step-up trans-
formers in the event of multiple modular units20
– Return the STATCOM system to an idle state, and evaluate the system response.
including phase angle where applicable at each measured bus.
– STATCOM current output and commanded current magnitude and phase angle
– Control system parameters correctly account for the observed phase rotations
and transformer vector groups.
– No excessive heating in any of the system components, alarms, or protection
systems were activated during the testing
5.2.1 Overload Capability Tests

• Purpose
– To verify the performance of the main parts of the system in overload
conditions
– System studies have been performed for the system conditions to determine
the impact of the overload tests on the network.
requirements.
– The coordination control of different FACTS controller is off.
20
This is not applicable to all STATCOM designs.

– Configure the control system to manual control mode and to a normal reactive
power output (generally specified by project, 0.5 pu is recommended).
– Configure the control system to a slight overload reactive power output
(generally specified by project, 1.1 pu is recommended).
– Wait until the response settles, and maintain the operation for a certain time
window (generally specified by project, an hour is recommended).
– Configure the control system to a heavy overload reactive power output
(generally specified by projects, 1.3 pu is recommended).
– Wait until the response settles, and maintain the operation for a certain
timewindow (generally specified by projects, a few seconds are recommended).
– Configure the control system to the normal reactive power output.
including phase angle where applicable at each measured bus.
– FACTS controller current output and commanded current magnitude and
phase angle
– Total harmonic distortion (THD)
– No SER alarm has been sent during the test.
– The accuracy of the FACTS controller response to target reactive power output
is within acceptable range (typically 1%).
– The cooling system and other auxiliary equipment are functioning as
normal.
5.2.2 Operation as Part of a Wind/Solar Farm21

• Purpose
– To assess the response of voltage control system and step-response character-
istics of voltage and reactive power
– To validate the STATCOM control system model parameters including:
Reactive power capability
Control model parameters such as control gains, time constants, and limits
21
This is an application example and does not imply that this type of FACTS controller is
the preferred system for integration of FACTS controllers and solar power systems.
– All generating units are offline.

– Generating systems’ connection point is energized.
– All other reactive power devices are offline.
– STATCOM control system is in service and configured to default
control mode.
– The generating system’s transformers are in manual control (fixed tap).
– Ensure pretest simulation studies are conducted confirming no adverse impact
on system stability or other nearby plant.
• Reactive Power Capability Tests
– Pretest simulation studies have been performed to verify the extent of changes
in network voltage and reactive power.
– Configure the control system to reactive power control and set Qref to 0 Mvar.
– Increase Qref to positive limit in steps (step size can be determined from
pretest simulation studies and will be agreed with relevant TSO/ISO (typical
sizes are 2–5 Mvar).
– Return Qref to 0 Mvar in steps (2–5 Mvar step).
– Decrease Qref to negative limit in steps (2–5 Mvar steps).
– Return Qref to 0 Mvar in steps (2–5 Mvar step).
– Allow the device to run continuously for 10–15 min at each operating point
above with at least 60 s recording time after the response has settled at its
steady-state value.
• Voltage Control Tests
– Configure the control system to voltage control and set Vref to measured target
voltage.
– Increase Vref to Vref_max in steps (0.1 per unit (pu) step).
– Return Vref to pretest level in steps (0.1 pu step).
– Decrease Vref to Vref_min in steps (0.1 pu step).
– Return Vref to pretest level steps (0.1 pu step).
– Apply a +5% step to Vref.
– Apply a 5% step to Vref.
– Allow at least 10 s pre-triggered recording and at least 60 s recording time after
the response has settled at its steady-state value before the next test (step)
commences.
• STATCOM Test as Part of the Integral Assembly of the Generating System
– All generating units are online.
– All other reactive power controllers are online.
– The remainder of this test will be similar to the step-response tests as discussed
in Sect. 3.5.5 (either voltage or power factor step-response tests).
including phase angle where applicable at each measured bus
– STATCOM current output and commanded current magnitude and phase angle
– Reactive power output follows the reference set point correctly.
– Reactive power limits are demonstrated on-site.
– The device can generate maximum reactive power (capacitive and inductive)
continuously.
5.3 Practical Experience
Tests were conducted to confirm the operation of a STATCOM was consistent with a
preset droop of 4%. Table 3 shows a summary of the results for various voltage step
changes applied during the testing described in Sect. 5.2.2. In the table the second
and third columns indicate the voltage reference (Vref) in kV and pu. This is the
voltage reference parameter on which the STATCOM regulation profile is centered.
The fourth column is the time stamp of when the Vref was changed from 0.9938 pu
to the value in the second column. The fifth column shows the amount of reactive
power in Mvar that was recorded at the 275 kV connection point, while the sixth
column indicates the amount of reactive power that would be expected from a 4%
slop given the voltage reference and measured voltage.
As shown in the table, the actual reactive power output follows closely the 4%
droop with the largest deviation obtained from the +5% voltage step change which
results in a 41.6 Mvar shift in the reactive power.
Figure 17 shows the measured Mvar values plotted against the voltage control
slope (droop). These results are obtained from several positive and negative step-
Table 3 Response to various voltage step changes applied
Step Vref Vact (Final) Time Measured Expected 33 kV Offshore

change pu kV Pu kV (GMT) MVAr MVAr MVAr range
+1% 1.0038 276.045 0.9942 273.41 0:28:12 8.23 8.64 1.51 to 1.92
+2% 1.0138 278.795 0.9953 273.70 0:29:53 16.53 16.65 1.61 to 2.03
1% 0.9838 270.545 0.9918 272.75 0:33:42 7.54 7.2 2.04 to 2.43
2% 0.9738 267.795 0.9913 272.60 0:37:50 15.91 15.75 l.89 to 2.28
3% 0.9638 265.045 0.9920 272.80 0:45:40 25.22 25.37 2.27 to 2.65
+5% 1.0138 278.795 0.9942 273.41 0:47:30 16.69 17.64 2.31 to 4.72
(from
3%)
1.04
1.03
–3% Step
1.02
–2% Step
1.01
275kV Voltage (puV)
–1% Step
Initial Set Point 1
(0.9938)
0.99
+1% Step
0.98
+2% Step
+5% Step 0.97
0.96
0.95
0.94
–36 –30 –24 –18 –12 –6 0 6 12 18 24 30 36
275kV POI Reactive Power (MVAr)
Fig. 17 Droop profile, +1% voltage step change (Vref = 1.01 pu)
response tests. In this figure the actual voltage measurements were adjusted by the
offset made in the voltage reference so that all points could be plotted on the same
voltage control profile.
5.3.1 Step-Response Tests Example

Grid codes often specify various criteria for acceptable transient voltage response of
all dynamic plant including FACTS controllers. For example, the specific grid codes
in this practical example require that for a step change in reactive power, the system
has to reach 90% of the final change within 1 s.
The system consisted of a 24 Mvar STATCOM and several shunt devices
(28 Mvar reactors and a 25 Mvar capacitor). The voltage control tests applied for
this particular STATCOM involved +/ 1%, +/ 2%, / 3%, and +/ 5% step voltage
changes. When these step voltage changes are applied, the system reacts with a
change in reactive power.
Note that the speed of response of a STATCOM is in the order of cycles and,
therefore, much faster than the response times recorded in these tests. However, the
speed of response at a given site depends on other factors such as the short-circuit
power level, the grid code requirements, and other equipment used in the overall
compensation system.
Figures 18, 19 and 20 compare the measured and expected reactive power output
of the STATCOM, and the speed of reactive power response for each of the voltage
step tests is applied. As can be seen, the STATCOM reaches 90% of its change in
reactive power output in less than 1 s for all voltage steps applied.
+2% Step Response

18.000 1.0138 1.015
POI Reactive Power (MVAr)
16.000
16.53
1.01
Voltage Setpoint (puV)

14.000
12.000 90% of Change at 0.753 seconds
1.005
10.000
8.000 Total MVAr Change of +16.74
1
6.000
4.000 0.995
0.9938
2.000
–2.69
0.000 0.99
–0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4
Time Since Vref Change (s)
POI MVAr Vref
Fig. 18 +2% voltage step-response test
–2% Step Response

–4.000 0.995
–0.2 0.9938 –4.28 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4
–6.000
0.99
Voltage Setpoint (puV)

–8.000
–10.000 0.985
90% of Change at 0.754 seconds Total MVAr Change of –11.63
–12.000
–14.000 0.98
–15.91
–16.000
0.975
–18.000
0.9738
–20.000 0.97
POI MVAr Vref
Fig. 19 –2% voltage step-response test
+5% Step Response

20.000
1.0138
15.000 1.01
10.000 16.69
90% of Change at 0.951 seconds 1
5.000
Voltage Setpoint
0.000 Reactor Switch Out 0.99

–0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.8 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4
–5.000
–10.000 Total MVAr Change of +41.61 0.98
–15.000
0.97
–20.000
0.9638
–25.000 –24.92 0.96
POI MVAr Vref
Fig. 20 +5% voltage step-response test

6 Typical Commissioning Tests for UPFCs
This section provides examples of additional tests that would be applied to UPFCs
compared to other types of FACTS controllers. A technical description of the UPFC
can be found in the chapter Technical Description of the UPFC and Its variants.
6.1.1 Energization of the Series Transformer

The following tests should be performed on the series transformer:
• Energization test of the series transformer. In this test, the series transformer
might be charged from the high- and low-voltage side progressively. This will
provide a comprehensive assessment of the insulation of the series transformer to
ground, the insulation of the high- and low-voltage winding, and the signal of the
thyristor bypass switch.
• The voltage phasing of the series transformer should be checked.
• Perform the load test for the protection of the series transformer and related
current transformer loop of the UPFC protection system by examining the
closed-loop line load current after closing the thyristor bypass switch in the
low-voltage side of series transformer.
6.2.1 UPFC/STATCOM Dynamic Performance Tests

These tests are generally divided into steady-state and dynamic performance tests
and are conducted for both voltage and reactive power control modes.
The dynamic performance tests are essentially the same as those conducted for
other FACTS controllers.
Figure 21 shows the UPFC response to a 100 Mvar step for a UPFC project in
Suzhou, China (see the Application Examples of the UPFC and Other FACTS
Controllers chapter in this book for more details of that UPFC). Results indicate
fast and stable active and reactive power responses. The time line is in seconds.
6.2.2 SSSC Dynamic Performance Tests

These tests are generally divided into steady-state and dynamic performance tests
and conducted for both voltage injection and power flow control modes.
The dynamic performance tests are essentially the same as those conducted for
other FACTS controllers.
Figure 22 shows the UPFC response to a 100 MW step for a UPFC project in
Suzhou, China. The results indicate fast and stable active and reactive power
responses.
120
100
Reactive Power (MVAr)
80
60
40
20
0
-20
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
190
188
186
DC Voltage(kV)
184
182
180
178
176
174
172
170
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time [s]
Fig. 21 Dynamic performance test results
-600
-650
Active Power(MW)
-700
-750
-800
-850
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
-300
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time [s]
Fig. 22 Dynamic performance test results

6.2.3 Operation Tests

This section presents the results of two tests from the commissioning of a UPFC in
South Korea (see the Application Examples of the UPFC and Its Variants chapter in
this book for more details of the UPFC). After the commissioning was completed,
tests were performed to compare the test results with results from EMT models and
positive-sequence RMS analysis. These tests included tests to determine the impact
of the UPFC on the power system near Kangjin S/S, with operation at the maximum
operation range in the P/Q domain (Han et al. 2004).
During the operation of the UPFC, several transmission line faults have occurred.
A description of typical traces obtained by the transient fault recorder (TFR) is
shown in Sect. 3.4 of the Application Examples of the UPFC and Its Variants chapter
in this Green Book.
7 Commissioning of TCSC Systems
A technical description of the TCSC can be found in the chapter Technical Descrip-
tion of the Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC).
Note that in many cases, particularly for TCSCs dedicated to power oscillation
damping, the controllable part of the capacitor bank is small and usually combined
with another segment consisting of a fixed series capacitor bank. Therefore, the
commissioning tests should also include the fixed capacitor bank and its equipment.
7.1 Pre-commissioning Tests
Pre-commissioning tests involve localized testing and checkout of individual equip-

ment items after they are installed at the site. These tests may be modified or an
expanded version of some the factory and off-site tests.
Most of these tests are similar to those described in Sects. 3.1 and 3.2 of this
chapter, and therefore this section focus only on the tests that have not been
described previously.
7.1.1 Platform
At the installation phase, mechanical checking and some tests are performed before
the start of commissioning. Since the platform is a unique component of TCSC
controllers, the platform installation tests are mentioned below:
• Checking dimension and torque of bolts according to platform’s contractor.

• Inspection of damages on the installed steel.
• Check of alignment and levels of post-insulators and the platform itself.
• Pretension check of bracing insulators (and dampers when they are used for
TCSC platforms located at high seismic level regions).
• Check functionality of the ladder which allows access to the platform from
ground level.
• Check correct and safe installation of handrail on the platform.
After the installation of equipment on the platform, the pre-commissioning tests

include a visual inspection on the busbar system and all connections on the plat-
forms, including connections to the substation and line equipment, based on single-
line diagram and layouts.
7.1.2 Metal Oxide Varistors (MOV)

• Visual inspection.
• Check varistor mounting is according to manufacturer instruction.
7.1.3 Bypass Switch

• Visual inspection and check of installation
• Measurements of closing and opening times
• Check of minimum operating voltage of operating coils
• Check of heater and thermostat
• Check of gas filling pressure and gas alarm levels
• Contact resistance measurements
• Insulation check with 1000 V megger
• Measurement of initial charging time
• Check of operation from TCSC control system
• Check of indications and alarms
7.1.4 Current Transformers (CT)/Optical Transducers (OCT)

• Visual check of primary current circuits and secondary connections
• Resistance measurement
• Turn ratio test by primary injection to prove correct interconnections between
CTs/OCTs and associated interface boards and metering equipment
• Check of lasers (applicable to OCTs)
• Check of correct polarity
7.1.5 Voltage Transducer

In order to measure the voltage across the capacitor bank, conventional voltage
transformers are not suitable as the capacitor banks have residual charge when not
conducting.
• Visual check of primary circuits and secondary connections

• Turn ratio test by primary injection to prove correct interconnections between the
transducers and associated interface boards and metering equipment
• Check of lasers (applicable to optical units)
• Check of correct polarity
7.2 Sub-system Tests
Sub-systems consist of pieces of equipment grouped together according to a common

function. The test verifies the proper performance of the equipment, associated control,
relaying, instrumentation, interconnecting cabling, and communications. These tests

do not involve high-voltage energization or require coordination with system opera-
tors, and they are based on a plant circuit diagram or similar document/drawings
provided by the contractor showing the electrical connection of the whole plant.
Most of these tests are similar to those described in Sect. 3.2 of this chapter, and
therefore this section focuses only on the tests that have not been described previously.
Test of protective functions will be dependent on the functions required in the
technical specification and implemented by the TCSC contractor. However, some
functions are always found in fixed and controlled series capacitor applications such as:
• Capacitor overload protection

• Capacitor unbalance protection
• Line current supervision
• Platform flashover protection
• MOV overload protection
• MOV failure protection
• Pole disagreement function of bypass switch
• Bypass switch failure protection
• Capacitor discharging
• Fast transfer trip of line circuit breakers
7.3 System Tests
System tests involve high-voltage energization and require coordination with system
operators. These tests are performed under actual operating conditions with control,
relaying, and instrumentation performance closely monitored.
System tests may also require coordination with interconnected utilities and/or
industrial customers who may be affected by the tests. A significant amount of time
and effort should be dedicated to developing and coordinating the test plan for each
system test. When appropriate, a detailed system study should be performed prior to
testing to predict system response and determine system operating restrictions that
may limit testing. Some tests may need to be performed at night or during light-load
conditions to minimize the exposure of the transmission system.
7.3.1 Pre-energization Tests

Before connecting the TCSC into the system, the following final tests are
recommended:
(a) Final bypass test

• Overall check of bypass operations from protections to bypass switch
• Check of bank isolation sequence
(b) Energization of TCSC with low voltage
• Check of synchronization system
7.3.2 Energization Tests

(a) Energization of the platform with system voltage for 1/2 h with bypass switch
closed
• Check of voltage response
• Check of current response.
• Check of phase-locked loop (PLL) of thyristor firing circuit (with blocked
valve)
(b) Load test with thyristor valve deblocked
• Thyristor valve deblocked with 25–50% loaded line for 5 s, 1 min, 1/2 h, with
records from all tests
After this test, it is recommended to isolate the bank platform through line and
bypass disconnectors for visual inspection of the platform equipment.
(c) Check of TCSC controls

• Energize TCSC via start sequence.
• Check of control mode change.
• Recording of thyristor valve currents and result analysis.
• Check of supervision signals.
• Check of thyristor monitoring.
(d) Check of control sequences
• Check of bypass sequences.
• Check of automatic reinsertion sequence (when required in the
specification).
• Check of TCSC bank isolation sequence.
• Verify operation during switching of AC supply (assuming there is built-in
redundancy).
• Verify operation during switching of DC supply (assuming there is built-in
redundancy).
• Verify operation during switching of active control system (assuming there is
built-in redundancy).
• Verify operation during switching of active valve control unit system (assum-
ing there is built-in redundancy).
(e) Heat run test
• Measurement of temperature rise in the cooling system at high thyristor load
(inductive TCSC operation)
In addition to the tests mentioned in Sect. 3, the following tests should be performed:
(a) Verification of TCSC performance at line switching

• Simulate a line trip by opening the line circuit breaker where the TCSC is
connected (only in one end of the line, if possible).
7.5 System Interaction Tests
The tests below are typical and need to be extended if there are multiple electrically
close FACTS controllers or power electronic interfaced plant.
(a) Remove bypass of TCSC by opening bypass switch.

(b) Bypass TCSC by closing bypass switch.
(c) Forced changes of TCSC-operating modes.
• Capacitive operation to protective firing of thyristor valve and vice versa,
where protective firing means continuous firing of the thyristor valve (without
blocking), is used as valve protective action whenever the valve may be
stressed by high recovery voltages at current extinction.
• Capacitive operation to maximum inductive operation, i.e., with thyristor
valve fired at its maximum conduction (with controlled firing) and return to
capacitive operation.
(d) Change TCSC reactance stepwise, within designed values for continuous
operation.
(e) Voltage variations at HV system.
• Force voltage variations at the substation where the TCSC is connected. If
shunt elements (capacitors and/or reactors) are available, they should be
switched in and out. Trip of substation transformers might not be allowed
depending on TSO restrictions.
(f) Power flow variation.
• Energize or disconnect a transmission line electrically close to the TCSC.
7.6 Special Tests
It is shown in ▶ Chap. 8, “Technical Description of Thyristor Controlled Series

Capacitors (TCSC)” in this Green Book that the TCSC, due to its series placement
on a transmission line, is a powerful device for mitigating sub-synchronous reso-
nance (SSR) and improving power oscillation damping (POD) of inter-area modes.
The TCSC controller’s dynamic capabilities should be evaluated on real-time
simulators, interfaced with the control system to be installed at site. The studies will
help to effectively predict the system response as well as to determine the required
system operating points and limits necessary to produce the appropriate system test
conditions at site.
It is obviously desirable to test the control algorithms during the TCSC commis-
sioning. However, it might be difficult to achieve system configurations and
scenarios that create the conditions for evaluating SSR mitigation and POD, but
in at least one case, it has been done (Piwko et al. 1994). Moreover, the phenomena
are usually triggered by exciting these oscillations or creating resonance condi-
tions. Authorization from system operator for performing these tests can be even
more problematic if the commissioning is executed during a period of the year
corresponding to a heavy-loaded system. However, this is the situation for all
system tests in regard to new controller installations. This includes staged fault
testing, which often are conducted when a new type of FACTS controller is first
installed (Kinney et. al. 1997).
At the end of commissioning, the fault recorder should be set for triggering at
events that can demonstrate the functionalities included in the TCSC control system.
7.6.1 Sub-synchronous Resonance (SSR)

During real-time simulator studies, with the TCSC control system integrated to the
network and implemented in the simulator model, it is possible to estimate
sub-synchronous frequency behavior of TCSC reactance. This will show that the
TCSC control provides inductive behavior at critical frequencies corresponding to
the critical torsional modes of the identified generators. However, the procedure for
frequency scanning in a simulator cannot be employed at site.
It is therefore not possible to evaluate at site the improvement of the electrical
damping at sub-synchronous frequencies unless system conditions are created, and a
comparison is done between the tests without and with TCSC control. However, this
is a necessary test, and it has to be done since SSR can lead to damage of the affected
generators (Piwko et al. 1994).
Another possibility is to install mechanical sensors on the critical generator shafts
well before the TCSC commissioning and identify low damping of a critical mode.
These measurements should be continued after TCSC commissioning to continu-
ously verify the improvement on the total (mechanical + electrical) damping on these
modes with the TCSC in operation. Furthermore, if there is any risk for SSR
resulting from the installation of a FACTS controller, SSR relays must be installed
in the potentially affected plants (Bowler 2012).
7.7 Power Oscillation Damping
Compared with the SSR tests, commissioning tests of power oscillation damping are
easier to coordinate and test with the TCSC in operation, both without and with
activated POD function. In the best case, a poorly damped oscillation inter-area
mode can be triggered by tripping an electrically close line, and therefore the control
algorithm can be evaluated. The most suitable test is however tripping part of the
generation contributing to the poorly damped inter-area mode. However, system
operator may not allow such tests depending on system load and period of commis-
sioning. In the following, an example of such commissioning test is shown.
The North-South interconnection in Brazil consists of 500 kV transmission lines
and 1020 km long, connecting Imperatriz and Serra da Mesa substations as shown in
Fig. 23 (see the Application Examples of the TCSC). It was initially dimensioned to
transmit up to 1300 MW, with stable operation being required from no load up to
maximum flow, in both directions. At the first stage of the interconnection, a
low-frequency (around 0.2 Hz), poorly damped inter-area oscillation mode was
verified. This oscillation of wide amplitude (+/ 300 MW) represented a serious
technical restriction on the power transmission capability of the transmission line. In
Fig. 23 Single-line diagram of the first stage of the North-South interconnection in Brazil
this interconnection, the only reason for installing a TCSC was power oscillation
damping. There was no reason for power flow control nor for SSR concerns since the
system was essentially hydraulic and the total level of adopted series compensation
was still secure (less than 70%).
A TCSC control system suitable for transient and dynamic stability analysis was
designed and, together with extensive study results, formed the basis for the equip-
ment specification and its location along the interconnection. The utilization of two
small TCSCs (6% compensation each) at Imperatriz and Serra da Mesa substations
proved to be very effective in damping the inter-area mode and eliminated the
technical restrictions on power transmission capability, making the operation of
this long AC corridor possible at the required load, establishing the first stage of
the North-South interconnection.
Different TCSC configurations (without and with POD functions) were tested at
site in different system fault scenarios, selected based on system studies. It was
possible to “adjust” the system during commissioning with a pre-disturbance load
flow arranged to create a situation with very low natural damping of the system.
During the commissioning tests, the load flow was adjusted from 700 MW from
northeast to north to 500 MW from north to south.
Disturbances created by the switching of the series capacitors were rather
small, and the system showed a satisfactory behavior both with and without
Fig. 24 Trip of 300 MW generation in Tucuruí with POD in both Imperatriz and Serra da Mesa
TCSCs disabled
Fig. 25 Trip of 300 MW Line Power (MW)

generation in Tucuruí with 1000
POD in Imperatriz enabled
and Serra da Mesa disabled 500
0
–20 0 20 40 60 80
Imperatriz Xtcsc (ohm)
–20
–40
–20 0 20 40 60 80
Time (s)
the TCSC POD functions activated. On the other hand, the consequences of a trip
of 300 MW generation in Tucuruí with both PODs disabled showed an unstable
behavior and caused a protective trip of the North-South interconnection as seen in
Fig. 24 after 70 s.
Figure 25 shows the same contingency when the POD was active in Imperatriz
TCSC, and the POD in Serra da Mesa TCSC was disabled. The bottom plot shows
the TCSC-modulated reactance introduced by the control system which affects the
thyristor firing control. The transition between the TCSC-operating modes is clear in
this plot, avoiding firing angle in regions close to the parallel resonance between the
TCSC reactor and the capacitor bank. The tests showed also that using both the
controllable capacitive range of the TCSC and the valve bypass mode (resulting in
positive TCSC reactance) improved the damping, which is a better way of exploiting
the TCSC main circuit capability.
The effect of using POD function in both TCSCs further improved the damping
of the power oscillation as shown in Fig. 26.
The overall commissioning tests showed also the importance of adapting the gain
of the POD function according to the power flow in the interconnection.
Fig. 26 Trip of 300 MW Line Power (MW)

generation in Tucuruí with 1000
POD in both Imperatriz and
Serra da Mesa TCSCs enabled 500
0
–20 0 20 40 60 80
Imperatriz Xtcsc (ohm)
–20
–40
–20 0 20 40 60 80
Time (s)
8 Model Validation Tests
The primary outcome required from the model validation process is a complete and
validated set of models and data for the entire assembly of the FACTS controller
(s) accounting for all control, protection, and auxiliary systems to the extent their
response can have an impact on the overall performance of the FACTS controller,
hence its simulation model.
Accurate modelling of all components connected to the power system ensures that
the power system operator(s) can understand and predict the operation of the compo-
nents and the interactions between them across the full range of the system operating
scenarios. This enables the operators to maintain power system security in real time
and allows the planners to effectively guide the network development in the future.
Model validation of FACTS controllers generally entails comparing the controller
models against the observed behavior of the installed FACTS controller on the
particular site for which model validation is required.
Testing across a broad range of conditions and near limits is required, particularly
if there are nonlinearities within the models or set points which affect system
operation.
This section presents examples of model validation tests for both SVCs and
STATCOMs. RMS-type simulation tools are used for all simulation results discussed.
8.1 SVCs
The model accuracy requirements applied for SVC model validation examples are
set out below.
Considering the voltage at the connection point, at any point during the simula-
tion, the deviation of the plant model from the actual plant response for active power
and reactive power must not exceed 10% of the total change in that quantity. During
periods of oscillatory behavior, this criterion applies to:
(a) The first cycle of the oscillatory response after the transient period (i.e., if
associated with a fault, then after clearance of the fault and the transient recovery
from the fault)
(b) After the first cycle of the oscillatory response to the upper and lower bounds of
the envelope of the oscillatory response
Considering the level at which the voltage settles at the connection point, the final
active power or reactive power value at which the model settles is within the more
restrictive of:
• The final value at which the actual plant response would settle 2% of the plant’s
nameplate rating
• The final value at which the actual plant response would settle 10% of the total
change in the quantity during the transient period during and following the
disturbance
In the figures in the next sections, blue traces represent the actual test results, and
the simulated responses are shown in green. The upper and lower accuracy bands of
10% are shown in black.
8.1.1 0.01 Pu Positive Voltage Step at Inductive Output

Figure 27 presents a comparison of the measurement and simulation when applying
a positive voltage set-point step with the SVC operating in the inductive region. In
the figure a step of 0.01 pu was initiated at t = 0.5 s. Note that in these tests there are
minor deviations between measured and simulated responses beyond the specified
10% success criteria. This stems from background noise and variations in mea-
sured quantities which cannot be attributed to the model inaccuracy.
8.1.2 0.01 Pu Positive Voltage Step at Close to Capacitive Limit

In this scenario the capacitive reactive power limiter was activated due to reactive
power output being above its rating of 80 Mvar. Since the step is quite large
considering the already high voltage, the control regulator will integrate to a fairly
large value before the limiter acts. This is the reason for the small spike in the
RMS-type simulations seen at 1 s after simulation start as can be seen in Fig. 28.
What can also be seen is that the limiter will slowly control the reactive power
(Q_SVC) to 0.8 pu reactive power.
8.1.3 Parallel Operation

A small increase in voltage reference of the SVC in master mode was performed
as illustrated in Fig. 29. Such a voltage reference step while in parallel operation
has a reduced ramp rate that makes a 0.005 pu step take 0.5 s, thus the difference
in x-axis compared to the steps performed in single mode. This plot is shown
with a finer time scale compared to the previous two cases, and as a result of this,
the variation in the VRESP and BREF measurements in response to power system
variations is more apparent.
1.036
1.034
1.032
1.03
1.028
1.026
1.024
1.022
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
1.044
1.043
1.042
1.041
1.04
1.039
1.038
1.037
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
–0.25
–0.3
–0.35
–0.4
–0.45
–0.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
–0.2
–0.25
–0.3
–0.35
–0.4
–0.45
–0.5
–0.55
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time [s]
Fig. 27 A 0.01 pu positive step at 0.5 s, traces from top to bottom: voltage set-point step applied,
measured and simulated connection point voltage (pu), susceptance (pu), and reactive power (pu)
Fig. 28 SVC step at capacitive output limit, traces from top to bottom: voltage set-point step
applied, measured and simulated connection point voltage (pu), susceptance (pu), and reactive
power (pu) and the time at which capacitive limit was activated
1.04
1.038
1.036
1.034
1.032
1.03
18 18.5 19 19.5 20 20.5 21 21.5
1.044
1.043
1.042
1.041
1.04
1.039
18 18.5 19 19.5 20 20.5 21 21.5
–0.14
–0.16
–0.18
–0.2
–0.22
–0.24
18 18.5 19 19.5 20 20.5 21 21.5
–0.3
–0.35
–0.4
–0.45
–0.5
18 18.5 19 19.5 20 20.5 21 21.5
Time [s]
Fig. 29 A 0.005 pu positive voltage step in parallel mode when in inductive operation, traces from
top to bottom: voltage set-point step applied, measured and simulated connection point voltage (pu),
susceptance (pu), and reactive power (pu)
8.1.4 Frequency Domain Comparison

The POD response to a slightly varying input signal was also compared against
model as shown in Figs. 30 and 31. In these figures blue traces are the actual transfer
function, and red traces represent estimations made from the tests results using a
system identification technique. The test records have a sample rate of approximately
12 ms which is not the same frequency as the input to the POD at site would have.
Therefore, the input signal was interpolated between the two points creating an input
signal with a 2 ms resolution. This higher resolution input provides a less discrete,
and more realistic, input to the POD model. Without an interpolation, fast changes in
the input signal (frequency) in less than 20 ms would cause the POD model to
receive a more “step-like” input dissimilar to the actual POD input. Note however
that the interpolation is still not the same as the actual input; it is rather a “better”
estimate of it. This interpolated signal is plotted in green in Figs. 30 and 31.
These figures show that the model response matches closely with the test record
results where the correlation between measured and simulated responses is well
within the upper (+10%) and lower ( 10%) accuracy bands superimposed in the
same figures in black.
Note that due to the lower sample rate, the general behavior in the POD’s output
response for oscillations at a lower-frequency range (<2 Hz) is more of interest
10
9
8
Magnitude (Abs)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
–85
Phase (deg)
–90
–95
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 3.5 4.5 5
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 30 Bode plot of AVR transfer function and test record estimate of the transfer function
0.3
0.25
0.2
Amplitude
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
–0.05
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
200
150
Phase (degree)
100
50
0
–50
–100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 31 Bode plot of POD path 1 transfer function and test record estimate of the transfer function
when looking at the time-domain simulation for model comparison than higher
frequencies (>5 Hz).
8.2 STATCOMs
Figure 32 shows an overlay of voltage and Mvar output at the point of common
coupling (PCC) from field recording and simulation results. The field data indicates
that after the voltage reference point was changed from 1.062 pu to 1.067 pu, the
transmission system voltage had an oscillatory pattern. It moved between 1.062 pu
and 1.067 pu with an average of 1.065 pu. The actual STATCOM adjusted its output
to compensate for this oscillation, hence the oscillatory feature of total reactive
power at PCC (blue line). However, in a positive-sequence RMS-type simulation,
it is not possible to mimic such a voltage waveform at the PCC, and the voltage and
reactive power are displayed as smooth lines after the system settles at the new Vref
value. Note that this level of error may be permitted during the commissioning phase
if it is confirmed that any such residual errors will not adversely impact system
stability or other connected plant. The owner of the FACTS controller may be
required to revisit the model response following completion of commissioning and
improve the model accuracy. One approach is to tune some of the model parameters
to improve the model accuracy as long as it does not impact other aspects of model
response.
1.08 15
Voltage Regulation Test #1
1.07 13
1.06 11
Voltage (kV)
1.05 9
1.04 7
1.03 5
1.02 3
1.01 1
1 –1
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0
Time(seconds)
V_Field Recording V_PSSE Q_Field Recording Q_PSSE +/– 10% total change
(7.3)
Fig. 32 Validation of STATCOM model for voltage set-point step-response tests
1.1 50
Power Factor Test #1
1.09
1.08 40
1.07
1.06 30
1.05
Voltage(kV)
1.04
20
1.03
1.02
10
1.01
1
0.99 0
0.98
0.97 –10
0.96
0.95 –20
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0
Time(seconds)
V-Field Recording V_PSSE Q_Field Recording Q_PSSE +/– 10% of total
change(7.3)
Fig. 33 Validation of STATCOM model for power factor set-point step-response tests
Figure 33 presents an overlay of the voltage and Mvar output at the PCC from
field recording and simulation results. When the system settled after the power
factor reference point change, the average reactive power at the PCC was recorded
as 25.24 Mvar. Compared to the value before the set-point change ( 4.16 Mvar),
the total change is 29.4 Mvar. The dotted orange lines are 10% (2.94 Mvar)
around field recording. It is evident that the actual reactive power (purple line)
during the ramping as well as the final settled value is within the accuracy
requirements.
References
Åström, K.L., Wittenmark, B.: Is Maybe Easier to Understand. The Title of the Book Is Computer
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CIGRÉ Brochure No. 663: Guidelines for the Procurement and Testing of STATCOMS. August (2016)
CIGRÉ Brochure No. 697: Testing and Commissioning of VSC HVDC Systems. August (2017)
CIGRÉ Technical Brochure No. 447: Components Testing of VSC System for HVDC Applications
CIGRÉ Brochure No. 447, February (2011)
Grund, C.E., Hauer, J.F., Crane, L.P., Carlson, D.L., Wright, S.E.: Square Butte HVDC modulation
field tests. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 5, 351–357 (1990)
Han, Y.S., Suh, I.Y., Kim J.M., Lee H.S., Choo J.B, Chang B.H.: “Commissioning and Testing of
the KangJin UPFC in Korea, Cigre, Session Paper B4-211. CIGRE, (2004)
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November (2010)
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high voltage substations. Paper presented at the 35th Session of CIGRE, August (1994)
Babak Badrzadeh, Manager Operational Analysis and Engineer-

ing, Australian Energy Market Operator (AEMO), Melbourne,
Australia. Babak Badrzadeh is the Manager of Operational Analysis
and Engineering Team at AEMO, which develops engineering
solutions for a wide range of power system security issues based
on detailed power system modelling and analysis. Babak is the
Convener of the Australian Power System Modelling Reference
Group and has been a key contributor to several CIGRE technical
brochures and IEC and Australian standards. He has delivered
numerous invited presentations, panel sessions, and tutorials at
major IEEE and CIGRE events and written more than 30 AEMO
documents, including guidelines, policies and procedures, and
system security investigations, and contributed several rule

changes. Babak holds BSc, MSc, and PhD degrees all in the area
of power system engineering. Prior to joining AEMO in 2012, he
was a Lead Power System Engineer with Vestas Technology R&D
in Denmark where he joined in 2010. Between 2007 and 2010, he
was with the Transmission and Distribution Division of Mott Mac-
Donald UK as a Senior Power System Analysis Engineer.
Andrew van Eyk, Principal Engineer System Security, ElectraNet
Adelaide, Australia. Andrew is a Principal Engineer within the
Network Capability Team at ElectraNet that undertakes a range of
power system modelling and analysis activities to support the
planning and operation of the South Australian power system.
Andrew was a member of the project team that undertook the
upgrade of two of ElectraNet’s SVCs in 2016 and was closely
involved in the factory acceptance, commissioning, and post-
commissioning model validation stages of this project. Andrew
holds a Bachelor of Engineering with Honours from the Univer-
sity of Adelaide. He is a member of CIGRE Australian Panel B4
(HVDC and Power Electronics).
Peeter Muttik, Technical Director, GE Grid Solutions, Sydney,

Australia. Peeter is employed by GE Grid Australia Pty Ltd which
undertakes HV electrical projects including substations and reac-
tive compensation. He is a specialist in power system analysis and
leads a group with wide experience in a range of different appli-
cations including wind and solar farms. His work includes system
design and specification for power transmission schemes, SVC,
STATCOM, harmonic filter, and capacitor systems. He has dealt
with testing, commissioning, and model validation for SVC pro-
jects and been on CIGRE international working groups. He holds a
PhD from the University of Adelaide and is a member of the
Institution of Engineers Australia and IEEE. He is the Chairman
of Standards Association of Australia Committee EL34 (Power
Quality), a member CIGRE Australian Panels B4 (HVDC and
SVC) and C4 (Interference), and a Visiting Professorial Fellow
at the University of Wollongong.
Bryan Lieblick was a member of AMSC’s Network Planning and
Applications Group until August 2018. He supported the design,
optimization, and testing of power electronic and superconductor
solutions for transmission, distribution, renewable, and industrial
power systems. The Network Planning and Applications Group is
responsible for AMSC’s global portfolio of FACTs installations
from conceptual design, prescreen studies, detailed system impact
studies, and equipment specification, through commissioning and
grid code compliance testing. Prior to joining AMSC, Mr. Lieblick
worked for ABB as a Consulting Engineer in the Power Systems
Consulting Group where he performed several system impact and
interconnection studies in multiple electric utility markets.
Mr. Lieblick completed his BSEE from Georgia Institute in Tech-
nology and is a member of the IEEE.

Researcher of HVDC and Power Electronics Department of
EPRI of China Southern Power Grid, and Secretary of HVDC
and Power Electronics Technical Committee of Chinese Society
for Electrical Engineering. Bo Lei received his bachelor’s degree
and master’s degree from Hunan University, Changsha, China,
both in electrical engineering, in 2011 and 2014, respectively.
After graduation, he joined EPRI of China Southern Power Grid
(CSG) in Guangzhou, China, and worked as an engineer of
MW-level energy storage, power electronic equipment, and
HVDC and VSC-HVDC system. From 2014 to 2015, he worked
on the 10 kV/2 MW transformer-free battery energy storage sys-
tem which was directly connected to 10 kV bus in a distribution
network of CSG to provide load-shifting service and enhance
network reliability. As the core member, he has drafted IEEE
P2030.2.1 for guide of battery energy storage application in elec-
tric power system and joined maintenance work of IEC 60919 for
HVDC applications. At present, he is working on the system
design of 25 MWh-level second-use battery energy storage system
and the ultrahigh VSC technology and LCC-VSC-HVDC tech-
nology; the latter would be applied into the three-terminal
800 kV/8000 MW-3000 MW-5000 MW Wudongde HVDC
project in CSG.
Thomas Magg, Principal Consultant, Serala Power Consulting,
South Africa. Thomas Magg is a registered professional engineer
in South Africa with more than 28 years’ experience in the electric
power industry. Thomas started his career at Eskom and has
experience in the utility, consulting, and equipment contractor
sectors. He has extensive experience in project management and
project engineering of high voltage transmission AC and DC
systems in Africa. Thomas has experience on reactive power
compensation and the integration of large nonlinear loads into
transmission systems. He has been responsible for the project
engineering of several large Static VAr Compensators (SVCs).
Thomas was the Technical Advisor for the 350 kV high-voltage
direct current (HVDC), 300/600 MW Caprivi Link VSC HVDC
scheme in Namibia, which was successfully completed in 2010.
He is presently the Senior Technical Advisor and Lead Engineer
for the Songo 533 kV HVDC converter station upgrade project on
the Cahora Bassa HVDC scheme in Mozambique. He has been an
active member of CIGRE Study Committee B4 (HVDC and
SC-B4 Working Groups. From 2008 to 2014, he was the Regular
Member for South Africa for CIGRE Study Committee B4.
Shukai Xu, Senior Engineer at professor level, HVDC and Power

Electronics, Deputy Director of HVDC and Power Electronics
Department of EPRI of China Southern PowerGrid, and Deputy
Director of State Key Laboratory of HVDC Transmission Technol-
ogy of China. Shukai Xu received his bachelor’s degree and PhD
degree from Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, both in electrical
engineering, in 2002 and 2007, respectively. After graduation, he
joined EPRI of China Southern Power Grid (CSG) in Guangzhou,
China, and worked as an engineer of DC de-icing, STATCOM, and
HVDC and VSC-HVDC system. From 2011 to 2013, he worked on
the 35 kV/200 MVAr STATCOMs for power system application
which were installed in four 500 kV substations of load center in
CSG to enhance regional power system stability. As the principle
engineer, he studied the application of VSC-MTDC technology,
including the system design, integration, control strategies, etc.,
and finally developed the world’s first VSC-MTDC project in
2013 – Nao’ao VSC-MTDC. He also developed a back-to-back
VSC-HVDC project in the 500 kV backbone network of CSG,
which is rated at 350 kV/1000 MW and was put into operation
in 2016. At present, he is studying the ultrahigh VSC technology
and LCC-VSC-HVDC technology, which can be applied into the
three-terminal 800 kV/8000 MW-3000 MW-5000 MW
Wudongde HVDC project in CSG.He was a member of CIGRE
B4.53 and now is an IEEE senior member and IET fellow.
Marcio M. de Oliveira, Application Engineer, ABB Sweden.
Marcio M. de Oliveira was born in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
in 1967 and received the MSc degree in electrical engi-
neering from Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
in 1992. He obtained the Technical Licentiate and PhD
degrees in 1996 and 2000, respectively, in the field of high-
power electronics from the Royal Institute of Technology
in Sweden. He joined ABB FACTS in 2000, where he has
worked in several technical areas such as power system
design, real-time simulator studies, control system design
and implementation, and R&D projects. Marcio currently
holds a System Lead Engineer position, primarily driving
technical marketing and sales activities of FACTS technology
worldwide. He participated on CIGRÉ SC B4 WG53
“Guidelines for procurement and testing of STATCOMs,”
and he is member of IEC TC22, being convener of IEC
61954 maintenance team, related to testing of SVC thyristor
valves. He received the 1906 IEC award in 2017.
Part VII
FACTS Operation and Lifetime Management
Operation of FACTS Controllers
23
Vinay N. Sewdien
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
2 The Survey Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
3 Role of FACTS in System Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
4 FACTS Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
5 FACTS Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
6 Upgrade and Retirement of FACTS Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Abstract
There are many FACTS controllers in service throughout the world. They are
typically controlled automatically, according to settings determined by the system
operator. This chapter provides information obtained from a survey performed
by CIGRE Study Committee C2, System Operation and Control. It provides
information about the role of FACTS controllers in an AC system, the need for
training of the system operators, how the FACTS controllers are operated, and the
need for monitoring, upgrading, and eventual retirement of the FACTS controller.
1 Introduction
FACTS controllers are installed in the transmission as well as distribution system,

with the goal of enhancing power system operation. Utilities that decide to install
FACTS controller(s) have identified at least one technical challenge that requires a
solution. They tend to have very positive experiences with respect to the effective-
ness of their FACTS controllers. The total number of FACTS controllers installed by
2019 is estimated to be approaching 1000.
V. N. Sewdien (*)
TenneT TSO B.V., Arnhem, The Netherlands
e-mail: Vinay.Sewdien@tennet.eu

1064 V. N. Sewdien
A survey on FACTS controllers was performed by CIGRE Study Committee

(SC) C2, System Operation and Control, whose scope includes the technical, human
resource, and institutional aspects and conditions for a secure and economic opera-
tion of power systems under security requirements against system disintegration,
equipment damages, and human injuries. The members of SC C2 mainly come from
transmission system operators. The author has written this chapter on the behalf
of SC C2.
2 The Survey Questions
The survey was sent to the members of SC C2. The questions asked were as follows:
Please consider the following FACTS devices:
Static Var Compensator – SVC

Static Compensator – STATCOM
Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor – TCSC
Unified Power Flow Controller – UPFC
For each type of FACTS device in your power system, can you please:
• Provide a brief description of the role(s) that the FACTS device(s) plays in the
operation of the network? (e.g., voltage support, power flow control, power
oscillation damping, etc., actions which may enable network strengthening to
be delayed, and/or to enable higher utilization of the network, e.g., higher line
loadings.)
• Provide a brief description of the training that the operators need to receive when
a FACTS device is added to the system?
• Training provided by the vendor and on-going training. Has a training simulator
been provided?
• Provide a description of the ongoing studies that would be done by the operator
support team as the AC network evolves, to determine the appropriate settings of
the FACTS devices in the system?
• Describe the daily routine operation of FACTS devices, to ensure that the devices
remain ready to provide system support, as planned?
• Describe procedures to be followed when the system is taken out of service for
scheduled maintenance. This may include reconfigurations in the AC network
and/or changes to the dispatch of generation resources, as well as operating
constraints.
• Specify any special actions required when the FACTS device is operated in
degraded mode (i.e., when the FACTS device is in an N-1 state)?
• Provide an overview of the operational instructions to be used in the event of
unforeseen changes in the AC network to ensure that the FACTS devices are able
to respond appropriately to any further future event, e.g., by changing slopes, set
points, and dead bands.
23 Operation of FACTS Controllers 1065
Table 1 Overview of FACTS controllers in 12 regions

Country/region FACTS Country/region FACTS
Australia (South) SVC Japan STATCOM
Chile STATCOM Norway STATCOM (1)
SVC SVC (10)
China SVC Peru STATCOM (1)
UPFC SVC (11)
Colombia STATCOM (1) South Africa STATCOM (1)
SVC (3) SVC (3)
Gulf Cooperation SVC South Korea STATCOM (6)
Council (GCC) TCSC SVC (3)
UPFC (1)
India STATCOM (7) Spain OLCa (1)
SVC (1) SSSCb (1)
TCSC (6)
a
Overhead line controller
b
Static synchronous series compensator
• Have the FACTS devices generally operated reliably and as expected? If not, please
briefly describe the problems experienced and the consequences to the AC system.
• Following installation, have there been any adverse interactions between the
FACTS devices and other power electronic devices (e.g., HVDC schemes, other
FACTS devices, solar farms, or wind farms) or generation since the FACTS
device entered into service? If so, please provide a brief description of the
problem and the solution).
• Have you updated, upgraded/enhanced, or retired any of the FACTS devices in
your system? If so, please provide a brief description of the reasons and the actions.
Table 1 provides an overview of the type of installed FACTS controllers in the

12 regions from which responses were obtained.
This chapter provides a brief overview of the information provided by the survey,
including the role of the FACTS controller, the training of the operators, how the
FACTS controllers are operated, how they can be upgraded and eventually be
decommissioned.
3 Role of FACTS in System Operation
The role of FACTS in the operation of the power system differs from network to
network. The same type of FACTS controller can be installed to solve different
issues. In South Africa, a STATCOM was installed in the distribution network to
compensate for voltage unbalances caused by traction loads, whereas in India
and Colombia, a STATCOM is used, among others, to damp power oscillations.
Furthermore, studies are being conducted in India on the suitability of renewable
energy sources as distributed STATCOMs. The STATCOM function of these gen-
erators could be used to provide voltage support at night.
1066 V. N. Sewdien
SVCs contribute to enhanced system operation in two main ways. Firstly, they
provide fast dynamic voltage support in order to improve (or at least maintain)
voltage stability, following a disturbance. Especially in weak grids with HVDC
converters, SVCs can provide fast dynamic reactive power support which is required
for the correct operation of the converters. In South Africa, SVCs are used for
balancing phase voltages of long, untransposed transmission lines. Due to the fast
dynamic reactive support of SVCs, the rate of activation of automatic tap changers in
the distribution network was reduced significantly in Peru (which in turn would
result in increased life time of the associated transformers).
Secondly, SVCs increase the power transfer capabilities of transmission corri-
dors. This increases the possibilities of increased power transfers through transmis-
sion lines connecting load with cheap but distant power plants. In Peru, SVCs were
part of a solution to increase the transfer capacity of a 600 km, 220 kV transmission
line from 300 to 500 MW. At other instance in Peru, a SVC was used to facilitate the
load increase of a large mining plant from 130 to 430 MW.
Furthermore, SVCs in China have also been used to mitigate transient over-
voltages as a result of HVDC faults and in Peru to mitigate flicker and harmonics
related issues. In Norway, SVCs keep the voltage in acceptable limits following the
switching of shunt capacitor banks, shunt reactors, or cables.
TCSCs are used to reduce transmission losses and to enable load sharing between
parallel lines. In India, they were installed primarily for strengthening interregional
corridors for formation of a national grid from regional grids. The TCSCs were
installed along with fixed series capacitors to damp out interarea oscillations and
increase power transfer capability between regions. As the national grid formation is
completed, the currently observed impact of these TCSCs has been somewhat
reduced.
UPFCs in China and Korea were installed as part of a demonstration project.
To achieve quasi-continuous control of the power flow, the Spanish TSO has
installed one SSSC and one OLC controller.
Other chapters in this Green Book provides detailed examples of the application
of FACTS controllers, including why they were required, how they were
implemented, and how they have performed. The relevant chapters are:
• Applications of SVC
• Applications of STATCOM
• Application Examples of the Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor
• Application Examples of UPFC and Its Variants
4 FACTS Training
Correct operation of FACTS controllers requires adequate knowledge of its operat-

ing mode and its impact on the dynamic behavior of the grid. Usually vendors of
FACTS controllers provide some kind of training to the control room operators and
maintenance staff. Most of the time, such training is part of the contract between the
vendor and the system operator and is provided during the completion of a project.
This is the case at least in Australia, Colombia, India, Korea, and South Africa. After
this initial training, the system operator maintains and upgrades the knowledge of the
operators through additional compulsory (in-house) training. The Technical Speci-
fication of the FACTS should include initial training of operators (and maintenance
engineers and other). See the Procurement and Functional Specification of FACTS
Controllers chapter in this Green Book.
It is good practice to involve the system operators in all aspects of the commis-
sioning of the new FACTS controller, so that they gain understanding and knowl-
edge of the different parts of the controller and become confident in it operation. The
operating personnel should also understand all the alarms and warnings from
the FACTS controller’s protection system, so that they know who to call to attend
to the FACTS controller at the appropriate time.
For shunt-connected FACTS controllers used for reactive power and AC voltage
control, the setting of the nominal value and the slope of the regulation may need to be
changed after significant system events, e.g., line trips. The system operator may also
need to switch in or out breaker switched capacitors and reactors to ensure that the
FACTS controller has sufficient dynamic range to respond to other system events.
Similarly, for the series connected FACTS, used for sharing of power between
parallel lines, settings may or may not be automatically changed to achieve the
power sharing, but if the necessary power flow information is not available to
the FACTS controller, then the system operator may have to change the settings,
to achieve the best power flow in the system.
Once the FACTS controller is in operation, control room operators and mainte-
nance staff are trained on a regular basis, the frequency of which depends on the
regulations of the system operator. Such regular trainings cover all aspects of system
operation and do not focus only on FACTS. From a FACTS perspective, these
trainings, which sometimes are conducted using operator/dispatcher training simu-
lators (OTS/DTS), involves some of the following:
– System theory
– General background on the technology of FACTS
– Dynamic effect of FACTS on the power system
– Modelling and simulation of FACTS controllers
– Capabilities and control schemes of FACTS controllers
– Operation modes of FACTS controllers, including possible range settings and
their impact on system operation
– Maintenance and safety related to FACTS controllers
Some system operators (e.g., in China and Spain) even develop their own
simulation tools in which FACTS controllers are modelled and base their trainings
on detailed regulations and procedures.
In some rare cases (e.g., the STATCOM in the Toshin substation, Japan), the
vendor does not provide any training. In these cases, the system operator usually
prepares detailed guidelines for the operating staff.
1068 V. N. Sewdien
5 FACTS Operation
The operating mode and set point of FACTS controllers are determined by the
operating condition of the power system, such as the amount of generators online,
AC line outages, and the actual/forecast load and power system voltages. In China,
Colombia, and Peru, the FACTS controllers are always in voltage control mode.
In Korea, the system operator determines whether the controller is operated in the
voltage control mode or reactive power control mode, and this is reassessed every
time a new FACTS controller is added to the system.
Control room operators can use real-time reliability monitoring and analysis
capabilities, sometimes through the use of phasor measuring units, to evaluate the
actual and a set of N-1 states of the power system. In Colombia and Peru, the system
operators dispatch the generation in the day ahead market in such a way that the
FACTS controllers have enough reactive power reserves to cope with N-1 contin-
gencies. If the actual or any of the simulated conditions indicate a breach of voltage
limits, the operator will take actions, such as adjusting the voltage set point of
a FACTS controller. Therefore, the availability of FACTS controllers is continuously
monitored by control room operators.
With the aim of making the best use of FACTS controllers, they are normally
included in all simulation tools and therefore their operating modes and set points are
determined/validated through network studies in among others the grid planning,
outage coordination, security analysis, and capacity calculation processes. These
network studies cover most of the expected operational scenarios. There are also
specific operational planning studies that aim at optimal utilization of FACTS
controllers. These studies cover questions related to:
– Improvements in the saddle-node bifurcation point, i.e., increasing the static

voltage stability margin.
– Further increase of power transfer limits.
– Parameter tuning with respect to interactions between FACTS controllers and the
grid. While most system operators did not experience adverse interactions
between their FACTS controllers and the grid, some do feel that more related
research is required in this field. In Korea, the transmission owner is starting such
a study using large scale RTDS.
During the design phase of a SVC in South Africa, a possible sub-synchronous
interaction between the SVC voltage control loop, a network series capacitors and
the shafts of nearby nuclear generators was identified. This was mitigated by
modifying the voltage control loop.
– Effectiveness of FACTS controllers in damping power oscillations.
– Calibration of FACTS controllers after disturbances with the aim of achieving
optimal performance.
Although it is recommended to include FACTS controllers in all relevant

simulation environments, this does not always happen. In South Africa, for
example, this is not possible due to limited capacity to model the behavior of the
voltage unbalance controller (in South Africa, a STATCOM and three SVCs are
used for phase voltage balancing).
To ensure high reliability of FACTS controllers, their maintenance should be
timely scheduled. Usually the maintenance is coordinated with other planned main-
tenances such as generator units and transmission lines. FACTS controllers are
treated as any other element and therefore before their scheduled maintenance,
studies are performed to assess the technical implications of their outage, such
as changes in power transfer limits, voltage limits, and angular separation limits.
Normally the maintenance takes place during low load periods, during which it is
possible to operate the network without FACTS controllers. When this is not
possible, system operators can implement solutions such as reconfiguration of the
network, redispatch (i.e., reduction of power transfer limit) and/or temporarily
marking additional generation units as must-run units. The same solutions can be
implemented when the FACTS controllers operate in degraded mode.
Different system operators act in different ways when unforeseen events occur in
the AC network. The STATCOM in Japan, for example, is not required to react in the
event of unforeseen changes in the AC network. In Colombia and China, the slopes
and set points of the controllers remain unchanged, whereas in India, they can be
altered based on operational experience. In Peru, only in special situations are the
voltage settings changed, with the aim of ensuring that critical FACTS controllers
will continue to have adequate reactive power margins. In Colombia, China, and
Chile, this margin is guaranteed by dispatching additional generation units.
6 Upgrade and Retirement of FACTS Controllers
For aging FACTS controllers, the number of unplanned outages and associated
repair time gradually increase. This leads to poorer reliability and availability
performance. The consequence is that grid operators cannot fully rely on the
performance of such controllers anymore. Therefore, such controllers should either
be retired refurbished or replaced. Upgrading FACTS controllers can lower mainte-
nance cost and improve the reliability and availability performance.
In Colombia, a SVC at 500 kV is going to be relocated to a different substation, as
a result of studies that suggest a better performance due to relocation. In the GCC,
one SVC at 220 kV level is under tender for additional reactive power compensation
to replace the existing SVC, which is coming to the end of its expected operating
lifetime. Four new SVCs and seven new STATCOMs are planned to be installed in
India. In Korea, a SVC and a UPFC stopped their service due to their life end. The
SVC will be replaced by a STATCOM, whereas no replacement is foreseen for the
UPFC (the UPFC was only part of a demonstration project). One SVC in
South Africa was decommissioned after failure of critical modules, which could
not be replaced; out of the remaining three SVCs currently in operation, two have
been upgraded.
The reader may also be interested in reading the ▶ Chap. 24, “Lifetime Manage-
ment of FACTS Controllers” in this book.
1070 V. N. Sewdien
Vinay N. Sewdien received his Masters of Science in Electrical

Engineering (cum laude) from KU Leuven and TU Delft in 2013.
After his graduation, Vinay started at TenneT TSO, the Dutch elec-
tricity transmission system operator, and worked on topics such as
transparency policies for the electricity industry, wide area measure-
ment systems, and power system stability. He is currently part of the
System Operations – International Development team, where he is
investigating the technical implications of the energy transition on the
operation of the power system. In parallel, Vinay started to pursue his
PhD degree from the Delft University of Technology since January
2016. Vinay is the Technical Secretary of CIGRE Study Committee
C2 on System Operation and Control. Furthermore, he is a member of
several CIGRE working groups and of IEEE PES.
Lifetime Management of FACTS Controllers
24
Narinder Dhaliwal and Thomas Magg
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
1.1 FACTS Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
2 Maintenance of Facts Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075
2.1 Maintenance Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075
2.2 Scheduled Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1076
2.3 Maintenance Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1076
3 Maintenance Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
3.1 Capacitor Banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
3.2 Control and Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
3.3 Interface Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081
3.4 Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083
3.5 Semiconductor Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1084
3.6 Station Auxiliary Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085
3.7 Surge Arresters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1086
3.8 Valve Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
4 Documentation and Staff Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089
4.1 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089
4.2 Staff Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091
5 Spare Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093
5.1 Types of Components Used Within Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093
5.2 Replacement and Management of Obsolescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1094
6 Management of System Performance and Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096
6.1 FACTS Controller Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096
6.2 Performance of the FACTS Controller in the AC System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1097
7 Life Assessment Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1097
7.1 Life Assessment Timetable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1098
N. Dhaliwal (*)
TransGrid Solutions, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
e-mail: ndhaliwal@tgs.biz
T. Magg

1072 N. Dhaliwal and T. Magg
7.2 Alternatives and Justification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1100

7.3 Basis for Replacement/Refurbishment of Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1101
8 Decommissioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102
8.1 Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102
8.2 Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102
8.3 Control Cabinets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102
8.4 Cooling System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103
8.5 Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103
8.6 Site Clean-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103
8.7 Structures and Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103
8.8 Switchgear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103
8.9 Thyristors, IGBTs, and Electronic Circuit Boards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103
8.10 Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104
Calculation of FACTS Controller Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1110
Abstract
A FACTS Controller is an important part of an integrated AC network. It is
important that it continues to operate at high reliability and availability. This
chapter provides information on operating and maintaining the equipment
throughout its lifetime to achieve the required performance. Maintenance man-
agement philosophies are introduced. A brief description of maintenance tasks
relating to specialized equipment used in FACTS controllers is provided. The
training requirements for the operating, maintenance, and engineering staff
are described. A methodology for measuring the operational performance
is outlined. A process for life extension decisions, including spare parts, is
included.
1 Introduction
FACTS controllers may form an important part of the overall AC networks. They
may be used for reactive power control, voltage regulation, and/or for enhancement
of system stability of interconnected networks. In some applications, FACTS con-
trollers are used for special functions, e.g., supporting an HVDC system.
After their installation, it is important that the system continues to operate reliably
with high availability, so that they can continue to provide the required network
operation enhancement. A forced outage unavailability of less than 0.5% is expected
for critical systems. Such a high level of availability can only be achieved if the
system is maintained and operated in an efficient and economical manner. Mainte-
nance outages are normally scheduled at times when the operation of the FACTS
controller is less important.
The overall performance of a FACTS controller and its individual components
must be monitored on a continuous basis over its lifetime. This monitoring enables
24 Lifetime Management of FACTS Controllers 1073
steps to be taken to mitigate potential failures and avoid longer forced outages.
A methodology for measuring the reliability and availability of FACTS controllers
by Cigre Study Committee B4 is presented in Appendix. A brief description of the
maintenance tasks relating to the various components is also provided.
Spares will be required to ensure that a FACTS controller can be returned to
service as quickly as possible in the event of the failure of equipment. The correct
level of spares is particularly important for the availability of the FACTS controller,
and this is discussed in this chapter.
Some components within the FACTS controller may need to be replaced during
its lifetime. This may for example be applicable to the control system hardware and
software, as the technology in this area continues to move on, making the mainte-
nance of “older” generations more difficult. Life extension of the FACTS controller
may be required after many years of operation, and the need for this may partly be
identified based on the abovementioned monitoring of reliability and availability.
The life assessment process is described in this chapter.
When the FACTS controller is no longer required, e.g., because of changes in the
AC network or because its operation is no longer economically justifiable, it will
need to be decommissioned. This process is relatively similar to that of a HVDC
system and is described at the end of this chapter.
1.1 FACTS Equipment
A FACTS controller may be one of the following:
• Static Var Compensator (SVC)

• Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)
• Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)
• Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)
These FACTS controllers have been described in ▶ Chap. 4, “AC Network

Control Using FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems) Controllers.”
The various components used in FACTS controllers are as following;
AC Filters
Some FACTS controllers may include AC filters to absorb any harmonics generated
by the FACTS controller.
AC Switchgear
High voltage circuit breakers are used to connect components of the FACTS
controller to the system bus.
Other switchgear includes disconnectors and grounding switches. The
disconnectors and grounding switches are used as part of normal operating switching
sequences and for maintenance isolation of the equipment.
Arresters
Arresters are used to protect the components of the FACTS controllers from over
voltages due to faults/switching/lightning surges. In TCSC systems, metal oxide
varistor (MOV) arrester banks are used to absorb energy during AC system faults to
prevent power frequency overvoltages being applied across the capacitors and the
semiconductor valves used in this type of system.
Auxiliary Power Systems

The station auxiliary power system includes station service transformers, medium
voltage switchgear, Motor Control Centers (MCC), battery banks, first grade power
supplies, and uninterruptable power supplies (UPS).
Control Systems
The control system perform the switching of various components (fixed capacitors,
fixed reactors, etc.) according to preset setpoints, and the switching of the semi-
conductor valves to achieve the desired steady state, transient and dynamic perfor-
mance of the FACTS controller, e.g., AC bus voltage and/or power flow. The control
system also includes local and supervisory controls and related communication and
human machine interfaces (HMI) systems.
Cooling System
Most semiconductor valves require forced cooling of the switching devices and
liquid cooling is used in most FACTS controllers. The cooling liquid is normally
de-ionized water including antifreeze for outdoor valve installation. The water is
then cooled by means of either dry or evaporative cooling towers.
Fixed Reactors or Capacitors

Fixed reactors or capacitors including filter capacitors may be used to change the
applied reactive power compensation between high loading and light loading con-
ditions. The switching is performed by circuit breakers, as mentioned above.
Interface Transformers
FACTS controllers typically operate at lower voltage than the AC network that it
controls. Shunt connected FACTS Controllers, such as SVCs and STATCOMs, are
connected to the AC power network through a step-up transformer. Depending on
the design, these transformers may have more tap positions than a normal power
transformer. Series connected systems such as the UPFC may also incorporate
transformers with windings connected in series with the power line. Other series
connected FACTS controllers such as the TCSC are placed in series with the
transmission line on an insulated platform similar to those used for series capacitor
installation and does not use transformers.
Protection Systems
The function of the protection system is to detect faults and initiate corrective actions
to prevent failures of components that might be caused by prolonged overloads of
the equipment.
Semiconductor Devices
FACTS controllers use semiconductor devices for continuous voltage regulation
and/or power flow control.
The semiconductors device may be thyristors that relies on the AC voltage to turn
off the device. Thyristors are used in SVCs to provide Thyristor Controlled Reactors
(TCR), Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC), and in TCSCs to control power flow.
Self-commutating devices such as Gate Turn Off Thyristors (GTO) and Insulated
GateBipolar Transistors (IGBT) are typically used in STATCOMs and UPFCs.
Voltage Sourced Converter Interfaces (VSC)

FACTS controllers like the STATCOM and UPFC are based on voltage sourced
converter concepts, which use GTOs or IGBTs.
2 Maintenance of Facts Controllers
2.1 Maintenance Management
Some of the components used in FACTS controllers are not standard AC equipment,
and their maintenance might require specific maintenance processes applicable to
those components. The maintenance might be performed by the owners or might be
outsourced.
2.1.1 Owner-Performed Maintenance

This maintenance philosophy is more common in companies that have multiple
FACTS controllers in their system. This type of maintenance management is also
called In-house maintenance.
The maintenance will be performed by staff of the company that owns or operates
the FACTS controller. The staff must be trained to perform the maintenance on all
the special equipment because there will probably be very little participation from
the FACTS controller supplier after the initial training has been provided and the
system has been handed over. Before commissioning, the FACTS controller detailed
maintenance procedures must be developed by the FACTS supplier.
2.1.2 Out-Sourced Maintenance

This type of philosophy is more suitable for owners whose systems contain only one
or two FACTS controllers or the system is small and the owner has only limited
maintenance staff. This type of maintenance management is also called Sub-
Contracted Maintenance.
The maintenance will be performed by outside contractors. In many cases, the
main contractor is the original FACTS supplier since the FACTS controllers is
comprised of special equipment. If another party is contracted to do the maintenance,
it is essential that the FACTS controller provider provides a detailed and compre-
hensive training program for the intended maintenance contractor. Furthermore, it is
also desirable that the FACTS Controller provider is contracted to provide a support
service after the warranty period, in case unforeseen problems arise.
2.2 Scheduled Maintenance
Proper maintenance is necessary to achieve high reliability and availability of the

FACTS controller, as well as a long service life. If proper maintenance is not
performed, the FACTS controller may quickly become un-reliable and its life may
be severely limited.
A short life may be acceptable if the FACTS controllers will not be needed after a
relatively short time, e.g., if the AC system is planned to develop, such that the issues for
which the FACTS controllers is needed might disappear in a known timeframe. This
may be the case when the FACTS controller is necessary to provide damping of
oscillatory modes in the AC systems or to improve the transient stability of the systems,
or if it is needed to eliminate line overloading, until a new or upgrade line is in service.
Maintenance, which is either planned or which can be deferred until a suitable
time, is referred to as a scheduled maintenance.
As per CIGRE protocol (CIGRE TB 717 2018), scheduled maintenance of
FACTS controllers is classified in two categories:
Planned Maintenance
All maintenance work that is preplanned as part of the long-term maintenance
schedule is defined as planned maintenance. The work is performed at pre-
determined regular intervals.
Deferred Maintenance
From time to time some equipment failures or problems may occur which do not
cause an immediate forced outage but if left uncorrected till the next planned
maintenance will increase the risk of a forced outage. A short outage is normally
taken to correct these failures at a convenient time. It is important to keep track of
these failures to justify future replacement and to perform fault analysis on the
components that are failing repeatedly.
2.3 Maintenance Philosophy
Most utilities employ a Computerized Maintenance Management System (CMMS).

During the warranty period, the FACTS supplier’s maintenance requirements must
be followed, and with the maintenance work being well documented to prove that
the required maintenance has been completed. After this period, the owner might
adopt different maintenance philosophies because of continuing pressure on reduc-
ing maintenance costs and outage times.
Some utilities have adopted the so-called Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM)
processes and have moved away from time-based systems (Moubray 1997). RCM
generally relies on doing maintenance based on levels of inspections, importance of
equipment, and equipment condition. RCM relies on appropriate and timely mainte-
nance intervention. This typically has the effect of improving the reliability and
availability of the equipment and leads to reduced maintenance costs.
The time-based systems use calendar-based or annual maintenance strategies

where equipment is taken out of service every year or every second year. The results
using this strategy are normally good, but the costs are high.
Many suppliers recommend the calendar-based or annual maintenance schedule
approach, which then would be required during the warranty period to maintain the
warranty. Some Vendors have progressed from this system as higher availability
requirements have been inserted in the contractual specifications.
In order to increase the system availability and reduce maintenance costs one or a
combination of the following philosophies are now followed:
• Periodic maintenance
• Condition Based Maintenance (CBM)
• Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM)
Periodic Maintenance
The maintenance philosophy in which the maintenance is performed at fixed
time interval regardless of the equipment condition is called Periodic Maintenance.
The philosophy of Annual Maintenance falls in this category. This maintenance
philosophy may result in reduced availability and higher maintenance costs.
Condition Based Maintenance (CBM)

The next maintenance system to come along was Predictive Maintenance based
on equipment Condition Monitoring. This system relies upon inspections and
testing to categorize the equipment’s deterioration and to eventually recommend
or predict when the maintenance of that equipment is required. For some condition
of monitoring processes (e.g., Tan-Delta measurements), an outage will be
required
Some examples of condition monitoring are:
• Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) for transformers

• Continuous On-line Gas Monitoring for transformers
• Tan-Delta measurements for bushings
• Infrared Scanning
• Corona Scope checks
Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM)

Reliability Centered Maintenance (Moubray, John) uses some or all the tools listed
above but in addition looks at the importance of the equipment and built in
equipment redundancy. RCM is also a “living system” and needs to be updated as
new information becomes available. For example, a bathroom fan can fail but an
exhaust fan for the battery room would not be permitted to fail unless it is duplicated.
The uninterruptable power system (UPS) might be duplicated and then allowed to
fail rather than being maintained.
Information gathering and Root Cause Analysis (RCA) of failures are important
to ensure that the maintenance is effective. There are many ways to do this, but the
method will require the use of computer tools to guide the analysis and for storage of
the results for future reference. Six Sigma processes if applicable or just a trend
analysis might be used. The information must be drilled down to the component
level since otherwise a system or a larger piece of equipment may be replaced rather
than just a less expensive component.
RCM principles are proven from use in HVDC systems (Dhaliwal et al. 2008).
Since FACTS controllers are comprised of lots of equipment, the same process can
be applied to FACTS controllers.
3 Maintenance Tasks
The maintenance tasks performed on standard AC equipment used in an AC

substation station with FACTS controller are the same as for normal AC station
equipment. As many of the components used in FACTS controllers are similar to
those used in HVDC systems (CIGRE TB 649 2016), the same maintenance
principles apply. This section only refers to specific equipment unique to FACTS
controllers.
This section only refers to the maintenance tasks to be performed during planned
maintenance.
3.1 Capacitor Banks
Depending on the design of the FACTS controller, there may be some fixed
capacitors that can be switched ON/OFF to change the steady state output of the
FACTS controller, depending on system requirements.
Maintenance
During periodic planned maintenance, the capacitor cans should be checked for any
leaks or bulging. Internally fused capacitors should be checked to ensure that the
internal fuses have not operated. Replacement of capacitor cans with internal fuses that
have operated might be required. The manufacturer’s instructions should be followed.
The main components of the capacitor banks should be checked every 8 years.
The effect of switching a fixed capacitor bank on the bus voltage should be
continuously monitored, and any undesired impact on system operation should be
investigated.
3.2 Control and Protection
The FACTS control and protection systems control and protect both variable and
fixed components of the FACTS controller. Modern FACTS controllers have digital
control and protection system. For reliability reasons, the control and protection
systems are typically duplicated and self-monitoring. If a problem is detected in the
primary system, the changeover logic will switch over to the standby system. For
critical protection applications, triple redundancy with a voting scheme might be
applied.
Maintenance
Control systems are required to maintain continuous operation. Any problem in
control system performance will result in a system disturbance.
Self-checking should be used to ensure that the primary control systems are
known to be working properly. Even the standby system should be continuously
monitored, e.g., by occasionally manually switching between control systems. For
example, a FACTS controller that is online and producing the correct response
(reactive power flow, voltages, etc.) indicates that a large percentage of the control
system is functioning correctly. It is recommended that the performance of the
control and protection system should be reviewed in detail after every major system
disturbance.
Since the digital controls typically are duplicated, maintenance at regular inter-
vals may not be required. Nevertheless, it is recommended that maintenance be
performed at regular intervals to keep the staff familiar with the control systems. The
transfer scheme, if used, between the primary and backup systems should be
exercised at least once a year.
Protective relaying functions do not respond until required. However digital
metering functions in protective relays can provide proof that the input signals
(A/D) circuits are most likely functional. Digital control and protection systems
generally have an advantage over their analog counterparts. They include self-
monitoring circuits such as watch-dog timers or input signal monitoring, which are
able to detect failures within portions of the system.
All protection settings and operations should be checked during periodic
maintenance.
Maintenance of digital control systems may still require clearance, isolation, and
restoration procedures as well as a description of the actual test set-up procedure
along with necessary test equipment. However, it can be modified to only include
verification of input and output signal paths. The internal control algorithm (operat-
ing in software or firmware) which was tested during commissioning should not
have changed or degraded in any way with time and does not need to tested. Self-
monitoring circuits will ensure that the control processor(s) are operational.
It is common to have sanity checks of the input signals performed to identify
failure of an input. These checks may include confirmation that the signals are within
an acceptable range, comparison tests with redundant inputs, and the utilization of
signals that require a value for a valid zero level input. It is a relatively common
feature to have the ability to monitor internal parameters within the control algo-
rithm. Software modifications and possible upgrades require thorough testing to
ensure that the systems are still secure. The time to perform maintenance for digital
controls can be considerably shorter than for the analog equivalent systems. This
may be seen as a benefit, but familiarity with the equipment is sacrificed making it
more difficult to troubleshoot when on-line problems and failures occur.
A maintenance tracking system and version control for digital controls is essen-
tial. This tracking system contains similar elements to the system required for analog
systems, although the numbers of functions that require maintenance checking will
be significantly less.
• Listing configuration settings for each digital board

– Jumpers, optional add-in hardware, firmware revision (to name a few).
– It is possible that one type of controller boards is used in many different
locations within the overall control structure. When a spare card is installed
replacing a defective controller, it is important to ensure all components of the
“spare” replacement match the board removed from service. This includes
hardware settings, firmware, software, and all the programmable settings that
are “user” definable within the software.
• Test procedures for calibration of input/output signals
– Procedures include input or output interface terminals, signal levels and
calibration, schematic references, and instructions to observe the change or
activate the output from within the software environment. This procedure may
have been documented as part of the precommissioning test plan.
• Documentation regarding software settings
– This can include controller parameters, time constants, thresholds, and/or
alarm limits. Any setting that can be changed by the control system owner
should be documented and tracked. If a setting change is required, a rigid
process of checks, justification, and approval should be followed as well as
documentation and drawings updated.
• Documentation of software version installed
• Password identification for every security level
• Procedures to install maintenance monitoring tools
One of the issues regarding digital control is the uploading, replacement, or upgrade
of the software and/or firmware of the controller. In a maintenance program, it is not
likely the software program will be modified, but it is possible that software will have
to be uploaded when installing a spare “replacement” controller. When new software is
uploaded and installed, the entire control structure (algorithm) is replaced. From a
maintenance point of view, a question regarding the depth and completeness of
commissioning or re-commissioning tests required is a valid one. Checks and verifi-
cation are required to ensure that the software version intended for installation is the
software version that is actually installed and that it uploaded properly.
On-line Maintenance
The following is a list of on-line maintenance possibilities:
• Control system redundancy

– A redundant control system allows for the possibility of testing one control
system while the plant remains in operation with the other control system. It is
possible, in theory at least, to perform maintenance on the deactivated control
system (with its control outputs blocked). The decision to perform mainte-
nance with the system operating on the redundant path will depend on how
serious the threat is to the operation of the FACTS controller if something goes
wrong. Human errors will be the greatest concern. If the system load is low,
online maintenance of the deactivated control and protection system is usually
allowed.
– Scheduled transfer of a redundant controls system from one system to the other
while it is online will exercise the transfer scheme. The advantage here is the
configuration of the system, system loading, and timing of the procedure is
known. Maintenance staff is on site and present to assist in troubleshooting,
should the transfer mal-function.
• Built in test functions
– Tests of plant control systems, which are occasionally used but not continu-
ously in service, should be performed. Examples include activation of either a
thyristor switched capacitor (TSC) test (1 second) scheduled or during a
special online testing period. Testing of this nature risks system outages or
disturbances if the procedure or the equipment fail during the test. The
advantage of course is that the timing for the test (system configuration) can
be controlled so the impact of a failure is reduced.
• Review of DFR and SER records: This should be performed after every distur-
bance to ensure that the normal sequences are functioning as expected. Unfortu-
nately, this is also time consuming and is therefore often not performed. However,
a review (or comparison with a previous record) of the FACTS controller
response to an AC system fault will provide information on the status for a
significant portion of the control system.
3.3 Interface Transformers
All FACTS controllers are designed to operate at the lowest and most economic
voltage necessary to achieve the specified rating. Except for TCSC systems, trans-
formers are used to connect the FACTS controllers to the AC network. These
transformers are not subjected to any DC potential and therefore, are designed like
a standard, fully insulated (often three winding for delta and Y connections on the
low voltage side) AC transformer. Depending on the design of the system, the
number of taps may vary between 10 and 30.
The interface transformers, where used, has a major impact on the efficiency,
reliability, and availability of a FACTS controller. The failure of a transformer can
result in outages of up to two years if spares are not available. A continuous gas in oil
monitoring system should be installed on the interface transformer. These monitor-
ing systems are well proven and might provide advance information about potential
problems in the transformer before the occurrence of any catastrophic failure.
If no on-line monitoring is installed, oil samples should be taken every 6–12
months in addition to the maintenance tasks below. The oil samples should also be
taken immediately after an alarm is initiated by the monitoring system.
Maintenance
The maintenance of an interface transformer is similar to that of an AC power
transformer. The following sections below indicate where there may be a difference
or where additional care is required due to the differences. Maintenance includes oil
sampling, checking for leaks, and infrared inspections.
Bushings
Bushings require visual inspections noting the condition of the shed surface area for
signs of excess heating, tracking, dirt build up, damaged sheds, or contamination.
The most common problem is external contamination due to climate and environ-
mental conditions. Periodic cleaning may be required. Oil leakage or weeping is
another issue. The oil gauge may indicate too high or too low levels indicating a seal
failure internal to the bushing. Measurement of capacitances and loss angle (tan
delta) with trending and comparing to factory results is required on a regular basis.
Tap Changers
Due to the large number of operations by the on-load tap changers, regular inspec-
tion and overhaul as per OEM recommendations is required to keep them operating
reliably. Because of the complexity, highly trained staff and/or the use of a manu-
facturer’s representative are normally required. The drive linkages must be inspected
for wear, and in some cases, the safety guards or shields must be removed to do this
inspection. A recommended practice is to move the tap changer periodically through
the entire tap range in both directions checking for binding or excessive motor
current. Remove the diverter, inspect it, and clean it according to the manufacturer’s
recommendations. Replace with new oil. Ensure that the diverter vessel and diverter
are out of oil for the shortest possible time, as contacts will oxidize and cause
overheating problems.
On-line filtering of the oil has been implemented on some oil filled diverters and
generally if more than 15,000 operations per year are required. Some diverters have
vacuum bottles. In this case, it is necessary to measure the contact wear every 4 or
5 years and trending it is also recommended to determine remaining life.
Core and Windings
There is very little that can be done in the field for problems with the core and
windings.
Coolers
Unless forced cooled transformers are used, coolers are relatively simple devices.
The manufacturer’s recommendations and guidelines for maintenance and mainte-
nance schedule of the coolers should be followed. Maintenance is normally a visual
inspection for leaks and contamination. Ultrasonic monitoring can detect bearing
failure if forced cooling of the transformer is used. On-line monitoring is also

available. Fan motor and contactors should also be checked periodically.
In some cases, a valve may show that it is in the open state, whereas the valve is
partially closed or a pump may be wired/running backwards. A periodic infrared
inspection twice per year will pick this up as one cooler will be running cooler than
the rest.
Auxiliary Devices
These devices are for the most part replaced if defective, although some repairs can
be done to the Drycol control cabinet. The Pressure Relief Device (PRD) can be
checked for proper operation at the set point. The Drycol will alarm if defective.
3.4 Reactors
The reactors can be oil filled, air or forced cooled pieces of equipment or air core or
air insulated reactors. With the advances in reactor technology, newer FACTS
controllers only use air core reactors. Therefore, only air core reactors are discussed
in this document.
Performance Issues
Air core reactors have an exterior coating of paint or Room Temperature Vulcanizing
silicone (RTV), which protects the insulation from Ultraviolet (UV) rays. Cracks in
this coating have allowed moisture to get into the windings and causing failures.
These coatings have to be re-applied or renewed approximately every 10 years
depending on environmental solar effects and pollution conditions. Some air core
reactors may also have been lifted improperly during installation, which eventually
can cause reactor failures. When they are tested in the factory, air core reactors can
pass the noise test because there are no harmonics flowing through the windings
during the tests. However, in the field, with harmonics present, they become noisy
and are often outfitted with noise barriers. Some air core reactors exhibit “Black
Spots” on them but no failures have been reported to date as a result of these spots.
The addition of corona rings may eliminate the black spots if these spots are the
result of corona damage.
Maintenance
A regular visual inspection of the air core reactors is recommended to look for
broken bushing sheds, bird nesting, small animals residing in the coils, and
anything abnormal. Infrared and corona scope tests are also recommended yearly,
looking for hot spots on the reactor and any associated bus work and bus connec-
tions. All insulators should be checked for cracking or damage and contamination.
Special attention should be paid to look for any “black spots” on the reactor
insulation.
Keeping the air cooling vents clear of debris and blockage is most important for
the air core reactors as well as inspection of the outer coating to protect the
insulation.
For oil cooled reactors, diagnostic tests similar to those performed for AC trans-
formers are recommended.
3.5 Semiconductor Devices
Thyristor type semiconductors are used for TCR, TSC, and TCSC. IGBTs are used
in some FACTS controllers like STATCOM and UPFC.
The semiconductor valves are usually compact and generally floor mounted
except for TCSC, which are placed on top of an energized platform. All semicon-
ductor valves are mounted in an enclosure.
The semiconductor valves typically have monitoring systems which provide
detailed information about the location of thyristor and gating circuit failures.
When these failures occur, the repairs typically do not need to be completed
immediately since there is normally some thyristor level redundancy built into the
thyristor valve. Should the redundancy be used up, the semiconductor device will
trip and cannot be re-energized until it is repaired or replaced. Therefore, it is
recommended that the failed components should be replaced at the first available
opportunity when the FACTS controller is not in operation.
Deionized water usage should also be monitored and if excessive could indicate a
water leak.
Maintenance
The semiconductor valves themselves usually require very little maintenance. The
exception is the deionized water used for cooling of the semiconductors and thyristor
snubber circuits and air cooling systems. The water typically is continuously being
deionized to ensure that it has good dielectric withstand capability. Also, for outdoor
applications such as is found in TCSC systems, antifreeze is added to the water to
enable operation when the ambient temperature goes below 0oC.
Infrared scans should be performed twice per year and viewing ports may be
required to view all portions of the valve hall. (This might be difficult to do for a
TCSC system unless drones can be used.) The viewing ports are opened only for the
duration for the infrared scans and are closed after use. If a corona scope device is
available, ultraviolet light corona scope scans can be used to check for defective
insulators and problems with the corona shielding of the structure. These scans
should be done once per year.
Changes in audible noise levels can indicate an impending problem. Changes in
the “smell” of the air also can indicate a component failure which might be self-
clearing and not necessarily picked up by the fire/smoke detectors. These should be
investigated as required.
When the FACTS controller is out of service, it is important to analyze and
replace any defective components in the control unit electronics, fiber optic cables,
and semiconductors themselves that showed up by the continuous monitoring.

The supplier should have supplied test equipment and documentation to success-
fully diagnose and fix these problems. Any infrared scan hot connections
and corona scope defective insulators, among others, are also addressed at
this time.
One of the most important aspects is a thorough visual inspection to look for
anything out of the ordinary, such as dust accumulation, black spots indicating
corona damage, and water evaporation residue, which are some of the evidence
marks to uncover in these inspections. A partial list is outlined below but this is not
intended to supersede the supplier’s checklist:
• Check the electrodes in the de-ionized water circuit for corrosion or deposits.
• Check the surge arrestors visually, record and trend the number of operations. If
the number of operations is more than a few per year this should be investigated
and the arrestors tested as required.
• A percentage of the semiconductor devices may be checked with the supplier
supplied test set, but the testing must be done immediately after de-energization
(within 2 h) before they have cooled down.
• Visually check the air-cooled valve reactors for red dust indicating the cores are
loose, vibrating, corrosion, and any signs of overheating. If so, they should be
replaced, analyzed for the root cause of the problem, and tested by the supplier
supplied test set as required.
• Clean the wall bushings, insulators, and equipment based on dust accumulation.
• Check the Thyristor Valve transient voltage grading capacitor for capacitance and
dissipation Factor.
• Replacement components must be of high quality.
• Components may not be available from the suppliers or are very costly. Other
sources are usually available but one must do sufficient reverse engineering to
ensure that they will work properly.
• Check the safety interlocks and grounding switches as required.
• Check the deionized water piping and manifolds for any cracks or leaks.
• Check the cooling fans, filters and heat exchangers and replace or clean as
necessary.
• Replace any lighting and repaint as necessary.
• Check all installed smoke detectors, air sampling system and fire alarms for
proper operation, fouling, and response time as required by RCM and/or the
fire code.
3.6 Station Auxiliary Supplies
The station auxiliary supplies include the station service transformers, medium
voltage switchgear, Motor Control Center (MCC), battery banks, first grade supplies,
and uninterruptable power supplies (UPS).
The auxiliary supplies are normally duplicated or in some cases even triplicated.
There are usually many performance issues because the design of these systems
has not been sufficiently thought through. The operating staff would like the
duplicated auxiliary supplies to be run in parallel to avoid downstream transfer
issues. However, this increases fault levels and a fault can take the entire system
down. A reliable design would have the duplicate system separated from the primary
system to minimize the amount of power that is lost and rely on automatic down-
stream transfers.
Maintenance of the medium voltage switchgear and Motor Control Centers
(MCC) is often lacking. Therefore, the transfers to the alternate systems do not
occur or are slow. This might cause protections to operate. The breakers should
be exercised (operated) periodically to ensure that they will work when required.
In some cases, the AC auxiliary supplies will be manually paralleled only for a
short time (make before break) to prevent downstream transfers as a comprise
solution. Older transfer controls and relays can prove to be troublesome and
unreliable and should be replaced if miss-operation becomes a problem.
Battery banks may appear healthy and yet unable to pick up the load when
required. To avoid this situation, the batteries should be load tested to ensure that
they are okay. Some systems will have three battery chargers and two battery banks
in separate rooms for each battery system.
The first grade power supply systems might be compromised if loads are added
that should not be connected to this type of supply, (e.g., computers, printers, etc.)
and the system reliability becomes compromised. UPS systems are usually allowed
to fail and be replaced as they are duplicated.
Maintenance
The battery banks should be inspected periodically for post leaks, tested for
bad cells, and the electrical connections cleaned from corrosion. The battery
room air exhaust system, hydrogen detection must also be inspected and tested
regularly.
The medium voltage switchgear and Motor Control Center (MCC) breakers
should also be inspected periodically, timing checked, for number of operations
and contact wear.
3.7 Surge Arresters
All modern surge arresters are gapless zinc oxide metal oxide varistors (MOV).
Their housing may be made of fiberglass with silicone rubber sheds instead of
porcelain.
Performance Issues
Moisture ingress in the fiberglass insulating column or on the walls of the MOV
blocks are the most critical issues as the applied voltage can then cause the unit to fail
and it may fail catastrophically.
Maintenance
For the MOV arresters the leakage current is measured in-service or during a test if
the unit can be removed from service and tested. However, if there are parallel MOV
columns used in an energy absorber, the new MOV column has to have exactly the
same V/I characteristics as the existing columns. This is normally not possible. To
avoid having to replace the entire energy absorber, spare columns should be installed
when the absorber is first installed. Then if a column shows indications of impending
failure, it can be removed from the absorber and the rest of the columns should still
be able to handle the operating duties.
The leakage current test should be done at regular intervals (<8 years), but it can
be accomplished also by means of a continuous leakage current monitor. The
leakage currents may go down over time, which indicates that the protective levels
are increasing, or may increase over time, which could indicate that the protective
level is being reduced. If several units of a similar type are replaced, consideration
should be given to replacing them all.
Visual inspection of the arresters should be conducted on a regular basis
(6 months), and counter reading should be regularly recorded. Special attention
should be paid to the integrity of the counter. In addition to the regular inspection,
the arresters should also be inspected after a major system disturbance.
3.8 Valve Cooling
This section refers to the cooling systems for both thyristor valves and IGBT-based
valves. The discussion is limited to the cooling equipment that is external from the
valve itself and outside the Valve Hall. It is not intended to discuss the building’s
heating and cooling systems, if any. These are commonly called HVAC systems as
they are usually separate from the equipment cooling systems.
The Thyristor Valves and IGBT-based systems generate heat from the losses
associated with the device switching operations, the forward voltage drop, and
load current through the electronics switching devices and valve reactors when
they conduct and from the snubber circuits when they operate during turn on and
turn off. Heat from the other components in the valve hall will make up the
remaining heat loss but this is usually minimal.
De-ionized Water (DIW) is a very efficient heat transfer media and has become
the norm for modern valves. It allows for a more compact design, higher power
levels, and is usually a closed loop systems. The water needs to be deionized to
remove free ions and minimize current flow in the water in the cooling pipes. This
is accomplished with catalytic ion and anion resin beds, which require regular
maintenance. Some suppliers do not vent the deionized water system and thus have
oxygen scavengers in the resin beds as well. Other suppliers vent to air as
breakdown of the water into Hydrogen and Oxygen occurs at high voltage. In
addition, there are sacrificial anodes in the water steel or sacrificial anodes of
platinum to prevent corrosion. For outdoor valve positions such as in TCSC
systems, antifreeze is added to the cooling water if the system is expected to
encounter freezing conditions. The cooling systems must be checked periodically

for corrosion or deposits.
The water circuit may be a single loop system (includes industrial grade glycol for
cooler circuit made of stainless regions) or a double loop system. The double loop
system will have DIW in the Valve circuit and regular water or glycol in the outdoor
cooling circuit, glycol for cooler regions. A single loop system brings the DIW to
outdoor water to air cooler, whereas the double loop system has an intermediate heat
exchanger.
The secondary circuit is usually glycol filled in cold climates but may be water
only in moderate climates. The end device heat exchanger transfers the heat to the
air, many with the assistance of water. The water is used when the air temperature is
high with just air used at lower temperatures. The water can be sprayed on a fill type
material to make use of the water evaporation high heat dissipation capacity, be
sprayed in an air curtain with the cooling air drawn through the water spray or be
sprayed directly on the coolers themselves. The secondary circuit will usually have a
spare cooler and fan which can be valved-off for maintenance and repairs.
With recent schemes, the use of water in the air has been eliminated wherever
possible.
Modern FACTS controllers typically use duplicated digital or PLC-based control
and protection system for the cooling systems.
Maintenance
The following the maintenance tasks for the valve cooling systems should be carried
out on regular basis:
1. Conductivity
The conductivity of the cooling medium in the valves must be maintained below
0.1uS. The resin should be changed at regular intervals to maintain the conduc-
tivity at an acceptable level. Any sudden increase in conductivity should be
investigated.
2. Coolant pressure and flow
Any alarm indicating drop in coolant flow and/or pressure should be investigated
as soon as possible and in-line filters changed if necessary.
3. Pumps
The performance of the pumps should be monitored by taking vibration readings
at regular intervals.
4. Transfer schemes
For reliability reasons, the pumps for the main and secondary cooling systems are
probably duplicated. If the running pump fails, the controls automatically turn on
the standby pump. The operation of the transfer schemes should be verified
during maintenance.
5. Expansion tank level
The level of expansion tanks should be monitored on a periodic basis. Any
sudden drop in level should be investigated.
The following tasks should be performed during planned maintenance:
• Calibrate all measuring devices

• Check all Alarm and Trip levels
• Verify transfer schemes
• Check for leaks
• Check all cooling fans
4 Documentation and Staff Training
4.1 Documentation
The management of the documentation of a FACTS controller throughout its lifetime

is an important task.
Documentation will generally comprise of contractual documentation supplied by
the supplier during or at the end of the project implementation and documentation
that is compiled to record and manage the performance and maintenance of all
components of the FACTS controller and devices.
Plant documentation such as operating and maintenance manuals and drawings
should be kept at the FACTS station, and other documentation such as performance
and fault records may be kept at the station or at another location depending on the
owner’s operating and performance management philosophy. Generally, most if not
all plant documentation will be supplied in electronic format, although paper copies
are often still requested in contracts.
Copies of the operating and maintenance manuals, drawings, and plant documen-
tation should also be kept in a central archive or library and in engineering or
maintenance support departments. Over the lifetime of a FACTS controller, docu-
mentation is likely to get misplaced or go missing and it is therefore important to
maintain backup copies.
4.1.1 Plant Documentation

The plant documentation refers to the documentation provided and handed over the
by the contractor to the owner during or at the end of the implementation of the
project.
In general, the documentation comprises the following:
Studies and Design Reports

These are the engineering studies and design reports that are produced by the
contractor during the system design and engineering phase of the project. These
reports provide important information if design modifications are required during the
lifetime of the system.
Operating and Maintenance Manuals

The operating procedures and maintenance instructions should provide de-
tailed operating procedures and maintenance instructions. They should be in suffi-
cient detail to allow engineers/technicians who were not involved in the original
installation/commissioning to operate, investigate faults, and maintain the FACTS
controller over its lifetime. Technical descriptions and detailed drawings of all
systems and components used in the FACTS controller should be included.
Drawings
A full set of drawings of the complete FACTS controller should be supplied as part
of the contract. These drawings should include layouts, schematics, drawings of
subsystems, equipment, components, and bills of materials. All drawings of the
converter station should be maintained up to date.
Equipment Purchase Specifications

Equipment purchase specifications should be provided by the contractor for all plant
and materials supplied under the contract. The original equipment manufacturer may
not remain in business throughout the lifetime of the FACTS controller, and equip-
ment purchase specifications will assist the utility/owner to purchase replacement
equipment and parts in future.
Software
Nearly all equipment included in a FACTS controller is controlled and/or monitored
by computers and specialized processors. Over the lifetime of the FACTS controller,
it can be expected that improvements and modifications will be made to the software
used in these systems. It is important that chronological records of modifications and
updates made be kept. It is also important that backup copies of software be kept
off site.
Site Acceptance Testing and Commissioning Results

The results of the site acceptance and commissioning tests should be provided by the
manufacturer once the FACTS installation is complete. The results are important for
future retesting and commissioning of systems or components that are replaced or
modified.
4.1.2 Maintenance and Performance Records

For the RCM and/or the CBM to work effectively, it is essential that detailed
information of the maintenance results and equipment problems be maintained.
The maintenance records can either be kept at the station where the FACTS
controller is installed or at another location, e.g., maintenance depot depending on
the utility/owner standard practice. It may be prudent to keep the records at more
than one location.
Reliability, availability, and maintenance (RAM) figures are recorded to evaluate
the general performance of the FACTS controller and can be used to motivate
replacement/refurbishment projects in future.
Performance records can also include dynamic performance results and transient
fault recordings. These can be used to analyze performance and to optimize perfor-
mance and change parameters or protection settings if needed. It is important to keep
records of any changes made.
4.2 Staff Training
FACTS controllers are comprised of sophisticated and technologically advanced

equipment. The unavailability of a FACTS controller may have severe consequences
on a transmission system. It is therefore important that these systems be operated and
maintained by personnel specially trained in FACTS controllers.
The utility/owner operations and maintenance philosophy will determine the
types and level of training required. Some utilities prefer to do all their maintenance
in-house while others may engage suppliers or other maintenance service providers
in maintenance contracts.
The following outlines the different types of training that are required to operate,
maintain, and monitor performance, optimize or undertake design changes of a
FACTS controller.
4.2.1 Training Requirements
The following levels of training will be required for maintenance personnel not
belonging to the original supplier:
Control/Dispatch Center Operators

• Must have general knowledge of the FACTS controller operation.
• Must understand the general interaction between the FACTS controller and the
AC network, e.g., dynamic performance, voltage control, reactive power control.
• Must understand the parameter setting changes that are possible from the
control/dispatch center via the SCADA system.
• Must have a basic knowledge of the functions on each the auxiliary systems.
• Must have basic knowledge of the FACTS controller switching and clearance
procedures.
Station Operators (if any)
• Must understand the general interaction between the FACTS controller and the
AC network, e.g., dynamic performance, voltage control, reactive power control.
• Must have specific knowledge of the all the auxiliary systems and their
operation.
• Must have comprehensive knowledge of the FACTS controller switching and
clearance procedures.
• Must have basic knowledge of fault finding.
Maintenance Staff
• Must have comprehensive knowledge of the maintenance of the AC system
components.
• Must have specific knowledge of the maintenance requirements of the FACTS

controller components.
Engineering Staff
• Must have comprehensive knowledge of FACTS design and operation.
• Must have a specific knowledge of FACTS controller components and sub-
systems, including monitoring and recording devices.
• Must have general knowledge of the purpose and operation of the FACTS
controller in the AC system.
• Must have general knowledge of the maintenance requirements of the FACTS
controller equipment.
• Must have detailed knowledge of testing, fault finding, fault analysis and the
ability to make parameter and setting changes in the control and protection
systems.
4.2.2 Training Program

Staff to be trained should be identified at the beginning of the project. This should
include the control/dispatch center operators, station operators, maintenance staff,
and engineering staff. The training programs should be designed to achieve the
required levels of competency for all of these staff members. The engineering staff
should participate in the design reviews, factory testing, and the commissioning of
the equipment, including system tests. The maintenance and operating staff should
participate in the installation, site acceptance testing, and commissioning of all
components, subsystems, and systems.
Comprehensive training in a classroom environment should be provided imme-
diately after the commissioning is completed. Different training courses should be
provided for the different categories of staff to be trained, i.e., control center staff,
station operators, maintenance, and plant engineering staff. The instructors should be
the supplier’s specialists in their individual areas. For example, the FACTS control-
ler controls should be presented by the controls specialist. The training should
include the following:
• An overview of the FACTS controller design and the main functions it is expected
to perform in the AC system.
• Detailed descriptions of the operations procedures.
• Detailed descriptions of the equipment maintenance requirements and
procedures.
• The most likely failure modes of equipment and systems and the consequences of
failures.
• Fault finding and how to use the monitoring and recording equipment and
sequence of events recorder to assist in identifying the cause of the faults.
• Hands-on training of how to replace/repair various components, e.g., replacing a
capacitor can or thyristor.
It is normally a challenge to maintain trained staff over the lifetime of a FACTS

controller. The staff trained initially may move to other positions, leave the company,
or retire. All classroom lectures and hands-on training should therefore be video
recorded for future reference. The contractor can also be asked to provide repeat
training in the first few years of operation of the FACTS controller.
Where several FACTS controllers are installed in a network it may be worth
procuring a training simulator to continuously develop and train the staff over the life
of the project. The training simulator should be able to replicate all the normal and
fault conditions of the FACTS controller, transformer, and the thyristor/IGBT valve
cooling plant, in order to train the operator to take the necessary corrective action.
The simulator will also allow for simulation of unusual events that cannot normally
be applied in a real system to allow the operators to be trained for various
contingencies.
5 Spare Parts
A FACTS controller consists of equipment normally used in AC substations such as

circuit breakers and disconnectors and equipment specific to FACTS and power
electronic systems such as thyristor/IGBT valves, valve cooling systems, and control
systems. This section covers spare parts required specifically for the FACTS con-
troller, as general AC equipment spares are normally kept by the utility. However, for
each FACTS project, it should be checked whether the utility has spares of the AC
equipment used in the FACTS controller or whether spares should be purchased
under the contract.
Normally FACTS controller purchase specifications will require the contractor to
perform Reliability, Availability, and Maintainability (RAM) calculations. These
calculations will show the minimum number of spares that should be kept to meet
the specified RAM requirements over a certain period, typically 5 years. In addition,
the utility/owner may want to purchase additional spares to have spares available for
a longer period for components which cannot readily be purchased on the open
market. The number of spares to be purchased is also influenced by the expected
time during which the FACTS controller will be needed, and the utility’s location in
relation to suppliers of spare parts.
When a FACTS controller approaches the end of its operational lifetime, the
failure rate of components can be expected to increase. This will require additional
spares and result in increased maintenance costs. The Owner of a FACTS controller
should evaluate the number/level of spares kept for a FACTS controller well before
the end of its lifetime to allow the purchase of additional spares if required.
5.1 Types of Components Used Within Controllers
FACTS controllers use a wide variety of very different components supplied by a

wide range of suppliers. These can be categorized into component types from the
spares replacement point of view.
Commercial Off the Shelf (COTS) Components

These are available on the open market and delivered as a complete product. They
are ordered against a manufacturer’s catalog number. These components include
power supplies, processor modules, Ethernet switches, relays, terminal blocks, fuses,
current transformers (CTs), voltage transformers (VTs), mini circuit breakers
(MCBs), capacitors, reactors, AC switchyard components, and more.
Product design life, operational life, and reliability figures should be defined by
the component manufacturers as part of their standard literature.
Bespoke (Customized) Products

These products are designed to meet the functional specification provided to the
supplier by the owner and are normally associated with the FACTS controller itself.
Normally a specialist supplier is responsible for the detailed design and must
contractually guarantee that the product meets all the criteria specified in the
technical specification. These guarantees will include the performance criteria
(sometimes risk mitigated by the supplier via acceptance testing), the design life,
and reliability availability and maintainability guarantees.
Typical equipment of this type includes:
• Interface transformers
• Thyristors/IGBTs
• Valve firing electronic units/cards
• Thyristor valve cooling plants
• Reactors
• Capacitors (this includes dry type, self-healing capacitors used in STATCOM or
in general in VSC type converter systems)
• Surge arrestors
• FACTS control and protection systems
The FACTS controller purchase order should also include contractually binding
spares, replenishment time, and specify a minimum time over which spares parts will
be available.
5.2 Replacement and Management of Obsolescence
For commercial off the shelf components (COTS), the marketability of a product is
severely decreased if a better (faster/smaller/more functional) replacement product
becomes available. Alternatively changes to legislations that govern the processes or
materials used to manufacture the components (lead free solder, greener PCB
cleaning technologies, etc.) can make a product very unattractive to manufacture.
Typically, manufacturers will advise clients, who have purchased their FACTS
controllers, when spares are soon to be discontinued, so that they can be replenished
as desired.
Bespoke designs normally use third party components that are subject to the same
lifecycles as the COTS products.
5.2.1 Commercial Off the Shelf Components

Most mass market manufacturers tend to renew their product offering over a period
of about 3 to 10 years. The normal sequence is as follows:
1. Market a new product

2. State that the old product is not to be used for new designs
3. Increase the price of the old product
4. Send an End of Design Life (EOL) statement to all customers, often accompanied
with a “last time buy” opportunity
5. Part only available on the “grey” market
6. Part available from a “secondary” market e.g., a supplier who used to work for the
OEM
7. Parts available directly from the sub-supplier of the OEM when the OEM no
longer has a contract with the sub supplier
8. Part not available
5.2.2 Bespoke Components

These are components designed to meet a specific specification.
In general components of this nature do not become obsolete unless the manu-
facturer goes out of business.
Physically simple components such as capacitors, reactors, and resistors normally
use a standardized manufacturing process that is parameterized (via specifications
and drawings) by the manufacturer’s in-house design team to provide a value or type
of component. The lowest risk solution is normally to ask the original manufacturer
to re-use the original design information to create an exact spare. While changes to
legislation and materials used can still affect their ability to produce a spare, the
manufacturer can normally be expected to provide a compatible spare, and this is the
next lowest risk solution. As components of this type are made to a functional
specification, it is also possible to request a different manufacturer to create a
spare, though in this case the specification may have to be reviewed to ensure that
the new component is fully compatible.
Two critical systems are the thyristor or IGBT valves and the FACTS control and
protection system. These critical items should be identified early and a plan put in
place to procure an increased number of spares or consider replacement.
Modern control and protection systems for FACTS controllers are based on
digital technology. This technology becomes obsolete fairly quickly with typical
lifetimes being in the order of at most 15 years. It can thus be expected that the
control system will have to be replaced at least once during the lifetime of the
FACTS controller if the FACTS controller is needed for longer than 15 years
In anticipation of this replacement, the control and protection interface bound-
aries should be clearly defined in the specification to allow for easier replacement in
the future.
As many components used in FACTS controllers are the same as those used in
HVDC systems (CIGRE TB 649 2016), the same principles might therefore be
possible to apply.
6 Management of System Performance and Faults
The performance of FACTS controllers and faults related to FACTS controllers can
be classified into two categories:
• FACTS controller faults

• Performance of the FACTS controller in the AC system
6.1 FACTS Controller Faults
This section discusses the faults that result in partial or total loss of the controller
capability, and analysis of performance of FACTS controllers in an AC system. An
example of such an analysis for TCSC system performance was reported in 2013 by
CIGRE Working Group B4-49 (CIGRE TB 554 2013). In general, the performance
of all TCSC systems was very high even though no standard method of reporting
was available.
CIGRE study committee B4, Advisory Group AG B4-04 conducted a survey of
the performance of the SVC/STATCOM in 2016 and the report was presented at the
2016 B4 committee meeting (CIGRE AG B4-04 2016 SVC/STATCOM Report).
The survey results showed that most outages occurred due to the failure of AC
equipment and the Auxiliary systems. The outages due to switching equipment
(TCR, TSC, STATCOM) and controls were very small.
CIGRÉ Study Committee B4, Advisory Group AG B4-04, collects information
that includes a system description, main circuit data, simplified one-line diagram for
each controller, and operational performance data annually from each controller.
Performance data includes reliability, availability, maintenance statistics, and a brief
description of cause of failures. Reliability data are confined to failures or events
which result in loss of FACTS controller availability. Statistics are categorized by
type of equipment that caused the reduction in controller availability. Advisory
Group B4-04 summarizes the performance statistics for all reporting FACTS con-
trollers every two year in a report. This report is helpful in providing failure rates and
causes of various components of the FACTS controllers. In addition, it provides a
benchmark for performance analysis of individual controllers.
In order to develop a standard method for calculating the performance of the
FACTS controllers CIGRÉ Study Committee B4, Advisory Group AG B4-04
prepared Technical Brochure 717-“Protocol for Reporting Operational Performance
of FACTS” in Jan 2018 (CIGRE TB 717 2018).
It is recommended that the reliability and availability of FACTS controllers
should be calculated and reported to CIGRE on an annual basis as per CIGRE
protocol for FACTS controllers (CIGRE TB 717 2018; CIGRE AG B4-04 2016).
Appendix provides a summary of the reporting protocol.
When a FACTS controller trips due to a fault, any fault recordings and alarm
listings should be checked. Any protection operation should be recorded and inves-
tigated for any equipment damage. If there is a failure of equipment, steps should be
taken to isolate the equipment for repairs. If the failure resulted in any environment
issues (e.g., oil leaks), immediate steps should be taken to mitigate the environmen-
tal issues before proceeding with any repairs.
A detailed report should be prepared for every failure in consultation with the
manufacturer. If the investigation shows any design deficiency, it should be corrected
not only on the failed FACTS controller but also in other systems of the same design.
These failures should be included in the report to CIGRE B4-04. This helps
CIGRE B4 committee identify failures that are common to various systems and
recommend changes to equipment standards and thereby improving the performance
of the new controllers.
6.2 Performance of the FACTS Controller in the AC System
The FACTS controllers are used to provide system stability under steady state and
transient conditions after a disturbance on the AC system. After every major system
disturbance the following information should be collected;
• Dynamic performance recordings and alarm listings for the station where the
FACTS controller is located and all other stations affected by the disturbance.
• Record the steady state system conditions before and after the fault.
The response of the FACTS controller should then be examined to see if the
controller worked as designed. The reasons for any abnormal response should be
investigated. If necessary, the disturbance should be repeated with digital simulation,
and control parameters adjusted if required to optimize the performance.
A detailed report should be prepared for each disturbance for future reference.
7 Life Assessment Process
Before starting a life extension project, it is necessary to obtain all available

information. It is desirable to collect the information in an electronic format that
enables the use of searches to quickly zero in on issues of concern.
A visit to the station is also necessary to discuss the life extension issues with the
maintenance staff. Also, discussion should take place with the operating staff to
determine if the equipment is meeting the expectations, with focus on continued
operational problems and areas requiring high maintenance work. Also, if there are
any additional requirements that the existing equipment cannot provide and possible
benefits should be determined.
The following should be part of the analysis:

• Operating problems or changes in the mode of operation.
• Maintenance records for the last 5 years.
• Any modifications performed after the original equipment was installed and why
they were initiated.
• Any significant failures and failure reports.
• Original quality or design issues.
• Any equipment replaced and when.
• Spare or replacements parts or obsolescence for major or critical equipment. An
example may be the failure rate of the semiconductor devices, spares on hand, and
whether they are available from a supplier.
• Status of spares – questions to consider are whether they are usable, have been
maintained, have seen actual service and been removed because of incipient fault
indications or if they have never been in service?
• Technical skills of staff to continue operating and maintaining the equipment. Is
additional training required?
• Normal expected life of each piece of equipment.
• Provide special attention to the smallest subsystem or components possible as it
may be possible to replace only some components and not the larger equipment
subsystem or system. This could save a lot of cost but requires that the detailed
information be available.
• Information provided in other chapters of this report would be useful.
• Criticality of the FACTS controller to the system and consequences if it is
unreliable or out of service.
• Risk assessment.
• Some equipment may not have a history of problem and failures but consideration
should be given that some of this equipment may start to fail if the life extension is
long enough.
• Replacement costs; wherever possible, costs should be obtained from a supplier
but where this is not possible, estimated costs if any based on previous experience
is desirable.
• An implementation schedule will also likely be required. Wherever possible the
schedule should be obtained from a supplier. Where this is not possible, a rough
schedule preferably based on previous experience is needed.
• Since many reported problems with operating systems are related to cooling
system failures, it is highly recommended that vibration analysis measurements
be made to determine if the original installations were properly designed (cavi-
tation and vibration issues).
7.1 Life Assessment Timetable
CIGRE Technical Brochure TB 649 (CIGRE TB 649 2016) provides expected

lifetime various components for an HVDC converter station which includes many
of the components used in FACTS controllers. Table 1 show the expected lifetime of
FACTS controller equipment as per CIGRE TB 649.
Table 1 Typical life time of FACTS controller equipment

FACTS equipment typical lifetimes
Note: Excludes design and production run quality issues
FACTS controller design life 35–40 years
Equipment Lifetime (Years) Comments
Interface transformer 40
AC bushings 25–30
Tap changer 30 or 350,000 operations, seals and springs
(with appropriate oil maintenance
procedures)
Coolers 25
Thyristor valves 35
VSC valves 35 Snubber and grading circuits should receive
special attention and examination of failure
records
Semiconductor devices 35 IGBT life expectancies are still in an
extrapolation phase due to the limited
population of the larger IGBT devices and
the length of service experience
Controls (digital) 12–15 This includes device gate control units
HMI 7–10 Older installations may have HMI software
that is very difficult and expensive to modify
and maintain
AC filters 35
Capacitors 30 Might only apply to conventional power
factor correction capacitors
Reactors 30–35
Resistors 40
CT & PT 35
AC control and protection 10–20
AC breakers 20 Severe switching duty may require more
frequent interrupter overhaul/replacement
Reactors (air core) 30–35 Life expectancy is subject to coil surface
finish coating maintenance and re-coating
Surge arrestors 35
Cooling systems 25–30 Cooling system management has several
important parts:
1) Pump vibration management 2) Coolant
quality management 3) Outdoor cooler coil
maintenance
Switching equipment 35 The operating mechanism would have to be
refurbished periodically depending on the
number of operations
DC supplies (batteries, etc.) 15–20 Depending on battery type and maintenance
cycles
Buswork, structures 50 Somewhat dependent on regular thermal
visioning monitoring
Communications systems 15
These estimated life expectancies are based on experience from operating prop-
erly designed pieces of equipment in which components have been selected with
proper consideration of the operating duties of the components. The actual life might
be longer or significantly less than the figures provided in the Table 1.
The reality is that there is no piece of equipment where a firm number is accurate.
The expected life of typical electrical equipment depends on the operating temper-
ature of the equipment and its components. Statistical methods can be applied to get
an estimate for the likely end of life of components, but this is not a practical
approach unless there are a device failures and knowledge about the service life of
the components.
The desire to come up with a life expectancy number is that if a piece of
equipment has not caused any major problems up to the point in time when the
life extension project is considered, a life estimate for the specific piece of equipment
should be made to assess the remaining life, refurbishment and replacement of that
piece of equipment, subsystem or system, or if replacement is done, then the
replacement of the complete FACTS controller may be the best option.
7.2 Alternatives and Justification
In order not to degrade the performance of the FACTS controller when some
equipment is approaching its design life, the following alternatives are available:
(a) Selective repair and refurbishment or replacement of FACTS controller

equipment
• Equipment can be repaired if spare parts remain available, and the knowledge
base (engineering and technical staff) is being retained.
• Equipment replacement is required if spare parts are not available (OEM’s are
no longer in business. Either the parts are phased out, discontinued, cannot be
remade or they are reverse engineered locally), or the knowledge base is lost
(maintenance personnel familiar with the equipment are retired). Software
and development systems to re-program operational-microprocessor based
systems can be problematic as major OEM(s) transition from one generation
to the next generation become shorter in terms of “life-cycle”.
• Selective equipment replacement is an excellent method to extend the design
life of the FACTS controller if other not refurbished or replaced components
can last till the end of FACTS controller extended life.
(b) Complete replacement of FACTS controller
• Complete replacement is required when the majority of the equipment is at
the end of its design life, and the FACTS controller is still required for power
transfer or AC system performance improvement. This can ultimately be a
combined economic or technical decision as to how extensive the complete
replacement may be.
• Complete replacement of FACTS controller is also an opportunity to increase

the steady state rating and add additional dynamic characteristics, depending
on the technology used within the project.
• In any case, actions for extending FACTS controller life needs to be
addressed before FACTS controller reliability and availability are impacted.
7.3 Basis for Replacement/Refurbishment of Equipment
The criteria for the equipment replacement and refurbishment are related to the risks
the asset owner is ready to take and potential lost revenue which is correlated to
equipment performance. It is also related to the expected useful life of the FACTS
controller as a part of the AC system.
For example, capacitors can be replaced after design life is exceeded. However,
they can also be replaced after the number of failures exceeds for example >2% of
installed capacitors per year. The latter option implies a number of filter bank trips or
loss of redundancy (maintenance outage), which are the consequence of failed
capacitor cans.
A conservative approach to any subsystem replacement is to operate these
components only to the manufacturers recommended design life, but this might
result in significant waste of capital to pay for unnecessary replacement of equip-
ment. A critical assumption is that the spare parts and skilled and knowledgeable
maintenance personnel are still available to the FACTS controller owner.
The following conditions could require equipment replacement and refurbish-
ment even before the expected life as per Table 1 is exceeded:
• Poor performance of equipment. An unacceptable number of FACTS controller

forced trips caused by this equipment reducing FACTS controller availability,
or long-scheduled outages required to keep the equipment in a serviceable
condition.
• The type of equipment has become discontinued by the OEM (for example circuit
breaker), and there are no other supply source of spare parts. It is possible to
postpone the replacement of the whole equipment fleet say of circuit breakers by
replacing one or more circuit breakers and using the parts from the units removed
from service as a source of spares. In some cases, the parts can be reverse
engineered by the owner or utility, if it still has the knowledge or by other firms
such as tap changer parts which specialize in this field
• Engineering and maintenance staff retiring and the knowledge base of how to
maintain some equipment is being lost and the supplier also cannot support
maintenance of the equipment.
• The results of equipment condition assessments showing poor or deteriorating
equipment conditions (for example very low degree of polymerization paper
inside converter transformers) could justify earlier replacement, even before
equipment design life is not exceeded.
• Failures of the same type of equipment at other FACTS controllers could

justify unscheduled equipment condition assessment and, if required, early
replacement
• Manufacturer instructions to remove equipment from service due to production
defect (e.g., use of unsuitable material for components during production) could
result in early equipment refurbishment.
• Under direction from an outside regulatory body (safety or environmental issues
for example).
• Technical obsolescence – older software versions are no longer supported by the
OEM and the new software requires new hardware.
• The high cost of Operations Maintenance and Administration. (OPEX) which is
defined as a measure of Operating Expense.
8 Decommissioning
The issues of de-commissioning a FACTS controller are technically similar

to de-commissioning of an AC substation. It is very important that the de-commis-
sioning process meets all the local, state, and national environmental regulations of
the country where the device is located. Since the environmental regulations are
different for each location (even within the same country), only a general guideline is
provided in this section.
Before proceeding with de-commissioning, it must be verified that all environ-
mental regulations will be met by the proposed process. In general, there are
probably qualified companies available in each area that can be contracted to assist
with the de-commissioning of FACTS controllers.
In general, the equipment can be disposed of as follows:
8.1 Cables
Before disposing of the cables, it should be verified that the cable insulation does not
contain PCB, asbestos, or any other hazardous materials (e.g., lead, etc.).
8.2 Capacitors
It is very unlikely that the capacitors will contain PCB. However, if there is any
doubt the oil should be tested for PCB before finalizing the disposition procedure
depending on the test results.
8.3 Control Cabinets
Control cabinets can be dismantled and sold as scrap.

8.4 Cooling System
Any parts of the cooling system that are obsolete can probably be scrapped. If the
cooling system used glycol, the glycol must be taken out and disposed of as per
environmental regulations and then the system should be flushed before being
scrapped.
8.5 Reactors
All air-cored type reactors might be sold as scrap. Oil-filled reactors can be disposed
of in a manner similar to interface transformers.
8.6 Site Clean-Up
After all the equipment has been disposed of, the site should be cleaned to meet
the prevailing environmental regulations. In some cases, it may be necessary to scrape
and remove some of the soil and transport it to an acceptable disposal facility.
8.7 Structures and Building
Steel structures can be salvaged and sold as scrap. If the buildings cannot be
reused, they should be demolished and the site cleaned up as per local regulations.
8.8 Switchgear
Switchgear may be reclaimed and used in other places. Any SF6 should be reclaimed
and reused.
8.9 Thyristors, IGBTs, and Electronic Circuit Boards
Thyristors, IGBTs, and electronic circuit boards can be disposed as electronic waste.
Copper pole pieces can be recycled. The silicon wafers might have to go to a land fill,
but there could be gold plating and silver solder that might be possible to reclaim.
8.10 Transformers
The transformer oil should be drained, stored, and can be used again after pro-
cessing. If the transformer has a tap changer which might be used on a similar
transformer in the company, it can be salvaged. The remaining parts can be sold to a
recycling company. Depending on the age and condition of the bushings, it might be
possible to use the bushings in other units or to keep them as spares.
Appendix
Calculation of FACTS Controller Performance
CIGRE Advisory Group B4-04 has developed a protocol for calculating the perfor-
mance of FACTS Controller (CIGRE TB 717 2018). The following is the summary
of definitions and method of calculating the performance.
Definitions
Capacity Terms
Rated Capacity (Qm) – The maximum capacity (+/MVARS), excluding the
added capacity available through means of redundant equipment, for which contin-
uous operation under normal conditions is possible, is referred to as the rated
capacity.
The rated capacity is equal to the sum of reactive (inductive and capacitive)
ratings of the device.
For a station with more than one FACTS controller, the rating of each device is
calculated on its own.
Note: When the maximum continuous capacity varies according to seasonal
conditions, the highest value is to be used as the capacity for the purpose of reports
prepared according to this protocol. However, this excludes over-load capability
available during low-ambient temperature.
Outage Capacity (Qo) – The capacity reduction (+/MVARS) which the outage
would have caused if the system were operating at its rated capacity (Qm) at the time
of the outage is called the outage capacity.
Outage Derating Factor (ODF) – The ratio of outage capacity to rated capacity
is called the outage derating factor.
ODF ¼ Qo =Qm
Example:
If the normal rating of an SVC = 60/+150 Mvar.

Available rating after the forced outage = 40/100 Mvar
Qm = 60 + 150 = 210 Mvar
Qo = 210 – (40 + 100) = 70 Mvar
ODF = 70/210 = 0.33
Outage Terms
Outage – The state in which the FACTS controller is unavailable for operation at its
maximum continuous capacity due to an event directly related to the failure of one or
more of its components. Failure of equipment where a back-up equipment (standby
pump, etc.) is available, is not considered as an outage for purposes of this report.
Outages related to AC system or failure of other equipment not part of the FACTS
controller will be recorded but not included in FACTS controller reliability calcula-
tions. For the purpose of this report, outages taken for major reconfiguration or
upgrading of the switching FACTS controller such as breaker additions, etc. are not
reported.
Scheduled Outage – An outage that is either planned or which can be deferred
until a suitable time is referred to as a scheduled outage.
Scheduled outages can be planned well in advance, primarily for preventive
maintenance purposes such as the annual maintenance program. During such
planned maintenance outage (PM), it is customary to work on several different
equipment or systems concurrently. It is not necessary to allocate such outage time
to individual equipment categories. Only the elapsed time is reported in Scheduled
Outage Unavailability, SOU as “PM”.
Classified under the scheduled outage category are also outages for work which
could be postponed until a suitable time (usually night or weekend) but cannot be
postponed until the next planned outage. Equipment category code should be used
for outages of this type.
Forced Outage – The state in which the equipment is unavailable for normal
operation at its rated capacity (Qm) but is not in the scheduled outage state is referred
to as a forced outage.
Trips – Sudden interruption in reactive power transmission by a protective action or

manual emergency shutdown.
Other Forced Outages – In general, other forced outages are unexpected FACTS
controller equipment problems that force immediate reduction in capacity of the
FACTS controller but do not cause or require a trip. Also in this category are
outages caused by switch-on delays.
Outage Duration Terms

Depending on the design of the FACTS controller, it is possible that the FACTS
controller may remain in operation in a de-rated status. The entire duration of
the derating is to be reported as a Forced Outage using the ODF.
The outage time should be given in “decimal hours,” i.e., 6 h: 30 min = 6.5 h.
Actual Outage Duration (AOD) – The time elapsed in decimal hours between
the start and the end of an outage is the actual outage duration. The start of an outage
is typically the first switching action related to the outage. The end of an outage is
typically the last switching action related to return of the equipment to operational
readiness.
Equivalent Outage Duration (EOD) – The actual outage duration (AOD) in

decimal hours, multiplied by the outage derating factor (ODF), so as to take account
of partial loss of capacity is called the equivalent outage duration.
EOD ¼ AOD ODF
Each equivalent outage duration (EOD) may be classified according to the type of
outage involved:
Equivalent forced outage duration (EFOD) and

Equivalent scheduled outage duration (ESOD).
Time Categories
Period Hours (PH) – The number of calendar hours in the reporting period is
referred to as the period hours. In a full year, the period hours are 8760, or 8784, in
leap years. If the equipment is commissioned part way through a year, the period
hours will be proportionately less.
Actual Outage Hours (AOH) – The sum of actual outage durations within the
reporting period is referred to as the actual outage hours.
X
AOH ¼ AOD
The actual outage hours (AOH) may be classified according to the type of outage
involved:
Actual forced outage hours (AFOH) and

Actual scheduled outage hours (ASOH).
X
AFOH ¼ AFOD
X
ASOH ¼ ASOD
Equivalent Outage Hours (EOH) – The sum of equivalent outage durations

within the reporting period is referred to as the equivalent outage hours.
X
EOH ¼ EOD
The equivalent outage hours (EOH) may be classified according to the type of
outage involved:
Equivalent forced outage hours (EFOH) and

Equivalent scheduled outage hours (ESOH).
X
EFOH ¼ EFOD
X
ESOH ¼ ESOD
Availability Terms
Outage Unavailability (OU) – A measure of the Mvar capacity of the FACTS
Controller that was not available is referred as Outage Unavailability.
Outage Unavailability%OU ¼ ðEOH=PHÞ 100
Forced Outage Unavailability%FOU ¼ ðEFOH=PHÞ 100
Scheduled Outage Unavailability%SOU ¼ ðESOH=PHÞ 100
Controller Availability (CA) – A measure of equivalent duration for which the

FACTS controller was available at rated capacity.
Controller Availability%CA ¼ 100 %OU
Equipment and Fault Category Terms

FACTS controller equipment is classified into major categories for the purpose of
reporting the cause of capacity reduction or FACTS controller outages. Failure of
the equipment resulting in an outage or loss of FACTS controller capacity is charged
to the category to which the failed equipment belongs. Failures or outages of
redundant equipment which do not result in a loss of FACTS controller capacity
are not reported. The outage may be forced as a direct consequence of the failure or
miss-operation, or the outage may be scheduled due to maintenance requirements.
Only scheduled outages classified as deferred are categorized according to
equipment type. In the interest of providing information which can be used to
further describe problem areas and help to improve designs, major categories
are divided into subcategories. These subcategories are described in the following
subsections. The performance report should utilize these subcategories by app-
ending the respective subcode to the major outage code when maintaining the
outage log.
A.C. and Auxiliary Equipment (AC-E) – This major category covers all AC
main circuit equipment of the FACTS controller. This includes everything from the
incoming AC connection to the AC connection of the FACTS controller. This
category also covers low voltage auxiliary power, auxiliary valve cooling equip-
ment, and AC control and protection. This category does not apply to capacity
outages resulting from events in the AC network external to the FACTS controller.
The following subsections give the different subcategories of equipment included in
this category and contain examples of each type of equipment.
A.C. Filter (AC-E.F) – Loss of FACTS controller capacity due to failure of passive
and active AC filters. Types of components included in this subcategory would
be capacitors, reactors, resistors, CTs, and arresters which comprise the AC
filtering.
A.C. Control and Protection (AC-E.CP) – Loss of FACTS controller capacity due
to failure of AC protections, AC controls, or AC current and voltage transformers
is assigned to this subcategory. AC protections or control could be for the main
circuit equipment, for the auxiliary power equipment, or for the valve cooling
equipment.
FACTS Controller Interface Transformer (AC-E.TX) – Loss of capacity due to
failure of a FACTS controller interface transformer is assigned to this sub-
category. Included in this subcategory is any equipment integral with the
FACTS controller interface transformer such as tap changers, bushings, or trans-
former cooling equipment.
Auxiliary Equipment and Auxiliary Power (AC-E.AX) – Loss of FACTS con-
troller capacity due to failure or misoperation of auxiliary equipment. Such
equipment includes auxiliary transformers, pumps, battery chargers, heat
exchangers, cooling system process instrumentation, low voltage switchgear,
motor control centers, fire protection, and civil works.
Note: The cooling system for the Thyristor/IGBT valve is not included in this
category.
Other A.C. Switchyard Equipment (AC-E.SW) – Loss of FACTS controller
capacity due to failure of AC circuit breakers disconnect switches, isolating
switches or grounding switches is assigned to this subcategory. Also included
are other AC switchyard equipments such as AC surge arresters, bus-work, or
insulators.
Valves (V) – This major category covers all parts of the valve itself. The valve is
the complete operative array forming an arm, or part of an arm of the FACTS
controller. It includes all auxiliaries and components integral with the valve and
forming part of the operative array. The valve category is divided into four
subcategories.
Valve Electrical (V.E) – Loss of FACTS controller capacity due to any failure of the
valve except for those related to that part of the valve cooling system integral with
the valve is assigned to this subcategory.
Valve Cooling (V.VC) – Loss of FACTS controller capacity due to any failure of the
valve related to that part of the valve cooling system at high potential integral with
the valve is assigned to this subcategory.
Valve Capacitor (V.C) – Loss of STATCOM controller capacity due to failure of
either the main valve capacitor or any subcomponent of the capacitor where the
capacitor is not a single element.
Phase Reactor (V.PR) – Loss of FACTS controller capacity due to failure of the
phase reactor.
Control and Protection Equipment (C-P) – This major category covers

the equipment used for control of the overall FACTS controller system and for
the control and protection of each Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC), Thyristor
Controlled Reactor (TCR), Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor, Voltage Sourced
Capacitor, and STATCOM excluding control and protection of a conventional type
which is included in “a.c. and auxiliary equipment.”
The equipment provided for the coding of control and indication information to
be sent over a telecommunication circuit and the circuit itself is included.
Capacitor Banks (C) – This category covers fixed capacitors and thyristor
switched capacitors. The capacitors related to STATCOM or Voltage Sourced
Converters are not included in this category.
Fixed Capacitor (C.F) – Loss of FACTS controller capacity due to failure of any
fixed capacitor or any subcomponent of the capacitor where the capacitor is not a
single element.
Thyristor Switched Capacitor (C.S) – Loss of controller capacity due to failure of
any thyristor switched capacitor or any subcomponent of that capacitor where the
capacitor is not a single element.
Reactors (R) – This category covers fixed reactors and thyristor controlled
reactors. The phase reactors related to STATCOM are not included in this
category.
Fixed Reactor (R.F) – Loss of FACTS controller capacity due to failure of any fixed
reactor or any subcomponent of the reactor where the reactor is not a single
element.
Thyristor Controlled Reactor (R.S) – Loss of FACTS controller capacity due to
failure of any thyristor controlled reactor or any subcomponent of that reactor
where the reactor is not a single element.
Human Error (H) – Loss of FACT controller capacity or extension of outage

duration due to human error is assigned to this category. If, after an outage due to an
event in another category, the outage duration is extended due to human error in
maintenance or operation, the consequential extension in outage time is charged to
this category.
Other (O) – Loss of FACT controller capacity or extension of outage duration
due to unknown causes is assigned to this category.
Outages due to act of nature (storm, flood, etc.), small animals, and bird nesting
are also included in this category.
External AC System (EXT) – Loss of FACTS controller capacity due to faults
or events in the AC network external to the FACTS controller is charged to this
category.
Note: The outages due to this category are not included in the calculation of
forced outage unavailability.
References
CIGRE AG B4-04: SVC/STATCOM report, Report on SVC/STATCOM Performance Survey, CIGRE
B4 meeting 2016. http://b4.cigre.org/Publications/Other-Documents/SVC-STATCOM-PERFOR-
MANCE-SURVEY (2016). Accessed 5 Mar 2018
CIGRE TB 554: Performance Evaluation and Applications Review of Existing Thyristor Controlled
Series Capacitor Devices. CIGRE, e-cigre.org (2013)
CIGRE TB 649: Guidelines for Life Extension of Existing HVDC Systems. CIGRE, e-cigre.org (2016)
CIGRE TB 717: Protocol for Reporting Operational Performance of FACTS. CIGRE, e-cigre.org (2018)
Dhaliwal, N.S., Schumann, R., McNichol, J.R.: Application of Reliability Centered Maintenance
(RCM) to HVDC Converter Station. CIGRE paper B4-107 (2008)
Moubray, J.: Reliability Centered Maintenance, 2nd edn 1997. Industrial Press Inc, New York, NY.
ISBN 0-8311-3078-4
Narinder Dhaliwal received the B.Sc. degree in electrical engi-

neering from Punjab University, Chandigarh, India, in 1968 and
M.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from the University of
Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada, in 1974. He joined Manitoba
Hydro, Winnipeg, MB, Canada, in 1974 and worked as a system
study engineer for about 5 years.
He was Senior Plant Engineer for Nelson River HVDC system
from 1979 to 2015. During this time he was responsible for
maintenance and operation of Nelson River BP1 and BP2
HVDC systems. He commissioned all components of the HVDC
system (i.e., controls, valves, valve base electronics, DC controls,
valve cooling, etc.).
He is currently Chief Engineer with TransGrid Solutions. His
areas of expertise are specification preparation, design review,
participation in factory testing and commissioning.
Mr. Dhaliwal is a Registered Professional Engineer in the Prov-
ince of Manitoba, Canada.
Mr. Dhaliwal is a member of CIGRE and convener of Advisory
Group AG B4-04 responsible for monitoring the performance of
HVDC systems around the world.
Thomas Magg, Principal Consultant, Serala Power Consult-

ing, South Africa. Thomas Magg is a registered professional
engineer in South Africa with more than 27 years’ experience in
the electric power industry. Thomas started his career at Eskom
and has experience in the utility, consulting, and equipment sup-
plier sectors. He has extensive experience in project management
and project engineering of high-voltage transmission AC and DC
systems in Africa. Thomas has experience on reactive power
compensation and the integration of large nonlinear loads into
transmission systems. He has been responsible for the project
engineering of several large Static VAr Compensators (SVC’s).
Thomas was the Technical Advisor for the 350kV High Voltage
Direct Current (HVDC), 300/600MW Caprivi Link VSC HVDC
scheme in Namibia, which was successfully completed in 2010.
He is presently the Senior Technical Advisor and lead engineer for
the Songo 533kV HVDC converter station upgrade project on the
Cahora Bassa HVDC scheme in Mozambique. He has been an
active member of CIGRE Study Committee B4 (HVDC and
SC-B4 Working Groups. From 2008 to 2014, he was the Regular
Member for South Africa for CIGRE Study Committee B4.
Index
A C
Abilene, 495 Capacitors, 67–69
AC power, 29 DC capacitors, 227–228
active power, 29 Capital investment, 711
complex power, 30 Carson’s equations, 34
power factor, 29 Centrally planned paradigm, 711
reactive power, 29 Central Queensland, 561–562
Admittance, 21 Cerro Navia, 525
Agadyr substation, 416 Chain circuit, 217
Ainsworth, J.D., 217 Chengxian substation, 615
Airline and Dilley SVCs, 500 Clarke, E., 35
Albanel substation, 478 Combustible fluids, 804
Aliasing, 976 Commercial off the shelf (COTS)
Alternating current (AC), 16 components, 1094
harmonic filters, 162–163, 228–229 Commissioning tests, 900, 973
impedance, 20 Computerized maintenance management
network models, 761 system (CMMS), 1076
Arc furnace, 376 Concordia, C., 5
Audible noise, 799, 807–827 Contingency analysis, 81
Aurangabad substation, 551 Continuous conduction mode, 260
Availability, 866–867, 1072 Contract documents, 929
Contracting strategy, 850–851
Control interactions, 780–781
B Controllable series capacitor, 107
Bardeen, J., 130 Converter losses, 321
Baum, F.G., 6, 78, 388 Cooling water, 799
Beijiao and Shuixiang 500 kV substation, 533 Cost-benefit analysis (CBA), 711, 712, 723
Bespoke products, 1094 Crane and Rio Pecos substations, 495
Bespoke technical solutions, 745–748 Crowbar, 331
Bidding documents, 929–930 Current droop, 99
Bidding strategy, 849–850
Bidirectional thyristor valves, 157
Black-box models, 913–914 D
Bluff Creek SVC, 496 Decommissioning, 807, 1102–1104
Bout De L’Ile substation, 500 Depreciation period, 724
Built in test functions, 1081 Design review meetings, 930

Books, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35386-5
1114 Index
Design specification, 848 static var compensator (SVC), 4, 156,

Direct current (DC), 16 427–428, 717
capacitors, 938–939 thyristor controlled reactor (TCR), 95,
Domloup, 444 157–159
Dong Anshan substation, 433 thyristor controlled series capacitors
Dongguan 500 kV substation, 533 (TCSC), 139, 587, 719
Dongguan STATCOM, 554 thyristor-controlled series compensation
Duty cycle, 710 (TCSC), 4, 256
Dynamic modeling, 722 thyristor switched capacitors (TSC), 95,
159–162
thyristor switched reactor (TSR), 162
E thyristor switched series compensation
East Claydon substation, 516 (TSSC), 256
Economic dispatch, 80 unified power flow controller (UPFC), 9,
Economic useful life, 724 152, 300, 718
Edison, T., 16, 26 Faraday, M., 17
Electric arc furnace (EAF), 555 Fault current limiter, 114–116
Electric field, 21 Fault performance, 780
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), Fengtun substation, 616
829–831 Ferranti effect, 6, 32, 59–61, 100, 256
Electromagnetic induction, 17 Fire protection systems, 805
Electromagnetic interference (EMI), 799–800, Fire risks, 799
831–834 Fortescue, C.L., 35
Electromagnetic transient models, 775, Fourier analysis, 362
778–782 Frequency control, 81–82
Electromagnetic transients program (EMTP), Frequency domain, 31, 771
39, 291–292 Frequency screening, 291
Electromechanical transients, 775 Friedlander, E.S., 356, 389
Environmental impact, 790 Functional specification, 722, 848
Equal area criterion, 47 Funing converter station, 543
European Network of Transmission
System Operators for Electricity
(ENTSO-E), 713 G
Gaulard, L., 26
Generators, 69–70
F Geomagnetically induced current (GIC), 38
Factory acceptance tests (FAT), 871, 898–900, Gibbs, J., 26
942–943 Graetz bridge, 142
Factory system tests (FST), 941–942 Griscom, S.B., 389
Factory tests, 934 Gyugyi, L., 211, 310
FACTS controllers, 4, 92
advanced static var compensator
(ASVC), 208 H
convertible static compensator (CSC), 314 Haramain High-Speed Rail (HHR) project, 486
interline power flow controller (IPFC), Harmonic(s), 288, 362
327, 346 filters, 95, 334
mobile compensation system, 576 impedance, 771
NGH Series Compensation Damping load flow models, 37
System, 587 studies, 763–764
static compensators, 4 Heaviside, O., 6, 30, 56
static synchronous compensator High voltage direct current (HVDC) lines, 6
(STATCOM), 102, 208, 301, 515, Hingorani, N.G., 4, 710
717–718 Holeta substation, 443
static synchronous series compensator Hutton 400 kV substation, 634
(SSSC), 120–121, 301, 343–346 Hybrid simulation, 782
Index 1115
I Metal oxide varistor (MOV), 108, 256

Imperatriz substation, 601 Model maintainability, 911–913
Inductance, 18 Model validation, 907
Induction effect, 17 Modular multilevel converter (MMC), 102,
Induction generator effect (IGE), 289 311, 515
Inez substation, 648 technology, 322
Insulation coordination, 781 Morse, S., 5
Integration tests, 946–948 Multi-module TCSC, 109
Inter-area oscillations, 292 Mumian 500 kV substation, 533
Interface transformers, 938 Muzaffarpur – Gorakhpur, 631
Iron Acton substation, 471
N
J Nanjing UPFC, 680
Jancke, G., 586 N-1 contingencies, 1068
Nemiscau substation, 471
Net present value (NPV), 712, 725
K Network grid codes, 761
Kangasala, 454 Network owner (NO), 754
Kangjin substation, 658 Nyquist frequency, 976
Kayenta system, 593
Kelvin, L., 6
Kirchhoff, G.R., 24 O
Kirchhoff ’s current law, 24 Obsolescence, 1094–1096
Kirchhoff ’s second law, 24 Ohm, G., 18
Kudymkar, 412 Ohm’s Law, 21
On-site testing, 980–983
Operating procedures, 1090
L
Lake Bonney Wind Farm, 570
La Merlatière, 444 P
Laplace transform, 19 Park, H.K., 70
Life assessment, 1097–1102 Park, R.H., 35
Life cycle cost, 856–857 Performance, 1104
Life expectancy, 730 Permeability, 25
Life extension, 1073 Permittivity, 25
Line-commutated converters, 130 Per-unit system, 43–44
Load flow control, 58, 722 Phase control, 139
Losses, 281, 600, 628–629, 729 Phase-locked loop (PLL), 112
Loss evaluation, 866 Phase reactor, 939–940
Loss of energy expectation (LOEE), 744 Phasor measuring units, 1068
Loss of load expectation (LOLE), 744 Pi- link, 34
Loss of load probability (LOLP), 744 Pingguo substation, 611
Planning horizon, 711
Planning studies, 757
M Plant 1 EAF, 556
Magnetically controlled shunt reactor (MCSR), Polpaico substations, 525
375, 402 Power angle curve, 58
Magnetic amplifier, 369, 404 Power line carrier (PLC), 833–834
Magnetic field, 18, 827 Power losses, 246
Maintainability, 866–867 Power oscillation damping (POD), 95, 777
Maintenance, 1075–1078 Power system control, 80
instructions, 1090 Power system stabilizers (PSS), 112, 746
Marcy 345 kV substation, 665 “Pre-commissioning” tests, 979
Measurement equipment, 975–977 Procurement, 848
1116 Index
Project management, 927 Serra da Mesa substation, 601

Pulse width modulation (PWM) technique, 102, Shazhou substation, 438
143, 150–152, 216 Shelton, E.K., 7
Purnea – Muzaffarpur line, 631 Short circuit model, 763
Short-circuit safe operating area, 323
Simulation, 722
Q Single points of failures, 124
Quasi-dynamic model, 768 Site acceptance tests (SAT), 871
Site management, 932
Slatt substation, 595
R
Slatt TCSC, 594
Radio interference, 832–833
Source code, 915
Reactors, 66–67, 1083–1084
Southern Suzhou UPFC project, 688
Real-time simulation (RTS), 782, 898–899
Spare(s), 1073
Redundancy, 124
parts, 1093–1096
Refrigerants, 805–806
Spectrum analyzers, 977
Refurbishment, 1101
Speed of light, 25
Reliability, 731–733, 866–867
Spill containment, 804
Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM), 1076
SSR damping, 598
Replacement, 1101
Staged tests, 906
Ride-through tests, 955
Stakeholder engagement, 792
Risk assessment, 749
Static compensator, 374
Root-mean-square (RMS), 29, 978
Static var compensator (SVC), 95
Rourkela – Raipur 400 kV D/c line, 630
power loss, 190–204
Rourkela substation, 566
Steinmetz, C.P., 6
Routine tests, 934
Stöde TCSC, 609
Rudenberg, R., 389
Stranded assets, 466
Sub-synchronous oscillation (SSO), 116
S Sub-synchronous resonance (SSR), 7, 38, 75
Safe switching operating area (SSOA), 322 torque amplification, 38
Sampling interval, 977 torsional interaction, 38
Sampling rate, 976 Sub-system tests, 983–988
Saturation characteristic of iron, 356 Sulfur hexafluoride gas (SF6), 805
Self-commutated converters, 130, 152–153 Surge arresters, 71–72, 1086–1087
voltage-sourced converter (VSC), 130 Surge impedance, 25, 588
Self-saturated reactor, 359 Surge impedance load (SIL), 121, 588
Sellindge, 392 Swan, J., 16
Semiconductor devices, 1084–1085 Switchgear, 62
bipolar junction transistor (BJT), 135 AC bypass breaker, 333
breakover diode, 436 circuit breakers, 62
failures in time (FIT), 732 disconnect switches, 62
freewheeling diode (FWD), 323 load-break switches, 62
gate turn-off thyristor (GTO), 102, 133, 311 solid-state breaker, 153
IGBT devices, 322 thyristor bypass switch (TBS), 320,
integrated gate commutated thyristor 328, 688
(IGCT), 102, 515 Switching surge, 781
junction field effect transistor (JFET), 135 Symmetrical components, 35
light-triggered thyristor (LTT), 173, 433 negative sequence, 35
metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect positive sequence, 35
transistor (MOSFET), 135 zero sequence, 35
silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), 130 Synchronous compensators, 70–71, 356
thyristors, 130, 277 Synchronous condenser, 214
transistors, 134 Synchronous voltage reversal (SVR), 117
Index 1117
System damping, 637 Turnkey engineering, 927

System efficiency, 710 Two-level switching, 312
System integration studies, 883 Two-port net-work models, 33
System operator, 1067 Type tests, 934
System security, 710
U
T Unavailability, 1072
Taoxiang substation, 460 Useful life, 724
Tavricheskaya substation, 419
Technical specification, 761
Temporary overvoltage (TOV), 777 V
Tesla, N., 27 Valve cooling, 1087–1089
Thevenin equivalent, 778 Vernier control mode, 259
Three level converter, 313 Viklandet substation, 480
Three-phase power system, 35 Visual impact, 799
Thyristor valves, 137, 172–183, 277–279 Voltage control, 72
Time domain analysis, 38–40 Voltage instability, 42
Time value of money, 712 Voltage-sourced converter (VSC), 103, 214
T-link, 34 chain circuit, 221–223
Torque amplification (TA), 289 converter losses, 328–329
Torsional damping, 781 flying capacitor converter, 146
Torsional interactions (TI), 288 full-bridge submodule, 221
Training program, 873–874, 932, 1066, half-bridge submodule, 223–224
1092–1093 harmonic neutralization, 217
Transductors, 371 modular multilevel converter (MMC),
Transformers, 62–66, 163–164, 1081–1083 147, 221
current-sourced converter (CSC), 130 neutral point clamped (NPC), 143–146
flux density, 357 quasi-harmonic neutralization, 217
gate turn-off thyristors (GTO), 133 Voltage stability margin, 1068
hysteresis effect, 357
hysteresis loss, 357
junction field effect transistor (JFET), 135 W
load losses, 194–196 Warranty period, 1076
magnetizing force, 357 Weighted average cost, 724
metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect Westinghouse, G., 26
transistor (MOSFET), 135 Wholesale energy markets, 711
no load losses, 193 Wuzhou substation, 428
phase angle regulator, 65
quadrature boosting transformer, 66
STATCOM transformer, 225–226 X
tap-changers, 65 Xijiao substation, 520
transistors, 134
Transient stability model, 292, 637, 763, 775
Transmission system operator (TSO), 713, 754 Y
Tunnsjødal substation, 480 Yunzaobang UPFC project, 696

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Dokumen - Pub Flexible Ac Transmission Systems 1st Ed 9783030353858 9783030353865

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CIGRE Green Books

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15209

With 632 Figures and 71 Tables

ISBN 978-3-030-35385-8 ISBN 978-3-030-35386-5 (eBook)

October 2019 Dr. Rob Stephen

Dr. Rob Stephen was born in Johannesburg,

This Green Book on Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) aims at describing

Secretary General Philippe Adam

Graduate of the École Centrale de Paris, Philippe Adam

The global environment of electric power systems is changing due to various

Dr. Rashwan graduated with B.Sc. in Electrical Engi-

Part I Introduction ....................................... 1

1 Introduction to Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS)

3.3 Analysis of Three-Phase Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4 AC Network Control Using FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission

5 Power Electronic Topologies for FACTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

2.3 Thyristor Switched Reactors (TSRs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

4.4 AC Harmonic Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

12 Stability Improvement and Power Oscillation Damping with

10 Controllers Using the Saturation of Iron for AC Network

3 Harmonics in Saturated Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362

4.3 A Model for Stability Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

9.3 Main Parameters of the Taoxiang SVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461

3 STATCOM in East Claydon, UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515

11.4 System Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566

1.2 Installed UPFC Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648

Part V FACTS Controller Planning and Procurement . . . . . . . . . . . 707

16 Economic Appraisal and Cost-Beneﬁt Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709

3 General Approach to Economic Appraisal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713

4.6 Electromagnetic Transients (EMT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778

6 Electric and Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827

5.12 Maintenance Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872

20 FACTS Controller Integration and Design Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . 881

21 FACTS Equipment Design and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921

3 Four-Stage Commissioning Tests for FACTS Controllers . . . . . . 978

23 Operation of FACTS Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063

2 Maintenance of Facts Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075

Geoff Love PSC Consulting, Dublin, Ireland

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 3

FACTS is an abbreviation of Flexible AC Transmission System used by the Electric

2 Electric Power Fundamentals

2.1 Early Developments of Power Transmission Theories

2.2 Reactive Power and Voltage Control in AC Systems

Reactive power compensation of lines by inserting capacitors in series was

2.3 Long-Distance Power Transmission

• Controllability of AC and DC systems

• Power routing by AC and DC controls

2.4 Special Industrial Voltage Control Issues

Power electronic–based systems referred to as Static Var Compensators (SVCs) were

2.5 Power Transfers from Distant Generators to Load Areas

3 FACTS Green Book’s Scope

This CIGRE Green Book is a collection of information intended to help power

Technical Description of FACTS Controllers

• ▶ Power Electronic Topologies for FACTS

Applications of FACTS Controllers

• ▶ Controllers Using the Saturation of Iron for AC Network Control

FACTS Controller Planning and Procurement

• ▶ Economic Appraisal and Cost-Beneﬁt Analysis

Implementation of FACTS Controllers

• ▶ FACTS Controller Integration and Design Studies

FACTS Operation and Lifetime Management

• ▶ Operation of FACTS Controllers

Willis F. Long, Professor Emeritus, Electric Power Systems,

S ¼ V I ¼ V rms ejα I rms ejðαϕÞ (41)