OMAP TER TWO: LITERATURE FEVIEW. 2.1 Introduotion This chapler discuss about a few important aspects which ars Used i this research, ‘They are explanation of concepls, theoretical framework and mevious researchers, 2.2 Phonological Awareness Phonological awareness Is defined 16 tho ability 10 detect and manipuiate the sound ‘svucture of words independent oftheir meaning, (Philips, Clancy Manchet & Lonigan, 2008), This manipulation of words can take place at diferent levels of complentios leh ae the wor ve, the elabe ove, he onat-rine lovel and the phoneme levelResearch on phonological awareness is one of the interesting elements which Improve iiteracy problem in children, 1s something Ineresting and challenging to study {he level of phonological awareness in the preschool children who wl be golng to Primary schools after two years, In order to get them to red words nd simghe Nentences this experimental study Is to Intoduce the basic elements of phorcsogicas Awareness such as rhyming words, words with one and two sylables, oneet-rine and Phoneme segmentation and blending, 'n Figure 2.1 it shows the spectrum or continuum of phonological avrareness (PA) being the wide umbrella Consisting the elements from less complexity to more ‘complexity which breaks the words into single phonemes. The model starts with words into syllables, rhyme, alliteration, onset-rime up to phonemes which are the highest level in PA. In between, the Phonemic awareness starts with Onset-time segmentation. Children learn better if they are taught the larger part of words rather than the smaller broken phoneme. Skibble et a. (2016) cited Justice and Schuele's statement in their research that during preschool, “children’s phonological awareness knowledge increases rapidly, as children begin to identify words that Share the same sound(s) and to parse the Phonemes within a given word’, Skis such as attending to sounds in the environment, ‘Pyming, and alteration tend to develop fist, whereas skils such as blending,30 ‘More Complexity rmanipuiate phonemes ends ound into words [Segment inal and fina sounds Foundation critical to | early literacy success [Aiteraton, nia ana Final [Sounds Sorts Rhyme i | | Words into | sylabes | |e Phonoldgical Awareness Figure 2.1. Sequence of phonological awareness instruction and intervention by Schuele & Boudreau (2008). Source: Schuele, C.M. & Boudreau, D. (2008, February), Phonological Awareness Intervention: Beyond the Basics. Language,Speech, And Hearing Services In Schools , 39, 3-20. doi:10.1044/0161-1461(2008/002) Adams, Foorman, Lundberg, & Beeler; Anthony et al.; Lewkowicz (as cited by ‘Schuele & Boudreau, 2008) affirms that there is general agreement that the sequence of Phonological awareness development or learning proceeds from thyme and the ‘segmentation of words into syllables to the awareness of individual sounds, with the highest level of phonological awareness being the deletion and manipulation of phonemes, as illustrated in Figure 2.1. Segmenting and blending are recognized as critical skill achievements, with lower level skills important in instruction or intervention to the extent that they faciitate subsequent development of blending and segmenting. From a developmental perspective, itis best to view the steps of the sequence not asdiscrete, sequential sages, but rather as overlapping stages (Schuele & Boudreau, 2008), The latest study by Kenner, Terry., Friehling & Namy, (2017) stated five important components in phonological awareness namely rhyme awareness, word awareness, phonemic awareness, sentence awareness and syllabication as shown in Figue 2.2. Phonological Awareness Syllabication ~ Phonemic Awareness Figure 2.2. Five sub-components of phonological awareness, (Kenner B.B et al., 2017). Source: Kenner, 8.B., Teny, N.P., Friehling, AH., Namy, LL. (2017). Phonemic ‘awareness development in 2.5- and 3.5-yearold children: an examination of emergent, feceptive, knowledge and skills. Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht . dor osorisr 44501707380 According to Figure 2.2, rhyme awareness, syllabication and phonemic ‘2wareness are given priority and taken into the experimental research as the variables in this study. Anthony, Lonigan, Driscoll, Philips & Burgess; Goswami (as ctied in Kenner BB et al, 2017) stated that across these models, phonological awareness. is ‘conceptualized @$ originating at the word level, with incremental and increasing32 sensitivity to smaller units of sound discrimination with age (ie., from word awareness, to syllable and/or rhyme awareness, and finally to the level of the individual phoneme), 2.2.1 Components of phonological awareness 2.2.4.1 Rhyme Awareness itis easy to work with rhyming tasks. It can be a fun activity to be done with the children in preschool. The educators can help children hear, identify, and match similar word patterns such as rhymes (Morrow, 2012). Simply by singing nursery and reading stories that rhymes can help children to develop this skill Morrow, (2012) stated in his book that the skill in phonological awareness that need to begin with is rhyming activities as it is easy for children to deal with larger parts of words or whole words and then smaller parts such as phonemes. Example of rhyming words are such as bat, cat, hat, mat, pat Bradley & Bryant; Bryant, MacLean, Bradley, & Crossland, (as citied in Kuppen & Bourke, 2017) that previous research has identified rhyme awareness as a Precursor Skill for literacy developmenta 2.2.1.2 Alliteration Awareness ameroton one of the elements in PA which conan aftr th rng task we shown Wr Figure 2.1 (Schuele & Boudreau 2008) According to Schmitt B. (n.d), the repetition A the intial consonant sounds In two or more neighboring words, Kind of fe tongue twisters for example: she sells sea shells by the vee shore. Studies by Pedott, Caceres Assengo, & Befi-Lopes (2017), stated that alteration is learned before rhyme as the Jteracy process includes @ strenuous relationship between words with the samme beginning, starting with a certain letter, wth the letter of the child's name, colleagues ‘among other stimulations, ‘According to milestones in Kid Sense Child Development, (2017), rhyme ‘awareness emerges at the age of 2-3 years old while alliteration which is recognizing ‘and producing words with the same beginning sound is learned by 4-5 years old of age. ‘Therefore, alliteration is good to be introduced after the rhyme task or activities, 2.2.1.3 Syllable Awareness Syllable awareness is one of the many components in phonological awareness. It is developed towards the beginning of the phonological-awareness sequence of skills. According to Gillon (as cited in Ng & Ng, 2014, p. 8), syllable awareness is the level of ‘wareness in which a child is aware that it is possible to divide a word into syllables. Further is stated by Ng & Ng in 2014 an assessment for syllable awareness will reveal if the child has realizations that each syllable has a vowel or if the child is aware of how34 stables are avied 0 that consonants which cannot be clustered together are not at the beginning oF the end of a syllable. It is generally mastered in kindergarten as an ‘auditory ski, but once children start to become readers during the first year of schoo! teachers should introduce letter tiles or squares and manipulate them to form sounds and words, (Guldenoglu, 2016) It stated by Parpucu & Ding, (2017), the first principle is that every syllable forming a word includes a vowel. Secondly, syllables are divided by emphasis when a ‘word is pronounced. At the syllable level, phonological awareness is an awareness that ‘words can be divided into syllables. A syllable is a unit of speech that has a vowel phoneme, Syllable awareness is identifying that, for example, the word run has one syllable, paper has two syllables (pa-per) and remember has three syllables (re-mem- ber) 2.2.1.4 Onset-Rime Awareness. COnset-ime is one of the levels in phonological awareness and itis identified to be under phonemic awareness. Onset is the beginning sound in a word while rime is the ending group of letters in a word. Although it sounds simple but it can be difficult for some children as onset-rime is a level which involves segmenting and blending (Morrow, 2012). According to Yopp & Yopp in 2009, onsets are the consonant sounds that Precede a vowel in a syllable. Example given by them are for an instance, the sound e isE f “the cone in tive cane syllatile word cmt while he rime mat A 8 The onmat in Frog while “ihe rime eg Resets hath the ten ayAbA wid wlio we The ornate frat ‘eylnile (win) nd i6 the onset in fhe Recon eyiiable The rime in the iret sylhabie oe fy “and the rime in the cond syllable of window ow: 2.2.1.8 Phonemes ‘Phonemes are the smallest units comprising spoken language English consists of about ‘41 phonemes. Phonemes combine to form syllables and words. A few words have only ‘one phoneme, such as @ or oh. Most words consist of a blend of phonemes, such as go ‘with 2 phonemes, or check with 3 phonemes, or stop with 4 phonemes. (Ehri, Nunes, ‘Willows, Schuster, Yaghoub-Zadeh & Shanahan, 2001). ‘Manipulating these smallest sounds of speech is the most complex of the ‘Phonological awareness skils and is referred to as phoneme aware ness or phonemic ‘awareness (Yop & Yopp, 2008). According to Stahl & Murray (as citied by Yoop & "Yopp, 2008) tis the ast and deepest understanding of speech that children acquire. "Yopp & Yopp, (2008) stated that phonemes awareness involves knowing that the ‘Spoken word light consists of three sounds (Ligh) or phonemes and the spoken word ‘black consiss of four sounds (b--a-ck) or phonemes.PRONeHHCn Gwarenens i @ subset Of pROnOIOgiEM! awareness Phonerie "awareness is commonly known a the ability fo refieet on and manipulate the chores | spoken words, (Scanion et si 2010, p77) Phonemic awareness is the most difficult ‘evel or with complex activities. It is stated by Hulme et af Martin & Byme: Philios ‘Clancy-Menchetti & Lonigan (as cited in Kaminski & PowellSmith, 2016) that ‘Phonological awareness skills al the phoneme level are the most critical fo acquiring the alphabetic principle 22.2 Importance of phonological awareness (PA) PA can be defined as the purposeful ability to attend to and manipulate the sound ‘Structure of spoken words at the syllable, onset-rime, and phoneme levels by Gillon (as ‘ottied in Carson, Gillon, & Boustead, 2013). Many importance of PA is indicated by many ‘studies ‘tis explained by Adams; Culinan; Bradley & Bryant: Juel: Wagner & Torgesen; ‘Yopp (as cited by Parpucu & Dinc, 2013) that "PA is the strongest predictor of schoo! ‘Performance by leaving behind cognitive abilities and skills like IQ. word knowledge,” boon established we A precurHOr to the aoquistion of the alphubetie princihe—the “understanding that the letters of the alphabet represent phonemes in speach Bowidoe that, studios by Er, Nunes, Stahl, & Willows, Erdogan, Ohenkmeler & Fowler, Morris, Bloodgood, & Perey, Whiteley, Smith & Connors; Yucel (ae chad SARI & AKTAN ACAR, 2013) explains that "PA defined ms an important skill in the process of fearing to read’, Further is said by the same study by (GARI & AKTAN ACAR, 2013) that “supporting children with activities aimed at phonological avrareniess in this process strengthens the bond between grapheme and phoneme’. According to ‘Acarlar, Ege & Turan; Dahmer; Goswam; Goswami & East; Westwood (as cited in Burcu & Ebru, 2013) focusing children's attention on phonemes starting from an early age ie important in the process of preparing for reading-writing ‘According to the research by Lonigan, Burgess & Anthony and Snow, Buns, & Griffin (as cited in Harper,2011) children entering kindergarten are expected to understand the sound-based system of our language, including rhyming skills and beginning letter sounds. Its also mention in the same article cited by Harper (2011) that, ‘one widely recognized predictor and prognostic marker for early reading success is PA (Carroll & Snowing; Catts, Fey, Zhang & Tomblin). 2.3 Word reading Reading Skills according to Guzel (as cited in Guidenoglu ,2016) is the most vital aspect‘expected to acquire in thelr frst few years of schooling, When the relationship between Treading skills and academic achievement is valyzed, itis found that students with poor reading skills cannot be expected to demonstrate successful performance in academic fields, and in fact their entire academic lives can be adversely affected by delays in ‘acquiring reading skills According to Goldenoglu in 2016, Syllable awareness is one component of phonological awareness is generally mastered in kindergarten as an auditory skill, but ‘once children start to become readers during the first year of schooling, teachers should introduce letter tiles or squares and manipulate them to form sounds and words. Ott, Wright & Jacobs (as cited in Guldenoglu ,2016), the syllable-awareness skill, which basically means the ability to distinguish between the phonemes that constitute words, ‘can be further defined as the ability to recognize different combinations of phonemes in word structures that are constructed based on alphabetic principles, Itis stated in the report by National Reading Panel (NRP) (as citied in Rasinski, 2017) that phonemic awareness, phonics or word decoding, reading fluency (automaticity in word recognition and expressive reading), and text and word comprehension have been repeatedly cited as essential to student success in learning to ‘ead. This shows that there is relationship of children learning to read with phonological39 24 Design and Development Module Module is defined as a set of studies or programs which have been ‘systematically planned and organized to achieve a number of objectives (Yusni et al 2015). According to Russell; Sidek & Jamaludin (as cited in Yusni et al., 2015, p. 45) the purposes of a module are to identify clearer objectives of the teachings and to arrange activities more systematically Studies by Milano & Ullius; Richey & Klein (as cited in Yusni et al., 2015) 2 module can be developed by using two approaches. First, the module development can be based on the study of certain theories, models, literature or the consensus of the experts. Second, the module development can be adapted from the other existing modules or models to suit the needs of the study (p. 45). Yusni et al. (2105) with her research title “The Needs Analysis in Self-Concept Module Development” used the DDR method to develop the module. In the research which used DDR, content analysis and experts’ consensus were the two types of analyses which were carried out. According to Richey & Klein (2007), DDR approach is ‘well ordered studies which involve designing, developing and evaluation processes of a product or tool ‘According to the research by Sidek & Jamaludin (as cited in Yusni et al., 2015, p45) model suitable in this study is the adaption of the Sidek Module Development Model. Based on the model, the module development in this study can be segregated into three phases:First Phase © Analysis (literature analysis and needs analysis) ‘Second Phase : Design and development of the module Third Phase Pilot study and evaluation of the module Another study which used Design and Development research (DDR) was by Siti ‘Mariam & Ruhizan (2016) with the research named “Design of Environmental Education Module towards the Needs of Aboriginal Community Learning”. It is described in the research that 'the module is built to meet the basic needs analysis and specific targets to be achieved by various groups such as indigenous communities themselves, ‘community leaders, researchers and other stakeholder” (Siti Mariam & Ruhizan, 2016) In the same research, Siti Mariam & Ruhizan (2016) cited Che Nidzam’s statement which describes phase 1 (need analysis) as a necessary phase to determine the type or characteristics of the module requirements. Further stated by Siti Mariam & Ruhizan (2016) about phase 2 where all the information in phase 1 will be applied and transferred in the form of production of teaming modules. Aniza and Norlidha (as cited in Siti Mariam & Ruhizan, 2016) explains that next the modules require opinions and views from experts in the field of research in ‘order to determine the suitability of module form the aspects of content and if it can be ‘applied to the end users, Newt, the final phase (evaluation) is elaborated by Hasan et al. (as cited by Siti Mariam & Ruhizan, 2016) as an important phase to “ensure the production of thea modules is n accordance to the needs and learning styles of the target group and also coincide with the needs of users’ The designing and developing a module depend on which aspects are being researched end concentrated. It can a module for educators oF perhaps the children themselves. In a study conducted by Amani (2014) explains about a learning module for students which lead them towards sel-learing concepts based on their own capabilties. Honey (a8 cited in Amani, 2014) presents ideas of modules by stating sacademic modules are customizable packages designed to assist educators 0 creating or supplementing a course sylabus. Amani in 2014, used the DDR method for her research Pembangunan Modul m-Pembelajaran Bahasa Arab di Institut Pendidikan Guru’ In this study it indicates a designing and developing a module using the DOR method which can be used by the educators to assist the children in kindergarten in order to have awareness on phonological awareness elements which bring them to the path of learning to read simple English words. 2.4.ATheoretical Framework i (a) Interactionist Theory (1996) It is outline by Sarem & Shirzadi, (2014) that interactionist theories of language learning were re introduced by Long in 1996. In the same paper, it further highlights that in a “social view, knowledge develops first through social interaction and then2 becomes an internalized part of the cognitive structure of the leamer’, (Sarem & ‘Shirzadi, 2014), Besides that, the findings show that interaction can have positive effects ‘on L2 development and that the complex matter of individual differences needs to be considered carefully (Muho & Kurani, n.d.) Verbal language is the most widespread mode of human communication, and an intrinsically social activity, (Verga & Kotz, 2013). Study by Kuhl et al. (as cited in Verga & Kotz, 2013) find out that ‘infants were able to learn different Mandarin phonemes when they were exposed to them by a real person, but not when the exposure was merely via ‘a recording’. This explains that it is same when it comes to English language sounds of phonemes. tis stated in the same paper by Waxman and Gelman (as cited in Verga & Kotz, 2013) that first, a live human may attract more attention and increase motivation, as compared to a recording and second, a real person can provide referential information, crucial for linking words and concepts, Learning a second language such as English in Malaysia, interaction plays a vital role. Interaction take place when the educators take the first step to use the second language. It is not necessarily that interaction must happen among other cultures, it can ‘happen in one culture, one society and one community of the same race and religion, i (b) Application of interactionist Theory, 1996 in research Based on Figure 2.3, Interactionist Theory (1996) for the development of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) specifically ESL, in this research it is applied via a link Ba between interaction and learning by focusing on three major components of interaction’ exposure (input), production (output) and feedback (Muho & Kurani, n.d.) In Figure 2.3, it shows that input, output and feedback are interrelated, During the input phase, there will be conversation among the leamers with the educator and other peers. The children will try to figure out the meanings of the words they learned or are learning during the P&P session. This will continue to the next phase or component which is output. Children will communicate with each other and the educator. This will help the children in acquisition of the vocabulary and it will become a long-term effect in the children's memory. This is because children acquire and learn better if there are interaction among the peers while the teaching and learning take place. Continuously, the process will proceed to feedback where the children will be corrected and they will receive clarification on their mistakes and usage of the language. Repetition in the feedback phase will help children to strengthen their second language foundation. The study by Muho & Kurani, (n.d.) generated the findings that “interaction can have positive effects on L2 development and that the complex matter of individual differences needs to be considered carefully”. This is meaning to conclude that interaction theory is suitable to be implemented in this research as it focuses on English 4s the second language in Malaysia,“4 Interactionist | Theory (1996) | Educator } { Learners x ; r * * input | Output | Feedback ’ x pe sheen aly | | {correction Conversation j_Communication | er learners others ‘Acquisition - | Clarification l vocabulary ie Negotiate meaning | Long term effect Repetition Elements of PA in RASOP li (a) Theory of Mind (Tom), (1978) {tis citied by Farrar, Ashwell & Maag (2005) in their research that Theory of mind (Tom) ‘efers to the understanding of the role of mental States (¢.9., beliefs, desires) in guiding 1998). While developments in ToM45, Further explained in the study that ToM and phonological awareness may be linked because of the operation of similar executive functioning skis, According to Ouncan & ‘Hughes (a8 cited in Farrar et al 2008) executive functioning skills includes working Imemory, planning and, most relevant here, the ability to inhibit a dominant response On the other hand, studies by Carlson & Moses ited in Farrar et al., 2005). ‘stated that in TOM tasks, the child must inhibit the tendency to respond with their own belief when asked about another's belief. Further elaborated by the same research that it ‘has been well documented that executive functioning correlates with performance on ‘Standard false belief tasks, Similarly, in PA task such as in a rhyming task, children must inhibit their preferences for seeking semantic associations between words and attend to the underlying phonological similarities Frankel & Rollins (as cited in Farrar et al., 2005). It 6 presented by Farrar et a., 2005 that “children aged 4 to 5 years old will start {0 understand the conflicting mental representations”. In phonological awareness tasks children must attend to the sounds of words while ignoring the meanings of words (Farrar et al, 2005). An example was given in the same studies by Farrar et al. (2005) ‘that in a rhyming task, children must ignore the semantic relationship among words and focus on the phonological similarity. {i (b) Application of Theory of Mind (ToM), 1978 in research ‘This research involves elements of PA towards word reading skils among the Preschool children also use the application of Theory of Mind (ToM), 1978. Figure 2.4 ‘shows that ToM (1978) has two division which are application of mental representation46 ‘and metalinguistic awareness, Mental representation is false belief which bring to simulation (predicting the words/outcome) while metalinguistic awareness is attending to sounds. Both predicting words and identifying sounds will be applied in the designing and developing the RASOP module. Positive results shown in studies done by Farrar et al. (2005), which relate Tom with PA, Initially, children’s early words may be represented holistically and only gradually do they become organized in phonemic segments Consequently, the children will recognize PA once their vocabulary grow. Theory of ind, (1978) | Ss Mental Metalinguistic | Awareness representation False Belief Attend to ae | Simulation) Predicting the || Attend to Sounds words Design and develop RASOP le of PA. Source: Adaptic Ashwell S. & Maag L. (2008) the ty tion and modified from Farrar M.J, mergence of Phonological : fo language and Theory of Mind Deeks logical Awareness: Connections doi:10.1177/0142723705051980 pment. Fret Language, :26(2), 187-172,a7 iii (a) Vygotsky's Theory (1978) (2PD) The basic concept in Vygotsky's Theory (1978) is the zone of proximal development (ZPD). According to Saracho (2017), ZPD is the region outside of the children’s achievement abilities where children need assistance. Further elaborated by Saracho (2017) that this kind assistance is providing ‘scaffolding’ or helping the children to progress forward. Vygotsky's theory (1978) improves the children’s development instead of following it and his work contributed to early childhood education, especially in the area of language and literacy (Saracho, 2017) ili (b) Application of Vygotsky's Theory (1978) ZPD in research ‘AS we are acquainted that Saracho (2017), describes about giving support and mediation as favoring to be providing ‘scaffolding’ or helping children to progress forward. It is vital to scaffold children in preschools especially for the phonological Awareness which leads them to read easily in English in their later life. This theory is referred in this research as personally | feel that culture plays an important role in children in Malaysian and they need an assistance, guidance or scaffolding from the educator especially in English language as the second language in Malaysia's setting 'n Figure 2.5, it shows the main concept and the involvement of teachers as educators or mentors to the children, while children themselves perform self-learning ‘according to their ZPD. Research by Kaur, Kaur, Singh, Nor Azmi & Mohani (2018) that the learning process involves maximum scaffolding at the initial stage and as it Progresses the scaffolding support and will be reduced to allow students to do their own