Ocean Engineering 235 (2021) 109439

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Ocean Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/oceaneng

Numerical investigation on nonlinear wave interaction with partially

submerged subsea pipe-valve structures
Yang Du a, *, Miaozi Zheng b, Bingqi Liu c, Carlos Levi c, HyoJae Jo d, Menglan Duan a
a
College of Safety and Ocean Engineering, China University of Petroleum-Beijing, Beijing, China
b
Engineering & Design Institute of CNPC Offshore Engineering Company Limited, Beijing, China
c
Ocean Engineering Department, COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
d
Department of Naval Architecture and Ocean Systems Engineering, Korea Maritime and Ocean University, Busan, South Korea

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The dynamic behaviours of subsea pipe-valve structures—the principal components of subsea equipment—are of
Subsea pipe-valve structures critical concern for the control of the lowering through the splash zone during installation. Nonlinear interactions
Partially submerged between waves and pipe-valve combinations are challenging the investigation of the wave forces acting on large-
Numerical water tank
dimension structures. This paper proposes a numerical model to study the nonlinear hydrodynamic performance
Wave-structure interaction
Nonlinearity
of partially submerged pipe-valve structures. A two-dimensional (2D) numerical water tank (NWT) was estab­
lished to efficiently generate high-accuracy incident waves, and a semi-immersed horizontal cylinder was applied
to the numerical simulations of wave-structure interaction (WSI) to study the mesh and time convergence. The
numerical model was validated with a comparative analysis of the modelling results with experimental data,
other numerical results, and theoretical results. Numerical simulations of the interaction between Stokes-II waves
and subsea pipe-valve structures were performed, and the effects of the valve height ratio, valve length ratio, and
valve spacing were investigated. The subsea pipe-valve structure is a kind of multi-scale structure, the wave
forces exhibited stronger nonlinearity when acting on the partially submerged valves than on the completely
submerged pipe. Changes in valve structure and distribution significantly increased the overall change in the
wave forces acting on the valves. The stronger nonlinearity was primarily derived from phenomena such as wave
reflection, wave blockage, and wave run-up. The numerical results provide references for the structure and
strength designs and offshore installations of large subsea equipment like subsea manifolds.

1. Introduction
The development of offshore oil industry technology and the
increased water depth of offshore oilfields have accelerated the devel­
opment of subsea production systems to exploit deepwater oil and gas
resources. Subsea production systems play a significant role in the
extraction of deepwater hydrocarbons, have a wide application range
and high efficiency, and are less affected by environmental loads (Cao
et al., 2016; Hong et al., 2018; Lindseth et al., 2019; Jamaludin, 2019).
Subsea production systems are composed of vital subsea equipment,
such as subsea manifolds, Xmas trees, and pipeline end terminations
(Mason and Upchurch, 1996; Bernt, 2004). The four primary phases of
lowering subsea equipment from the installation ship to the seabed
consist of lifting equipment from the deck of the installation ship,
lowering through the splash zone, lowering in deep waters, and
approaching the seabed (Veritas, 2011). The nonlinear wave force
acting on subsea structures in the second phase may result in structural
damage, such as deformation and bending. Therefore, more information
on WSI must be provided before conducting practical offshore
installations.
WSI is a typical problem in ocean and coastal engineering that has
been studied by many researchers using different approaches, such as
analytical solutions, physical experiments, and numerical simulations.
Buccino and Martinelli (2020) summarised the arguments of the papers
gathered in a special issue named interaction between waves and
maritime structures, primarily the structural and functional perfor­
mances; additionally, regarding the functional performance, it was
subdivided into the hydraulic, morphodynamic, and floating body re­
sponses. Analytical method is relatively more cost-effective and efficient
for studying WSI under certain conditions and provides a good scientific

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: 2017310001@student.cup.edu.cn (Y. Du).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2021.109439
Received 18 February 2021; Received in revised form 31 May 2021; Accepted 29 June 2021
Available online 6 July 2021
0029-8018/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Du et al.
understanding of the hydrodynamic characteristics of structures in the
WSI process. Fang et al. (2018) presented an analytical solution based on
the linear potential theory to predict hydrodynamic wave forces sub­
jected by girder-type bridge decks under hurricane-generated oblique
water waves. Jalón et al. (2019) considered the linear wave theory and
the head loss caused by the constriction of flow to develop an analytical
model of the oblique incident wave interaction with a maritime struc­
ture and extended it to irregular waves. Bahena-Jimenez et al. (2020)
obtained formulas that obey a power-law function for the reflection and
transmission coefficients and the wave elevation for the linear water
wave interaction with a cycloidal breakwater in presence of a sloping
beach. However, the analytical method has limitations, such as the po­
tential flow models established under the assumption of inviscid and
irrotational fluid flow, and cannot adequately address the velocity fields
around structures and the strong nonlinear effect. Li et al. (2020a)
analytically and experimentally investigated the interaction between
water waves and a submerged perforated quarter-circular caisson
breakwater. Wave energy dissipation near the breakwater crown is
considerable owing to flow separation but cannot be considered in the
potential solution. Therefore, at a water depth of 0.5 m, the reflection
and transmission coefficients calculated by the analytical solution are
slightly larger than those measured by the experimental tests.
Extensive studies on physical WSI experiments have been reported.
Based on physical water tanks, different wave generators such as piston,
flap, and plunger are used to generate different types of waves. Lamberti
et al. (2011) focused on wave-induced horizontal forces on the deck
front, described a series of large-scale experiments on exposed jetties,
and provided guidelines on the optimal logging frequency or low-pass
filter to be used if the experimental loads were obtained by pressure
integration. Rodríguez and Spinneken (2016) conducted a series of
experimental tests in regular and irregular wave conditions concerning
the nonlinear loading and dynamic response of a heaving rectangular
box in two dimensions, applied four absorbing flap-type wavemakers to
generate incident wave conditions, and obtained all experimental data
in the long wave flume. Sayeed et al. (2017) conducted experiments to
study the change in wave loads for different sizes of small spherical
bodies at different proximities to a fixed structure, a hydraulically
actuated wave board and a wave absorbing beach were respectively
equipped on both sides of the towing tank. Huang et al. (2018) experi­
mentally and numerically investigated hurricane-induced wave forces
on a box girder deck of a coastal bridge. In the experiments, the periodic
waves were produced on the left side of the wave flume using a wave
generator without reflection. Yan et al. (2019) used a piston-type
wavemaker to produce the plunging wave based on the focused wave
theory, and experimentally and numerically studied the plunging wave
impacts on a box-shape structure. Physical experiments, a traditional
research approach, are highly accurate and reliable but have limitations,
such as long research time, high cost, and scale restriction.
The rapid development of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and
improved computational power allow numerical simulations to provide
an economic, highly efficient, and powerful alternative to perform the
WSI investigations. Numerical study of WSI requires the development of
a NWT, which can overcome limitations of physical model tests, such as
model size and viscous similarity. Many researchers, including Anbar­
sooz et al. (2013), Dao et al. (2018), Wu and Hsiao (2018), and Marques
Machado et al. (2018) have conducted studies on NWTs. Finnegan and
Goggins (2015) used the commercial software ANSYS CFX to develop a
CFD NWT model and introduced a rectangular prism structure into the
model to investigate a linear irregular ocean wave interaction with a
structure. Ghezelbashan and D’Mello (2017) used CFD package ANSYS
Fluent with a Stokes-V wave to model the nonlinear high-amplitude
ocean wave and used ANSYS Workbench to investigate wave interac­
tion with a vertical slender cylindrical member. Miquel et al. (2018)
analysed the performance of different wave generation and absorption
methods in CFD-based NWTs using the open-source hydrodynamic
model REEF3D, and conducted a sensitivity analysis for quantifying and
2
Ocean Engineering 235 (2021) 109439
comparing the differences in absorption quality between these methods.
Aggarwal et al. (2019) used the REEF3D to conduct CFD-based numer­
ical simulations to study breaking wave characteristics and the influence
of the breaker location on the wave impact loads of a jacket structure.
The numerical simulations in this study were performed using Open­
FOAM, a free and open-source CFD package that uses the finite volume
method to solve the discretised Navier–Stokes equations. Extensive
numerical simulations involving the interaction between waves and
structures have been reported based on the OpenFOAM software pack­
age. Hu et al. (2016) used OpenFOAM to simulate WSIs and developed a
new boundary condition for extreme waves. The new boundary condi­
tion was implemented to simulate the interaction with a fixed/floating
truncated cylinder and a simplified FPSO. Islam et al. (2019) used
OpenFOAM to analyse wave radiation due to heave, surge, and pitch by
a box-type floating structure based on CFD simulations and applied the
waves2Foam toolbox to generate and absorb free surface waves. Based
on OpenFOAM package, Gao et al. (2020) used a 2D numerical wave
flume to numerically investigate wave loads during gap resonance be­
tween a fixed box and a vertical wall, and employed the waves2Foam
toolbox to produce incident waves at the boundaries and avoid wave
re-reflection in the water flume.
The operational environment during the lowering and installation of
subsea equipment is often harsh. Especially, strong nonlinear phenom­
ena, such as wave breaking and splashing affect the process of lowering
through the splash zone. Environmental loads can cause structural
damage to subsea equipment, leading to installation failures or engi­
neering accidents. In subsea production systems, subsea manifolds as the
critical equipment are used to simplify the system, to minimise the usage
of subsea pipelines and risers, and to optimise fluid flow during pro­
duction. The subsea manifold is an arrangement of pipes and valves
aimed at combining, distributing, controlling, and monitoring fluid flow
(Bai and Bai, 2019). The pipe-valve structure is a multi-scale critical
component installed inside the subsea equipment, and it is necessary to
investigate its hydrodynamic performance under nonlinear incident
waves. For example, the subsea manifold contains different types of
valves (e.g., hydraulic ball valve, hydraulic gate valve, and manual ball
valve) of different heights and lengths. The close arrangement of the
valves causes the hydrodynamic behaviour of a valve will be affected by
adjacent valves.
This study performed numerical calculations to investigate the
interaction between nonlinear waves and partially submerged pipe-
valve structures. We investigated the effects of the valve height ratio,
valve length ratio, and valve spacing on wave forces subjected by subsea
pipe-valve structures in a 2D NWT and analysed the reasons for wave
force changes. The obtained results provide references for the structure
and strength designs and valve layout of subsea pipe-valve structures.
The rest of this paper proceeds as follows: Section 2 presents the nu­
merical method used in the current study, introduces the governing
equations, uses the static-boundary method to generate Stokes-II waves,
and determines the mesh generation scheme. A series of numerical
simulations for the interaction between waves and a semi-immersed
cylinder are performed to study the mesh and time convergence and
to validate the numerical model. In Section 3, a series of numerical
simulations are conducted to calculate the horizontal and vertical forces
acting on partially submerged subsea pipe-valve structures at different
valve structures and valve distributions. Section 4 provides conclusions
based on the results.
2. Numerical model
2.1. Governing equations
With respect to an incompressible two-phase (water and air) flow,
the densities of both fluids are constants, the governing equations are
the continuity and momentum equations. The continuity equation is
given by:
Y. Du et al.
∇⋅U = 0
where U is the velocity vector. In the volume of fluid method,
α(0 ≤ α ≤ 1) represents the water volume fraction in each cell. For α = 1,
it means that the cell is full of water; for α = 0, it means that the cell is
full of air. In addition to these two cases, it represents the air-water
interface. Thus, Eq. (1) can be reduced to the following form:
∂α
+ ∇ ⋅ (Uα) + ∇ ⋅ [Ur α(1 − α)] = 0
∂t
where Ur represents a relative velocity, and ∇⋅[Ur α(1 − α)] is an artificial
compression term for limiting the interface smearing (Rusche, 2003).
The momentum equation is given by:
∂ρU
+ ∇ ⋅ (ρUU) = ∇ ⋅ (μ∇U) − ∇p − g ⋅ x∇ρ + σ T κα ∇α
∂t
where p is the dynamic pressure; g is the gravitational acceleration; x is
the position vector; σT denotes the surface tension coefficient; κα denotes
the surface curvature of the air-water interface; and ρ and μ are the
density and viscosity of the mixture, respectively, the equations of which
are as follows:
ρ = αρwater + (1 − α)ρair
μ = αμwater + (1 − α)μair
2.2. Wave generation based on the static-boundary method
Practical wave height in the ocean is generally limited with respect to
the wavelength or water depth, and sometimes it can reach a relatively
large value. For the finite amplitude wave, the nonlinear effects caused
by the fluctuating free surface must be considered; namely, the motion
and dynamic conditions of the free surface are nonlinear. Considering
the calculational accuracy and cost, this study uses the static-boundary
method to generate nonlinear waves. For wave generation and absorp­
tion, many researchers used the waves2Foam within OpenFOAM, which
is a third-party toolkit developed by Jacobsen et al. (2012). In this study,
we used the IHFOAM toolbox to generate and absorb incident waves,
which is embedded in OpenFOAM and can be applied to generate
different types of waves (e.g., Cnoidal, Stokes-I, Stokes-II, and Stokes-V).
Additionally, the active wave absorption of IHFOAM works simulta­
neously with wave generation to dissipate incident waves. IHFOAM is
the fastest wave generation method, whereas waves2Foam is 11%
slower because of the use of relaxation zones (Martínez-Ferrer et al.,
2018). In the present study, combined with the setting of related pa­
rameters and according to the range of application of the various wave
theories proposed by Le Méhauté (1976), Stokes-II wave theory is the
most suitable for this paper. Additionally, the Stokes-II wave theory is
representative, widely used in the investigation of WSIs, and the basis
for investigating the interactions between structures and more complex
waves. The corresponding free-surface elevation is expressed as follows:
H kH 2 cosh(kd)
η= cos(kx − ωt) + [2 + cosh(2kd) ]cos(2kx − 2ωt)
2 16 sinh3 (kd)
where H is the wave height, k is the wave number, x is the distance along
the longitudinal direction, ω is the wave frequency; and d and t represent
the water depth and time, respectively. Based on the static-boundary
method, the water particle velocity was specified in the horizontal and
vertical directions on the inlet boundary for wave generation, the par­
ticle velocity equations based on the Stokes-II wave theory are as fol­
lows:
πH cosh(kd + kz) 3 π2 H 2 cosh(2kd + 2kz)
Uh = cos(kx − ωt) + cos(2kx − 2ωt)
T sinh(kd) 4 TLsinh4 (kd)
Ocean Engineering 235 (2021) 109439
(1) πH sinh(kd + kz) 3 π 2 H 2 sinh(2kd + 2kz)
Uv = sin(kx − ωt) + sin(2kx − 2ωt)
T sinh(kd) 4 TLsinh4 (kd)
(8)
where Uh and Uv represent the components of the particle velocity in the
horizontal and vertical directions, respectively. z is the vertical coordi­
nate used to describe wave movement, and z = 0 denotes the still water
level. T is the wave period and L is the wavelength.
(2)
Therefore, a NWT was established with a length of 20 m, width of
0.06 m, height of 1 m, and water depth of 0.6 m. Because the numerical
simulations were conducted in 2D, the width of the NWT did not affect
the simulation results. Therefore, the extrudeMeshDict and crea­
tePatchDict dictionaries in OpenFOAM were used to ensure that the
computational domain had only one grid layer in the width direction to
(3) greatly reduce the number of grids required for the numerical calcula­
tions, thus saving the computational cost. Mesh size plays a significant
role in the accuracy of the numerical results; thus, mesh convergence
was studied to determine a reasonable mesh system with high accuracy
and efficiency for wave generation. Firstly, the mesh size was globally
refined along the horizontal (x-axis) and vertical (z-axis) directions,
respectively. The wave height was set to 0.05 m, and the wave period
was set to 3 s. The cell sizes remained at 0.01 m in the vertical direction,
(4)
and were set to 0.06 m, 0.04 m, 0.03 m, and 0.02 m in the horizontal
direction, respectively. Fig. 1(a) shows that mesh refinement in the
(5)
horizontal direction has little effect on wave elevation prediction ac­
curacy, and the numerical results are in good agreement with the
theoretical data. HD and VD represent the cell size (unit [m]) in the
horizontal and vertical directions, respectively. The simulation times
consumed by the four cell sizes (HD0.06–VD0.01, HD0.04–VD0.01,
HD0.03–VD0.01, and HD0.02–VD0.01) were 647 s, 829 s, 856 s, and
1279 s, respectively. Then, the cell sizes remained at 0.04 m in the
horizontal direction, and were set to 0.015 m, 0.01 m, 0.007 m, and
0.005 m in the vertical direction, respectively. Fig. 1(b) shows that the
prediction accuracy for the wave elevation is not good under the
HD0.04–VD0.015 cell size; for vertical cell sizes of less than 0.01 m, the
numerical results change very little as the cell size decreases. The
simulation times consumed by the four cell sizes (HD0.04–VD0.015,
HD0.04–VD0.01, HD0.04–VD0.007, and HD0.04–VD0.005) were 482 s,
829 s, 1011 s, and 1290 s, respectively. The time consumed gradually
increased as the mesh refinement level increased. Secondly, to reduce
the time consumed in the simulation without reducing the calculation
accuracy, the HD0.04–VD0.01 cell size was used to capture the free
surface elevation near the still water level, and the HD0.04–VD0.04 cell
size was used in other domains, namely local mesh refinement. Fig. 2
compares the predicted wave elevation based on global mesh refinement
(only the HD0.04–VD0.01 cell size) and local mesh refinement. The
wave elevations predicted by the two mesh generation schemes agree
well, and the times consumed by the two schemes were 829 s and 445 s,
respectively. Thus, local mesh refinement is a good mesh generation
scheme that efficiently generates high-accuracy incident waves. The
numerical results prove that the wave generation is mesh-convergent.
(6)
2.3. Validation
A numerical simulation scheme based on the above-mentioned 2D
NWT is presented to investigate the interaction between nonlinear
waves and partially submerged structures. Fig. 3 shows the computa­
tional domain of the interaction between Stokes-II waves and a semi-
immersed horizontal cylinder; the radius of the cylinder is 0.05 m,
and the centre coincides with the still water level. Optimal boundary
conditions were applied to the numerical simulations. The left side
(inlet) and right side (outlet) of the NWT were used to generate incident
waves and to avoid wave reflection, respectively; thus, the velocity
(7) boundary condition was used for the inlet, and the wave mode of
shallow water absorption was used for the outlet. The wall boundary
3
Y. Du et al. Ocean Engineering 235 (2021) 109439

Fig. 1. Effect of global mesh refinement on wave elevation prediction accuracy.

condition was applied for the structure and the NWT bottom, and the
type keyword fixedValue was applied to ensure zero velocity at these
boundaries. The boundary condition at the top side of the NWT was set
to inletOutlet, which was used to avoid backflow. The numerical sim­
ulations in this study were performed in 2D; thus, the front and back
sides of the NWT should be set to empty. The density and kinematic
viscosity of the water were set to 1000 kg/m3 and 10− 6 m2/s, respec­
tively; and the density and kinematic viscosity of the air were set to 1 kg/
m3 and 1.48 × 10− 5 m2/s, respectively.
The mesh generation scheme proposed for wave generation may be
unsuitable for the numerical calculation of wave interaction with
structures; thus, further mesh refinement is needed around structures
where high velocity gradients may occur (Fig. 3). To study mesh
convergence, three mesh refinement levels (coarse, middle, and fine)
were applied to simulate the wave interaction with a semi-immerged
cylinder, respectively. The normalised wave force amplitude Fh,v ,
(see
Eq. (9)) was used for the mesh convergence study:
√̅̅̅
2FRMS
(9)
′
Fh,v =
ρwater gRAl

Fig. 2. Comparison of predicted wave elevation under different mesh refine­
ment schemes.
where R is the cylinder radius, l is the cylinder length, A is the wave
amplitude. Root-mean-square (RMS) is also called the quadratic mean,
and is obtained by summing the square of all values, finding its mean
value, then calculating the root. FRMS is the RMS of the horizontal wave
√̅̅̅
force Fh or the vertical wave force Fv , and 2FRMS denotes the wave force

Fig. 3. Computational domain for wave interaction with a semi-immerged cylinder.

4
Y. Du et al. Ocean Engineering 235 (2021) 109439

amplitude. The FRMS equation can be expressed as follows: the calculations are time-convergent. Additionally, the times consumed
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ for the numerical simulations under MaxCo numbers of 1, 0.65, and 0.5
√ ∫T
√
√1 were 1421 s, 1714 s, and 1929 s, respectively. Due to the small
FRMS = √ F2h,v (t) (10) discrepancy in time consumed, a MaxCo number of 0.5 was selected to
T
0 guarantee stable numerical calculations.
To validate the accuracy and reliability of the numerical model,
According to the principle of Dixon et al. (1979), the theoretical
numerical simulations were conducted for the interaction between the
wave forces acting on structures in the horizontal and vertical directions
Stokes-II waves and a semi-immersed cylinder. The incident wave am­
are:
plitudes were set to 0.01 m, 0.015 m, 0.02 m, 0.03 m, 0.04 m, and 0.05
1 ∂Uh m, respectively; and the wave period was set to 1 s. In this study,
Fh = Cd ρwater Sh (t)|Uh |Uh + Cm ρwater V(t) (11)
2 ∂t considering the selection of calculation parameters, and for batter
comparing with other research results, thus the Fh,v (see Eqs. (9) and
′

∂Uv
Fv = Cm ρwater V(t) + ρwater g[V(t) − V0 ] (12) (10)) obtained by our present simulations (represented by P) were
∂t
compared with the linear theory results (represented by T), the experi­
where Cd and Cm are the drag and inertia coefficients, respectively. Sh (t) ment data (Martin and Dixon, 1983) (represented by E), and the pub­
is the instantaneous immersed projection area of the structure in the lished numerical results (Tan Loh et al., 2018) (represented by N)
horizontal direction. V(t) and V0 are the instantaneous and initial (Fig. 6).The difference between P and T increases as the wave amplitude
immersed volumes of the structure, respectively. The last term in Eq. increases, primarily because the theoretical results are independent of
(12) was subtracted to analyse only the dynamic force. A/R. Additionally, the linear theory is only valid for small A/R values.
The incident wave height was set to 0.05 m, and the wave period was As A/R gradually increases, the nonlinearity of the wave forces acting on
set to 1 s. Fig. 4 shows the numerical results of the horizontal and vertical the cylinder increases and cannot be accurately predicted by linear
forces acting on the cylinder under different mesh refinement levels. theory, namely the linear theory has a weaker prediction accuracy for
Regarding the prediction of Fh , calculation errors between the no mesh
′
large A/R values. The overall tendencies of our present results, experi­
refinement, coarse mesh, middle mesh, and fine mesh were approximately mental data, and published numerical results are similar. Meanwhile, for
18.27%, 2.32%, and 2.01%, respectively. Regarding the prediction of Fv ,
′ A/R less than 0.6, the errors between P, N, E, and T were approximately
8.12%, 14.21%, and 13.51%, respectively. Thus, our present results
calculation errors between the no mesh refinement, coarse mesh, middle
show better agreement with the theoretical data at low A/R values.
mesh, and fine mesh were approximately 8.22%, 2.48%, and 0.79%,
Furthermore, comparing P and E reveals that the minimum and average
respectively. The numerical results obtained by the middle and fine meshes
errors were approximately 0.04% and 3.04%, respectively. It is indi­
show very little discrepancy, proving that mesh convergence is guaranteed.
cated that our results agree well with the experimental results. In sum­
Additionally, the times consumed for numerical simulations under coarse,
mary, the numerical model proposed in this study can efficiently and
middle, and fine meshes were 626 s, 1714 s, and 2587 s, respectively.
accurately predict Stokes-II wave interaction with partially submerged
Considering the calculation accuracy and efficiency, the middle mesh was
structures.
selected for the following simulations.
The time step plays a significant role in the accuracy of the numerical
results; thus, the time convergence was studied to select a reasonable 3. Results and discussion
maximum courant (MaxCo) number for the numerical simulations.
Fig. 5 shows the numerical results of the horizontal and vertical forces Subsea pipe-valve structures are the critical components of subsea
acting on the cylinder under different MaxCo numbers. Regarding the equipment, and the dynamic behaviours are of critical concern for con­
prediction of Fh , calculation errors between MaxCo numbers of 1, 0.65
′
trolling the process of lowering through the splash zone during installation.
and 0.5 were approximately 0.71% and 0.36%, respectively. Regarding The size of valve is much smaller than the size of pipe; thus, the pipe-valve
structure is a multi-scale structure. The mechanism of the interaction be­
the prediction of Fv , calculation errors between MaxCo numbers of 1,
′

tween the waves and the pipe-valve structures is significantly different

0.65 and 0.5 were approximately 0.86% and 0.085%, respectively. Thus,
from that of other simple structures (e.g., cylinders and boxes). Multi-scale

Fig. 4. Mesh convergence study for wave force predictions.

5
Y. Du et al. Ocean Engineering 235 (2021) 109439

Fig. 5. Time step convergence study for wave force predictions.

Fig. 6. Comparison of the normalised horizontal and vertical force amplitudes acting on a cylinder.

Fig. 7. Sketch of incident waves past valve and pipe-valve structures.

6
Y. Du et al.
structures will produce significant multi-scale coupling phenomena when
interacting with nonlinear waves. Structural interactions at different scales
complicate the wave motion track, produce strong nonlinear wave loads,
and increase the wave forces acting on the structures and the possibility of
structural damage.
We performed numerical calculations on the interactions between
the incident wave and the independent valve structure and the incident
wave and the pipe-valve structure (Fig. 7). The valve has a length of
0.06 m, a height of 0.06 m, and a centre that coincides with the still
water level. The pipe has a length of 1.5 m and height of 0.06 m; the
distance between the top of pipe and the still water level is 0.03 m. Four
wave gauges (WG1, WG2, WG3, and WG4) were deployed near the valve
to record the surrounding wave fields. WG1 and WG2 were placed on the
left side of the valve; whereas WG3 and WG4 were located on the right
side. WG2 and WG3 were very close (0.02 m) to the sides of the valve.
The incident wave height was set to 0.06 m, and the wave period was set
to 1.5 s. Fig. 8(a) shows the calculated wave forces acting on an inde­
pendent valve structure; the nonlinearity of the horizontal and vertical
forces acting on the valve was relatively weak. Fig. 8(b) shows that the
nonlinearity of the wave forces is significantly greater on the valve of the
pipe-valve structure than that on the independent valve structure,
because of the pipe. Additionally, the maximum absolute values of the
horizontal and vertical forces acting on the valve of the pipe-valve
structure all increase significantly, indicating that the pipe-valve struc­
ture is more prone to structural damage than the independent valve
structure.
For an independent valve structure, Fig. 9(a) shows the wave
elevation time histories at different wave gauges, it can be found that the
nonlinearity of the wave elevations near the valve is relatively weak.
The recorded wave crests were larger at WG1 and WG2 than at WG3 and
WG4, primarily due to the wave reflection effect produced by the valve.
Compared with the independent valve structure, Fig. 9(b) shows that the
nonlinearity of wave elevations near the valve of the pipe-valve struc­
ture is significantly enhanced; additionally, the motion track of incident
waves becomes more complicated. The wave crests and troughs up­
stream of the valve significantly increase, and the wave crests down­
stream of the valve obviously decreases.
This section investigates the effects of valve height ratio, valve length
ratio, and valve spacing on the wave forces subjected by pipe-valve
structures. In the following numerical calculations, the wave height
was set to 0.06 m, the wave period was set to 1.5 s, thus the subsea pipe-
valve structures can be completely submerged during the wave cycle,
Fig. 8. Wave force time history of valves.
7
Ocean Engineering 235 (2021) 109439
the total simulation time was set to 24 s. Additionally, the decom­
poseParDict dictionary in OpenFOAM was used to conduct parallel
computation, which breaks the geometry and associated fields into sub-
fields and distributes them to different processors for calculation. Par­
allel computing primarily decomposes the grids and fields, runs the
application in parallel, and post-processes the decomposed fields. All the
simulations in this study were executed on a computer with an Intel(R)
Core(TM) i7-6700HQ CPU with eight physical cores. Therefore, eight
cores were used to run in parallel for every simulation case, greatly
reducing the execution time.
3.1. Effect of valve height ratio on wave forces acting on the subsea pipe-
valve structure
The effect of the valve height ratio on wave forces subjected by the
subsea pipe-valve structure was studied by setting two valves with
specified heights on a pipe (Fig. 10). LPipe and HPipe represent the length
and height of the pipe, respectively; LValve1 and HValve1 represent the
length and height of the first valve (hereinafter referred to as valve 1),
respectively; and LValve2 and HValve2 represent the length and height of
the second valve (hereinafter referred to as valve 2), respectively. D12
denotes the spacing between valves 1 and 2, and the numerical simu­
lations are divided into two groups. In the first group of simulations, the
height of valve 2 remained at 0.06 m, and the height of valve 1 increased
from 0.01 m to 0.06 m at 0.01 m increments. In the second group of
simulations, the height of valve 1 remained at 0.06 m, and the height of
valve 2 increased from 0.01 m to 0.06 m at 0.01 m increments. The
positive and negative signs indicate the direction of the wave forces. Fh+
and Fv+ represent the maximum horizontal and vertical forces acting on
the structures in a specific simulation case, respectively. Fh− and Fv−
represent the minimum horizontal and vertical forces acting on the
structures in a specific simulation case, respectively. Fhmean and Fvmean
represent the average horizontal and vertical forces acting on the
structures in a specific simulation case, respectively.
3.1.1. First simulation group
In the first group, the valve height ratio between valves 1 and 2
varies from 1/6 to 1. Table 1 lists the six configurations of the
geometrical model. Fig. 11 shows the horizontal and vertical forces
acting on the pipe, valves 1 and 2 at different valve height ratios. Fig. 11
(a) shows that the change in the valve height ratio had little effect on the
wave forces subjected by the pipe, which can be nearly neglected.
Y. Du et al. Ocean Engineering 235 (2021) 109439

Fig. 9. Wave elevation time history at different wave gauges.

Fig. 10. Schematic of the subsea pipe-valve structure model of the two valves.

Additionally, the vertical force acting on the pipe is greater than the
Table 1
horizontal force and plays a significant role in the wave forces acting on
Detailed structural dimensions at different valve height ratios (first group).
the completely submerged pipe.
Items Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Case 6 Fig. 11(b) shows that the horizontal force acting on valve 1 changed
LPipe (m) 1.5 significantly as the height ratio increased. Fh+ increased as the height
LValve1 (m) 0.06 ratio increased due to the increased wave reflection effect caused by the
LValve2 (m) 0.06
D12 (m) 0.06
increased height of valve 1. The incident wave crest upstream of valve 1
HPipe (m) 0.06 gradually increased, thus increasing Fh+ . Meanwhile, the incident wave
HValve1 (m) 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 trough upstream of valve 1 gradually decreased, thus gradually
HValve2 (m) 0.06 increasing the free surface height difference between the left and right
HValve1/HValve2 1/6 2/6 3/6 4/6 5/6 6/6
sides of valve 1. Thus, the horizontal pressure difference formed along
(a) Pipe (b) Valve 1 (c) Valve 2. the -x-axis direction gradually increased when the wave trough passed
through valve 1, resulting in a decrease in Fh− . The relationship between

Fig. 11. Wave forces acting on each structure at different valve height ratios (the height of valve 2 remained unchanged).

8
Y. Du et al.
the gradual decrease in Fhmean and the simultaneous increase in the height
of valve 1 was nearly linear. Fig. 11(b) shows that Fv− and Fvmean first
decreased then increased; the minimum values of Fv− and Fvmean appeared
at a valve height ratio of 1/2, primarily because the reflected waves
produced by the two valves were coupled above valve 1. A super­
imposed wave with a large amplitude was formed, and a vertical
slamming force was produced on valve 1 along the -z-axis direction
(Fig. 12). However, as the height of valve 1 continued increasing, the
incident wave propagation to the right was gradually blocked, resulting
in an increase in Fv− and Fvmean .
Fig. 11(c) shows that Fh+ acting on valve 2 increased then decreased as
the valve height ratio increased. Due to the wave reflection effect generated
by valve 1, the wave crest upstream of valve 2 increased as the height of
valve 1 increased, resulting in an increase in Fh+ . However, for ratios greater
than 1/2, the forward propagation of the incident wave was gradually
blocked, and the amount of water acting on valve 2 was reduced, resulting
in a gradual decrease in Fh+ acting on valve 2. Additionally, Fhmean and Fh−
acting on valve 2 increased as the height of valve 1 increased, because as
the valve 1 height increased, the horizontal pressure difference along the x-
axis direction will increase when the wave trough passed through valve 2.
Fig. 11(c) shows that Fv+ and Fvmean changed relatively little compared with
Fv− acting on valve 2 as the height of valve 1 increased; further, the mini­
mum value of Fv− appeared at a valve height ratio of 1/2. For relatively
small valve height ratios, the vertical force acting on valve 2 was primarily
derived from the overtopping wave formed by the wave run-up over it
(Fig. 13(a)). Additionally, the wave reflection effect generated by valve 1
increased the incident wave crest upstream of valve 2. For relatively large
height ratios, valve 1 blocks the incident wave from propagating to the
right. At this time, Fig. 13(b) shows that the vertical force acting on valve 2
was primarily derived from the overtopping wave formed by wave run-up
⃒ ⃒
over valve 1, thus resulting in a decrease in ⃒Fv− ⃒. Fig. 14 shows the wave
force time history of the subsea pipe-valve structure at valve height ratios of
1/6 and 1. The nonlinearity of the wave force acting on the pipe is weaker
than that of the partially submerged valves, primarily because the pipe is
completely submerged below the still water level, nonlinear phenomena (e.
g., wave reflection, wave blockage, and wave run-up) have little effect on
the pipe. Additionally, there are non-zero initial vertical forces acting on
each structure, primarily because when each structure is analysed sepa­
rately, it will be subjected by the vertical Stokes-II wave pressure.
3.1.2. Second simulation group
In the second group, the valve height ratios between valves 1 and 2
vary from 6 to 1. Table 2 lists six configurations of the geometrical
model. Fig. 15 shows the horizontal and vertical forces acting on each
structure at different height ratios. Unlike the two valves, the pipe was
always completely submerged, so the nonlinearity of the wave forces
acting on it was relatively weak. Additionally, Fig. 15(a) shows that the
increase in the height of valve 2 had little effect on the wave forces
subjected by the pipe, which can basically be neglected.
Fig. 15(b) shows that Fh+ acting on valve 1 changed little when the
height ratio decreased from 6 to 2 then decreased significantly,
Fig. 12. Wave profile around the subsea pipe-valve structure under case 3 within one wave period.
9
Ocean Engineering 235 (2021) 109439
primarily because of the wave reflection effect produced by valve 2. The
reflected wave propagated to the left, and the reflection effect increased
as the height of valve 2 increased. Thus, the wave force acting on valve 1
was partially offset by the reflected wave, resulting in a decrease in Fh+ .
Fig. 16 shows that the effect of the reflected wave on valve 1 increased as
the height of valve 2 increased when the overtopping wave impacted
valve 2. Additionally, the free surface height difference between the left
and right sides of valve 1 gradually increased as the height of valve 2
increased. Therefore, when the wave trough passed through valve 1, the
horizontal pressure difference along the -x-axis direction gradually
increased, resulting in a decrease in Fh− . Additionally, the relationship
between the gradual decrease in Fhmean and the simultaneous increase in
the height of valve 2 was nearly linear. Fig. 15(b) also shows that Fv+ and
Fvmean acting on valve 1 changed little as the height of valve 2 increased.
Fv− acting on valve 1 was primarily derived from the overtopping wave
slamming force caused by the wave run-up over valve 1, which gradu­
ally decreased as the height ratio decreased from 6 to 6/4. Then, the
change in Fv− was irregular but relatively small, and the minimum value
of Fv− appeared at a height ratio of 6/4. The main reason is that the
gradual increase in the height of valve 2 had a certain effect on the
motion behaviour of the overtopping wave, thereby affecting the over­
topping wave force acting on valve 1.
Fig. 15(c) shows that as the height of valve 2 increased, Fh− acting on
valve 2 remained basically unchanged. However, Fh+ and Fhmean increased
significantly, and the maximum value of Fh+ acting on valve 2 appeared
at a height ratio of 6/4. The horizontal force acting on valve 2 along the
x-axis direction was primarily derived from the overtopping wave
formed by wave run-up over valve 1, which basically propagated to the
right in the form of horizontal projectile motion (Fig. 17). The actual
force area of valve 2 in the horizontal direction increased as its height
increased, thus resulting in an increasing Fh+ . Comparing Figs. 13(b) and
17 shows that the motion track of the overtopping wave was signifi­
cantly different under different valve 2 heights; thus, the actual force
area of valve 2 will be affected. The vertical force acting on valve 2 was
primarily derived from the overtopping wave generated by valve 1,
which will produce the slamming force on valve 2 along the -z direction.
The slamming force is proportional to the height difference between the
⃒ ⃒
two valves; thus, the values of ⃒Fv− ⃒ relatively large when the top of valve
2 does not exceed the still water level (Fig. 15(c)). The minimum value
of Fv− appeared at a height ratio of 6/2, then Fv− increased as the height of
valve 2 increased due to the decreased height difference.
3.2. Effect of valve length ratio on wave forces acting on the subsea pipe-
valve structure
The effect of the valve length ratio on wave forces subjected by the
subsea pipe-valve structure was studied by setting two valves with
specified lengths on a pipe. The numerical simulations were divided into
two groups. In the first group of simulations, the length of valve 2
remained at 0.06 m, and the length of valve 1 increased from 0.01 m to
0.06 m at 0.01 m increments. In the second group of simulations, the
Y. Du et al. Ocean Engineering 235 (2021) 109439

Fig. 13. Overtopping wave acting on valve 2 at different valve height ratios.

Fig. 14. Wave force time history of each structure at valve height ratios of 1/6 and 1.

length of valve 1 remained at 0.06 m, and the length of valve 2 increased

Table 2
from 0.01 m to 0.06 m at 0.01 m increments.
Detailed structural dimensions at different valve height ratios (second group).
Items Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Case 6 3.2.1. First simulation group
LPipe (m) 1.5 Table 3 lists the detailed dimensions of the subsea pipe-valve struc­
LValve1 (m) 0.06 ture model in the first group; the valve length ratio between valves 1 and
LValve2 (m) 0.06
2 varies from 1/6 to 1. Fig. 18(a) shows that the variation in the length
D12 (m) 0.06
HPipe (m) 0.06
ratio has little effect on the wave forces acting on the pipe in the hori­
HValve1 (m) 0.06 zontal and vertical directions; the corresponding reasons for the nu­
HValve2 (m) 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 merical results are the same as those in section 3.1.
HValve1/HValve2 6/1 6/2 6/3 6/4 6/5 6/6 The horizontal force acting on valve 1 was primarily derived from
the upstream incident wave, and changes in the length of valve 1 had
little effect on the wave shape. Thus, Fig. 18(b) shows that Fh+ and Fhmean
acting on valve 1 were basically independent of the increased length

10
Y. Du et al. Ocean Engineering 235 (2021) 109439

Fig. 15. Wave forces acting on each structure at different valve height ratios (the height of valve 1 remained unchanged).

Fig. 16. Velocity vector diagram of the overtopping wave impacts on valve 2 at different height ratios.

Fig. 17. Wave profile diagram of the overtopping wave impacts on valve 2 for a valve height ratio of 6/4.

ratio. Additionally, the relationship between the decrease in Fv+ , Fv− , and
Fvmean acting on valve 1 and the simultaneous increase in the length ratio
was approximately linear. The obvious linear relationship was primarily
due to the force caused by the wave pressure during individual structure
analysis. Additionally, the difference between Fvmean and Fv− increased as
the length of valve 1 increased. The vertical force acting on valve 1 was
primarily derived from the overtopping wave slamming force formed by
the wave run-up over it, and the slamming force was proportional to the
slamming area projected on valve 1 (Park et al., 2013).
Fig. 18(c) shows that Fh− and Fhmean acting on valve 2 basically
remained unchanged as the length of valve 1 increased. Fh+ acting on
valve 2 was primarily derived from the overtopping wave formed by the
wave run-up over valve 1; additionally, the distance between the valve 2
and left side of valve 1 gradually increased. Thus, for relatively short
valve 1 lengths, the overtopping wave had a greater impact on valve 2,
resulting in larger Fh+ ; the maximum Fh+ value appeared at a ratio of 2/6.
As the length valve 1 continued increasing, the effect of the overtopping
wave on valve 2 weakened; thus, Fh+ acting on valve 2 decreased. Fig. 18
(c) shows that as the length ratio increased, Fv+ and Fvmean remained
almost constant; Fv− underwent a relatively large change. The vertical

11
Y. Du et al. Ocean Engineering 235 (2021) 109439

Table 3 a length ratio of 1, might be because of the left-propagating reflected

Detailed structural dimensions at different valve length ratios (first group). wave generated by valve 2. In the other five cases, Fh− remained almost
Items Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Case 6 constant. Fig. 20(b) also shows that as the valve length ratio decreases,
Fv+ and Fvmean acting on valve 1 basically remained unchanged; however,
LPipe 1.5
LValve1 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 the change in Fv− was relatively large. The overtopping wave generated
LValve2 0.06 by the wave run-up over valve 1 played a significant role in the vertical
LValve1/LValve2 1/6 2/6 3/6 4/6 5/6 6/6 force acting on it. Fig. 21 shows that the change in valve 2 length
D12 0.06
affected the overtopping wave motion behaviour, thus affecting Fv−
HPipe 0.06
HValve1 0.06 acting on valve 1 within a certain range.
HValve2 0.06 The horizontal force acting on valve 2 was primarily derived from
the right-propagating overtopping wave generated by valve 1, and the
change in the length of valve 2 had little effect on its horizontal force
force acting on valve 2 was primarily derived from the overtopping wave
area. The motion behaviour of the overtopping wave changed as the
generated by valve 1. The overtopping wave propagated to the right in
length of valve 2 increased, resulting in slight changes in Fh+ and Fh−
the form of horizontal projectile motion, producing a slamming force
acting on valve 2 (Fig. 20(c)). Fhmean acting on valve 2 remained almost
acting on valve 2 along the -z direction. However, the change in the
constant, which indicating that the change in the length of valve 2 had
length of valve 1 affected the motion behaviour of the overtopping wave
little effect on the overall change in the horizontal force acting on it.
(Fig. 19), thereby affecting the Fv− acting on valve 2 within a certain
Fig. 20(c) also shows that the overall trend of Fv+ , Fv− , and Fvmean acting on
range.
valve 2 decreased as the length of valve 2 increased. The relationship
between the forces and the length ratio was approximately linear,
3.2.2. Second simulation group
In the second group, the length of valve 1 remained at 0.06 m, and the
length of valve 2 increased from 0.01 m to 0.06 m at 0.01 m increments. Table 4
Table 4 lists the detailed dimensions of the subsea pipe-valve model. Detailed structural dimensions at different valve length ratios (second group).
Similar to the above-mentioned simulation results, the horizontal and
Items Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Case 6
vertical forces acting on the pipe were basically independent of the struc­
tural changes (Fig. 20(a)); and the vertical force acting on the pipe was LPipe 1.5
LValve1 0.06
greater than the horizontal force.
LValve2 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
The horizontal force acting on valve 1 was primarily derived from LValve1/LValve2 6/1 6/2 6/3 6/4 6/5 6/6
the incident wave. Because the dimension remained unchanged, valve 1 D12 0.06
had little effect on the upstream wave crest and trough. Fig. 20(b) shows HPipe 0.06
HValve1 0.06
that as the valve length ratio decreased, Fh+ acting on valve 1 changed
HValve2 0.06
slightly; while Fhmean remained almost constant. Fh− suddenly decreased at

Fig. 18. Wave forces acting on each structure at different valve length ratios (the length of valve 2 remained unchanged).

Fig. 19. Streamline diagram of overtopping wave impacts on valve 2 (the length of valve 2 remained unchanged).

12
Y. Du et al.
Fig. 20. Wave forces acting on each structure at different valve length ratios (the length of valve 1 remained unchanged).
Fig. 21. Streamline diagram of overtopping wave impacts on valve 2 (the length of valve 1 remained unchanged).
primarily due to the force caused by the wave pressure when valve 2 was
analysed individually. Additionally, the difference between Fvmean and Fv−
increased as the length of valve 2 increased. Fv− acting on valve 2 was
primarily derived from the overtopping wave slamming force generated
by valve 1 (Fig. 21); the slamming force is proportional to the force area
of valve 2 in the vertical direction. Moreover, the right-propagating
overtopping wave was affected by the change in the length of valve 2.
3.3. Effect of valve spacing on wave forces acting on the subsea pipe-valve
structure
The effect of the valve spacing on wave forces subjected by the
subsea pipe-valve structure was studied by setting three valves with
heights and lengths of 0.06 m on a pipe (Fig. 22). The spacing between
valve 1 and valve 2 (D12) was equal to the spacing between valve 2 and
valve 3 (D23), increased from 0.02 to 0.1 m at 0.02 m increments. We
used the presented numerical method to calculate the wave forces acting
on each structure at different spacings. Fig. 23(a) shows that the change
in valve spacing had little effect on the wave forces subjected by the
pipe, corresponding reasons were the same as in previous sections.
Fig. 23(b) shows that Fh+ acting on valve 1 was basically the same for
different spacings and was primarily derived from the upstream incident
wave. However, Fh− acting on valve 1 was much smaller at a valve spacing
of 0.02 m, primarily because valve 1 was subjected by the strong wave
Fig. 22. Schematic of the subsea pipe-valve structure model with three valves.
13
Ocean Engineering 235 (2021) 109439
reflection effect produced by valve 2 under small spacing; additionally, the
⃒ ⃒
reflected wave produced a large ⃒Fh− ⃒ acting on valve 1 along the -x-axis
direction. As the valve spacing continued increasing, the reflection effect
weakened; thus Fh− was basically independent of the spacing at spacings
greater than 0.04 m. Fig. 23(b) also shows that valve 1 experienced the
⃒ ⃒
maximum ⃒Fv− ⃒ value at a valve spacing of 0.02 m, primarily because the
effect of the reflected wave generated by valve 2 on valve 1 was relatively
strong when spacing was small; thus, a superimposed wave with a larger
amplitude was formed above valve 1. Unlike Fh− , Fv− acting on valve 1
experienced a relatively large change as the spacing increased for spacing
greater than 0.04 m. As the valve spacing increased, the reflection effect of
valve 2 on valve 1 weakened but affected the motion behaviour of the
overtopping wave, thereby the Fv− acting on valve 1 was affected within a
certain range. The results obtained indicated that for valve 1, the sensitivity
of horizontal force to the variation of valve spacing was less than that of
vertical force.
Fig. 23(c) shows that valve 2 experienced maximum Fh+ and minimum
Fh values at spacings of 0.02 and 0.1 m, respectively. Fh+ acting on valve 2
+
was derived from the overtopping wave impact force caused by wave run-
up over valve 1; the effect of the wave impact force on valve 2 weakened as
the spacing increased. Fig. 24(a) shows that for a valve spacing of 0.02 m,
the overtopping wave directly impacted valve 2 in the form of horizontal
projectile motion. As the spacing continued increasing (Figs. 24(b) and (c)),
Y. Du et al.
Fig. 23. Wave forces acting on each structure at different valve spacings.
the overtopping wave impact point was located in the groove between
⃒ ⃒
valves 1 and 2. Additionally, ⃒Fh− ⃒ acting on valve 2 was relatively large at
small valve spacings of 0.02 m and 0.04 m, primarily due to the wave
reflection effect generated by valve 3. The effect of the left-propagating
reflected wave on valve 2 weakened as the spacing increased. The verti­
cal force acting on valve 2 changed less than the horizontal force as the
spacing increased; Fv+ and Fvmean were basically independent of the valve
⃒ ⃒
spacing. The ⃒Fv− ⃒ acting on valve 2 was relatively small at a spacing of 0.1
m but remained largely unchanged in the other cases. The results obtained
indicated that for valve 2, the sensitivity of vertical force to the variation of
valve spacing was less than that of horizontal force.
Fig. 23(d) shows that Fh+ acting on valve 3 increased then decreased
as the valve spacing increased; the maximum value of Fh+ appeared at a
valve spacing of 0.04 m. The horizontal wave force acting on valve 3 was
primarily derived from the overtopping wave generated by the upstream
valves. The overtopping wave propagated to the right and directly
impacted valve 3 at relatively small valve spacings, thus forming a
relatively large Fh+ . As the spacing continued increasing, a large number
of overtopping waves fell into the grooves between valves (Figs. 24(b)
and (c)); thus, Fh+ acting on valve 3 gradually decreased. Fig. 23(d)
shows that the vertical force acting on valve 3 changed slightly
compared to the horizontal force as the spacing increased. For valve
14
Ocean Engineering 235 (2021) 109439
spacing from 0.02 to 0.06 m, Fv− acting on valve 3 was basically inde­
pendent of the valve spacing; as the spacing continued increasing, Fv−
increased obviously. The vertical force acting on valve 3 was primarily
derived from the overtopping wave slamming force generated by the
other two valves. Therefore, for spacing greater than one valve length,
the effect of the overtopping wave on valve 3 in the vertical direction
gradually weakened. The results obtained indicated that for valve 3, the
sensitivity of vertical force to the variation of valve spacing was less than
that of horizontal force.
4. Conclusions
We performed numerical simulations based on the OpenFOAM
software package to study the interaction between nonlinear waves and
partially submerged subsea pipe-valve structures. The subsea pipe-valve
as a kind of multi-scale structure has more complicated hydrodynamic
performance under nonlinear incident waves than other simple struc­
tures such as cylinders and boxes. We performed a series of numerical
calculations of the interaction between Stokes-II waves and a semi-
immersed horizontal cylinder to study the mesh and time convergence
and to validate the accuracy of the presented numerical model. Further,
we compared the modelling results with the experimental data, pub­
lished numerical results, and theoretical results. The calculations are
Y. Du et al.
Fig. 24. Wave profile diagram of the overtopping wave propagates to the right at different valve spacings.
mesh and time convergent, and the presented numerical method has
good accuracy and high efficiency. The conclusions of the research are
summarised as follows:
(1) Compared with an independent valve structure, the wave forces
acting on a subsea pipe-valve structure had strong nonlinearity,
and the valve of the pipe-valve structure was subjected to larger
horizontal and vertical forces. Additionally, for a subsea pipe-
valve structure, the nonlinearity of incident waves near the
valve was significantly enhanced, the motion track of incident
waves became obviously complicated.
(2) We studied the effect of changes in valve structure and valve
distribution on wave forces acting on the subsea pipe-valve
structures by setting different valve height ratios, valve length
ratios, and valve spacings. The interaction between nonlinear
waves and subsea pipe-valve structures produces strong
nonlinear phenomena near the free surface, such as wave
reflection, wave blockage, and wave run-up. Because the pipe
was always in a completely submerged state, the nonlinearity of
15
Ocean Engineering 235 (2021) 109439
the wave force acting on the pipe was relatively small compared
with that of the partially submerged valves. Additionally,
changes in the valve structure and valve distribution had little
effect on wave forces subjected by the pipe. The modelling results
showed that the wave force acting on the partially submerged
valves was strongly nonlinear, which indirectly indicated that the
wave force cannot be accurately predicted by theoretical
equations.
(3) Numerical calculations of the wave force acting on the valves
under different valve height and length ratios revealed that the
horizontal force acting on valve 1 was primarily derived from the
incident wave and from the reflected wave generated by valve 2.
The horizontal force acting on valve 2 was primarily derived from
the incident wave upstream and from the overtopping wave
formed by the wave run-up over valve 1. The vertical wave force
acting on valve 1 was primarily derived from the overtopping
wave that it generated and from the reflected wave generated by
valve 2. The vertical wave force acting on valve 2 was primarily
derived from the overtopping wave formed by the wave run-up
Y. Du et al.
over valves 1 and 2. The overtopping wave propagated to the
right in the form of horizontal projectile motion; the motion
behaviour of the overtopping wave was affected by valve struc­
ture changes.
(4) Numerical calculations of the wave force acting on the valves
under different valve spacings revealed that, for valves 2 and 3,
the spacing had a greater influence on the horizontal force acting
on the valves than the vertical force. But for valve 1, the result
was the opposite of the above. The maximum value of Fh+ and the
minimum values of Fh− and Fv− acting on the valves usually
appeared under relatively small valve spacing. The horizontal
and vertical forces acting on the valves were primarily derived
from the incident, reflected, and overtopping waves. The latter
two types of waves were more sensitive to spacing changes, and
the change in valve spacing affected the motion behaviour of the
overtopping wave.
However, in practical ocean engineering, a group of pipe-valve
structures is generally surrounded by other groups of pipe-valve struc­
tures or the external support frames of subsea equipment. These pipe-
valve structures are often arranged in parallel inside the subsea equip­
ment. Therefore, studying the hydrodynamic performances of the subsea
pipe-valve structures using 2D numerical models has limitations,
ignored the influence of the surrounding structures on the pipe-valve.
Future work will investigate the interaction between nonlinear waves
and pipe-valve structures within 3D subsea equipment.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful for the financial support from the National
Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant No.
2016YFC0303701), the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(Grant No. 51879271), the 111 Project (B18054), the Brazilian Research
Council – CNPq (Grant No. 305657/2017-8), and the Carlos Chagas
Filho Foundation - FAPERJ (Grant No. E-26/202.600/2019).
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