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LESSON 1:
LEARNING CONTENT
Introduction:
Recognition of the importance of developing
managers’ interpersonal skills is closely tied to the need for
organizations to get and keep high-performing employees.
This becomes particularly crucial in a tight labor market.
Companies with reputations as a good place to work-such
as Hewlett-Packard, Lincoln Electric, Southwest Airlines, and
Starbucks-have a big advantage. A recent national study of
the U.S. workforce found that wages and fringe benefits
aren’t the reason people like their jobs or stay with an
employer. Far more important is the quality of the
employees’ jobs and the supportiveness of their work
environments.3 So having managers with good
interpersonal skills is likely to make the workplace more
pleasant, which, in turn, makes it easier to hire and keep
qualified people.
According to the Center for Creative Leadership in
Greensboro, North Carolina, about 40 percent of new
management hires fail within their first 18 months.4 When
the center looked into why these new hires failed, it found
that “failure to build good relationships with peers and
subordinates” was the culprit an overwhelming 82 percent
of the time.5 Consistent with these findings are surveys that
have sought to determine what skills college recruiters
consider most important for job effectiveness of MBA
graduates. These surveys consistently identify interpersonal
skills as most important.
We have come to understand that technical skills
are necessary but insufficient for succeeding in
management. In today’s increasingly competitive and
demanding workplace, managers can’t succeed on their
technical skills alone. They also have to have good people
skills.
Lesson Proper:
What Managers Do?
Let’s begin by briefly defining the terms manager and the
place where managers work-the organization. Then let’s
look at the manager’s job; specifically, what do managers
do?
Managers get things done through other people. They make
decisions, allocate resources, and direct the activities of
others to attain Is. Managers do their work in an
organization. This is a consciously coordinated social unit,
composed of two or more people that functions on a
relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set
of goals. On the basis of this definition, manufacturing and
service firms are organizations and so are schools, hospitals,
churches, military units, retail stores, police departments,
and local, state, and federal government agencies. The
people who oversee the activities of others and who are
responsible for attaining goals in these organizations are
managers (although they're sometimes called
administrators, especially in not- for-profit organizations).
FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT
PLANNING
Defining objectives to be achieved for a given period and
what needs to be done to achieve the objectives. Managers
Need to develop objective in line with the overall strategies
of the organisation
ORGANISING
Determining what task to be done Who will implement and
coordinate tasks How the tasks are to be grouped Who
report to whom and whose decision to be made. Managers
need to be logical and effectively the information, resources
and workflow of organisation
CONTROLLING
The measuring of performance in all pre determined
objectives, determining reasons for deviation and taking
appropriate action, there necessary, It provides ways to
ensure that the organization moves towards aiding its
objective
LEADING
Involves motivating subordinates selecting the mont
effective communication channel Resolving conflict, and
directing gulda auction others as well as the intention of
achieving objective
Management Functions
In the early part of the twentieth century, a French
industrialist by the name of Henri Fayol. Wrote that all
managers perform five management functions: They plan,
organize, command, coordinate, and control. Today, we'
have condensed those down to four: planning, organizing,
leading, and controlling.
Since organizations exist to achieve goals, someone has to
define those goals and the means by which they can be
achieved. Management is that someone. The planning
function encompasses defining an organization’s goals,
establishing an overall strategy for achieving those goals,
and developing a comprehensive hierarchy of plans to
integrate and coordinate activities. Managers are also
responsible for designing an organization’s structure. We
call this function organizing. It includes the determination of
what tasks are to be done. Who is to do them, how the
tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where
decisions are to be made.
Every organization contains people, and it is management’s
job to direct and coordinate those people. This is the
leading function. When managers motivate employees,
direct the activities of others, select the most effective
communication channels, or resolve conflicts among
members, they are engaging in leading.
The final function managers perform is controlling. To
ensure that things are going as they should, management
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must monitor the organization’s performance. Actual
performance must be compared with the previously set
goals. it there are any significant deviations, it’s
management’s job to get the organization back on track.
This monitoring, comparing, and potential correcting is
what is meant by the controlling function.
So, using the functional approach, the answer to the
question, What do managers do? is that they plan, organize,
lead, and control.
Management Roles
In the late 1960s, a graduate student at MIT, Henry
Mintzberg, undertook a careful study of five executives to
determine what these managers did on their jobs. On the
basis of his observations of these managers, Mintzberg
concluded that managers perform 10 different, highly
interrelated roles, or 'sets of behaviors attributable to their
jobs.8 As shown in Exhibit 1-1, these 10 roles can be
grouped as being primarily concerned with interpersonal
relationships, the transfer of information, and decision
making.
Interpersonal Roles
All managers are required to perform duties that are
ceremonial and symbolic in nature. When the president of a
college hands out diplomas at commencement or a factory
supervisor gives a group of high school students a tour of
the plant, he or she is acting in a figurehead role All
managers also have a leadership role. This role includes
hiring, training, motivating, and disciplining employees. The
third role within the interpersonal grouping is the liaison
role. Mintzberg described this activity as contacting others
who provide the manager with information These may be
individuals or groups inside or outside the organization. The
sales manager who obtains information from the personnel
manager in his or her own company has an internal liaison
relationship. When that sales manager has contacts with
other sales executives through a marketing trade
association, he or she has an outside liaison relationship
Information Roles
All managers, to some degree, collect information from
organizations and institutions outside their own. Typically,
they get information by reading magazines and talking with
other people to leam of changes in the public's tastes, what
competitors may be planning, and the like. Mintzberg called
this the monitor role. Managers also act as a conduit to
transmit information to organizational members This is the
disseminator role. Managers additionally perform a
spokesperson role when they represent the organization to
outsiders
Decisional Roles
Finally, Mintzberg identified four roles that revolve around
the making of choices. In the entrepreneur role, managers
initiate and oversee new projects that will improve their
organization's performance. As disturbance handlers,
managers take corrective action in response to unforeseen
problems As resource allocators managers are responsible
for allocating human, physical, and monetary resources
Last, managers perform a negotiator role in which they
discuss issues and bargain with other units to gain
advantages for their own unit
Management Skill
Still another way of considering what managers do is to look
at the skills or competencies they need to successfully
achieve their goals. Robert Katz has identified three
essential management skills: technical, human, and
conceptual.
Technical Skills
Technical skills encompass the ability to apply specialized
knowledge or expertise. When you think of the skills held
by professionals such as civil engine or oral surgeon, you
typically focus on their technical skills
Through extensive formal education, they have learned the
special knowledge and practices of their field Of course,
professionals don't have a monopoly on technical skills, and
not all technical skills have to be learned in schools or
formal training programs. All jobs require some specialized
expertise, and many people develop their technical skills on
the job.
Human Skills
The ability to work with understand, and motivate other
people, both individually and in groups, describes human
skills. Many people are technically proficient but
interpersonally incompetent They might be poor listeners.
unable to understand the needs of others, or have difficulty
managing conflicts. Since managers get things done through
other people, they must have good human skills to
communicate, motivate, and delegate.
Conceptual Skills Managers must have the mental ability to
analyse and diagnose complex situations. These tasks
require conceptual skills. Decision making, for instance,
requires managers to spot problems, identify alternatives
that can correct them, evaluate those alternatives, and
select the best one. Managers can be technically and
interpersonally competent yet still fail because of an
inability to rationally process and interpret information.
Effective vs. Successful Managerial Activities
Fred Luthans and his associates looked at the issue of what
managers do from a somewhat different perspective. They
asked the question: Do managers who move up most
quickly in an organization do the same activities and with
the same emphasis as managers who do the best job? You
would tend to think that the managers who were the most
effective in their jobs would also be the ones who were
promoted fastest. But that’s not what appears to happen.
Luthans and his associates studied more than 450
managers. What they found was that these managers all
engaged in four managerial activities:
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1. Traditional management. Decision making,
planning, and controlling
2. Communication. Exchanging routine information
and processing paperwork
3. Human resource management. Motivating,
disciplining, managing conflict, staffing, and training’
4. Networking. Socializing, politicking, and
interacting with outsiders
The "average" manager in the study spent 32 percent of his
or her time in traditional management activities, 29 percent
communicating, 20 percent in human resource
management activities, and 19 percent networking.
However, the amount of time and effort that different
managers spent on those four activities varied a great deal.
Specifically, managers who were successful (defined in
terms of the speed of promotion within their organization)
had a very different emphasis than managers who were
effective (defined in terms of the quantity and quality of
their performance and the satisfaction and commitment of
their employees). Among successful managers, networking
made the largest relative contribution to success, and
human resource management activities made the least
relative contribution. Among effective managers,
communication made the largest relative contribution and
networking the least.
Enter Organizational Behavior
We've made the case for the importance of people skills.
But neither this book nor the discipline upon which it's
based is called People Skills. The term that is widely used to
describe the discipline is Organizational Behavior. That's a
lot of words, so let's break it down
Organizational behavior is a field of study. That statement
means that it is a distinct area of expertise with a common
body of knowledge What does it study? It studies three
determinants of behavior in organizations. individuals,
groups, and structure. In addition, OB applies the
knowledge gained about individuals, groups, and the effect
of structure on behavior in order to make organizations
work moreeffectively
To sum up our definition, OB is concerned with the study of
what people do in an organization and how that behavior
affects the performance of the organization. And because
OB is specifically concerned with employment related
situations, you should not be surprised to find that it
emphasizes behavior as related to jobs, work absenteeism
employment turnover productivity human performance,
and management
There is increasing agreement as to the components or
topics that constitute the subject area of OB. Although
there is still considerable debate as to the relative
importance of each, there appears to be general agreement
that QB includes the core t0pics of motivation, leader
behavior and power, interpersonal communication, group
structure and processes, learning, attitude development
and perception, change processes, conflict, work design,
and work stress.
Like any other courses, let’s acquaint ourselves first with
these important terms that you will be encountering
throughout this module.
Definition of Terms:
Organization – a consciously coordinated social unit
composed of two or more people that function on a
relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set
of goals.
Behavior – the activities or processes that can be observed
objectively such as the organized patterns of responses as a
whole.
Organizational Behavior
- studies about the behavior of the individual,
groups and structure.
- the study and application of knowledge about
how people act and behave within the
organization.
- concerned with describing, understanding,
predicting, and controlling human behavior in an
organization.
- a level of analysis helps managers to look at the
behavior of an individual within the environment.
 OB is concerned with the study of what people do
in an organization and how that behavior affects the
performance of the organization.
 OB is specifically concerned with employment-
related situation.
- behavior as related to jobs, work, absenteeism,
employment turnover, productivity, human performance
and management.
Please note that organizations exist to serve people. People,
as we all know are the most important resources of any
organization/entity/business/company that helps in the
attainment of goals and objectives. Organizational
Behaviour therefore, simply encompasses the relationship
between the employer and his employees within the
organization. Relationship is usually "work related"
situations.
Examples of work-related behaviors:
1. Happy workers are productive workers.
2. All individuals are most productive when their boss
is friendly, approachable and trusting.
3. Everyone wants a challenging job.
4. You have to scare people a little to get them to
their job.
5. Everyone is motivated by money.
6. The best leaders are those that exhibit consistent
behavior, regardless of the situation they face.
Goals of Organizational Behavior:
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1. To describe, systematically how people behave use of robots an automated control system. Widespread of
under a variety of conditions – achieving this goal the information (interact). Technological advancements
allows managers to communicate about human place increased pressure on OB to maintain the delicate
behavior at work using a common language. balance between technical and social systems.

2. To understand, why people behave as they do – 4. 4. ENVIRONMENT(government; competition;

managers must be able to find reason behind the societal pressure) - a single organization does not exist
action of workers Individual organization cannot escape being influenced by
3. To predict, future employee behavior – managers both internal and external environmental forces.
must have the capacity to predict which among
employees are dedicated and productive or which Internal
ones might be tardy so that they take preventive External
actions. Competition
Government
4. To control, at least partially, and develop some
human activity at work – managers are held Investors
responsible for performance out comer – being Family
able to make an impact on employee behavior, skill
development, team effort and productivity. Labor
union
Remember It! Other organization
 organizational excellence begins with the Consumer
performance of people
 it is what people do or do not do that ultimately
determines what the organization can or cannot become.
 it is our job as an I.E. to develop and promote Question: How does the environment affect OB?
behavioral patterns that are consistent with the
achievement of goals Answer: The environment influences the attitudes of
people, affects working condition and provides
competitions for resources and power and so OB is affected.
Key Forces Affecting Organizational Behavior (OB)
Basic Approaches of OB
There are four (4) key forces affecting Organizational
Behavior. These include the following:
1. Human Resource (supportive)
Approach– Developmental, employee growth and
1. PEOPLE (Individual, group or larger group) - make development are supported. “Give a person a fish, and you
up the internal social system of the organization. They feed that person for a day. Teach a person to fish, and you
are the living, thinking, feeling beings who work in the feed that person for life”.
organization to achieve their objectives. Organizations 2. Contingency Approach - Different behaviors are
exist to serve people, rather than the people exist to supported by different environments for effectiveness. “no
serve organization. Their diversity presents challenges one best way”.
for management to resolve and managers need to be 3. Results-Oriented Approach – OB program ate
turned into these diverse patterns and trends and be assessed in terms of their efficiency
prepared to adapt to them.
Question: How do people affect OB?
TQM – attempts to improve the quality of a firm’s products
Answer: diversity of workforce – which means people through a variety of techniques and training.
bringing a wide array of educational backgrounds,
talents, and It focuses on creating high customer satisfaction,
perspective to their jobs. building relationships, searching for continuous
improvement training employees.
2. STRUCTURE (Jobs , relationships) - define the
formal relationships and use of people in organizations. System Approach
Flat and tall structures, mergers, acquisition, new
ventures. All parts of an organization interact in a
complex relationship.
3. TECHNOLOGY (machinery; computer hardware and Nature of People
software)- provides the resources with which people work
and affects the task that they perform. Examples: Increasing
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Managers have to be effective in handling their
people. They must be aware of the attitudes and behavior
of their employees to be able to understand how they act
when performing their roles and jobs. The following are
some of the nature of people managers have to be aware
of.
1. Individual differences -Every person is different
from the others. Science-each person is different from all
others. Psycho-from the day of birth, each person is unique.
Means that management can motivate people but by
treating them differently.
People come from different places, have their own
family orientations, possess their own culture, belief,
religion, ethnicity, educational background and many more.
The challenge for management is on how to handle
different kinds of people within the organization. How do
managers treat each and every unique individual to bring
out the best of him/her?
Law of Individual Differences - the belief that each person
is different from all others.
2. Perception
-Unique way in which a person sees, organizes and
interprets things. It is the unique way in which person sees,
organize, and interpret things.
- having unique views in another way in which people insist
on acting like human beings rather than rational machines.
People tend to act on the basis of their protection.
3. Selective Perception - people tend to pay attention
to those features of their work environment which are
consistent or which reinforce their own expectations.
How people perceive things is different. Male and
female employees have a different line of interests. Young
and old employees have different attitudes in the
workplace. For example, men may seem to be more
authoritative than women. The young employees especially
the millennials are fond to explore things, fond of trying
new things. So, they are more likely to look for new work or
new business, causing them to leave anytime from the
organization as compared to the old employees who are
more of establishing their security in the work. How will
managers address these issues?
A Whole Person - when management practice OB, it's trying
to develop a better employee, but also wants to developer
person in terms of growth and fulfillment. Management
wants to employ only a person's skill or brain but the whole
person should be considered. While it is true that
employees render service to the organization in exchange of
the salaries they receive, management must always
consider their employees' human development Managers
should help employees in attaining their personal goals in
life by providing a safe, healthy and conducive workplace,
work benefits, professional growth and development, work
life balance, and many more.
4. Motivated behavior -turn on the power to start
and to keep the organization running effectively. People are
motivated not by what they ought to have but what they
want. Motivation turns on the power to start and keep the
organization running effectively.
Employees feel more comfortable in the workplace if they
feel that they are given importance. Thus, involving them in
any decision-making activities may help them bring out
what is expected of them in the workplace.
5. Desire for involvement - Can be achieved through
employee empowerment. People tend to feel good about
themselves. This is reflected in their desire for self-efficacy.
Self Efficacy - that belief that one has the necessary
capabilities to perform a task, role expectation, make
meaningful contributions or meet a challenging situation
successfully.
This simply calls for good interpersonal relationships among
the people within the organization. Managers must treat its
employees as human beings and not as machines.
6. Value of the person- respect, people deserve to be
treated differently from other factors of production because
they are of a higher order in the universe. Employee wants
to be valued for their skills and abilities and be provided
with opportunities to develop themselves.
Managers' role is to encourage employees to work for the
attainment of the company's goals and objectives. There
must be ways and means to motivate employees to work
hard and give their best every time they are in the
workplace. Providing them with higher incentives,
commissions, and other monetary benefits would just be
one way of motivating them.
Nature of Organization
Organizations are made up of people. It consists of
structures, relationships, jobs, units, divisions, and
departments. The social system, mutual interests, and
ethics may be considered in understanding the nature of
organization.
1. Social System - Organizations are social systems
therefore activities therein are governed by social laws as
well as psychological laws. All parts are interdependent.
Activities of organizations are governed by social laws. The
behavior of people is influenced by their group as well as
their individual driver. All parts of the system are
interdependent.
2. Mutual Interests - Organization needs people and
people needs organization. Organizations need people, and
people need organizations.
3. Treat Employees Ethically - It has to treat people in
an ethical manner. Ethical treatment is necessary to attract
and retain valuable employees.
Limitations of Organizational Behavior
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1. Behavioral bias- overlooking the broader
perspective. People who lack system understanding give
them a narrow viewpoint of emphasizing the satisfaction of
employee experiences while overlooking the broader
system of the organization in relation to all its publics.
Tunnel Vision - they see only the tiny view at the end of the
tunnel while missing the broader landscape.
Law of diminishing return- Overemphasis on OB practice.
This implies that for any situation there is an optimum
amount of a desirable practice. More of good thing is not
necessarily good
Unethical manipulation of people- Knowledge of technique
in OB is used. Used of the principle of: a. social
responsibility b. open communication c. cost benefit
analysis
Continuing Challenges
1. Seeking quick fixes-immediate expectations are not
realistic
2. Varying environments
3. Lack of single definition edges
Lack of consensus on:
Unit of analysis
Greatest need
Focus
OB Mod Program
1.
2. Developing Baseline Data
3. Identifying Behavioral Consequences
4. Developing and Implementing An Intervention Strategy
5. Evaluating Performance Improvement
FOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR
As discussed previously, this text is essentially concerned
with finding and analysingthe variables that have an impact
on employee productivity, absence, turnover, citizenship
and satisfaction. Many of the concepts-motivation, say, or
power and politics or organizational culture-are hard to as
sess. It might be valuable, then, to begin by looking at
factors that are easily definable and readily available; data
that can be obtained, for the most part, simply from
information available in an employee's personnel file. What
factors would these be? Obvious characteristics would be
an employee's age, gender, marital status, and length of
service with an organization. Fortunately, there is a sizable
amount of research that has specifically analyzed many of
these biographical characteristics
Evidence indicates that employers hold mixed
feelings. They see a number of positive qualities that older
workers bring to their jobs: specifically, experience,
judgment, a strong work ethic, and commitment to quality.
But older workers are also perceived as lacking flexibility
and as being resistant to new technology. And in a time
when organizations strongly seek individuals who are
adaptable and open to change, the negative perceptions
associated with age clearly hinder the initial hiring of older
workers and increase the likelihood that they will be let go
during downsizing. Now let's take a look at the evidence.
What effect does age actually have on turnover,
absenteeism, productivity, and satisfaction?
The older you get, the less likely you are to quit
your job. That conclusion is based on studies of the age-
turnover relationship. Of course, it should not be too
surprising. As workers get older, they have fewer alternative
job opportunities. In addition, older workers are less likely
to resign than are younger workers because their long
tenure tends to provide them with higher wage rates,
longer paid vacations, and more attractive pension benefits.
It’s tempting to assume that age is also inversely
related to absenteeism. After all, if older workers are less
likely to quit, won’t they also demonstrate higher stability
by coming to work more regularly? Not necessarily! Most
studies do show an inverse relationship, but close
examination finds that the age-absence relationship is
partially a function of whether the absence is avoidable or
unavoidable. In general, older employees have lower rates
of avoidable absence than do younger employees. However,
they have higher rates of unavoidable absence, probably
due to the poorer health associated with aging and the
Identifying
longer recovery period that older workers need when
injured.
How does age affect productivity? There is a widespread
belief that productivity declines with age. It is often
assumed that an individual’s skills-particularly speed, agility,
strength, and coordination-decay over time and that
prolonged job boredom and lack of intellectual stimulation
all contribute to reduced productivity. The evidence,
however, contradicts that belief and those assumptions. For
instance, during a three-year period, a large hardware chain
staffed one of its stores solely with employees over 50 and
compared its results with those of five stores with younger
employees. The store staffed by the over-50 employees was
significantly more productive (measured in terms of sales
generated against labor costs) than two of the other stores
and held its own with the other three. Other reviews of the
research find that age and job performance are unrelated.
Moreover, this finding seems to be true for almost all types
of jobs, professional and nonprofessional. The natural
conclusion is that the demands of most jobs, even those
with heavy manual labor requirements, are not extreme
enough for any declines in physical skills due to age to have
an impact on productivity; or, if there is some decay due to
age, it is offset by gains due to experience.
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Our final concern is the relationship between age
and job satisfaction. On this issue, the evidence is mixed.
Most studies indicate a positive association be’ tween age
and satisfaction, at least up to age 60. Other studies,
however, have found a U-shaped relationship. l0 Several
explanations could clear up these results, the most
plausible being that these studies are intermixing
professional and nonprofessional employees. When the two
types are separated, satisfaction tends to continually
increase among professionals as they age, whereas it falls
among non-professionals during middle age and then rises
again in the later years.
1. Age - The relationship between age and job performance
is likely to be an issue of increasing importance during the
next decade. Why? There are at least three reasons. First,
there is a widespread belief that job performance declines
with increasing age. Regardless of whether it's true or not, a
lot of people believe it and act on it. Second is the reality
that the workforce is aging. For instance, workers 55 and
older are the fastest-growing sector of the labor force. The
third reason is recent U.S. legislation that for all intents and
purposes, outlaw’s mandatory retirement. Most U.S
workers today no longer have to retire at the age of 70.
2. GENDER - Few issues initiate more debates,
misconceptions, and unsupported opinions than whether
women perform as well on jobs as men do. In this section,
we review the research on that issue. The evidence
suggests that the best place to begin is with the recognition
that there are few, if any, important differences between
men and women that will affect their job performance.
There are, for instance, no consistent male female
differences in problem-solving ability, analytical skills,
competitive drive motivation, sociability, or learning ability.
Psychological studies have found that women are more
willing to conform to authority and those men are more
aggressive and more likely than women to have
expectations of success, but those differences are minor.
Given the significant changes that have taken place
in the last 25 years in terms of increasing female
participation rates in the workforce and rethinking what
constitutes male and female roles, you should operate on
the assumption that there is no significant difference in job
productivity between men and women. Similarly, there is
no evidence indicating that an employee’s gender affects
job satisfaction.
One issue that does seem to differ between
genders, especially where the employee has preschool
children, is preference for work schedules. Working
mothers are more likely to prefer part-time work, flexible
work schedules, and telecommuting in order to
accommodate their family responsibilities.
But what about absence and turnover rates? Are
women less stable employees than men? First, on the
question of turnover, the evidence is mixed. Some studies
have found that women have higher turnover rates; others
have found no difference. There doesn’t appear to be
enough information from which to draw meaningful
conclusions. The research on absence, however, is a
different story. The evidence consistently indicates that
women have higher rates of absenteeism than men do. The
most logical explanation for this finding is that the research
was conducted in North America, and North American
culture has historically placed home and family
responsibilities on the woman. When a child is ill or
someone needs to stay home to wait for the plumber, it has
been the woman who has traditionally taken time off from
work. However, this research is undoubtedly time-bound.16
The historical role of the woman in caring for children and
as secondary breadwinner has definitely changed in the last
generation, and a large proportion of men nowadays are as
interested in day care and the problems associated with
child care in general as are women.
3. MARITAL STATUS
There are not enough studies to draw any
conclusions about the effect of marital status on
productivity. But research consistently indicates that
married employees have fewer absences, undergo less
turnover, and are more satisfied with their jobs than are
their unmarried co-workers.
Marriage imposes increased responsibilities that
may make a steady job more valuable and important. But
the question of causation is not clear. It may very well be
that conscientious and satisfied employees are more likely
to be married. Another offshoot of this issue is that
research has not pursued other statuses besides single or
married. Does being divorced or widowed have an impact
on an employee's performance and satisfaction? What
about couples who live together without being married?
These are questions in need of investigation.
4. TENURE
The last biographical characteristic we’ll look at is
tenure. With the exception of the issue of male-female
differences, probably no issue is more subject to
misconceptions and speculations than the impact of
seniority on job performance. Extensive reviews of the
seniority-productivity relationship have been conducted. If
we define seniority as time on a particular job, we can say
that the most recent evidence demonstrates a positive
relationship between seniority and job productivity. So,
tenure, expressed as work experience, appears to be a good
predictor of employee productivity. The research relating
tenure to absence is quite straightforward. Studies
consistently demonstrate seniority to be negatively related
to absenteeism. In fact, in terms of both frequency of
absence and total days lost at work, tenure is the single
most important explanatory variable.
ABILITY
Contrary to what we are taught in grade school, we
aren’t all created equal. Most of us are to the left of the
median on some normally distributed ability curve.
Regardless of how motivated you are, it is unlikely that you
can act as well as Meryl Streep, run as fast as Michael
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Johnson, write horror stories as well as Stephen King, or
sing as well as Whitney Houston. Of course, just because we
aren't all equal in abilities does not imply that some
individuals are inherently inferior to others. What we are
acknowledging is that everyone has strengths and
weaknesses in terms of ability that make him or her
relatively superior or inferior to others in performing certain
tasks or activities. From management’s standpoint, the
issue is not whether people differ in terms of their abilities.
They do! The issue is knowing how people differ in abilities
and using that knowledge to increase the likelihood that an
employee will perform his or her job well.
What does ability mean? As we will use the
term, ability refers to an individual’s capacity to
perform the various tasks in a job. It is a current
assessment of what one can do. An individual’s overall
abilities are essentially made up of two sets of factors:
intellectual and physical abilities.
1. Intellectual ability – requires doing mental activity.
Dimensions:
Number aptitude – ability to do speedy and accurate
arithmetic.
Verbal comprehension - Ability to understand what is
read or heard and the relationship of words to each
other.
Perceptual speed - Ability to identify visual similarities
and differences quickly and accurately.
Inductive reasoning - Ability to identify a logical
sequence in a problem and then solve the problem.
Deductive reasoning - Ability to use logic and assess
the implications of an argument.
Spatial visualization - Ability to imagine how an object
would look if its position in space were changed.
Memory - Ability to retain and recall past experiences.
2. Physical Ability - requires doing tasks demanding
stamina, dexterity, strength and similar characteristics.
Nine Basic Physical Abilities
These physical abilities are necessary in the field of work
that requires physical presence.
Strength Factors:
1. Dynamic strength- ability to exert muscular force
repeatedly or continuously over time
2. Trunk strength- ability to exert muscular strength using
the trunk
3. Static strength- ability to exert force against external
objects
4. Explosive strength- ability to expend a maximum energy
in one series of explosive acts.
Flexibility Factors:
5. Extent flexibility – ability to move the trunk and back
muscles as far as possible.
6. Dynamic flexibility – ability to make rapid, repeated
flexing movements.
Other factors:
7. Body coordination – ability to coordinate the
simultaneous actions of different parts of the body.
8. Balance – ability to maintain equilibrium despite forces
pulling off balance.
9. Stamina – ability to continue maximum effort requiring
prolonged effort over time.
LEARNING
All complex behavior is learned. If we want to
explain and predict behavior, we need to understand how
people learn. In this section, we define learning, present
three popular learning theories, and describe how
managers can facilitate employee learning.
A Definition of Learning
What is learning? A psychologist’s definition is
considerably broader than the layperson’s View that “it’s
what we did when we went to school.” In actuality, each of
us is continuously going “to school.” Learning occurs all of
the time. A generally accepted definition of learning is,
therefore, any relatively permanent change in behavior that
occurs as a result of experience. Ironically, we can say that
changes in behavior indicate that learning has taken place
and that learning is a change in behavior.
Theories of Learning
1. Classical conditioning - a type of conditioning in which an
individual respond to some stimulus that would not
ordinarily produce such a response.
2. Operant conditioning - a type of conditioning in which
desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevent a
punishment
3. Social-learning theory - people can learn through
observation and direct experience
SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS
This module looked at three individual variables-
biographical characteristics ability, and learning. Let’s now
try to summarize what we found and consider their
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importance for the manager who is trying to understand
organizational behavior.
Biographical Characteristics
Biographical characteristics are readily available to
managers. For the most part, they include data that are
contained in almost every employee’s personnel file. The
most important conclusions we can draw after our review
of the evidence are that age seems to have no relationship
to productivity; older workers and those with longer tenure
are less likely to resign; and married employees have fewer
absences, less turnover, and report higher job satisfaction
than do unmarried employees. But what value can this
information have for managers? The obvious answer is that
it can help in making choices among job applicants.
Ability
Ability directly influences an employee's level of
performance and satisfaction through the ability-job fit.
Given management’ 5 desire to get a compatible fit, what
can be done?
First, an effective selection process will improve the lit.
A job analysis will provide information about jobs currently
being done and the abilities that individuals need to
perform the jobs adequately. Applicants can then be tested,
interviewed, and evaluated on the degree to which they
possess the necessary abilities.
Second, promotion and transfer decisions affecting
individuals already in the organization’s employ should
reflect the abilities of candidates. As with new employees,
care should be taken to assess critical abilities that
incumbents will need in the job and to match those
requirements with the organization’s human resources.
Third, the fit can be improved by fine-tuning the job to
better match an incumbent’s abilities. Often modifications
can be made in the job that while not having a significant
impact on the job’s basic activities, better adapts it to the
specific talents of a given employee.
Learning
Learning
Any observable change in behavior is prima facie evidence
that learning has taken place. What we want to do, of
course, is to ascertain if learning concepts provide us with
any insights that would allow us to explain and predict
behavior.
Positive reinforcement is a powerful tool for modifying
behavior. By identifying and rewarding performance-
enhancing behaviors, management increases the likelihood
that they will be repeated.
Our knowledge about learning further suggests that
reinforcement is a more effective tool than punishment.
Although punishment eliminates undesired behavior more
quickly than negative reinforcement does, punished
behavior tends to be only temporarily suppressed rather
than permanently changed. And punishment may produce
unpleasant side effects such as lower morale and higher
absenteeism or turnover. In addition, the recipients of
punishment tend to become resentful of the punisher.
Managers, therefore, are advised to use reinforcement
rather than punishment.
Finally, managers should expect that employees will look to
them as models. Managers who are constantly late to work,
or take two hours for lunch, or help themselves to company
office supplies for personal use should expect employees to
read the message they are sending and model their
behavior accordingly.
________________________________________________
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LESSON 2:
Judge the picture above. What is your understanding about
it? How can attitudes and values affect job satisfaction? The
answers lie in the individuals’ perceptions. Today attitudes,
values are the most important criteria in hiring an
employee. In this module you would see how these play in
the success of organization.
Values have both content and intensity attributes. The
content attribute says that a mode of conduct or end-state
of existence is important. The intensity attribute specifies
how important it is. When we rank an individual’s values in
terms of their intensity, we obtain that person’s value
system.
Values represent basic convictions that A specific mode of
conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially
preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or
end-state of existence.
Value is a judgmental element of what is right, good, or
desirable.
Importance of Values
1 Values lay the foundation for the understanding of
attitudes and motivation because they influence our
perceptions.
2 Individuals enter organizations with notions of what is
right and wrong with which they interpret behaviors or
outcomes
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3 Values generally influence attitudes and behavior.
Values :Terminal values and Instrumental Values
In the previous module, we described the new global village
and said “managers have to become capable of working
with people from different cultures.”. Because values differ
across cultures, an understanding of these differences
should be helpful in explaining and predicting behaviour of
employees from different countries.
One of the most widely referenced approaches for
analysing variations among cultures has been done by
Geert Hofstede. They are listed and defined as follows:
Hofstede's A framework for assessing cultures; five value
dimensions of national culture...
Power distance
 Individualism versus collectivism
 Quantity of life versus quality of life
 Uncertainty avoidance
 Long-term versus short-term orientation
Power distance. The degree to which people in a country
accept that power in institutions and organizations is
distributed unequally
1. Individualism versus collectivism. Individualismis the
degree to which people prefer to set as individuals
rather than as members of a group.Collectivism on the
other hand describes a tight social framework in which
people expect others of which they are part to look
after them and protect them.
2. Quantity of life versus quality of life. Quantity of life
refers to the extent to which societal values are
characterized by assertiveness and materialism while
quality of life emphasizes relationship and concern to
others
3. Uncertainty avoidance. The degree to which people
prefer the structured over the unstructured situations.
4. Long term versus short term orientation. People in
cultures with long term orientations look to the future
and value thrift and persistence. A short term
orientation values the past and present, and
emphasizes respect for tradition and fulfilling social
obligations.
Describe a workplace example of how people seek
consistency among their attitudes and their behavior by
reducing cognitive dissonance. Then, sort your example into
the three main components of attitudes.
Possible answer: A person working for a tobacco company
can ignore the scientific information that tobacco is
harmful, because he receives high rewards in the form of a
high salary. This allows him to reduce the cognitive
dissonance between his feelings of discomfort with his
company's product, and his job satisfaction. The cognitive
part of the person’s attitude would be the evaluation that
tobacco is HBOR 1013: Human Behavior in Organization| 7
harmful. The affective part of the attitude would be feeling
certain discomfort knowing that he works for a company
that is harming people. The behavioral component of the
person's attitude would be the ignoring of the information
to continue to receive the high salary.
Attitudes are evaluative statements either favorable or
unfavorable concerning objects, people or events. They
reflect how one feels about something. Example, when I say
“I like my job”, I am expressing my attitude about work.
Have you experience the same? How were your activities
for that matter?
Attitudes are not the same as values, but the two are
interrelated. You can see this by looking at the three
components of an attitude listed below.
Attitude is defined as "a learned predisposition to respond
in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with
respect to a given object." That is, attitudes affect behavior
at a different level than do values...
Attitude Components •
 Cognitive component - The opinion or belief
segment of an attitude.
 Affective Component - The emotional or feeling
segment of an attitude.
 Behavioral Component - An intention to behave in
a certain way toward someone or something
Viewing attitudes as made up of three components
mentioned is helpful toward understanding their complexity
and the potential relationships between attitudes and
behaviour. But for clarity’s sake, keep in mind that the term
attitude essentially refers to the affective part of the three
components.
Attitude Types
Most of the research in OB has been concerned with three
attitudes...
• Job Satisfaction - A collection of positive and/or
negative feelings that an individual holds toward
his or her job.
 Job Involvement - Identifying with the job, actively
participating in it, and considering performance
important to self-worth.
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 Organizational Commitment - Identifying with a
particular organization and its goals, and wishing to
maintain membership in the organization.
ATTITUDES AND CONSISTENCY
Did you ever notice how people change what they say so it
doesn’t contradict with what they do? Research has
generally concluded that people seek consistency among
their attitudes and between their attitudes and their
behavior. This means that individuals seek to reconcile
divergent attitudes and align their attitudes so that they
appear rational and consistent.
The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Cognitive Dissonance
o Conflict
o Reduction Strategies
o Seek out new Info reducing health concerns
o Dissonant Cognitions
I like eating hotdogs ----Attitude ,I often eat hotdogs----
Behaviour. Hot Dogs are healthy Cognition
Cognitive Dissonance Theory - sought to explain the linkage
between attitudes and behavior. Any incompatibility
between two or more attitudes or between behavior and
attitudes. Individuals seek to reduce this gap, or
“dissonance”. Dissonance, simply put, means an
inconsistency.
Desire to reduce dissonance depends on:
o Importance of elements creating dissonance
o Degree of individual influence over elements
o Rewards involved in dissonance
Measuring the A-B Relationship Recent research indicates
that attitudes (A) significantly predict behaviors (B) when
moderating variables are taken into account.
Moderating Variables
o Importance of the attitude
o Specificity of the attitude
o Accessibility of the attitude
o Social pressures on the individual
o Direct experience with the attitude
1. Self-Perception Theory - attitudes are used after the
fact to make sense out of an action that has already
occurred. Attitudes are used after the fact to make
sense out of an action that has already occurred.
2. An Application: Attitude Surveys Knowledge of
employee attitudes can be helpful to managers in
attempting to predict employee behavior. But how
does management get information about employee
attitudes? The most popular method is through the use
of attitude surveys.
3. Attitude Surveys - eliciting responses from employees
through questionnaires about how they feel about
their jobs, workgroups, supervisors, and the
organization.An attitude survey seeks to understand
and evaluate the consumers’ (users and non-users)
attitude towards a particular product/service/idea.
Such an attitude survey is often administered keeping
in mind target consumers, clearly spelling out the
respondent profile. An attitude survey helps the
company obtain insights related to the different
attitudinal aspects of consumers towards the product,
service or category.
Importance of Attitude Survey
On a broader perspective, attitude encompasses all
of a person’s emotional, perceptual, behavioral and rational
processes in response to some aspect of the environment.
In case of marketing specifically, attitude can be considered
a person’s persistent emotional feelings, action tendencies
and favorable or unfavorable disposition towards a product,
service or idea. Attitude survey in turn helps the company
decide on the marketing strategy for the brand. It allows the
company to identify latent markets, new target groups or
the more profitable demographic segments. These are
important for market segmentation, targeting strategy as
well as positioning. Such attitude surveys are also
administered using attitudinal research to understand the
attitude of consumers towards the current or proposed
marketing communications strategy. For example, Amul,
before deciding whether a new ad campaign should be
aired or not, may like to observe the reactions of the
consumers. It may also want to compare it with the attitude
of the consumers towards its present “Amul girl” campaign.
Attitude Survey Questionnaire Sample
Although quantifying attitude is a Herculean task, an
attitude survey often uses a Likert Scale approach. A survey
helps in collecting vital information known as attitudinal
data. A typical questionnaire to understand consumers’
attitude towards the cookie category could have questions
like these:
Job satisfaction - essentially reflects the extent to which an
individual likes his or her job. Formally defined, job
satisfaction is an affective or emotional response toward
various facets of one's job...
Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance
Manager’s interest in job satisfaction tends to
center on its effect on employee performance. Researchers
have recognized this interest, so we find a large number of
studies that have been designed to assess the impact of job
satisfaction on employee productivity, absenteeism and
turnover.
Satisfaction & Productivity
As the “myth or Science?” box concludes, happy
workers aren’t necessarily productive workers. At the
individual level, the evidence suggests the reverse to be
more accurate- that productivity is likely to lead to
satisfaction.
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Interestingly, if we move from the individual level to that of
the organization, there is renewed support for the original
satisfaction- performance relationship. When satisfaction
and productivity data are gathered for the organization, we
find that organizations with more satisfied employees tend
to be more effective than organizations with less satisfied
employees. So while we may not be able to say that a
happy worker is more productive, it might be true that
happy organizations are more productive.
Satisfaction & Absenteeism
We find a negative relationship between
satisfaction and absenteeism, but the correlation is
moderate.
Satisfaction & Turnover
Satisfaction is also negatively related to turnover
but the correlation is stronger than what we found for
absenteeism.
How Employee Express Dissatisfaction?
Employee dissatisfaction can be expressed in a number
of ways. For example, rather than quit, employees can
complain, be insubordinate, steal organizational property or
shrink part of their work responsibilities. Below offers four
responses that differ from one another along two
dimensions: constructiveness/destructiveness and
activity/passivity
1. Exit - leaving the organization and looking for a new
position (resigning)
2. Voice - an attempt to improve conditions
3. Loyalty - passively but optimistically waiting for
conditions to improve.
4. Neglect - allowing conditions to worsen
How Manager Create a Satisfied Employee?
1. Mentally Challenging Work - people prefer jobs that give
them the opportunity to use their skills and abilities.
2. Equitable Rewards - pay systems and promotion policies
must be just, unambiguous and in line with expectations.
3. Supportive Working Conditions - people concerned with
their environment for personal comfort and facilitating a
good job.
4. Supportive Colleagues - people get more out than
merely money or tangible achievement. Their work fills the
need for social interaction.
LESSON 3:
When we talk of personality, we don’t mean that a person
has charm, a positive attitude toward life, a smiling face, or
is a finalist for “Happiest and friendliest”. When
psychologists talk of personality, they mean a dynamic
concept describing the growth and development of a
person’s whole psychological system.
It is most often described in terms of measurable traits. The
most frequently used definition of personality was
produced by Gordon Allport more than 60 years ago. He
said personality is "the dynamic organization within the
individual of those psychophysical systems that determine
his unique adjustments to his environment. Personality is
the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and
interacts with other people.
Are personality Traits cause by genes?
PERSONALITY DETERMINANTS
An early argument in personality research was whether an
individual's personality was the result of heredity or of
environment. Was the personality predetermined at birth,
or was it the result of the individual's interaction with his or
her environment? Clearly, there is no simple answer.
Personality appears to be a result of both influences. In
addition, today we recognize a third factor-the situation.
Thus, an adult's personality is now generally considered to
be made up of both hereditary and environmental factors,
moderated by situational conditions.
Determinants of Personality: Biological Factors, Cultural,
Family, Social, Situational Factors
1) Heredity
Refers to those factors that were determined at
conception Physical stature, facial attractiveness, gender,
temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy
level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that are
generally considered to be either completely or
substantially influenced by who your parents were, that is,
by their biological, physiological, and inherent psychological
makeup.
The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation
of an individual's personality is the molecular structure of
the genes, located in the chromosomes
Three different streams of research lend some credibility
to the argument that heredity plays an important part in
determining an individual's personality.
1. The first looks at the genetic underpinnings of
human behavior and temperament among young
children.
2. The second addresses the study of twins who were
separated at birth.
3. The third examines the consistency in job
satisfaction over time and across situations.
Researchers have studied more than 100 sets of identical
twins who were separated at birth and raised separately. If
heredity played little or no part in determining personality,
you would expect to find few similarities between the
separated twins. But the researchers found a lot in
common. For almost every behavioral trait, a significant
part of the variation between the twins turned out to be
associated with genetic factors. For instance, one set of
twins who had been separated for 39 years and raised 45
miles apart were found to drive the same model and color
car, chain-smoked the same brand of cigarette, owned dogs
with the same name, and regularly vacationed within three
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blocks of each other in a beach community 1,500 miles
away. Researchers have found that genetics accounts for
about 50 percent of the personality differences and more
than 30 per cunt of the variation in occupational and leisure
interests.
Further support for the importance of heredity can be
found in studies of individual job satisfaction, which we
discussed in the previous chapter. Individual job satisfaction
is found to be remarkably stable over time. This result is
consistent with what you would expect if satisfaction is
determined by something inherent in the person rather
than by external environmental factors, if personality
characteristics were completely dictated by heredity, they
would be fixed at birth and no amount of experience could
alter them. If you were relaxed and easy-going as a child, for
example that would be the result of your genes, and it
would not be possible for you to change those
characteristics.
2) Environment
Among the factors that exert pressures on our
personality formation are the culture in which we are
raised, our early conditioning, the norms among our family,
friends, and social groups, and other influences that we
Recent studies of young children lend strong support to the
power of heredity. Evidence demonstrates that traits such
as shyness, fear, and distress are most likely caused by
inherited genetic characteristics. This finding suggests that
some personality traits may be built into the same genetic
code that affects factors such as height and hair color. HBOR
1013: Human Behavior in Organization| 7 experience. The
environment to which we are exposed plays a substantial
role in shaping our personalities.
For example, culture establishes the norms, attitudes, and
values that are passed along from one generation to the
next and create consistencies over time. An ideology that is
intensely fostered in one culture may have only moderate
influence in another. For instance, North Americans have
had the themes of industriousness, success, competition,
independence, and the Protestant work ethic constantly
instilled in them through books, the school system, family,
and friends.
3) Situation
A third factor, the situation, influences the effects
of heredity and environment on personality. An individual's
personality, although generally stable and consistent, does
change in different situations. The varying demands of
different situations call forth different aspects of one's
personality.
It seems only logical to suppose that situations will
influence an individual's personality, but a neat
classification scheme that would tell us the Impact of
various types of situations has so far eluded us. "Apparently
we are not yet close to developing a system for clarifying
situations so that they might be systematically studied.
However, we do know that certain situations are more
relevant than others in influencing personality,
What is of interest taxonomically is that situations seem to
differ substantially in the constraints they impose on
behavior. Some situations (e.g., church, an employment
interview) constrain many behaviors; other situations (e.g.,
a picnic in a public park) constrain relatively few.
4) PERSONALITY TRAITS
The early work in the structure of personality
revolved around attempts to identity and label enduring
characteristics that describe an individual's behavior
Popular characteristics include shyness, aggressiveness,
submissiveness, laziness ambition, loyalty, and timidity.
These characteristics, when they are exhibited in a large
number of situations, are called personality traits. The more
consistent the characteristic and the more frequently it
occurs indiverse situations, the more important that trait is
in describing the individual.
Early Search for Primary Traits Efforts to isolate
traits have been hindered because there are so many of
them. In one study, 17,953 individual traits were identified.
It is virtually impossible to predict behavior when such a
large number of traits must be taken into account. As a
result, attention has been directed toward reducing these
thousands to a more manageable number.
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator - One of the most widely
used personality Frameworks is called the Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator (MBTI)." It is essentially a 100-question
personality test that asks people how they usually feel or
act in particular situations.
These types are different from the 16 primary traits, let's
take several examples INT ally have original minds and great
drive for their own ideas and purposes are visionaries.
They are characterized as skeptical, critical, independent,
determined and often stubborn ESTIs are organizers. They
are realistic logical, analytical, decisive, and have a natural
head for business or mechanics.
They like to organize and run activities. The INTP type is a
conceptualizer. He or she is innovative individualistic
versatile, and attracted to entrepreneurial ideas.
The Big Five Model MBTI may lack valid supporting
evidence, but that can't be said for the five-factor model of
personality --more typically called the Big Five." In recent
years, an impressive body of research supports that five
basic di bensons underlies all others and encompass most
of the significant variation in human personality.
The Big Five factors
1. Extraversion. This dimension captures one's comfort
level with relationships. Extraverts tend to be
gregarious assertive, and sociable. Introverts tend to be
reserved, timid, and quiet.
2. Agreeableness. This dimension refers to an individual's
propensity to defer to others. Highly agreeable people
are cooperative, warm, and trusting. People who score
low on agreeableness are cold, disagreeable, and
antagonistic
3. Conscientiousness. This dimension is a measure of
reliability. A highly concentious person is responsible
organized, dependable and persistent. Those who
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Score low on this dimension are easily distracted,
disorganized, and unreliable
4. Emotional stability. This dimension taps a person's
ability to withstand stress. People with positive
emotional stability tend to be calm, self-confident, and
secure those with highly negative scores tend to be
nervous, anxious, depressed, and insecure.
5. Openness to experience. The final dimension
addresses an individual's range of interests and
fascinations with novelty Extremely open people are
Creative, curious and artistically sensitive. Those at the
other end of the openness category are conventional
and find comfort in the familiar.
For the other personality dimensions, predictability
depended upon both the performance criterion and the
occupational group. For stance, extraversion predicted
performance in managerial and sales positions. Thisfinding
makes sense since these occupations involve high social
interaction. Similarly, openness to experience was found to
be important in predicting training proficiency, which, too,
seems logical. What wasn't so clear was why positive
emotional stability wasn't related to job performance.
Bill Gates co-founder and chairman of Microsoft would
score high on the conscientiousness dimension of the Big
Five model. His success stems from his personality an
intense drive to succeed, persistence, personality, brilliant
intellect and competitiveness. Gates's personality has
influenced the cultured success of Microsoft and made him
the most famous business celebrity in the world.
MAJOR PERSONALITY ATTRIBUTES INFLUENCING OB
In this section, we want to evaluate more carefully
specific personality attribute that have been found to be
powerful predictors of behavior in organizations. The first is
related to where a person perceives the locus of control to
be in his or life. The others are Machiavellianism, self-
esteem, self-monitoring, propensity for risk taking, and
Type A personality. In this section, we shall briefly introduce
these attributes and summarize what we know about their
ability to explain and predict employee behavior.
Other people see themselves as pawns of fate,
believing that what happens to them in their lives is due to
luck or chance. The first type, those who believe that they
control their destinies, have been labelled internals,
whereas the latter, who see their lives as being controlled
by outside forces, have been called externals. A person's
perception of the source of his or her fate is termed locus of
control. A large amount of research comparing internals
with externals has consistently shown that individuals who
have high scores in externality are less satisfied with their
jobs, have higher absenteeism rates, are more alienated
from the work setting, and are less involved on their jobs
than are internals.
Locus of Control - The degree to which people believe they
are masters of their own fate.
Internals Individuals - who believe that they control what
happens to them.
Externals Individuals - who believe that what happens to
them is controlled by outside forces such as luck or chance.
Why are externals more dissatisfied? The answer is
probably because they perceive themselves as having little
control over those organizational outcomes that are
important to them. Internals, facing the same situation,
attribute organizational outcomes to their own actions. If
the situation is unattractive, they be believe that they have
no one else to blame but themselves. Also, the dissatisfied
internal is more likely to quit a dissatisfying job.
The impact of locus of control on absence is an
interesting one. Internals believe that health is substantially
under their own control through proper habits, so they take
more responsibility for their health and have better health
habits. Consequently, their incidences of sickness and,
hence, of absenteeism are lower.
We shouldn't expect any clear relationship
between locus of control and turnover because there are
opposing forces at work. "On the one hand, internals tend
to take action and thus might be expected to quit jobs more
readily. On the other hand, they tend to be more successful
on the job and more satisfied, factors associated with less
individual turnover.
Machiavellianism - The personality characteristic of
Machiavellianism (Mach) Named after Niccolò Machiavelli,
who wrote in the sixteenth century on how to gain and use
power. An individual high in Machiavellianism is pragmatic,
maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can
justify means. "If it works, use it is consistent with a high-
Mach perspective.
A considerable amount of research has been
directed toward relating high and lowMach personalities to
certain behavioral outcomes." High Machs manipulate
more, win more, are persuaded less, and persuade others
more than do low Machs. Yet these high-Mach outcomes
are moderated by situational factors. It has been found that
high Machs flourish (1) when they interact face-to-face with
others rather than indirectly; (2) when the situation has a
minimum number of rules and regulations, thus allowing
latitude for improvisation; and (3) when emotional
involvements with details irrelevant to winning distract low
Machs.
Should we conclude that high Machs make good
employees? That answer depends on the type of job and
whether you consider ethical implications in evaluating
performance. In jobs that require bargaining skills (such as
labor negotiation) or that offer substantial rewards for
winning (as in commissioned sales), high Machs will be
productive. But if ends can't justify the means, if there are
absolute standards of behavior, or if the three situational
factors noted in the preceding paragraph are not in
evidence, our ability to predict a high Mach's performance
will be severely curtailed.
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Machiavellianism Degree to which an individual is
pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that
ends can justify means.
Self-Esteem.
People differ in the degree to which they like or
dislike themselves. This trait is called self-esteem. The
research on self-esteem (SE) offers some interesting insights
into organizational behavior. For example, self-esteem is
directly related to expectations for success. High SEs believe
that they possess the ability they need in order to succeed
at work.
Individuals with high self-esteem will take more risks in job
selection and are more likely choose unconventional jobs
than people with low self-esteem. Not surprisingly, self-
esteem has also been found to be related to job
satisfaction. A number of studies confirm that high SEs are
more satisfied with their jobs than are low SES.
Self-Monitoring
A personality trait that has recently received
increased attention is called self-monitoring. It refers to an
individual's ability to adjust his or her behavior to external,
situational factors.
Individuals high in self-monitoring show considerable
adaptability in adjusting their behavior to external
situational factors. They are highly sensitive external cues
and can behave differently in different situations. High self
monitors are capable of presenting striking contradictions
between their public persona and their private self. Low
self-monitors can't disguise themselves in that way. They
tend to display their true dispositions and attitudes in every
situation; hence, there is high behavioral consistency
between who they are and what they do.
A personality trait that measures an individual's ability to
adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors.
The research on self monitoring is in its infancy, so
predictions must be guarded. However, preliminary
evidence suggests that high self monitors tend to pay closer
attention to the behavior of others and are more capable of
conforming than are low self-monitors. In addition, high
self-monitoring managers tend to be more mobile in their
careers and receive more promotions (both internal and
cross organizational)." We might also hypothesize that high
self-monitors will be more successful inmanagerial positions
in which individuals are required to play multiple, and even
contradicting, roles. The high self-monitor is capable of
putting on different "faces" for different audiences.
Risk Taking
Donald Trump stands out for his willingness to take
risks. He started with almost nothing in the 1960s. By the
mid-1980s, he had made a fortune by betting on a
resurgent New York City real estate market. Then, trying to
capitalize on his previous successes, Trump overextended
himself. By 1994, he had a negative net worth of $850
million. Never fearful of taking chances, "The Donald"
leveraged the few assets he had left on several New York,
New Jersey, and Caribbean real estate ventures. He hit it big
again. By 1999, Forbes estimated his net worth at over $2
billion.
People differ in their willingness to take chances. This
propensity to assume or avoid risk has been shown to have
an impact on how long it takes managers to make a decision
and how much information they require before making
their choice. For instance, 79 managers worked on
simulated personnel exercises that required them to make
hiring decisions
While it is generally correct to conclude that managers in
organizations are risk averse, there are still individual
differences on this dimension. For instance, a high risk-
taking propensity may lead to more effective performance
for a stock trader in a brokerage firm because that type of
job demands rapid decision making.
LESSON 4:
Type A Personality.. A person with a Type A personality is
"aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to
achieve more and more in less and less time, and, if
required to do 50, against the opposing efforts of other
things or other persons.
Type A's are:
o always moving
o feel impatient with the rate at which most events
take place walking
o strive to think or do two or more things at once
o eating rapidly
o cannot cope with leisure time
o are obsessed with numbers
o measuring their success in terms of how many or
how much of everything they acquire
Type A personality Aggressive involvement in a chronic,
incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and
less time and, if necessary, against the opposing efforts of
other things or other people.
Type B's
1. never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its
accompanying impatience
2. feel no need to display or discuss either their
achievements or accomplishments unless such
exposure is demanded by the situation;
3. play for fun and relaxation rather than to exhibit their
superiority at any cost;
Differences:
Type A’s operating under moderate to high levels
of stress. They subject themselves to more or less
continuous time pressure, creating for themselves a life of
deadlines. These characteristics result in some rather
specific behavioral outcomes. For example, Type A's are fast
workers because they emphasize quantity over quality. In
managerial positions, Type A's demonstrate their
competitiveness by working long hours and, not
infrequently, making poor decisions because they make
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them too fast. Type A's are also rarely creative. Because of about 50 percent of the North American population is Type
their concern with quantity and speed, they rely on past A.39 This percentage shouldn't be too surprising.
experiences when faced with problems. They rarely vary in
their responses to specific challenges in their milieu; hence,
their behavior is easier to predict than that of Type B's. ACHIEVING PERSONALITY FIT
Twenty years ago, organizations were concerned
Are Type A's or Type B's more successful in organizations? with personality primarily because they wanted to match
Despite the Type A's hard work, the Type B's are the ones individuals to specific jobs. That concern still exists. But, in
who appear to make it to the top. Great salespersons are recent years, interest has expanded to include the
usually Type A's; senior executives are usually Type B's. individual-organization fit. Why? Because managers today
Why? are less interested in an applicant's ability to perform a
specific job than with his or her flexibility to meet changing
The answer lies in the tendency of Type A's to trade off situations.
quality of effort for quantity. Promotions in corporate and
professional organizations "usually go to those who are The Person-Job Fit.
wise rather than to those who are merely hasty, to those In the discussion of personality attributes, our
who are tactful rather than to those who are hostile, and to conclusions were often qualified to recognize that the
those who are creative rather than to those who are merely requirements of the job moderated the relationship
agile in competitive strife. between possession of the personality characteristic and
job performance. This concern with matching the job
requirements with personality characteristics is best
PERSONALITY AND NATIONAL CULTURE articulated in John Holland's personality-job fit theory." The
Do personality frameworks, such as the Big Five model, theory is based on the notion of fit between an individual's
transfer across cultures? Are dimensions such as locus of personality characteristics and his or her occupational
control and the Type A personality relevant in all cultures? environment. Holland presents six personality types and
Let's try to answer these questions. proposes that satisfaction and the propensity to leave a job
There are no common personality types for a given country. depend on the degree to which individuals successfully
You can, for instance, find high and low risk takers in almost match their personalities to an occupational environment.
any culture. Yet a country's culture influences the dominant
personality characteristics of its population. We can see this
by looking at locus of control and the Type A personality. What does all this mean? The theory argues that
satisfaction is highest and turnover lowest when personality
"Deep Down, People Are All Alike" and occupation are in agreement. Social individuals should
This statement is essentially false. Only in the be in social jobs, conventional people in conventional jobs,
broadest sense can we say that "people are all alike." For and So forth. A realistic person in a realistic job is in a more
instance, it's true that people all have values, attitudes, likes congruent situation than is a realistic person in an
and dislikes, feelings, goals, and similar general attributes. investigative job.
But individual differences are far more illuminating.6 People Holland's Typology of Personality and Congruent
differ in intelligence, personality, abilities, ambition, Occupations
motivations, emotional display, values, priorities,
expectations, and the like. Type Personality Congruent
Characteristics Occupation
Take the task of selecting among job applicants Managers
Realistic: Prefers Shy, genuine, Mechanic, drill
regularly use information about a candidate's personality
physical activities persistent, stable, press operator,
(in addition to experience, knowledge, skill level, and
that require skill, conforming assembly-line
intellectual abilities) to help make their hiring decisions.
strength, and practical worker, farmer
Recognizing that jobs differ in terms of demands and
coordination
requirements, managers interview and test applicants to:
Investigative: Analytical, Biologist,
1) categorize them by specific traits, Prefers activities original, curious, economist,
2) assess job tasks in terms of the type of personality that involve independent mathematician,
best suited for effectively completing those tasks, thinking, news reporter
and organizing and
3) match applicants and job tasks to find an understanding
appropriate fit. Social: Prefers Sociable, friendly, Social worker,
activities that cooperative, teacher,
The prevalence of Type A personalities will be somewhat involve helping understanding counselor, clinical
influenced by the culture in which a person grows up. There and developing psychologist
are Type A's in every country, but there will be more in others
capitalistic countries, where achievement and material Conventional: Conforming, Accountant,
success are highly valued. For instance, it is estimated that Prefers rule efficient practical. corporate
regulated, unimaginative, manager, bank
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orderly, and inflexible teller, file clerk We can offer two possible explanations. The first is the
unambiguous myth of rationality. Since the late nineteenth century and
activities the rise of scientific management, organizations have been
Enterprising: Self-confident, Lawyer, real estate specifically designed with the objective of trying to control
Prefers verbal ambitious, agent, public emotions. A well-run organization was one that successfully
activities in energetic, relations eliminated frustration, fear, anger, love, hate, joy, grief, and
which there are domineering specialist, small similar feelings. Such emotions were the antithesis of
opportunities to business manager rationality.
influence others
So while researchers and managers knew that emotions
and attain power
were an inseparable part of everyday life, they tried to
Artistic: Prefers Imaginative Painter, musician,
create organizations that were emotion free.
ambiguous and disorderly, writer, interior
unsystematic idealistic, decorator The second factor that acted to keep emotions out of OB
activities that emotional, was the belief that emotions of any kind were disruptive.
allow creative impractical When emotions were considered, Emotions were rarely
expression viewed as being constructive or able to stimulate
performance-enhancing behaviors.
The Person-Organization Fit. Certainly some emotions, particularly when exhibited at the
wrong time, can reduce employee performance. But this
 As previously noted, attention in recent years has
doesn't change the reality that employees bring an
expanded to include matching people to organizations
emotional component with them to work every day and
as well as jobs. To the degree that an organization faces
that no study of OB could be comprehensive without
a dynamic and changing environment and requires
considering the role of emotions in workplace behavior.
employees who are able to readily change tasks and
move fluidly between teams, it's probably more "People work hard, but they have a good time. We are
important that employees' personalities fit with the allowed to let our personalities show," says Mary Ann
overall organization's culture than with the Adams, project director at Southwest Airlines. Southwest
characteristics of any specific job. uses the person-organization fit during its selective hiring
 The person-organization fit essentially argues that process. During interviews, applicants must prove that they
people leave jobs that are not compatible with their have a sense of humor.
personalities. Using the Big Five terminology, for
instance, we could expect that people high on WHAT ARE EMOTIONS?
extraversion fit better with aggressive and team- Although we don't want to obsess analysis, we
oriented cultures; people high on agreeableness will need to clarity three terms that are closely intertwined.
match up better with a supportive organizational These are affect, emotions, and moods.
climate than one that focuses on aggressiveness; and
that people high on openness to experience fit better  Affect – is a generic term that covers a broad range
into organizations that emphasize innovation rather of feelings that people experience. It’s an umbrella
than standardization." Following these guidelines at the concept that encompasses both emotions and
time of hiring should lead to selecting new employees moods.
who fit better with the organization's culture, which, in  Emotions - are intense feelings that are directed at
turn, should result in higher employee satisfaction and someone or something.
reduced turnover.  Moods - are feelings that tend to be less intense
than emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus.
LESSON 5:
Emotions - are reactions to an object, not a trait. They're
EMOTIONS On one recent Friday, a 37-year-old U.S. postal object specific. You show your emotions when you're happy
worker in Milwaukee walked into his place of work. He about something. angry at someone afraid of something.
pulled out a gun and shot and killed a co-worker with whom Moods, on the other hand, aren't directed at an object
he had argued, wounded a supervisor who had scolded Emotions can turn into moods when you lose focus on the
him, and injured another worker. He then killed himself." contextual object. So when a work colleague criticizes you
For this worker, anger had led to violence. for the way you spoke to a client, you might become angry
at him. That is you show emotion (anger) toward a specific
Going on a shooting rampage at work is an extreme object dispirited. You can't attribute this feeling to any
example but it does dramatically illustrate the theme of this single event: you're just not your normal, upbeat self. This
section: Emotions are a critical factor in employee behavior. affective state describes a mood.
Given the obvious role that emotions play in our everyday A related behavior term that is gaining increasing
life, it might surprise you to learn that, until very recently, importance in organizational be is emotional labor. Every
the topic of emotions had been given little or no attention employee expends physical and mental labor when they put
within the field of OB. How could this be? their bodies and cognitive capabilities, respectively, into
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)
their job. But most jobs also require emotional labor. This is
when an employee expresses organizationally desired
emotions during interpersonal transactions." The concept
of emotional labor originally developed in relation to
service jobs Airline flight attendants, for instance, are
expected to be cheerful, funeral coin selors sad, and doctors
emotionally neutral But today the concept of emotional
laborseems relevant to almost every job You're expected,
for example, to be courteous and not hostile in interactions
with co-workers.
FELT VERSUS DISPLAYED EMOTIONS
a. Felt Emotions: The individuals actual emotion.
b. Displayed Emotions: The learned emotions that the
organization requires workers to show and considers
appropriate in a given job.
c. Surface Acting: hiding one’s true emotions.
d. Deep Acting: trying to change one’s feelings based on
display rules.
e. Emotional labor creates dilemmas for employees when
their job requires them to exhibit emotions that are
incongruous with their actual feelings Not surprisingly,
this is a frequent occurrence.
There are people at work with whom you find it very
difficult to be friendly: Maybe you consider their
personality abrasive. Maybe you know they've said
negative things about you behind your back.
They're not Innate: they're learned "The ritual look of
delight on the face of the font runner-up as the new Miss
America is announced is a product of the display rule that
losers should mask their sadness with an expression of 10
for the winners
Effective managers have learned to be serious when giving
an employee a negative performance evaluation and to
cover up their anger when they've been passed over for
promotion. . And the salesperson who hasn't learned to
smile and appear friendly, regardless of his or her true
feelings at the moment, isn't typically going to last long on
most sales jobs.
The key point here is that felt and displayed emotions are
often different. In fact, many people have problems working
with others simply because they naively assume that the
emotions they see others display is what those others
actually feel.
EMOTION DIMENSIONS
How many emotions are there? In what ways do they vary?
We'll answer these questions in this section.
Variety
There have been numerous efforts to limit and define the
fundamental or basic set of emotions.
Research has identified six universal emotions: anger, fear,
sadness, happiness, disgust, and surprise.
One factor that has strongly shaped what is and isn't listed
in this basic set is the manner in which emotions were
identified. Researchers tended to look for universally
identified facial expressions and then convert them into
categories. Emotions that couldn't be readily identified by
others through facial expressions, or which were considered
a subset of one of the basic six, were not selected.
The closer any two emotions are to each other on this $7
continuum, the more people are likely to confuse them. For
instance, happiness and surprise are frequently mistaken
for each other, while happiness and disgust are rarely
confused.
Do these six basic emotions surface in the workplace?
Absolutely. I get angry after receiving a poor performance
appraisal. I fear that I could be laid off as result of a
company cutback. I'm sad about one of my co-workers
leaving to take new job in another city. I'm happy after
being selected as employee-of the month.
Intensity People give different responses to identical
emotion-provoking stimuli. In some cases this can be
attributed to the individual's personality. People vary in
their inherent ability to express intensity. You undoubtedly
know individuals who almost never show their feelings.
They rarely get angry They never show rage. In contrast, you
probably also know people who seem to be on an
emotional roller coaster. When they're happy, their ecstatic.
When they're sad, they're deeply depressed.
Jobs make different intensity demands in terms of
emotional labor. For in stance, air traffic controllers and
trial judges are expected to be calm and con trolled, even in
stressful situations.
Frequency and Duration. How often does an emotion need
to be exhibited? And for how long?
Sean Wolfson is basically a quiet and reserved person. He
loves his job as financial planner. He doesn't enjoy, however,
having to give occasional speeches in order to increase his
visibility and to promote his programs. "If I had to speak to
large audiences every day, I'd quit this business," he says. "I
think this works for me because I can fake excitement and
enthusiasm for an hour, a couple of times a month."
Emotional labor that requires high frequency or long
durations is more demanding and requires more exertion by
employees. So whether an employee ca successfully meet
the emotional demands of a given job depends not only
which emotions need to be displayed and their intensity,
but also how frequently and for how long the effort has to
be made.
CAN PEOPLE BE EMOTIONLESS?
Are people who seem outwardly calm or apathetic in
situations, in which others are clearly emotionally charged,
without feeling? Can people be emotionless?
Some people have severe difficulty in expressing their
emotions and under standing the emotions of others.
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)
Psychologists call this alexithymia (which is Greek for "lack
of emotion"). People who suffer from alexithymia rarely cry
and are often seen by others as bland and cold. Their own
feelings make them discomfort able, and they're not able to
discriminate among their different emotions.
Does this inability to express emotions and read others
mean that people who suffer from alexithymia are poor
work performers? Not necessarily. Consistent with our
discussion on matching personality types with appropriate
jobs, people who lack emotion need to be in jobs that
require little or no emotional labor. These people are not
well suited to sales and managerial positions.
LESSON 6:
GENDER AND EMOTIONS
It's widely assumed that women are more "in
touch" with their feelings than men-that they react more
emotionally and are better able to read emotions in others.
Is there any truth to these assumptions?
The evidence does confirm differences between
men and women when it comes to emotional reactions and
ability to read others. In contrasting the genders, women
show greater emotional expression than men; they
experience emotions more intensely, and they display more
frequent expressions of both positive and negative
emotions, except anger. In contrast to men, women also
report more comfort in expressing emotions. Finally,
women are better at nonverbal and paralinguistic cues than
are men.
One explanation is the different ways men and
women have been socialized. Men are taught to be tough
and brave; and showing emotion is inconsistent with this
image. Women, on the other hand are friendlierthan men.
For instance, women are expected to express more positive
emotions on the job (shown by smiling) than men, and they
do. A second explanation is that women may have more
innate ability to read others and present their emotions
than do men. Third, women may have a greater need for
social approval and, thus, a higher propensity to show
positive emotions such as happiness.
Reading Emotions
Understanding another person's felt emotions is a
very difficult task. But we can learn to read others displayed
emotions. We do this by focusing on verbal, nonverbal, and
paralinguistic cues.
The easiest way to find out what someone’s feeling is to ask
them. Saying something as simple as "Are you OK! What's
the problem?" can frequently provide you with the
information to assess an individual's emotional state but
relying on a verbal response has two drawbacks:
First, almost all of us conceal our emotions to some extent
for privacy and to reflect social expectations. So we might
be unwilling to share our true feelings.
Second, even if we want to verbally convey our feelings, we
may be unable to do so.
As we've noted previously, some people have difficulty
understanding their own emotions and hence, are un- able
to verbally express them. So, at best, verbal responses
provide only partial information.
You're talking with a co-worker. Does the fact that his back
is rigid, his teeth clenched, and his facial muscles ought tell
you something about his emotional State? It probably
should, facial expressions, gestures, body movements, and
physical distance are nonverbal cues that can provide
additional insights into what a person is feeling. Notice the
difference in facial features the height of the cheeks, the
raising or lowering of the brow, the turn of the mouth, the
positioning of the lips. and the configuration of the muscles
around the eyes. Even something as subtle as the distance
someone chooses to position himself or herself from you
can convey their feelings, or lack thereof, of intimacy, ag
aggressiveness, repugnance, or withdrawal.
As Janet and I talked, I noticed a sharp change in the tone of
her voice and the speed at which she spoke. I was tapping
into the third source of information on a person's emotions-
paralanguage.
This is communication that goes beyond the specific spoken
words. It includes pitch, amplitude, rate, and voice quality
of speech. Paralanguage reminds us that people convey
their feelings not only in what they say but also in how they
say it.
Women show greater emotional expression than men and
experience emotions more intensely.
An emotion that is acceptable on the athletic playing field is
acceptable when exhibited at the workplace. Similarly,
what's appropriate in a country is often inappropriate in
another. These facts illustrate the role that internal
constraints play shaping displayed emotions. Every
organization defines boundaries that identify what
emotions are acceptable and the degree to which they can
be expressed. The same applies in the different cultures. In
this section, we look at organizational and cultural
influences on emotions:
Organizational influences
 If you can't smile and appear happy, you're un likely to
have much of a career working at a Disney amusement
park.
 And a manual produced by McDonald's states that its
counter personnel "must display traits such as sincerity,
enthusiasm, confidence, and a sense of humor." There
is no single emotional "set" sought by all organizations.
However, at least in the United States, the evidence
indicates that there's a bias against negative and
intense emotions.
 Expressions of negative emotions such as fear, and
anxiety, and anger tend to be unacceptable except
under fairly specific conditions.
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)
 For instance, one such condition might be a high-status
member of a group conveying impatience with a low-
status member. Moreover, expressions of intense
emotion, whether negative or positive, tend to be
typically unacceptable because they're seen as
undermining routine task performance.
 Again, there are exceptional conditions in which this
isn't true-for example, a brief grieving over the sudden
death of a company's CEO or the celebration of a
record year of profits But for the most part, consistent
with the myth of rationality, well-managed O
organizations are expected to be essentially emotion
free.
Cultural influences
 Cultural norms in the United States dictate that
employ sees in service organizations should smile
and act friendly when interacting with customers.
But this norm doesn't apply worldwide.
 In Israel, smiling by super market cashiers is seen
as a sign of inexperience, so cashiers are
encouraged t look somber." In Moslem cultures,
smiling is frequently taken as a sign of sexual
attraction, so women are socialized not to smile at
men.
The foregoing examples illustrate the need to consider
cultural factors as inti fencing what is or isn't considered as
emotionally appropriate. What's acceptable in one culture
may seem extremely unusual or even dysfunctional in
another. A cultures differ in terms of the interpretation they
give to emotions.
FIGURE 1: Hierarchy of Emotions Viewing customer
emotions as negative or positive and, within each category,
as one of four basic emotions exemplified by specific
emotional states, is a useful and actionable framework for
marketers.
NEGATIVE
o Sadness - Miserable Helpless Guilty
o Anger - Frustrated Irritated Discontented
o Shame - Embarrassed Ashamed Humiliated
o Fear - Nervous Worried Tense
POSITIVE
o Pride - Pride
o Contentment - Contented Fulfilled Peaceful
o Love - Passionate Sentimental Warm-hearted
o Happiness - Hopeful Pleased Enthusiastic
There tends to be high agreement on what emotions mean
within cultures but not between. For instance, one study
asked Americans to match facial expressions with the six
basic emotions. The range of agreement was between 86
and 98 percent. When a group of Japanese was given the
same task, they correctly labeled only surprise (with 97
percent agreement). On the other five emotions, their
accuracy ranged from only 27 to 70 percent. In addition,
studies indicate that some cultures lack words for such
standard emotions as anxiety, depression, or guilt.
Tahitians, as a case in point, don't have a word directly
equivalent to sad ness, When Tahitians are sad their peers
typically attribute their state to a physical illness.
We conclude our discussion of emotions by considering
their application to several topics in OB. In this section, we
assess how a knowledge of emotions can help you to better
understand the selection process in organizations, decision
making, motivation, leadership, interpersonal conflict, and
deviant workplace behaviors.
Ability and Selection
People who know their own emotions and are good at
reading others' emotions may be more effective in their
jobs. That, in essence, is the theme underlying recent
research on emotional intelligence."
Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to an assortment of
noncognitive skills, capabilities, and competencies that
Influence a person's ability to succeed in coping with
environmental demands and pressures. It's composed of
five dimensions:
Self-awareness. The ability to be aware of what you're
feeling
Self-management. The ability to manage one's own
emotions and impulses
Self-motivation. The ability to persist in the face of setbacks
and failures.
Empathy. The ability to sense how others are feeling.
Social skills. The ability to handle the emotions of others.
Several studies suggest El may play an important role in job
performance. For instance, one study looked at the
characteristics of Bell Lab engineers who were rated as stars
by their peers. The scientists concluded that stars were
better at relating to others. That is, it was EI, not academic
IQ, that characterized high performers. A second study of
Air Force recruiters generated similar findings. Top
performing recruiters exhibited high levels of El. Using these
findings, the Air Force revamped its selection criteria. A
follow-up investigation found that future hires who had
high El scores were 2.6 times more successful than those
who didn't. A recent poll of human resource managers
asked: How important is it for your workers to demonstrate
EI to move up the corporate ladder? Forty percent replied
"very important." Another 16 percent said "moderately
important."
The implications from the initial evidence on El is that
employers should consider it as a factor in selection,
especially in jobs that demand a high degree of social
interaction.
Decision Making
As you'll see in our next weekly lessons, traditional
approach to the study of decision making in organizations
have emphasized rationality. They have downplayed, or
even ignored, the role of anxiety, fear, frustration, doubt,
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)
happiness, excitement, and similar emotions. Yet it's naive
to assume that decision choices aren't influenced by one's
feelings at a particular moment. Given the same objective
data, we should expect that people may make different
choices when they're angry and stressed out than when
they're calm and collected.
Negative emotions can result in a limited search for new
alternatives and a less vigilant use of information. On the
other hand, positive emotions can in crease problem solving
and facilitate the integration ofinformation." You can
improve your understanding of decision making by
considering "the heart" as well as the head." People use
emotions as well as rational and intuitive processes in
making decisions. Failure to incorporate emotions into the
study of decision processes will result in an incomplete (and
often inaccurate) view of the process.
Emotional Intelligence is an assortment of noncognitive
skills, capabilities, and competencies that influence a
person's ability to succeed in coping with environmental
demands and pressures.
Motivation
We'll discuss motivation thoroughly in the next
chapters. At this point, we want to merely introduce the
idea that, like decision making, the dominant approaches to
the study of motivation reflect an over rationalized view of
individuals.
Motivation theories basically propose that
individuals are motivated to the extent that their behavior
is expected to lead to desired outcomes. The image is that
of rational exchange: the employee essentially trades effort
for pay, security, promotions, and so forth. But people
aren't cold, unfeeling machines. Their perceptions and
calculations of situations are filled with emotional content
that significantly influences how much effort they exert.
Moreover, when you see people who are highly motivated
in their jobs, they're emotionally committed. People who
are engaged in their work become physically, cognitively,
and emotionally immersed in the experience of activity, in
the pursuit of a goal.
Are all people emotionally engaged in their work?
No! But many are. And if we focus only on rational
calculations of inducements and contributions, we fail to be
able to explain behaviors such as the individual who forgets
to have dinner and works late into the night, lost in the thrill
of her work.
Leadership is the ability to lead others is a fundamental
quality sought by organizations. For this module, we briefly
introduce how emotions can be an integral part of
leadership.
Effective leaders almost all rely on the expression of feelings
to help convey their messages. In fact, the expression of
emotions in speeches is often the critical clement that
results in individuals accepting or rejecting a leader's
message. "When leaders feel excited, enthusiastic, and
active, they may be more likely to energize their
subordinates and convey a sense of efficacy, competence,
optimism, and enjoyment. Politicians, as a case in point,
have learned to show enthusiasm when talking about their
chances for winning an election, even when polls suggest
otherwise.
Corporate executives know that emotional content is critical
if employees are to buy into their vision of their company's
future and accept change. When new visions are offered,
especially when contain distant or vague goals, change is
often difficult to accept. So when effective leaders want to
implement significant changes, theyrely on the evocation,
framing, and mobilization of a notions." By arousing
emotions and linking them to an appealing vision, leaders
increase the likelihood that managers and employees alike
will accept change.
Interpersonal Conflict
Few issues are more intertwined with emotions
than the topic of interpersonal conflict. Whenever conflicts
arise, you can be fairly certain that emotions are also
surfacing. A manager's success in trying to resolve conflicts,
in fact, is often largely due to his or her ability to identify
the emotional elements in the conflict and to get the
conflicting parties to work through their emotions. And the
manager who ignores the emotional elements in conflicts,
focusing singularly on rational and task concerns, is unlikely
to be very of effective in resolving the conflicts
Deviant Workplace Behaviors
Negative emotions can lead to a number of deviant
workplace behaviors. Anyone who has spent much time in
an organization realizes that people often engage in
voluntary actions that violate established norms and that
threaten the organization, its members, or both. These
actions are called employee deviance.
Employee Deviance - Voluntary actions that violate
established norms and that threaten the organization, its
members, or both. This fall into categories such as
production (e.g., leaving early, intentionally working slowly);
property (c.8., stealing, sabotage); political (eg. gossiping,
blaming co-workers); and personal aggression (e.g., sexual
harass- mem, verbal abuse). Many of these deviant
behaviors can be traced to negative emotions. For instance,
envy
Envy - an emotion that occurs when you resent someone
for loving something that you don't, which you strongly
desire. It can lead to mall serious deviant behaviors. Envy,
for example, has been found to be associated with hostility,
"backstabbing" and other forms of political behavior,
negatively distort others’ successes, and positively
distorting one's own accomplishments.
SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS
PERSONALITY
A review of the personality literature offers general
guidelines effective job performance. As such, it can
improve hiring, transfer, and promotion decisions. Because
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)
personality characteristics create the parameters for people
behavior, they give us a framework for predicting behavior.
For example, individuals who are shy, introverted, and
uncomfortable in social situations would probably be ill-
suited as salespeople. Individuals who are submissive and
conforming might not be effective as advertising "idea"
people.
Can we predict which high performers in sales, research,
can lead people to work on the basis of their personality
characteristics alone? The answer is No. Personality
assessment should be used in conjunction with other in
formation as skills, abilities, and experience. But a
knowledge of an individual's personality can aid in reducing
mismatches, which in turn, can lead to reduced turnover
and higher job satisfaction.
We can look at certain personality characteristics that tend
to be related to job success, test for those traits, and use
the data to make selection more effective. A person who
accepts rules, conformity, and dependence and rates high
authoritarianism is likely to feel more comfortable in, say, a
structured assembly line job, as an admittance clerk in a
hospital, or as an administrator in a large public agency than
as a researcher or an employee whose job requires a high
degree of creativity.
Emotions
Can managers control the emotions of their
colleagues and employees? No. Emotions are a natural part
of an individual's makeup. Managers err if they ignore the
emotional elements in organizational behavior and assess
individual behavior if it were completely rational. As one
consultant aptly put it, "You can't divorce emotions from
the workplace because you can't divorce emotions from
people. Managers who understand the role of emotions will
significantly improve their ability to explain and predict
individual behavior.
Do emotions affect job performance? Yes. They can hinder
performance, especially negative emotions. That's probably
why organizations, for the most part try to extract emotions
out of the workplace. But emotions can also enhance
performance. How? Two ways:
First, emotions can increase arousal levels, thus acting as
motivators to higher performance.
Second, emotional labor recognizes that feelings can be
part of a job's required behavior.
So, for instance, the ability to effectively manage emotions
in leadership and sales positions may be critical to success
in those positions.
What differentiates functional from dysfunctional emotions
at work? While there is no precise answer to this, it's been
suggested that the critical moderating variable is the
complexity of the individual's task. The more complex a
task, the lower the level of arousal that can be tolerated
without interfering with performance. While a certain
minimal level of arousal is probably necessary for good
performance, very high levels Interfere with the ability to
function, especially the job requires calculative and detailed
cognitive processes. Given that the trend is toward jobs
becoming more complex, you can see why organizations are
like to go to considerable efforts to discourage the overt
display of emotions-especially intense ones-In the
workplace.
Traits are Powerful Predictors of Behavior The essence of
trait approaches in OB is that employee possesses stable
personality characteristics that significantly influence their
attitudes toward, and behavioral reactions to,
organizational settings. People with particular traits tend to
be relatively consistent in their attitudes and behavior over
time and across situations. Of course, trait theorists
recognize that all traits are not equally powerful. They tend
to put them into one of three categories:
Cardinal traits strong and generalized that they influence
every act a person performs
Primary traits generally consistent influences on behavior,
but they may not show un up in all situations Secondary
traits attributes that do not form a vital part of the
sonalitytions but come into play only in particular situa- For
the most part, trait theories have focused on the power of
primary traits to predict employee behavior
Trait theorists do a fairly good job of meeting the
average person's face-validity test. Think of friends relatives,
and acquaintances you have known for a number of years.
Do they have traits that have remainedessentially stable
over time? Most of us would answer that question in the
affirmative. If Cousin Anne was shy and nervous when we
last saw her 10 years ago, we would be surprised to find her
outgoing and relaxed now. Managers seem to have a strong
belief in the power of traits to predict behavior. If managers
be lied that situations determined behavior, they would hire
people almost at random and structure the situation
properly, But the employee selection process in most
organizations places a great deal of emphasis on how
applicants perform in interviews and on tests. Assume
you're an interviewer and ask yourself: What am I looking
for in job candidates? If you answered with terms such as
conscientious, hard working persistent, confident and
dependable, you're a trait theorist!
Few people would dispute that there are some
stable individual attributes that affect react to the
workplace But trait theorists go beyond that generosity and
argue that individual behavior consistencies are widespread
and account for much of the differences in behavior among.
There are two important problems with using traits to
explain large proportion of behavior in organizations: It has
been well known for some time that the effects of traits are
likely to be strongest in relatively weak situations and
weakest in relatively strong situations.
Organizational settings tend to be strongest
nations because they have rules and other formal
regulations that define acceptable behavior and punish
deviant behavior; and they have informal norms that dictate
appropriate behaviors. These formal and informal
constraints minimize the effects of personality traits. By
arguing that employees possess stable traits that lead to
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

cross-situational consistency in behaviours, trait theorists

are implying that individuals don't really adapt to different
situations. But there is a growing body of evidence that an
individual's traits are changed by the organizations in which
that individual participates. If the individual's personality
changes as a result of exposure to organizational settings, in
what sense can that individual be said to have traits that
persistently and consistently affect his or her reactions to
these very settings? Moreover, people typically belong to
multiple organizations that often include very different
kinds of members, and they adapt to those different
situations. Instead of being the prisoners of a rigid and
stable personality framework, as trait theorists propose,
people regularly adjust their behavior to reflect the
requirements of various situations.

First, organizationa l settings are strong situations that have

a large impact on employee be behavior.

Second, individuals are highly adaptive and personality

traits change in response to organizational situations

It has been well known for some time that the effects of
traits are likely to be strongest in relatively weak situations
and weakest in relatively strong situations. Organizational
settings tend to be strongest nations because they have
rules and other formal regulations that define acceptable
behavior and punish deviant behavior; and they have
informal norms that dictate appropriate behaviors. These
formal and informal constraints minimize the effects of
personality traits. By arguing that employees possess stable
traits that lead to cross-situational consistency in
behaviours, trait theorists are implying that individuals
don't really adapt to different situations. But there is a
growing body of evidence that an individual's traits are
changed by the organizations in which that individual
participates. If the individual's personality changes as a
result of exposure to organizational settings, in what sense
can that individual be said to have traits that persistently
and consistently affect his or her reactions to these very
settings? Moreover, people typically belong to multiple
organizations that often include very different kinds of
members, and they adapt to those different situations.
Instead of being the prisoners of a rigid and stable
personality framework, as trait theorists propose, people
regularly adjust their behavior to reflect the requirements
of various situations.
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

Quiz 1 True or False 8. Which of the following is true of individuals with a

positive effect? They generally tend to be
1. Organizational Behavior is specifically concerned
enthused.
with employment related situations. True
9. How can a person reduce dissonance? All of the
2. Conceptual skills are applied when a salesperson is
given
good at using a sales force automation platform.
10. Among the Big Five personality traits, which of the
False
following is typically associated with an individual
3. Organizational excellence begins with the state of
being good-natured and trustful? Agreeableness
the art operation. False
4. Managers have to look at how all the department Quiz 3
are working together, spot any particular issues,
1. Dr. Briosos attributes his success for his
and then decide what steps need to be taken is an
determination to finish his studies despite the
interpersonal skills. False
financial difficulties of his family. Internals
5. Men may seems to be more authoritative than
2. Our personalities developed as a result of ___.
women is an exam of whole person. False
genetic inheritance & environmental influences
6. Happy workers are productive workers. True
3. Which of the following statements is true?
7. Notice the accomplishments of the people around
We often share personality traits with others,
you and compliment them, the manager applied
especially members of our own family and
technical skils. False
community.
8. Organizational Behavior starts with a set of
4. Jia cites her being a College undergraduate to the
fundamental concepts revolving around the nature
government’s inefficiency to make programs for
of people and organization. True
free education for less fortunate students like her.
9. Organizational Behavior is concerned with the
Externals
study of what people do in an organizations and
5. During this pandemic, most universities cut costs
how that behavior affects the performance of the
by ending contracts of faculty and some heads
employee. False
were given additional teaching load. Miss Kylie was
10. Employees feel more comfortable in the workplace
one among chosen to teach aside from having an
if they feel that they are given importance. True
office schedule. She was given new subjects to
teach but did not resist because she wants to enjoy
Quiz 2 the experience. Openness to experience
6. The company’s group of Supervisors has no
1. An attitude can be inferred from a person’s: all of
problem working with the Production Supervisor,
the given
Mr. Delos Santos because he is very cooperative
2. Greg wants to buy a new car. He does some
when it comes to ways and means on managing
research and test-drives several cars before
and monitoring people. Agreeableness
deciding to purchase the one with the highest
7. Filipino domestic helpers are the best choice of
safety rating and best gas mileage. Which type of
employers abroad because of their industriousness
attitude influenced his decision? Explicitly based
and reliability. Environment
attitude
8. The head of the Provincial Learning Resource
3. Which of the following is true of the perceptual
Center (CPLRC) is tapped by the Provincial
error of availability bias?
Governor to administer the BalikProbinsya
It is rooted in limitations in the information we
program this pandemic on top of his functions as
possess or our memory.
the CPLRC head. He rarely comes home to his
4. People are more selective about exposure to
family because he is busy organizing the trips and
content when: An attitude is personally important
the passengers. Despite all of these, his overwork
5. Which of the following is a difference between
cannot be manifested in his face.
terminal values and instrumental values?
Emotional Stability
Terminal values are related to desirable ends, while
9. Talkative vs. silent; frank, open vs. secretive;
instrumental values are desirable means.
adventurous vs. cautious; sociable vs. reclusive?
6. If a person has two important attitudes, those
these traits describe which dimension of
attitudes are likely to be: All of the given
personality? Extraversion
7. Sara loves puppies. Which of the following could
10. The Bank Manager is not worried whenever he is
be an example of the behavioral component of her
not present in their branch because Ms. Rosemarie
attitude towards puppies? When she thinks about
is there to take charge. She can be dependent
puppies, she experiences a boost in her mood.
upon assigned tasks and is very much trustworthy
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

making her act on behalf of the manager.

Conscientiousness
11. Maggy is a complete resemblance of her mother,
taking her facial attractiveness and height.
Heredity
12. Marian is very much dedicated to her work. She
loves accomplishing tasks because she knows that
meeting the demands of her work will make her
succeed in her career. Self-esteem
13. Ronie enjoys every seminar his company sends
him to because he can easily get along well with
other delegates. He is very friendly and outgoing,
making others comfortable with his presence.
Extraversion
14. President Duterte’s critics consider him as the one
behind the closure of ABS-CBN because he is
manipulating the Congress to achieve power.
Mach
15. The new entrant of the company, Mr. Jaybee did
not find difficulty adjusting to his new job because
he is very much capable of handling situations that
require his attention.
Self-monitoring
16. In China, children are usually taught to ______.

think and act as a member of their family and to

suppress their own wishes when they are in
conflict with the needs of the family
17. The prevalence of Type A personalities will be
somewhat influenced by the ______________.
culture in which a person grows up.
18. Eula was never interested to attend mass during
Sundays because her parents rarely bring her out
when she was a kid. Now that she’s studying in
USL, she initiates going to mass every Sunday.
Situation
19. Vice Ganda always make it to a trending twitter
hashtags. Her “Mas Testing” idea was a hit because
he’s one effective conceptualizer and innovative.
INTP
20. Graciella is a natural leader. Her teacher trusts her
when it comes to school programs because she
loves organizing activities for her classmates to
enjoy. ESTI
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

Organizational Behavior
study of human behavior in organization settings, of the interface btwn human behavior and the
organization, and the organization itself
What are the 4 basic managerial functions?
1. planning
2. organizing
3. leading
4. controlling
planning
determining the organizations desired future position and deciding how to get there
organizing
grouping people into manageable units, designing jobs
leading
getting employees to work together to achieve their desired goal
controlling
monitoring and correcting the actions of the organization and the employees
What are the 3 categories for managerial roles?
(1) Interpersonal (2) Informational (3) Decision-making
What 4 skills do most successful managers have?
(1) Technical (2) Interpersonal (3) conceptual (4) diagnostic
technical skills
skills necessary to accomplish specific tasks in the organization
interpersonal skills
to communicate with, understand, and motivate individuals and groups
conceptual skills
think in the abstract
diagnostic
understand cause-and-effect relationships & recognize the optimal solutions to problems
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What are the conceptual concepts of organizational behavior?
(1) Individual processes (2) interpersonal processes (3) organizational processes and characteristics
Systems perspective
Input: (1) material (2) human (3) financial (4) informational

Outputs: products/services, profits/losses, employee behaviors, new info.

(then system receives feedbacks based on outputs)

Situational perspective
suggests that in any organization, inputs and outputs are influenced by other variables
Universal perspective
suggests that there is "one best way" to solving problems or reacting to situations
Interactionalism
suggests that individuals and situations interact in order to determine individual's behavior
3 different levels of goals & outcomes?
Individual-level, group- and team-level, organizational-level
globalization
the internationalization of business activities and the shift toward an integrated global economy
what are the 4 basic reasons for growth in international trade?
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

(1) communication & transportation have advanced (2) businesses have expanded internationally (3) firms
are moving into international markets to control costs, especially to reduce labor costs (4) many
organizations have become international in response to competition
5 important environmental forces that are changing environment of business (the organization)
(1) globalization (2) diversity (3) technology (4) ethics & corporate governance (5) employment
relationships
culture
set of shared values, often taken for granted, that help ppl in a group, organization, or society understand
which actions are considered acceptable and which are unnacceptable
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Geert Hofstede
dutch researcher, specific attitudes and behaviors differ b/c of values and beliefs that characterized those
countries
What is the importance of Geert Hofstede's research?
ppl from diverse cultures value things differently frm each other and ppl need to take these differences into
account as they work
Individualism
ppl define themselves as individuals rather than as part of a group or organization
collectivism
tight social framework in which ppl tend to base their identities on the group or organizations they belong to
Power distance
(orientation to authority) the extent to which ppl accept as normal an unequal distribution of power
Uncertainty avoidance
(preference for stability) the extent to which ppl feel threatened by unknown situations and prefer to be in
clear and unambiguous situations
masculinity
(assertiveness or materialism) extent to which the dominant values in a society emphasize aggressiveness
and the acquisition of money and other possessions as opposed to concern for ppl, relationships among ppl,
and overall quality of life
Long-term orientation
focusing on the future, working on projects tht have a distant payoff, persistence, and thrift
short-term orientation
focusing on the past and the present and include respect for traditions and social obligations
Workforce diversity
refers to the important similarities & differences among the employees of organizations
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stereotypes
generalizations about a person or a group of persons based on certain characteristics or traits
prejudices
judgements about others that reinforce beliefs about superiority and inferiority
Primary dimensions of diversity
factors that are either inborn or exert extraordinary influence on early socialization (ex: age, race, ethnicity,
gender, physical and mental abilities, sexual orientation)
secondary dimensions of diversity
factors that matter to us as individuals and that to some extent define us to others; however, they may be less
permanent than primary dimensions & can be adapted or changed (ex: education, geographical location,
religious beliefs, work experience)
Assimilation
process thru which members of a minority group are socialized into learning the ways of the majority group
(in other words, molding them to fit in)
give example of assimilation
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

require employees to speak one language

Valuing diversity
putting an end to the assimilation
technology
methods used to create products, including both physical goods & intangible services
3 specific areas of technology relevant to the study of organizational behavior
(1) shift toward a service-based economy (2) growing use of technology for competitive advantage (3)
mushrooming change in information technology
advantages of information technology
leaner & more flexible organizations, increased collaboration, improved management processes/systems
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disadvantages of information technology
less personal communication, less "down time", an increased sense of communication & decision-making
urgency
manufacturing
form of business that combines and transforms resources into tangible outcomes that are then sold to others
(ex: apple)
service organization
transforms resources into an intangible output and creates time or place utility for its customers (ex: fantastic
sams)
One important area of managerial ethics is the treatment of ____ by the organization
employees
Managerial ethics
how the organizations treats its employees, how employees treat the organization, and how employees and
organizations treat other agencies
corporate governance
board of directors ensure that corporation is being properly managed
knowledge workers
employees who add value in an organization simply b/c of what they know
outsourcing
practice of hiring other firms to do work previously performed by the organization itself
advantages of outsourcing
helps firms to focus on core activities, lowers labor costs thru exportation of work
disadvantages of outsourcing
out-of-job workers are used to train the newly-hired foreign replacements, reduction of domestic job
opportunities
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contingent worker
person who works for an organization on something other than a permanent or full-time basis (ex: temporary
employee)
tiered workforce
this exists when one group of organizations workforce has a contractual arrangement w/ the organization
objectively different from another group performing the same jobs
psychological contract
person's expectations regarding what he/she will contribution to the organization & what the organization
will provide in return (pay, benefits, status, promotion, career opportunities)
In the psychological contract, what are contributions and inducements? Give examples
Contributions: effort, loyalty, ability, skills, time
Inducements: tangible & intangible rewards --> pay, job security, benefits, career opportunities, status,
promotion opportunities
person-job fit
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

when contributions and inducements MATCH

personality
relatively stable set of psychological attributes that distinguish one person from another
what are the "big five" personality traits?
set of fundamental traits that are especially relevant to organizations: (1) agreeableness (2) conscientiousness
(3) neuroticism (4) extraversion (5) openness
agreeableness
ability to get along with others (low agreeableness --> irritable, short-tempered)
conscientiousness
refers to the # of goals on which a person focuses (low conscientiousness --> tend to pursue a wider range of
goals which tends to become disorganized, careless)
neuroticism
characterized by a person's tendency to experience unpleasant emotions such as anger, anxiety, depression,
and feelings of vulnerability (less neurotic --> calm, resilient, secure)
extraversion
reflects a persons comfort level w/ relationships (introversion --> less talkative, reluctant to begin new
relationships)
openness
willingly open to new information and change, such as beliefs and interests (less openness --> fewer,
narrower interests)
Myers-Briggs Framework
an approach to understanding personalities in organizations which differentiates ppl into 4 categories:
sensing, intuiting, judging, perceiving
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
a popular questionairre that some organizations use to asses personality tests
locus of control
extent to which an individual believes his circumstances are a function of either his own actions or of
external factors beyond his control
self-efficacy
an individual's beliefs about his or her capabilities to perform a task (less efficacy -> failure)
authoritarianism
the belief that power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems such as
organizations (less authoriatarianism -> expresses disagreement, questions things)
machiavellianism
ppl who have to gain power and control the behavior of others
self-esteem
extent to which that person believes he/she is a worthwhile & deserving individual
risk propensity
degree to which a person is willing to take chances and make risky decisions
attitude
persons complexes of beliefs & feelings about specific ideas, situations, or other ppl
explain the formation of attitudes
people have cognition (knowledge) about something which has an affect (feelings) on them, then leads to
behavioral intention (intend to behave in the future)
cognition
the knowledge a person presumes to have about something
affect
a person's feelings toward something (similar to emotion bc we don't have control over it)
intention
component of an attitude that guides a person's behavior
cognitive dissonance
behaving in a way that is inconsistent to your attitude (ex: someone believes smoking is bad but continues to
smoke)
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

job satisfaction
extent to which a person is gratified or fulfilled by his/her work
organizational commitment
a person's identification w/ and attachment to an organization
positive affectivity
ppl who are upbeat and optimistic, have an overall sense of well-being, and see things in a positive light
negative affectivity
ppl who are generally downbeat and pessimistic, see things in a negative way, and seem to be in a bad mood
perception
set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets info. about the environment
selective perception
process of screening out info. that we are uncomfortable w/ or that contradicts our beliefs
stereotyping
categorizing or labeling ppl on the basis of a single attribute
attribution theory
suggests that we attribute causes to behavior based on our observations of certain characteristics of that
behavior
workplace behavior
a pattern of action by the members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences the organizations
effectiveness
performance behavior
total set of work-related behaviors that the organization expects the individual to display
dysfunctional behaviors
those that detract from organizational performance
absenteeism
occurs when an individual does not show up for work
turnover
occurs when ppl quit their jobs (organization usually incurs costs in replacing workers, and if turnover
involves especially productive ppl, it is even more costly)
organizational citizenship
extent to which his/her behavior makes a positive overall contribution to the organization
motivation
set of forces that leads ppl to behave in particular ways
performance = ? + ? + ?
motivation, ability, environement
what does motivation start with?
a need
need
anything an individual requires or wants
scientific management approach (to motivation)
assumes that employees are motivated by money
Human relations approach (to motivation)
employees want to feel useful and important, illusion of contribution & participation, strong social needs
were important to them
human resource approach (to motivation)
ppl want to contribute AND do make genuine contributions to the organization
need-based theories (of motivation)
suggests that ppl are motivated by deficiencies in one or more important needs or need categories
What are the 2 best known need theories?
(1) hierarchy of needs (2) ERG theory
Hierarchy of Needs Theory
assumes that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance -physiological, security, belongingness,
esteem, self-actualization
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

ERG Theory
describes Existence (necessary for basic human survival), Relatedness (need to relate to others), and Growth
needs - in contrast to maslows theory, erg theory holds a satisfaction-progression and frustration-regression
component, more than one need may motivate the individual
Dual-structure theory
identifies motivation factors affect satisfaction. Whereas hygiene factors determine dissatisfaction
According to the dual-structure theory, what are motivation factors and hygiene factors?
motivation: intrinsic to the work itself --> achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and
growth

hygiene: extrinsic to the work itself --> work conditions, pay & job security, supervision, and company
policies
Need for achievement
desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than was done in the past
Need for affiliation
need for human companionship
need for power
desire to control the resources in one's environment - including financial, material, informational and human
resources
process-based perspectives on motivation
focuses on how ppl behave in their efforts to satisfy their needs
what are the 2 process perspectives on motivation?
(1) equity (2) expectancy
Equity theory
ppl in organizations want to be treated fairly
equity
belief that we are being treated fairly in relation to others; inequity is the belief that we are being treated
unfairly in relation to others
explain the input-to-output outcome in equity theory
comparison between own input-to-outcome ratio to the ratio of a comparison-other
If someone is experiencing inequity, what are their 6 motivational options to reduce inequity?
1. change inputs
2. change outcomes
3. alter perceptions of self
4. alter perceptions of other
5. change comparisons
6. leave situation
expectancy theory
ppls are motivated by how much they want something and the likelihood they perceive of getting it
effort-to-performance expectancy
person's perception of the probability that effort will lead to performance
performance-to-outcome expectancy
individual's perception of the probability that performance will lead to certain outcomes
outcome
anything that results from a particular behavior
valence
degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness a particular outcome has for a person
Porter-law model (expectancy) - relationship between satisfaction and performance
effort --> performance --> intrinsic/extrinsic rewards --> satisfaction

Ex: if rewards are adequate, high levels of performance may lead to satisfaction.
learning
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential resulting from direct or indirect experience
(learning play a key role in motvation bc employees are always learning which behaviors are rewarded or
punished)
How is learning occured?
1. classical conditioning: cause-and-effect for a response tied with an action

2. learning as a cognitive process: ppl are conscious, active participants in how they learn (ex: use past
experiences and knowledge, ppl recognize consequences)
classical conditioning
simple form of learning
reinforcement theory
behavior is a function of its consequences
reinforcements
consequences of behaviors
name the types of reinforcements in organizations
(1) positive: reward, desirable consequence
(2) avoidance - negative reinforcement: opportunity to avoid or escape from an unpleasant circumstance
after exhibiting behavior
(3) extinction: decreases the frequency of behavior by eliminating a reward of desirable consequence that
follows that behavior
(4) punishment: unpleasant consequence that decreases the frequency of undesirable behavior
schedules of reinforcement
indicate when/how often managers should reinforce certain behaviors
What are the 5 basic schedules of reinforcement?
1. continuous: behavior is reinforced every time it occurs
2. fixed-interval: reinforced to some constant schedule based on time
3. variable-interval: reinforced after period of time, but the time spans vary each time
4. fixed-ratio: reinforced according to the # of behaviors exhibited, w/ the # of behaviors needed to gain
reinforcement held constant
5. variable-ratio: but the # of behaviors needed to gain reinforcement varies from one time to the next
social learning
occurs when ppl observe the behaviors of others, recognize their consequences, and alter their own behavior
as a result
Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Mod)
strategy for using learning & reinforcements principles to enhance employee motivation and performance.
job design
how organizations design and structure jobs
job specialization
argues that jobs should be standardized across all workers --> paved the way for large-scale assembly lines
What 2 approaches did managers take in response to crease less monotonous jobs?
job rotation and job specialization
job rotation
systematically moving workers from one job to another
job enlargement
giving workers more tasks
job enrichment
in addition to giving workers more tasks to perform, they were given more control over how to perform
them
job characteristics theory
identifies 5 motivational properties of tasks and 3 critical psychological states of people
What are the 5 core job dimensions in the job characteristics theory?
1. skill variety
2. task identity: job has a beginning & end
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3. task significance
4. autonomy: job allows the individual substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to schedule the
work & determining procedures
5. feedback
what are the 3 psychological states in the job characteristics theory
1. experienced meaningfulness
2. experienced responsibility for work outcomes
3. knowledge of results
(if these are experienced @ a high level, then they are likely to feel good about themselves and their jobs)
participation
giving employees a voice in making decisions about their own work
empowerment
giving employees the option to set their own goals, make decision, and solve problems
compressed work schedule
employee works a full 40 hours a week in less than 5 days
extended work schedule
work for a long period of time --> long period of time off
flexible work schedules (flextime
gives employees more personal control over the hours they work on their days
job sharing
two or more part-time employees share one full-time job
telecommuting
employees spend most of their time working off-site
goal
desirable objective
goal-setting theory
assumes that behavior is a result of conscious goals and intentions
Under the goal-setting theory, what 2 specific goal characteristics are expected to shape performance?
goal difficulty and goal specificity
goal difficulty
extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort

Organizational Behavior
The study of human behavior in the workplace, the interaction between people, and the
organization with the intent to understand and predict human behavior.
Systematic Study
Well constructed studies that examine certain aspects of human behavior. These are used instead
of intuition to make better decisions.
Organization
A group with two or more people that share a common set of goals and meet at regular times.
Group Norms
What constitutes as proper behavior and what does not in a group environment.
Contingency
A factor that varies based on the circumstances of specific situations.
Personality
Distinctive individual qualities responsible for one's identity. One's personality is the sum total of
ways an individual reacts to and interacts with others. Accept that everyone has a unique _____.
Type "A" People
People who seem to always be going, always trying to multitask, and are obsessed with numbers
and base their success on how much of everything they acquire. Often stress themselves out.
Type "B" People
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People who are very laid back, tend to not be very self-motivated, and oftentimes are emotional.
Do not get stressed out very often, and most of the time have little to no stress.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
A test that classifies different types of personalities. Measures Introversion versus extroversion,
sensing versus intuitive, thinking versus feeling, and perceiving versus judging. An example test
result is INTP (introverted, intuitive, thinking, perceiving)
Introvert
A person who likes being by themselves.
Extrovert
A person who gets energy from being with others.
Ability
The capacity to do something, (doesn't mean it is actually done)
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Intellectual ability
Capacity to do mental activities.
Physical Ability
Capacity to do physical activities such as running, lifting a certain amount of weights, and jumping
high.
Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.
Classical conditioning
Came from a series of famous experiments conducted by Ivan Pavlov. It is a passive learning
process that causes a person or creature to respond to a certain stimulus even though normally
there would be no response to that stimulus.
Operant Conditioning
Came from the work of E.F. Skinner. It is an active learning process in which a person or creature
is encouraged to repeat a certain behavior by rewarding them for that good behavior.
Social Learning
Learning through experience.
Bodily-Kinesthetic
A learning style that is indicative of an active learner. These people like to experience things for
themselves and explain what they have learned to others.
Visual-Spatial
A learning style that is indicative of a learner who remembers what they see, but forgets spoken
words and ideas.
Verbal-Linguistic
A learning style that is indicative of someone who remembers much of what they hear and and
more of what they hear and then say out loud. These people benefit from activities like class
discussions.
Logical-Mathematical
A learning style that is indicative of a learner that likes to reflect on concepts and mentally test and
visualize them.
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Perception
A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions to give meaning to
their environment. It is influenced by the perceiver, the target and the situation.
Projection
Attributing one's own characteristics to another person.
Selective Perception
When people interpret what they see based on their interest, background, experience, and
attitudes.
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Stereotyping
Attributing a specific trait to a person based on the characteristics of the group to which a person
belongs.
Halo Effect
When a general impression is made about an individual because of a single positive characteristic.
Contrast effect
Occurs when an impression is made based on a comparison with others, ranking the individual
higher or lower on the same characteristics.
Horn effect
When a general impression is made about an individual based on a single NEGATIVE
characteristic.
Internal Locus of Control
people who believe they control their own destiny
External locus of control
people who believe that external factors control them.
Attribution theory
Developing an idea on whether or not a person's behavior is internally or externally controlled
based on a few scenarios and actions.
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Consensus
Everyone that faces a similar situation exhibits the same behavior.
Consistency
Showing the same behavior in the same situation all of the time.
Distinctiveness
Showing different behavior in different situations.
Self-serving bias
A person who thinks that anything good is the result of internal factors (themselves) and anything
bad is the result of external factors (others).
Fundamental attribution error
A person attributes a behavior to internal factors when it was actually an external factor outside of
the person's control.
Values
Basic notions about what is right or wrong. (abortion, gay rights, capital punishment...)
Terminal values
End States you hope to achieve
Instrumental values
Values that aid in achieving terminal values.
Attitude
The way people think as a result of their personal values. Depends on three parts: the affective
component, the cognitive component, and the behavioral component.
Affective component
The component of one's attitude that is based on how someone feels about something.
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Behavioral component
The component of one's attitude that is based on what someone is prepared to do about
something.
Cognitive component
The component of one's attitude that is based on the way people think as a result of their values.
Cognitive Dissonance
A conflict between two values or between values and behavior.
Motivation
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The willingness of a person to exert effort to satisfy needs and wants.

Maslow's Hierarchy of needs
consists of 1) physical needs 2) safety and security needs 3) social and belonging needs 4) ego or
self-esteem needs 5) self-actualization needs
Higher order needs (intrinsic)
Internally satisfied needs in Maslow's hierarchy (3-5 are of this type)
Lower order needs (extrinsic)
externally satisfied needs in Maslow's hierarchy (1-2 are of this type)
Alderfer's ERG needs model
This model takes Maslow's needs and splits them up into three categories, existence, relatedness,
and growth to explain motivation.
Existence needs
Part of Alderfer's ERG model, encompasses physical, safety, and security needs.
relatedness needs
Part of Alderfer's ERG model; encompasses social needs, social esteem needs, and interpersonal
safety needs
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Growth needs
Part of Alderfer's ERG model; encompasses both the internal self-esteem needs, and the self
actualization needs.
Herzberg's motivation hygiene theory
Contends that there are two different sets of job factors. one set satisfies, one set prevents
dissatisfaction.
Motivation scale
2 values: Satisfaction or no satisfaction
Hygiene
2 values: Dissatisfaction or no dissatisfaction
McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y
A theory about the assumptions managers make about human beings
Theory X
Assumptions that are pessimistic about workers capabilities. Believe that people dislike work, seek
to avoid responsibility, are not ambitious, and must be supervised closely.
Theory Y
Assumptions that are optimistic about workers capabilities. Believe that workers do accept
responsibility, can exercise self control, have the capacity to innovate, consider work to be as
natural as rest or play, and want to contribute to the organizational goals if given the opportunity.
Achievement
The drive to accomplish challenging goals
Power
the desire to control others, to influence others' behavior
Affiliation
the desire for close relationships with others
goal setting theory
Theory that behavior is regulated by values, intentions, and ________.
Goal
What a person tries to attain, accomplish, or achieve.
Equity Theory
A simple framework theory that provides an understanding for how people decide whether or not
they are being treated fairly in their relationships.
Positive reinforcement
Providing a positive response when someone demonstrates the desired behavior
Negative reinforcement
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rewarding by taking away uncomfortable consequences

Punishment
The application of an undesirable consequence for an undesired behavior.
Expectancy theory
Says that motivation results from deliberate choices to engage in activities to achieve worthwhile
outcomes.
Extinction
The reduction in frequency of an undesired behavior by removing the reward for such behavior.
Stress
The way we react physically and emotionally to demands where the outcome is uncertain and
important.
Functional Stress
Positive stress that enhances individual or group performance.
Dysfunctional Stress
Negative stress that degrades individual or group performance.

What are the most common causes of conflicts in the workplace?

-Organizational Change
-Ineffective Communication
-Values and Culture Clashes
-Work Policies and Practice
-Adversarial Management
-Competition for Scarce Resources
-Personality Clashes
Organizational Change
caused by a tension between opposing forces for stability and change
Ineffective Communication
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inevitable breakdown of communication when many different people are working closely together
in a work setting
Value and Culture Clashes
conflict between men and women, different generations, and people with different priorities; each
individual bears different cultural transitions that can easily come into conflict with another
Adversarial Management
arises when supervisors view their employees or other managers with suspicion and distrust,
labeling them "the enemy"
Competition for Scarce Resources
arises during downsizing or cost-cutting
Personality Clashes
arises when there is a difference in communication styles, temperament, or attitudes
Assertive Behavior
being able to stand up for your rights and express your thoughts and feelings in a direct,
appropriate way that does not violate the rights of others
Aggressive Behavior
expressing your thoughts and feelings and defending your rights in a way that does violate the
rights of others
What is the typical outcome when a won/win management strategy is used?
-Fix the problem without assigning blame
-Engage in dialogue where each side attempts to get the other side to understand its concerns
and both sides then work towards a mutually satisfying solution.
Win/Lose
High assertiveness, low cooperation, confrontational, aggressive, must win at any cost
Problem-Solving
High assertiveness, high cooperation, needs of both parties are legitimate and important, high
respect for mutual support
Avoidance
Low assertiveness, low cooperation, non-confrontational, ignores or passes over issues, denies
issues are a problem
Accommodating
High cooperation, low assertiveness, agreeable, non-assertive, cooperative even at the expense
of personal goals
What are the steps in the conflict resolution process?
-Decide whether you have a true disagreement or just a misunderstanding
-Define the problem and collect the facts
-Clarify perceptions
-Generate options for mutual gain
-Implement options with integrity
In discussing negotiation strategies, Mr. Dana discussed situations where it may be more
important to maintain relationships than to win. What phrase did he ask you to write down?
It is better to be reconciled than right.
What are some positive aspects of stress?
-Can be a powerful stimulus for growth if it motivates you to do your best work
-Can build within you the energy and desire needed to perform effectively
-Con promote greater awareness and help you focus on getting tasks completed quickly and
effeciently
What are major causes of stress in the workplace?
-Work/Life Balance
-Change
-Multitasking
-Noise Pollution
-Incompetent Leaders
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-Work and Family Transitions

-Rumination
Burnout
Gradually intensifying pattern of physical, psychological, and behavioral dysfunction that evolves
in response to a continuous flow of stressors
What are the key symptoms of burnout?
-Increased detachments from coworkers, customers, or clients
-Increased tardiness, absenteeism, cynicism, and moodiness
-Increased disorientation, forgetfulness, or low concentration
-Increased personal problems, drug or alcohol abuse, decreased social contacts, or marital
discord
What is the phrase that your professor recommended that you use as an approach to resolving
conflict or addressing performance issues?
Help me to understand.
According to Covey, what is necessary to build win/win solutions?
-Character includes a balance between the qualities of courage and consideration (maturity)
-Relationships must be based on trust
-Agreements must define desired results, guidelines, resources, accountability, and
consequences.
Quadrant 1
Urgent and Important
Quadrant 2
Not Urgent and Important
Quadrant 3
Urgent and Not Important
Quadrant 4
Not Urgent and Not Important
Which Quadrant of the Management Matrix should be our focus if we want to be effective?
Quadrant 2
What are the two areas in which we should invest time and energy?
-Preserving and enhancing healthy relationships
-Accomplishing great results
What is the key to becoming more effective by making the move to Quadrant 2?
Having the courage to say no to unimportant activities (Quadrants 3 and 4)
Valuing Diversity
Appreciating everyone's uniqueness, respecting differences, and encouraging every worker to
make his or her full contribution to the organization
Primary Dimension of Diversity
Core characteristics of each individual that cannot be changed
Prejudice
premature judgement or opinion that is formed without examination of the facts
Discrimination
behavior based on prejudiced attitudes
Stereotypes
Perceptions, beliefs, and expectations about members of some groups
Ethnocentrism
tendency to regard our own culture or nation as better or more "correct" than others
What three major factors contribute to the development of prejudice?
-Childhood experiences
-Ethnocentrism
-Economic conditions
What is the age of older workers protected against age discrimination by the Age Discrimination in
Employment Act?
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40+
What is the name of the federal law that protects people who are mentally and physically
challenged from discrimination?
The Americans with Disabilities Act
What are the three pillars of a comprehensive diversity program?
-Organizational commitment
-Employment practices
-Training and development
What was the original purpose of affirmative action guidelines?
To make companies intentionally seek out and hire employees from groups that were under-
represented in their organizations
What are the current arguments for ending affirmative action?
-Preferences are discriminatory
-Preferences do not make sense given changing demographics
-Socioeconomic status as an indicator of need
Gender Bias
Also known as sexism, discrimination on the basis of gender
Glass Ceiling
A condition in the workplace that gives women a view of top management jobs but blocks their
ascent
What is the primary requirement of the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993?
You must work for an employer with 50 or more employees and at a location with at least 50
employees within a 75 mile radius
Quid pro quo
something for something, occurs when a person in a supervisory or managerial position threatens
the job security or a potential promotion of a subordinate worker who refuses to submit to sexual
advances
Hostile work environment
exists if a reasonable person believes that the behavior is sufficiently severe or pervasive to create
an abusive working environment, even if the victim does not get fired or held back from a
promotion
What is the first thing you should do it you believe you are a victim of sexual harassment?
Tell the harasser to stop
Under the new guidelines for organizational etiquette, what is the appropriate way to greet another
executive entering your office, regardless of your gender or theirs?
Rise and greet them
What are the first four steps of Zapp!?
-Maintain or enhance self-esteem
-Listen and respond with empathy
-Share thoughts, feelings, and rationale
-Ask for help and encourage involvement
What is the soul of Zapp!?
Provide support without taking away responsibility for action
What are the four things that people need for Zapp! to work?
-Support
-Knowledge and skills
-Resources
-Direction
Organizational Culture
Collection of shared values, beliefs, rituals, stories, and myths that foster a feeling a community
among organizational members
What did Mayo's Hawthorne studies contribute?
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-Attention focused on workers makers them feel important

-Feedback on job performance as well as freedom from supervisory control increased morale,
motivation, and productivity
-Relationships that result from worker interactions influence performance
What is one of the most effective ways to improve organizational communication?
Trust
What is one of the most important skills in active listening?
Clarify by asking questions
What do you need to do to be a good empathetic listener?
-Avoid being judgmental
-Acknowledge what is said
-Be patient
Dominance Continuum
measures a persons tendency to display a "take-charge" attitude
High Dominance
Advises and gives demands freely, assertive, seeking control
Low Dominance
Cooperative, eager to assist, low assertiveness, more willing to be controlled
Sociability Continuum
measures a person's tendency to seek out and enjoy social relationships
Low Sociability
no-nonsense, impersonal, businesslike
High Sociability
express feelings and impressions openly, sometimes too informal
Emotive (Influence)
high dominance, high sociability
Director (Dominance)
high dominance, low sociability
Supportive (Steadiness)
low dominance, high sociability
Reflective (Conscientiousness)
low dominance, low sociability
Self-Esteem=
Self-efficacy+Self-respect
Self-respect
what you think and feel about yourself
Self-efficacy
learned expectations of success
What are the three ways that adults tend to define themselves?
-Things we possess
-What we do for a living
-Our internal value system and emotional makeup
What is the healthiest way that adults define themselves?
By their internal value system and emotional makeup
Character
composed of personal standards of behavior including honesty, integrity, and moral stength
Integrity
basic ingredient of character that is exhibited when you achieve congruence between what you
know, what you say, and what you do
What are the three guidelines to making right, ethical choices?
-Learn to distinguish between right and wrong
-Do not let your life be driven by the desire for immediate satisfaction
-Make certain that your values are in harmony with those of your employer
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Attitude
thought you have accepted to be true that lead you to think, feel, and act positively or negatively
toward a person, idea, or event
What is the foundation for attitudes?
core values
Internal Motivation
comes from the satisfaction tat occurs when work is meaningful and gives us a sense of purpose
External Motivation
action taken by another person, usually involves the anticipation of a reward of some kind
What are the three assumptions on which Maslow's hierarchy of needs rests?
-People have a number of needs that require some measurement of satisfaction
-Only unsatisfied needs motivate behavior
-The needs of people are arranged in a hierarchy
Self-disclosure
process of letting another person know what you think, feel, or want
The art of apologizing includes:
regret, responsibility, and remedy
360 Degree Feedback
provides valuable insights regarding a worker's talents and shortcomings from various people
throughout the organization
Personal Competence
how we achieve and maintain emotional balance, self-awareness is the essential component,
involves keeping ones disruptive emotions and impulses in check
Social Competence
how we handle relationships, sensing others thoughts, feelings, and intentions, listening openly,
sending convincing messages, and negotiating and resolving disputes
How do people who capitulate to their emotions see themselves?
As the helpless victim of feelings over which they have no control, often overly concerned about
the attitudes and opinions of others
What are the two indisputable facts about human nature?
-People want to know how well they are doing and if their efforts are satisfactory
-People appreciate recognition for their accomplishments
Primacy Effect
the tendency to emphasize the first impression over later impressions when forming a perception
Instead of facts, what do people rely more heavily on during an initial contact when they form an
impression of you?
Assumptions
What are the benefits of having a leadership style that emphasizes team building?
It is positively associated with high productivity and profitability
How long does it take for a self-managed team to mature and become effective?
one to two years
What steps would a manage take to improve his or her consideration skills?
-Recognize accomplishments
-Provide for early and frequent success
-Take a personal interest in each employee
-Establish a climate of open communication
-Discover individual employee values
What are the ways that a manager can improve structure skills?
-Communicate your expectations
-Provide specific feedback often
-Deal with performance problems immediately
-Coaching for peak performance
Situational Leadership
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theory that the most successful leadership occurs when the leader's style matches the situation;
emphasizes the need for flexibility
What is the attribute that Mr. Dana said was commonly found in all studies on leadership?
Influence
What is the statement that relates to our freedom to choose how we respond to external events?
I can't help the way I feel right now, but I can help the way I think and act
In relation to chapter 5 on ethical choices, what is the two-part definition of ethics that Mr. Dana
gave you?
Ethics is knowing the right thing to do and having the courage to d

3 Essential Skills of Managers

Technical skills, human skills, conceptual skills
Technical Skills
The ability to apply specialized knowledge or expertise; All jobs require this and many people
develop their technical skills on the job
Human Skills
The ability to work with, understand, and motivate other people, both individually and in groups;
Managers get things done through other people, they must have good human skills
Conceptual Skills
The mental ability to analyze and diagnose complex situations; After selecting a course of action,
managers must be able to organize a plan of action and then execute it; ability to integrate new
ideas
Fred Luthans' 4 Managerial Activites
Traditional management, communication, human resource management, networking
Who was Fred Luthans'?
Luthans was one of the first management scholars to apply behavioral science to better
understanding and effectively manage human behavior in organizations. (Successful vs. Effective
mangers)
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Traditional Management
Decision making, planning, and controlling
Communcation
Exchanging routine information and processing paperwork
Human Resource Management
Motivating, disciplining, managing conflict, staffing and training
Networking
Socializing, politicking, and interacting with others
True
Managers who promoted faster (were successful) did different things than did effective managers
(those who did their jobs well)
Organizational Behavior (OB)
A field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on
behavior within organizations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an
organization's effectiveness.
What is OB?
It applies the knowledge gained about individuals, groups, and the effect of structure on behavior
in order to make organizations work more effectively
OB Core Topics
Motivation, leader behavior and power, interpersonal communication, group structure and
processes, attitude development and perception, change processes, conflict and negotiation, work
design
Intuition
Gut feelings, individual observation, common sense
Systematic Study
Looks at relationships, scientific evidence, predicts behaviors
True
Intuition and Systematic Study are complementary means of predicting behavior
Contributing Disciplines to OB
Psychology, social psychology, sociology, anthropology
Psychology
The science that seeks to measure, explain, and sometimes change the behavior of humans and
other animals
Contributions of Psychology to OB
Learning, motivation, training, employee selection, job satisfaction
Social Psychology
An area within psychology that blends concepts from psychology and sociology and that focuses
on the influence of people on one another
Contributions of Social Psychology to OB
Behavioral and attitude change, communication, group processes, group decision making
Sociology
The study of people in relation to their fellow human beings
Contributions of Sociology to OB
Group dynamics, work teams, power, conflict, organizational technology, change, and culture, and
intergroup behavior
Anthropology
The study of societies to learn about human beings and their activites
Contributions of Anthropology to OB
Organizational culture, environment, comparative values and attitudes, and cross-cultural analysis
Absolutes in OB
Situational factors that make the main relationship between two variables change
Model
A model is an abstraction of reality - a simplified representation of some real-world phenomenon
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The OB Model
Individual level, group level, and organization systems level
OB Dependent Variables
Productivity (effectiveness vs efficiency), absenteeism, turnover, deviant workplace behavior
Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB)
Discretionary behavior that is not part of an employee's formal job requirements, but that
nevertheless promotes the effective functioning of the organization
Job Satisfaction
A general attitude (NOT a behavior) toward one's job; a positive feeling of one's job resulting from
an evaluation of its characteristcs
Biological Characteristics
Age, gender, race and ethnicity, tenure, religion sexual orientation, gender identity
Ability
An individual's capacity to perform the various tasks in a job (intellectual is mental and physical is
stamina)
Nine Basic Physical Abilities
Strength factors - dynamic, trunk, static, explosive; flexibility factors - extend and dynamic; other
factors - body coordination, balance, and stamina
Diversity Management
Important across the globe. However, different cultures will use different frameworks for handling
diversity; must be ongoing commitment at all levels; policies must include multiple perspectives
and be long term in orientation to be effective
Surface-Level Diversity
Represents the characteristics that are easily observed such as race, gender, and age
Deep-Level Diversity
Represents the aspects that are more difficult to see at first glance such as values, personality,
and work preferences
Discrimination
Noting of a difference between things; often we refer to unfair discrimination, which means making
judgments about individuals based on stereotypes regarding their demographic group
Aging Workforce
Older workers bring with them a wealth of knowledge and experience, but the perception is that
productivity often declines with age
Attitudes
Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events
Three Components of an Attitude
Cognitive - the opinion of belief segment of an attitude; Affective - the emotional or feeling
segment of an attitude; Behavioral - an intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or
something
Leon Festinger
"Does behavior always follow from attitudes?" Leon - "No, the reverse is sometimes true!"
Cognitive Dissonance
Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes
Job Involvement
The degree to which a person identifies with a job, actively participates in it, and considers
performance important to self-worth
Job Satifaction
A positive feeling about one's job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics
Dissonance
Individuals seek to reduce this uncomfortable gap, or to reach stability and consistency
True
Attitudes predict behavior
Psychological Empowerment
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Belief in the degree of influence over the job, competence, job meaningfulness, and autonomy
Organizational Commitment
Identifying with a particular organization and its goals, while wishing to maintain membership in an
organization -- Affective - emotional attachment to organization; Continuance commitment -
economic value of staying; Normative - moral or ethical obligations
Perceived Organization Support (POS)
Degree to which employees believe the organization values their contribution and cares about
their well-being
Employee Engagement
The degree of involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the job
Emotions
Intense feelings that are directed at someone or something
Moods
Feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus
Affect
A broad range of emotions that people experience
Six Basic Emotions
Anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust, surprise
3 Steps to Manage Emotions at Work
1) Stop and evaluate (think) 2) Take a time out (relax) 3) Focus on improving the situation (act)
True
Emotions are necessary for rational decisions
Emotional Labor
An employee's expression of organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions
at work
Emotional Dissonance
Employees have to project one emotion while simultaneously feeling another
Affective Events Theory (AET)
An event in the work environment triggers positive or negative emotional reactions
Implication of AET
1) An emotional episode is actually the result of a series of emotional experiences triggered by a
single event 2) Current and past emotions affect job satisfaction 3)Emotional fluctuations over time
create variations in job performance 4)Emotion-driven behaviors are typically brief and variable 5)
Both negative and positive emotions can distract workers and reduce job performance
Emotional Intelligence (EI)
A person's ability to be self-aware, detect emotions in others, manage emotional cues and
information
Personality
The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others, the measurable traits
a person exhibits
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
A personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types
(Extroverted vs Introverted; Sensing vs Intuitive; Thinking vs Feeling; Judging vs Perceiving)
Big Five Model
A personality assessment model that taps five basic dimensions (Extraversion, agreeableness,
conscientiousness, emotional stability, openness to experience)
Core Self-Evaluation
The degree to which people like or dislike themselves - positive self-evaluation leads to higher job
performance
Machiavellianism
A pragmatic, emotionally distant power-player who believes that ends justify the means
Narcissism
An arrogant, entitled, self-important person who needs excessive admiration
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Self-Monitoring
The ability to adjust behavior to meet external, situational factors; high monitors conform more and
are more likely to become leaders
Emotional Intelligence (EI)
The capacity to be aware of, control, and express one's emotions, and to handle interpersonal
relationships judiciously and empathetically
Type A Personality
Aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more in less time
Proactive Personality
Identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action, and perseveres to completion (positive
change)
Values
Basic convictions on how to conduct yourself or how to live your life that is personally or socially
preferable - "How To" live life properly
Content Attribute
That the mode of conduct or end-state is important
Intensity Attribute
Just how important that content is
Value System
A person's values rank ordered by intensity; tend to be relatively constant and consistent
Terminal Values
Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a person would like to achieve during his or her
lifetime
Instrumental Values
Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one's terminal values
Person-Job Fit Theory (John Holland)
Six personality types; vocational preference inventory -- there appear to be intrinsic differences in
personality between people, there are different types of jobs, and people in jobs congruent with
their personality should be more satisfied and have lower turnover
Person-Organization Fit
The employee's personality must fit with the organizational culture
Individualism
The degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as member of groups
Collectivism
A tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look
after them and protect them
Masculinity
The extent to which the society values work roles of achievement, power, and control, and where
assertiveness and materialism are also valued
Femininity
The extent to which there is little differentiation between roles for men and women
High Uncertainty Avoidance
Society does not like ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them
Low Uncertainty Avoidance
Society does not mind ambiguous situations and embraces them
Long-Term Orientation
A national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence
Short-Term Orientation
A national culture attribute that emphasizes the present and the here and now
Low Power Distance
Relatively equal power between those with status/wealth and those without status/wealth
High Power Distance
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Extremely unequal power distribution between those with status/wealth and those without
status/wealth
Power Distance
The extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed
unequally

Human Behavior
Any act of an individual person which is considered human behavior is a reflection of his thoughts,
feelings, emotions, sentiments whether conscious or not.

It mirrors his needs, values, motivation, aspirations, conflicts and state of life.
Behavior
Consists of all human activities.
leadership,
followership,
communication,
decision making and the
process in the organization.
Behavior is universal and is at the core of the following
culture-laden behavior
The principle and concepts that underlie behavior are basic. It is their implementation and practice
that differ from group to group or from one country to another is known as
Human Act
Act of Man
Human Behavior is also called ___________ which is different from ____________
Human Act
when man/person performs an act with free will; he is responsible for such act which is performed
with alternatives to choose from
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Act of Man
is performed by one who is forced to do so at the risk of his own life, if he does otherwise; he does
not have any other alternatives to
choose from
To have an understanding of the actions of people

The need to understand the behavior of others and the need to anticipate and predict how others
may act in certain situation are important since we are affected by their actions

provide data and information which may be needed for improved productivity

rational decision and policy making, for better planning and organizing
personnel and human resources recruitment, screening, selection, promotion and
development

We look not only into the personality of others but into our own personalities as
well.

To know the reason why we think, feel, act, speak and talk in certain ways.
Reasons for studying Human Behavior
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
• The study and application of knowledge about how people as individuals and as
groups act and behave within the organization.

• It strives to identify ways in which people act more effectively.

• Provides a useful set of tools at many levels of analysis to help managers look
at the behavior of individuals within the environment.

• It also aids them in their understanding of the complexities which affect the
interpersonal relations of the people as they interact.
1. To describe - how people behave as they interact with one another.

2. To understand - why people behave in varied manners.

3. To predict - to predict the future employee behavior so that an appropriate

course of action maybe employed.

4. To control - for the manager to develop human activity at work.

GOALS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
1. Philosophy - base on speculation and logic
2. Physiology - base on experimental observation
Two main approaches to the study of human behavior
1. Experiments
2. Surveys
3. Case methods
Methods use in studying human behavior
1. Observation
2. Interview
3. Interview schedule
4. Questionnaire
5. Check list
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6. Scales psychological test

7. Statistics
studying human behavior makes use of the following
People
Structure
Technology
Environment
4 forces or elements affecting Organizational Behavior (Draw)
People
make up the internal social system in an organization; the system
consists of individual and groups, large or small, with different values and
orientation.
Structure
defines the formal relationships and use of human resources in an organization.
Technology
It has a tremendous influence on working relationships. It
provides the resources with which people work and affect the tasks they perform.
Environment
All organization operates within an internal and external ___________
Individual differences
Perception
Whole person
Motivated person
Desire for involvement
Value of persons
Basic concept of organizational system and human behavior
Individual differences
a person is a distinct individual; he is unique and different
from others.
Perception
is the act of faculty apprehending by means of the sense or of the
mind.
. Whole person
when a person joins an organization, he is hired not only
because of his brains but, as a whole, person possessed with certain
characteristics.
Motivated person
this may be as a result of a normal behavior that has certain
causes and these may relate to an individual's need.
Desire for involvement
every person wishes to feel good himself. This is reflected in his drive for self-efficacy.
Value of persons
People want to be given preferential value for their skills and
abilities with opportunities for their development
Organizations and Social System
__________ are ___________for they are organized on the basis of mutual
interest.
Social system
A complex set of human relationships interacting in many and different ways.

• His behavior is influenced by the group he belongs to and by his personal

drives and aspirations.
Mutual interest
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Organization needs people and people also need organization.

It provides super ordinate goals for employees, for the

organization and for society
Ethics
It is a system of moral principles.

• The rules of conduct recognized in respect to a particular class of human actions

or a particular group
Human Resources Approach
Contingency Approach
Result-oriented Approach
System Approach
Four basic approaches in organizational behavior
Human Resources Approach
o The philosophy of this approach is developmental.

o Specifically designed and concerned with the growth and development of

people in order to achieve higher levels of competency, creativity, and
fulfilment.

o In order for this approach to be successful, employers should be more

responsible by creating an organizational climate conducive for all
members.

o Under this approach, the manager's role changes from control of

employees to active support of their organizational growth and
development.
Contingency Approach
o The strength of this approach is that it encourages a thorough analysis of
every situation prior to action and at the same time, discourages virtually
habitual practice based on universal assumptions about people.

o Many management experts and practitioners perceived that there is no

longer one best way.

o This approach is also more interdisciplinary, more system-oriented and

more research-oriented than the traditional approach.
Result-oriented Approach
o All organization whether political, social, economic or religious, needs to
accomplish desirable results.

o The principal objective for organizations to survive is to produce the

necessary output.

o Productivity is measured in terms of economic inputs and outputs.

o Better organizational behavior can naturally improve job satisfaction.

System Approach
o This approach is a type of behavioural approach in which the manager
takes a holistic perspective of the whole subject.

o Holistic organizational behavior interprets people-organization

HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

relationships in terms of the whole person, whole group, whole

organization and whole social system in its total cooperative effort to
understand as many of the intervening factors as possible that affects an
individual's behavior in the work environment.

o Existing problems are analyzed in relation to the total condition affecting

the entire organization rather than treating the problem in an isolated
case.
Effective management
_______________ can best be achieved through the proper understanding
and utilization of the human resources, contingency, result-oriented and system
approaches.
Organizations are social systems
____________ are _____________ it combine science and people, technology
and humanity.
1. Objectives are so widely shared by the members and there is a strong and consistent flow of
energy towards those objectives.

2. People feel free to signal their awareness of difficulties because they expect the problems to be
dealt with and they are optimistic that these problems can be solved.

3. Problem-solving is highly pragmatic. In attacking problems, people work informally and are not
preoccupied with status, territory, or second guessing "what higher management will think." A great
deal of non-conforming behavior is tolerated.

4. The judgement of people lower down in the organization is respected.

5. Collaboration is freely entered into. People readily request the help of others and are willing to
give in turn. Ways of helping one another are highly developed. Individuals and groups compete
with one another, but they do so fairly and in the direction of a shared goal.

6. When there is a crisis, the people quickly band together in work until the crisis departs.

7. Conflicts are considered important to decision making and personal growth. They are dealt with
effectively, in the open. People say what they want and expect others to do
the same.

8. There is a great deal of on-the-job learning based in the willingness to give, seek, and use
feedback and advice. People see themselves and others as capable of significant
personal growth and development.

9. Joint critique of progress is routine.

10. Relationships are honest. People do care about one another and do not feel alone.

11. People are "turned on" and highly involved by choice. They are optimistic. The work place is
important and fun.

12. Leadership is flexible, shifting in style and person to suit the situation.

13. There is a high degree of trust among people and a sense of freedom and mutual
responsibility. People generally know what is important to the organization and what isn't.
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

14. Risk is accepted as a condition of growth and change.

15. "What can we learn from each mistake?"

16. Poor performance is confronted, and a joint resolution sought.

17. Organizational structure, procedures, and policies are fashioned to help people get the job
done and to protect the long term health of the organization, not to give each
bureaucrats his due. These procedures are also readily changed.

18. There is a sense of order, and yet a high rate of innovation. Old methods are questioned
and often give way to new ones
Give some Characteristics of a Healthy Organization
1. Little personal investment in organizational objectives except at top levels.

2. People in the organization see things going wrong and do nothing about it. Nobody volunteers.
Mistakes and problems are habitually hidden or shelved. People treat each other in a formal and
polite manner that masks issues - especially with the boss. Non conformity is frowned upon.
People talk about office troubles at home or in the halls, not with those involved.

3. People at the top try to control as many decisions as possible. They become bottlenecks, and
make decisions with inadequate information and advice. People complain about manager's
irrational decisions.

4. Managers feel alone in trying to get things done. Somehow, orders, policies and procedures do
not get carried out as intended.

5. The judgement of people lower down in the organization is not respected outside the narrow
limits of their jobs.

6. Personal needs and feelings are side issues.

7. People compete when they need to collaborate. They are very jealous of their area of
responsibility. Seeking or accepting help is un-thoughtful. They distrust each other's
motives and speak poorly of one another; the manager tolerates this.

8. When there is a crisis, people withdraw or start blaming one another.

9. Conflict is mostly covert and managed by office politics and other games, or there are
interminable and irreconcilable arguments.

10. Learning is difficult. People don't approach their peers to learn for them, but have to learn from
their own mistakes; they reflect the experience of others. They get little feedback on performance,
ad much of that is not helpful.

11. Feedback is avoided.

12. Relationships are contaminated by marksmanship and image building. People feel alone and
lack concern for one another. There is an undercurrent of fear.

13. People feel locked into their jobs. They feel stale and bored but constrained by the need for
security. Their behavior, for example, in staff meetings, is listless and docile. It's not much fun.
They got their kicks elsewhere.
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

14. The manager is a prescribing father to the organization.

15. The manager allows little freedom.

16. Minimizing risks has a very high value.

17. "One mistake and you're out."

18. Poor performance is glossed over or handled arbitrarily.

19. Organizational structure, policies, and procedures encumber the organization. People take
refuge in policies and procedures, and play games with organizational structure.

20. Traditional.

21. Innovation is not widespread but in the hands of a few.

22. People swallow their frustrations: "I can do nothing. It's their responsibility to save the
ship."
Give some Characteristics of an Unhealthy Organization:
Social System
It is a complex set of human relationships interacting in various
ways.

In a single organization, it includes all the people in it and their

relationships to one another and to the bigger outside world.
o The behavior of the individual
o His relation to any other individual
Two points that stand out in the complex interactions among people in a social
system:
It keeps on interacting with their environments - awareness of the nature of their surroundings

• Has an impact on other members both within and outside their own social
system.
Social Systems are Open Systems that:
• A social system is a state of equilibrium when all the variables in an organizational system
operate in a dynamic working balance with its independent parts.

• Can be compared to a sea: there is continuous motion and disruption occasionally form storms,
but the sea's basic character, even with violent and rugged waves, changes very little and goes
back to normal.
Equilibrium in the Social System (just Read)
Minor
Major
Disequilibrium
Changes in Social System
Minor
Change in Social System that are absorbed by adjustments sub-system within the system which
eventually regains its equilibrium state.
Major
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Change in Social System in which the untimely death of a key executive, or a series of smaller but
faster changes, may throw an organization out of balance; and consequently, impede its progress
until it reaches a new equilibrium.
Disequilibrium
Change in Social System where it's subparts are not working in harmony
o creative
o enthusiastic
o productive
o constantly seek to improve the quality of the organization's product or service
Functional effects of Changes in Social System
o tardy
o frequently absent
o uncooperative
o poor attitude to share their talents and most often, resistant to organizational changes.
Dysfunctional effects of Changes in Social System
Economic contract
Psychological contract
The unwritten psychological contract
Economic contract
- time, effort, and talent are use in exchange of wages
and reasonable working conditions.
Psychological contract
- involvement and commitment in terms of loyalty,
creativity and determined effort; in return he expects more economic
rewards from the organization. e.g. better wages and other material
benefits, job security, fair treatment, organizational support for his
development.
Taylor
Culture according to ____________ is:

• A complex whole includes knowledge, beliefs, law, art, morals, customs and
other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.

• It is man's social heritage which has been transmitted from one generation to
another through language.

• It tells man what to do, what not to do and how to do things.

• It represents the design of living, the interrelated network of norms and roles.

• It encompasses modes of thinking, feelings, and acting commonly found in

society that includes everything man has acquired as a member of that
society.
Culture
__________ Is indispensable to an organization which is composed of workers who share a
common culture or one that is made up of different people who are interacting on
the basis of shared beliefs, customs, values and activities.
Organizational culture
It is a set of assumptions, beliefs, values and norms that are shared by the
members.

• It represents an important element of the work environment in which workers

perform their tasks.
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

1. It gives an organizational identity to workers.

2. It defines the vision of what the organization represents.
3. It is a source of stability and continuity to the organization which provides a sense of security to
its members.
Organizational culture affects workers because of the ff. reasons:
Organizations are like fingerprints are unique; each has its own history, patterns of
communication, systems and procedures, mission statements and vision, and institutes its
distinctive culture.

Culture is relatively stable in nature, usually changing only slowly over time. (Except when major
crisis threatens an organization or when two organizations merge) a careful blending of the two in
order to avoid culture clash.

There is no "best" culture for all organizations; it depends on the firm's goals, industry, nature of
completion, and other factors in its work environment. Most culture evolve directly from top
management, who has tremendous influence on their works.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE (Just Read)
Socialization
The process whereby the individual is converted into the person. As a process,
the individual learns to conform with the norms of his social group, acquire a
status and play a corresponding role.

It is important because managers will have

an opportunity to understand their worker's beliefs and backgrounds.

It greatly affects the entire cultural practices of a work environment,

and it also shapes the images that workers and management value.

Workers learn to depend on their culture for it gives them stability and security,
because they can better understand what is going on in their cultural
environment and know how to respond accordingly.
Values
are the expressions of ultimate ends, goals, or purpose of social actions:
these involve the quality or power of expressing one's attitude and emotion
towards a thing.
Social responsibility
is the recognition that organizations have significant influence on the social system. It is important
that this influence be properly
considered and balanced in all organizational transactions.
social values

social responsibility
The presence of strong ___________, such as ______________ , has a power influence in
organizations and their actions. This, in effect, leads these organizations to use a socioeconomic
model of decision-making, considering both social costs and benefits.
Social responsibility
It reflects the assumptions that the values of the workers can
be a potent force in the accomplishment of organizational goals. These values,
although intangible, can immediately influence a worker's positive behavior.
pakikisama
Filipinos attach a great value to "_____________," or smoothly interpersonal relations
(SIR)
utang-na-loob
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This interpersonal relation, Mary Hollenteiner emphasized that exchange in

goods and services is contractual, a recipient is to develop a feeling of "______________"
to the giver of such goods or services
Work Ethic
Workers tend to like work as a central life interest and consequently, derive
satisfaction from it.

• Usually, workers have an unwavering commitments to the ideals and goals of the
organization; especially so, when the organizational climate is healthy.
o Language
o Religion
o Food
o Personal orientation
o Social behavior
o Other customs and traditions of the place
Culture differs in terms of:
o Attendance records
o Concern for quality performance
o Willingness to work beyond unusual work hours
Evidence on how committed the employees are:
High context
Low context
Classification of Culture
High context
- people from _____________ cultures use situational cues to develop a complete picture of a
visitor.

Ex: China, Japan, Korea- tends to emphasize personal relation by placing

high value on trust.
low context
people from __________________ cultures tend to interpret cues more literally.

Ex: Germany, United States - they tend to rely no prescribed rules and a
legal document, business like relationships, and puts a high premium on
expertise and performance.
Individual Differences
Defines the complex sets of norms and values function as built-in mechanisms that
make an individual learn in early life
Example: of Behavioral norms:
reciprocal exchange of foods and services,
emphasis on word of honor,
self-esteem and
other super-naturally oriented forms of social controls.
Example of Basic values of a person:
cultural attitudes,
opinions,
mores,
customs and traditions which have been a part of his life and, to a great extent, his behavior.
Social class
_____________ differences affect an individual's personal inter relationship with
other persons.
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

eg: Religious beliefs, food preference, diverse family background, mental

capacities, habits and attitudes, and community influences
Ethnocentrism
• It is the tendency to use oneself and one's own culture as the standard for
judging others.

• In order to integrate the imported and local systems, migrant workers need to
develop cultural empathy. This is awareness and understanding of
differences across cultures.
Cultural Distance
• Range of difference between two social systems.

• Migrant tend to be somewhat ethnocentric and to judge conditions in a new

country according to the standards and practices of their homeland. Migrant
workers should be able to adjust to the new environment.
Cultural Shock
A feeling of surprise and disorientation that is experienced when people
witness cultural practices different from their own.

• They are conscious about their behavior and might be lose their confidence
when the wrong responses are made
True
True or False :
Culture shock is universal

• It occurs in response to dramatic differences in language, religion, customs

and traditions, and cultural orientations.

• It is interesting to note that social customs vary widely among countries.

1. Different management philosophies
2. An unfamiliar language
3. New foods, styles of dress, modes of social patterns, and driving patterns
4. An unfamiliar currency system
5. Reduced availability of goods
6. Different attitudes toward work and productivity
7. Separation from family, friends and work colleagues
Some factors that contribute to culture shock:
1. Careful selection.
2. Compatible assignments.
3. Pre-departure training and orientation.
4. Orientation and support in the new country
5. Preparation for re-entry.
Guidelines to Overcome Barriers to Cultural Adaptation
Motivation
It means aims, desire, impulse, intention, objective and end.

Can also be interpreted as wishes, desires, cravings and drives.

movere = to move
Motivation is from the Latin word "__________" which means ______________.
Needs-Desires or Motives -Achievement of
Goals
Draw The Motivation Process
Needs
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___________ produce drives which eventually lead to the accomplishment of desired

goals. It caused by deficiencies which can be either physical / psychological.
Motive
__________ is a stimulus which leads to an action to satisfy the needs.
Achievement of the goals
__________________ satisfies the need and reduces the motive
Curtis W. Cook
Nature of Motivation according to ___________:

"Motivating employees is one of the most consistent challenges any manager

faces".

• Motivation results from a person's attitudes reacting to a specific situation.

• A manager's job is to identify employees' drives and needs and to channel their
behavior, to motivate them towards task performance.

• It is important to understand the employee's needs.

motivational drives
People tend to develop certain _____________ as a product of cultural
environment in which they live.

These affect: The way people view their job and consequently, affect their lives.

These __________________ reflect the various elements of culture in which they were shaped: -
family, school, church, work environment and the books they read.
Achievement Motivation
It is a drive to accomplish objectives and to get ahead.

• A person with this kind of drive would like to achieve objectives and advance up
to the ladder of success.

• It is similar to the Japanese cultural value placed on Kaisen (drives to seek ways
of improving everything around them)
Affiliation Motivation
It is a drive to relate to people effectively.
In achievement motivation, oriented people normally work harder when their
superiors provide detailed evaluation of their work behavior.

It is observed that people with affiliation motives work better when they are
complimented for their favorable attitudes and cooperation.
The comparison between "Achievement motivation" and "Affiliation Motivation" (Just Read)
human survival
Human needs such as food, clothing, shelter, water, air are the basic aspects for
______________
NEEDS-

give rise to wants-

which Cause tensions-

which gives rise to actions-

HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

which result in satisfaction

draw The Needs Chain
Felt needs
______________ give rise to wants or goal sought, which causes tensions - if desires
are not fulfilled. These eventually rise to action toward achieving goals which
ultimately result in satisfaction.
o To improve the performance of subordinates on their present job in terms
of result accomplished.

o To prepare subordinates to accept increasing responsibility in present jobs.

o To help subordinates grow and develop in terms of higher level jobs.

In Managing people to obtain maximum productivity, there are three general
objectives:
1 productivity

2 job performance

3 job performance

4 motivation
The key to _______1______ is _______2________, and the key to _________3___________
is _______4___________.
o The attitude which the worker brings to the job in the first place.

o The total organizational climate with respect to policies, procedures, rules, regulations and other
factors that affect job performance.

o Specific environmental aspects other than physical conditions, such as the system of awards,
promotions and opportunities.
These are the factors play a part in determining employee motivation and
productivity: (just Read)
hierarchy of needs
This theory is based on the assumption that workers are motivated to satisfy a
number of needs that money can satisfy directly or indirectly.

This theory is considered one of the most widely identified theories of motivation put forth by
Abraham Maslow.
Top to bottom:

Need for Self-actualization (SA)

Esteem needs
Affiliation or Acceptance needs
Security and Safety needs
Physiological needs
Draw Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Physiological needs
• These are the basic needs for sustaining life such as food, water, air, shelter and
sleep.
Security and Safety needs
• These are needs to be free of any physical danger, threat and deprivation and of
the fear of losing a job or a shelter
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Affiliation or Acceptance needs

People are social beings, and therefore they need to belong and to be accepted
by others. This need is satisfied by the development of meaningful personal
relations with other groups of individuals.
Esteem needs
This type of needs produces satisfaction such as power, prestige, status, selfconfidence
and self worth.
Need for Self-actualization (SA)
This is a desire and aspiration of an individual to become what one is capable of
becoming to maximize one's potential and to accomplish something that is
worthy of recognition.
Reinforcement theory
• This theory of motivation is closely related to the preference expectancy theory.

• This illustrates that if a worker is given a pay increase when performance is high,
then the worker is likely to continue to strive for high performance.

• It assumes that the consequences of individual behavior determine the level of

motivation.
Job Satisfaction
This is closely related to motivation.

Importance difference between motivated workers and satisfied one.

It refers to a person's general attitude about his job.

o Attitude toward work group
o General working conditions
o Attitude toward company
o Monetary benefits
o Attitude toward supervision
The five components of job satisfaction
1 job content
2 job context
Motivators that are mostly job-centered, relate to the _______1_______.

Maintenance factor are basically related to ________2_________, because they are more
related to the environment surrounding the job.
Job Enrichment
It attempts to make job more varied by removing the dullness and monotony
associated with repetitive operations

• It means enlarging the scope of the job by adding similar task without enhancing
responsibility.

• The essence of this is to build into jobs a higher sense of

responsibility and achievements.
Economic Incentives
It is applied to almost any type of job to motivate a high level individual, group or
organizational performance.

This stimulate workers' desirable role behavior

such as creativity and ingenuity and other needs of workers through:
Wage incentives and Profit Sharing
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

Wage incentives
It Provide more pay for more production brought about workers' high
performance level.
Profit Sharing
As an economic incentive, it is a system that distributes to workers a part
of the profit of business in the form of cash.
Trainings
This is not an activity that is done once to new workers in an organization. It is
used continuously in every well-run institution.
• Every time one employs someone to do the work, the way he wants it done, he is
training.
• Every time the supervisors gives directions or discuss a procedure in effect, he is
still training.
• For this to be successful workers must want to learn to improve their
performance and supervisor must be able to teach and help subordinates raise
the level of their performance.
1. Orientation provides how workers with the general information about the
organization. All times information should be communicated in a way that can
help them feel at home in their new work environment as quickly as possible.

2. New workers are instructed in the specific requirements of the job they are to
perform, as outlined in a clear, accurate comprehensive job description.

3. Advantages of by-product of training is that accident, spoiled work and damage

to equipment and machinery can be kept to a minimum by well-trained workers.

4. Dissatisfaction, absenteeism, complaints and turnover can be greatly reduced

where workers are well-trained and, as a result, they can experience the direct
satisfaction associated with a sense of fulfilment and the knowledge that they are
developing their inherent capabilities at work.

5. As workers respond to continued training, they can progressively increase their

value to the organization and, in effect, prepare themselves for promotion.

6. Continued training can help workers to develop their ability to learn-adopting

themselves to new work methods and procedure, learning to use new kinds of
equipment, and adjusting to major change in job content and work relationship.
Advantages of a well-planned training program (just Read)
well-qualified trainer
A _______________ is one who has the mastery of the tech-information and
details of the particular job; he knows how to train a person.
1. Have a timetable. How much skill do you expect the trainee to have and how
soon? This gives both the trainer a series of objectives at which to
accomplish.

2. Break down the job. List the important step, job description and analysis are
necessary preliminary to training. The working sequence of operation should
be properly listed.

3. Have everything ready. Have the right equipment and other supplies at hand
so that there will be no delay when actual training begins.
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

4. Have the work place properly arranged just as the worker will be expected to
keep it.
Principles and Technique in Training (Just read)

These are certain principles of learning, developed by the work of psychologist

governing training and techniques recommended for training programs.
1. Prepare the Worker. Put the worker at ease. Find out what the person already
know about the job by explaining its relationship to other jobs and to the
company's product. Place the trainee in the correct working position,

2. Present the operation. Tell, demonstrate, illustrate and question carefully and
patiently. Stress the important points as listed in the breakdown sheet. Instruct
clearly and completely, taking up one point at a time.

3. Try out performance. Test the trainee through performance of the job. Show the
trainee what has been learned and show him what has to be learned until the
trainee knows how to do the job.

4. Follow-up. Have the trainee work independently. Desiccating some sort of help
when questions arises. The trainee should be checked frequently, encouraged to
ask further and to look for key points during learning.

All these learning principles can be summed up in the sentence, "If the worker
has not learned, the teacher has not taught."
These steps are under the Job Instructor Training Program (JIT) (Just Read)
o Classroom Training
o Apprentice Training
o On-the-job Training
o Performed Instruction
o Refresher courses
o Vestibule training
Types of Worker Training

• These are various types of training. Each type of training has its own purpose, procedure and
objectives as a continuing function of enhancing the productivity level of the worker
Performance Appraisal
• It is the process of evaluating the performance of workers in the relation to the
objectives of the organization.

• It is also the basis for determining who are eligible for promotion to a higher
position.

• It is also important to know the struggles and weakness of the organization's

development efforts.

• Effective __________________ is a way of recognizing the legitimate desire ofworkers for

purpose in their assigned task.

• It is essential for effective managing.

1. OBJECTIVE SETTING. There should be a point determination by managers and
workers of appropriate levels of future performance for the worker within the
context of overall units objectives and resources set for the next calendar
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year.

2. ACTION PLANNING. This is the participative planning stage by worker as to how

to accomplish the desired objectives.

3. PERIODIC REVIEW. There should be a joint assessment of progress toward

objectives by managers and workers, performed informally.

4. ANNUAL EVALUATION. There should be an annual formal assessment of success

in accomplishing the worker's annual objectives.
Management by objectives is a cyclical process that consists of four steps as a guide to achieve
desire results

What are the four steps

Performance appraisal
____________________ has a very important role in the reward system. This is the
process of evaluating the performance of workers sharing the information with
them and seeking for ways to improve their performance.
• Feedback to employees. Performance appraisals provide feedback to employees about quantity
and quality of job performance. With this information, employees have little knowledge of how well
they are doing their jobs and how they might improve their work.

• Self-development. Performance appraisals can also serve as an aid to employees' self-

development. Individuals learn about their strengths and weaknesses as seen by other people and
can initiate self-improvement programs.

• Reward system. Appraisals may form the bases of organizational reward systems particularly
merit based compensation plan.

• Personnel decisions. In making personnel decisions such as those relating to promotions,

transfer, and terminations, performance appraisal can be quite useful. Employers can make
choices on the basis of appraisal information about
individual talents and shortcomings.

• Timing and development. Appraisal can help managers identify areas in which employees lack
critical skills for either immediate or future performance.
Uses of Performance Appraisal (just read)
• There is a need to appraise the performance of the employees from time to time.

• The systematic performance appraisal is called "merit rating" or "employee rating" and this has
been used to help supervisors evaluate the work of every employee.

• Formal performance appraisal has been developed to reduce the element of favoritism and hasty
judgement in personnel decisions.
Needs for performance appraisal (just Read)
Outstanding
- An employee is given this rating if the performance is exceptional and deserves special
commendation.
Very satisfactory
The employee is given this rating when he performs the duties and responsibilities of his position
with excellence but short of outstanding performance
Satisfactory
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An employee is given this rating when he meets the standard or ordinary requirements of the
duties and responsibilities of the position
Unsatisfactory
An employee is given this performance rating when he fails to meet the minimum performance
requirements of the duties and responsibilities of the position. Before an employee is rated this
performance rating, he shall be given 60 days prior warning to enable him to improve his
performance. The warning shall be in writing
and shall state the job requirements which the employee fails to meet satisfactorily.
1 Critical incident techniques

2 Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS)

3 Behavioral Observation Scales (BOS)

4 Management By Objectives (MBO)

5 Assessment Centers
Techniques of Performance Appraisal
Critical incident techniques
With this technique of performance appraisal, supervisors
record incidents or examples, of each subordinate's behavior that led to either unusual success or
unusual failure on some aspect of the job. These incidents are recorded in a daily or week long
under predesigned categories (planning, decision -making, interpersonal relations, report writing).
Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS)
This system requires considerable work prior to evaluation but, if the work is
carefully done, it can lead to highly accurate rating with high inter-rater
reliability specifically, this technique begins by selecting a job that can
be described in observable behaviors.
behavioral observation scale (BOS)
This Technique is similar to BARS in that both focus
on identifying observable behaviors as they relate to performance. It is,
however less demanding of the evaluator. Typically the evaluator is asked to
rate each behavior on a scale from 1 to 5 to indicate the frequency with which
the employee exhibits the behavior. Evaluation of an employee's performance
on a particular dimensions is derived by summing the frequency ratings for
the behaviors in each dimensions.
Management By Objectives (MBO)
The concept of this technique encompasses much more than just the appraisal
process and it is closely related to the goal-setting theory of motivation. Under
this, individual employees work with their supervisor to establish goals and
objectives for which they will be responsible during the coming year. Several
advantages of this technique these includes the ability to do better planning,
improvement, motivation because of knowledge of results; fairer evaluations
done on the basis rather than on personality; improved commitment through
participating, and improved supervisory skills in such areas as listening
counselling and evaluating. The negative side, it emphasizes quantitative
goals at the expense of qualitative goals and often creates too much paper
work.
Assessment Centers
This technique focuses more on evaluating employee long range
potential to an organization than on performance over the past year. They are
also unique in that they are used almost exclusively among managerial
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personnel. It also consists of a series of standardized evaluations of behavior

based on multiple inputs.
Reward System
The responsibility of management for getting effective results includes the task
for establishing _____________

It should involve individuals' merit within the criteria and guidelines

established by the organization on job evaluation.

It can be can be intrinsic and extrinsic.

Earl R. Bramblett
According to ___________ Discipline, in the broad sense, means orderlinessthe
opposite of confusion.
Employee Conduct and Discipline
• It is a fundamental requirement for the people working in an organization just as
it is for other segment of society.
1. Engaging on a strike or stoppage of work of any kind

2. Insubordination or wilful disobedience in carrying out any task that his supervisor that has given
to him or refusing to accept a job assignment.

3. Falsification of time cards and absenteeism

4. Inefficiency and incompetent in the performance of official duty.

5. Neglect of duty.

6. Discourtesy in the course of official duties.

7. Unauthorized possession of deadly weapon.

8. Wilful damage to company property.

9. Fighting or attempting to injure other employee or in the company premises

10.Habitual drunkenness.

11.Stealing from company or from employee

12.Disgraceful or immoral conduct or dishonest conduct committed in the company premises.

13.Physical or mental incapacity or disability due to immoral of vicious habits

14.Conduct prejudicial (prejudgment) to the best interest of the service.

15.Conviction by a competent court of a crime involving moral turpitude.

Offenses that may be grounds for disciplinary action (Just Read)
1. Preliminary investigation

2. An informal, friendly talk

3. An oral warning or reprimand

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4. A written or official warning

5. Graduated series of penalties, such as disciplinary layoff, demotion or transfer, and last result
discharge.
Enumerate the disciplinary process
Training and development programs
____________ may be in the form of seminars, workshop
and other professional conferences; it can help the employee to be productive
and became better person.
Training
_________________ provides instruction in any organization setting and was found to have
an important role in enhancing the productivity level of employee.
Alvin Toffler
• According to him- a futuristic thinker, he envision more training and
retraining in this activity, especially by the high technology societies.
1. Analysis of training needs

2. Formulation of training design

3. Materials development

4. Venue, food, participants and resource speakers -

5. Training proper

6. Monitoring and evaluation

7. Documentation
Training and development process
Human Resource Development
It is essentially a universal discipline
Eli Ginzberg
According to him, the development of human potentials holds promise of
new knowledge that will teach people about man in his social and economic
habitat.
Education
It is important because it makes workers response aware to problems
and opportunities.
• Education and training
____________ and ____________ are important dimensions in the growth of human
resources.
training
__________ sharpens the mental and physical abilities of the workers making them responsive
conditioned and thus able to cope with problems and take advantage of opportunities.
David Krackhardt and Jeffrey R. Hanson
According to ______________ and ____________ Formal organization is the skeleton of a
company. Informal organization is the central nervous system driving the collective
thought process, action, and reactions of its business units.
Formal organization
_____________ is the skeleton of a company.
Informal organization
___________ is the central nervous system driving the collective
thought process, action, and reactions of its business units.
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

Formal Groups
• These are established by the organization and have a public identity and goal to
achieve.
• It is a more natural and enduring work group.
• It is formed where people perform tasks together as part of their job assignments
and referred to as a team.
• The formal organization describes the prescribed lines of communication and
authority.
• Its focus is official positions attaches to a person.
Informal Groups
These are formed on the basis of common interests, proximity, and friendships.
• It is a network of personal and social relations not established or required by the
formal organization but arising spontaneously as people associate with one
another.
• The emphasis within this kind of organization is on people and their
relationships.
• Power is given by group members, rather that
delegated by managers.
• It cannot be controlled by management.
Study the Table on Lesson 7
Difference between Formal and Informal Organization
1. Employees may lack knowledge about the official channel of communication to use others.
o Some lower level employees rely on former supervisors for information rather than going to their
current supervisors.
o Technical employees may go directly to whom they feel has the greatest expertise rather than to
their boss.

2. Interpersonal obstacle may prevent workers from using the formal reporting channel.
o Some worker may find difficulty communicating with managers of differences in experiences or
perceptions of job requirements.

3. Workers may be able to obtain a faster response if they pass certain channels.
o If an employee has difficulty getting needed supplies, he may request them directly from the
purchasing agent, rather than relying on his boss.

4. In some organization, non-official relationships become legitimized and

substitute for the formal ones.
o The management may redesign the official reporting relationships to reflect the informal ones
that may effectively facilitate employee performance and the accomplishment of organizational
goals.
The difference between formal and informal organization occur for four major
reasons: (just Read)
1. Makes a more effective total system
2. Lightens work load on management
3. Helps to have work done
4. Tends to encourage cooperation
5. Fills in gaps in a manager's abilities
6. Give satisfaction and stability to work groups
7. Improves communications
8. Provides a safety value for employee emotions
9. Encourages managers to plant and act more carefully
Benefits derived from the Informal Organization
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1. Develops undesirable rumor

2. Encourages negative attitudes
3. Resists change
4. Leads to interpersonal and intergroup conflicts
5. Rejects and harasses some employees
6. Weakens motivation and satisfaction
7. Operates outside of management's control
8. Supports conformity
Potential problems derived from the Informal Organization
1. Accept and understand the informal organization.
2. Identify different levels of attitudes and behavior of individuals within the group.
3. Be aware of the possible effects on informal systems when taking any kind of
decision.
4. Integrate as far as possible the prevailing interests of informal groups with those
of the formal system.
5. Keeps formal activities form unnecessarily threatening the informal organization.
Guidelines that management may use for action on informal organization (Just Read)
Task Leadership Role
Social Leadership Role
There are two types of leadership roles the group tends to require. What are those?
Task Leadership Role
- Define a problem or goal for the group to be accomplished.
- Request facts, information, ideas, or opinions from members.
- Provide facts, information, ideas or opinions.
- Clarify situations that are not clear and give some examples.
- Summarize whether agreement has been reached on social roles.

CHOOSE: Task Leadership Role or Social Leadership Role

Social Leadership Role
- Encourage members to participate in the discussion and recognize
and support their contributions.
- Provide enthusiasm and sense the mood of the group and help
members become aware of it.
- Reduce the conflict and tension and reconcile disagreement.
- Modify your position; admit an error.
- Facilitate participation of all members.
- Evaluate the group's effectiveness

CHOOSE: Task Leadership Role or Social Leadership Role

Planned Approaches
It has been developed to work for specific objectives that can provide control and
flexibility over the process.

There are also various alternative approaches like brainstorming, nominal

groups, Delphi decision-making and dialectic inquiry.
Brainstorming
o It is a problem conference technique for encouraging creative thinking groups.

o It is an unrestrained participation in discussion of developing new ideas and helping solve

specific problems.

o It also generates new ideas.

HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

1. Deferred Judgement
2. Quantity breeds Quality
Two major principle of brainstorming
Deferred Judgement
In This principle of brainstorming,

- All ideas are encouraged

- Ideas are recorded by a group member as fast as they are suggested and
are evaluated for usefulness at a later time.
- The primary purpose is to separate ideas and creation from idea
censorship
Quantity breeds Quality
In This principle of brainstorming,

It is to encourage members to suggest more ideas so that eventually,

higher-quality ones may be considered and developed.
1. Distribute the agenda and background material in advance.

2. Clarify the objective.

3. Compose the group appropriately.

4. Encourage the expressions of minority viewpoints.

5. Separate idea generation from evaluation.

6. Make assumption explicit.

7. Legitimized questioning attitudes.

8. Control irrelevant discussions.

9. Test support for decisions.

10.End on a positive note and assign responsibilities.

Guidelines for effective group meetings

Values
abstract ideas that guide our thinking and behavior across all situations
attitudes
represent our feelings or opinions about people, places, and objects and range from positive to
negative.
work place attitudes
an outcome of various OB-related processes, including leadership
three components of attitudes
Affective, Cognitive, and Behavioral
Affective Component
"I feel" contains our feelings or emotions about a given object or situation.
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Cognitive Component
"I Believe" reflects our beliefs or ideas about an object or situation.
Behavioral Component
"I Intend" the way we intend or expect to act toward someone or something.
Cognitive Dissonance
represents the psychological discomfort a person experiences when simultaneously holding two or
more conflicting cognitions (ideas, beliefs, values or emotions)
Reduce cognitive dissonance in 3 ways
1. Change your attitude or behavior or both
2. Belittle the I'm importance of the inconsistent behavior
3. Find consonant elements that outweigh dissonant ones.
Organizational Commitment
Extent to which an individual identifies with an organization and commits to its goals
Psychological contracts
Individuals perception about the reciprocal exchange between him or herself and another party
Employee Engagement
Harnessing of organization members' selves to their work roles; people employ and express
themselves physically, cognitively and emotionally during role performance. (Give their all at work)
Contributes to Employee Engagement
Person Factors- Personality, positive psychological capital, human and social capital
Situational factors- Job characteristics, leadership, organizational climate, stressors
Stressors
Environmental characteristics that cause stress
Perceived organizational Support (POS)
extent to which employees believe their organization values their contributions and genuinely
cares about their well-being
Job Satisfaction
Affective or emotional response toward various facets of your job
Five Models of Job Satisfaction
How can management boost job satisfaction
1. Need fulfillment- Understand and meet employees' needs
2. Met expectations- Meet employees' expectations about what they will receive from the job
3. Value attainment- Structure the job and its rewards to match employee values
4. Equity- Monitor employees perceptions of fairness and interact with them so they feel fairly
treated.
5. Dispositional/genetic components- Hire employees with an appropriate disposition.
Needs
Physiological or psychological deficiencies that arouse behavior.
Met Expectations
difference between what an individual expects to receive from a job, such as good pay and
promotional opportunities, and what she or he actually receives.
Value attainment
satisfaction results from the perception that a job allows for fulfillment of an individual's important
values.
Equity
satisfaction rests on how "fairly" an individual is treated at work.
Dispositional/Genetic
function of both personal traits and genetic factors
Telecommuting
Do all or some work from home
Motivation
psychological process that arouses our interest in doing something, and it directs and guides our
behavior
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Job involvement
extent to which an individual is personally engaged in his or her work role
Withdrawal Cognitions
though process by representing an individual's overall thought and feelings about quitting
Organizational citizenship behavior
individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward
system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization.
counterproductive work behavior
harms other employees, the organization as a whole, and or organizational stakeholders such as
customers and shareholders.
Individual Differences
the many attributes, such as traits and behaviors that describe each of us as a person
Intelligence
individual's capacity for constructive thinking, reasoning and problem solving
Practical intelligence
Ability to solve everyday problems by utilizing knowledge gained from experience in order to
purposefully adapt to, shape and select environments
Personality
combination of stable physical, behavioral, and mental characteristics that gives individuals their
unique identities.
Big Five Personality Dimensions
Simplify more complex models of personality. The dimensions are extroversion, agreeableness,
conscientiousness, emotional stability and openness to experience.
Extroversion
Outgoing, Talkative, Sociable, Assertive
Agreeableness
Trusting, good natured, cooperative, softhearted
conscientiousness
Dependable, responsive, achievement oriented, persistent
Emotional stability
Relaxed, secure, unworried
Openness to experience
Intellectual, imaginative, curious, broad minded
Proactive Personality
attribute of someone relatively unconstrained by situational forces and who effects environmental
change. Proactive people identify opportunities and act on them, show initiative, take action and
persevere until meaningful change occurs.
Conscientiousness
the strongest (most positive) effects on job performance and training performance. strong sense of
purpose, obligation, and persistence generally perform better than those who don't. higher job
satisfaction.
Extroversion
associated with success for managers and salespeople and jobs that require social skills.
Introverts
focus on interpersonal skills more than extroverts when evaluating coworkers performance.
agreeable employees
more likely to stay with their job (not quit). tend to be kind and get along with everyone, have a
positive relationships and experiences at work
openness employees
seems to have higher turnover. Curious and likely seek new opportunities, even when they are
satisfied with their job.
Why use personality tests?
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

1. reduce time and cost of recruiting and hiring

2. reduce biases in the interview process
3. increase the pool of candidates
4 complement candidate information found in the resumes and interviews.
Core self evaluations
broad personality traits made up of four narrow and positive individual traits:
1. generalized self-efficacy
2. self esteem
3. locus of control
4. emotional stability
Self Efficacy
Persons belief about his or her chances of success.
self Esteem
General belief about your own self worth
Locus of control
How much personal responsibility we take for our behavior and its consequences
Internal Locus of control
believe you control the events and consequences that affect your life
External Locus of control
believe their performance is the product of circumstances beyond their immediate control
Emotional stability
high levels of emotional stability tend to be more relaxed, unworried, and less likely to experience
negative emotions under pressure
Emotional Intelligence
ability to monitor your own emotions and those of others, to discriminate among them, and to use
this information to guide your thinking and actions.
Key components to emotional intelligence
1. Self-awareness
2. self management
3. social awareness
4. relationship management
Emotions
Complex, relatively brief responses aimed at a particular target, such as a person, information,
experience or event. they also change psychological and physiological states.
Perception
cognitive process that enables us to interpret and understand our surroundings.
Implicit Cognition
any thoughts or belief that are automatically activated from memory without our conscious
awareness
Stereotype
individual's set of beliefs about the characteristics or attributes of a group
Attribution theory
based on a simple right or wrong
Causal attributions
suspected or inferred causes of behavior
Internal factors
within a person (such as ability)
external factors
within the environment (difficult task)
Kelleys model of Attribution
1. Consensus
2. Distinctiveness
3. Consistency
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

Consensus
Compares an individual's behavior with that of his or her peers. (high consensus when someone
acts like the rest of the group, and low when they act differently)
Distinctiveness
Compares a person's behavior on one task with his or her behavior on other tasks. (High
distinctiveness means the individual has performed the task in a significantly different manner than
he or she has performed other tasks)
Consistency
judges whether the individuals performance on a given task is consistent over time. (low
consistency is unfavorable, high consistency implies a person performs a task the same way with
little to no variations)
Attribution Tendencies
Fundamental attribution bias and self serving bias
Fundamental Attribution Bias
our tendency to attribute another person's behavior to his or her personal characteristics, rather
than to situation factors.
Self Serving Bias
Tendency to take more personal responsibility for success than for failure
Surface level characteristics
those that are quickly apparent to interactants such as race, gender and age
Deep level Characteristics
those that take time to emerge in interactions such as attitudes, opinions and values
Affirmative Action
intervention aimed at giving management a chance to correct an imbalance, injustice, mistake, or
outright discrimination that occurred in the past
Glass ceiling
invisible but absolute barrier that prevents women from advancing to higher level positions
Underemployed
working at jobs that require less education than they have
Motivation
describes the psychological process that underlie the direction, intensity and persistence of
behavior or thought
Extrinsic motivation
results from the potential or actual receipt of external rewards
intrinsic motivation
individual is inspired by the positive internal feelings that are generated by doing well
Theory X
pessimistic view of employees: they dislike work, must be monitored and can be motivated only by
rewards and punishments.
Theory Y
positive set of assumptions about people at work: they are self engaged, committed, responsible,
and creative.
Need Hierarchy Theory
states that motivation is a function of five basic needs: Physiological, safety, Love, Esteem, and
Self-actualization
Self actualization
Desire for self fulfillment to become the best one is capable of becoming
Esteem
Need for reputation, prestige, and recognition from others. also includes need for self confidence
and strength
Love
desire to be loved and to love. includes the needs for affection and belonging
Safety
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Consists of the need to be safe form physical any psychological harm

Physiological
Most basic need. Entails having enough food, air and water to survive.
Acquired needs theory
states that three needs: achievement, affiliation and power are key driers of employee behavior
Need for Achievement
desire to excel, overcome obstacles, solve problems, and rival and surpass others
Need for affiliation
desire to maintain social relationships, be liked and join groups
Need for power
desire to influence, coach, teach or encourage others to achieve
Self Determination Theory
three need influence our behavior and well being the needs for competence, autonomy and
relatedness
competence
I feel efficacious (feel capable to complete an act, task or goal)
Autonomy
I need to feel independent to influence my environment. (desire to have freedom)
Relatedness
I want to be connected with others (feel part of a group)
Expectancy Theory
people are motivated to behave in ways that produce desired combinations of expected outcomes.
Job enlargement
puts more variety into a workers job by combining specialized tasks of comparable difficulty
Job rotation
moving employees form one specialized job to another
group
one or more freely interacting individuals who share norms and goals and have a common identity.
formal group
assigned by the managers to accomplish a goal
informal group
members overriding purpose in getting together in friendship or a common interest
Role
set of expected behaviors for a particular position
group role
set of expected behaviors for members of a group
Task roles
Initiator, information seeker/giver, elaborator, recorder, energizer ect.
Maintenance roles
encourager, compromiser, follower, gateskeeper
Norm
an attitude, opinion, feeling or action shared by two or more people that guides behavior.
Five stage model of Group Development
1. forming
2. storming
3. norming
4. performing
5. adjourning
Team
small number of people who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and
approach for which they hold themselves collectively accountable.
Social Loafing
Tendency for individual effort to decline as group size increases
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

self managed teams

groups of workers who have administrative oversight over their work domains.
Virtual teams
work together over time and distance via electronic media to combine effort and achieve common
goals.
Three C's of effective teams
1. Charters and strategies
2. composition
3. capacity
Conflict
occurs when one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by
another party.
Functional conflict
commonly referred to as constructive or cooperative conflict, is characterized by consultative
interactions, a focus on the issues, mutual respect, and useful give and take.
dysfunctional conflict
disagreements that threaten or diminish an organization's interests
Flex space
policies enable employees to do their work from different locations besides the office. (coffee
shops)
Incivility
any form of socially harmful behavior, such as aggression, bullying, harassment
Conflict handling styles
Integrating, Obliging, Dominating, Avoiding, Compromising
Integrating Style (problem solving)
confront the issue and cooperatively identify it, generate and weigh alternatives and select a
solution (issues are complex, one can not solve alone)
Obliging Style (smoothing)
show low concern for yourself and great concern for others (you believe you may be wrong, issue
is more important to other party)
Dominating Style
high concern for self and low concern for others (issue is important to you, speedy decision is
needed, subordinates is less experienced than you)
Avoiding style
Passive withdrawal from the problem and active suppression of the issue are common (Issue is
trivial, cooling off period is needed)
Compromising style
Give and take approach with a moderate concern for both self and other (goals of the parties are
mutual, parties are equally powerful)
Decision making
entails identifying and choosing from among alternate solutions that lead to a desired state of
affairs
Rational model of decision making
explains how managers should make decisions
Four stages in rational decision making
1. identify the problem
2. Generate alternative solutions
3. evaluate alternatives and select solution
4. implement and evaluate the solution chosen
Optimizing
solving problems by producing the best solution based on a set of highly desirable conditions
Pros of using Rational Model
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

1. Quality
2. Transparency
3. Responsibility
Non rational model
explain how managers make decisions. build on assumptions that decision making is uncertain,
decision makers do not possess complete information and mangers struggle to make optimal
decisions (texting and driving)
Judgemental Heuristics
cognitive shortcuts or biases that are used to simply the process of making decisions
confirmation bias
how we selectively gather information
Availability bias
tendency to base decisions on information readily available in memory
Representativeness bias
leads us to look for information that supports previously formed stereotypes
Anchoring Bias
decision makers are influenced by the first information they received about a decision, even if it is
irrelevant
Hindsight bias
knowledge of an outcome influences our belief about the probability that we could have predicted
the outcome earlier
Framing bias
manner in which a question is posed or framed. leads us to change the way we interpret
alternatives.
Escalation of commitment bias
tendency to hold an ineffective course of action even when it is unlikely the bad situation can be
reversed.
evidence based decision making
process of conscientiously using the best available data and evidence when making managerial
decisions
Big Data
reflects the vast quantity of data available for decision making
Decision making style
way an individual perceives and comprehends stimuli and the general manner in which he or she
chooses to respond to such information.
Organizational culture
the set of shared, taken for granted implicit assumptions that a group hold and that determines
how it perceives, thinks about, and reacts to its various environments
Espoused values
Explicitly stated qualities and norms preferred by an organization
Competing values Framework
provides a practical way for managers to understand, measure and change organizational culture
Clan Culture
internal focus and values flexibility rather than stability and control (resembles a family type
organization)
Market Culture
strong external focus and value stability and control. (strong desire to deliver results an
accomplish goals, competitive)
Adhocracy culture
external focus and value flexibility (encourage and empower employees to take risks, think outside
the box, and experiment with new ways to get things done. )
Hierarchy Culture
HBOR REVIEWER (PRELIMS)

Internal focus, which produces a more formalized and structured work environment, and values
stability and control over flexibility. (timeliness, quality, Safety, and reliability in producing and
delivering products and services)
Vision
Long term goal that describes what an organization wants to become
Strategic plan
outlines the organizations long term goals and the actions necessary to achieve them.
Anticipatory Socialization Phase
occurs before an individual actually joins an organization.
Encounter phase
employee come to learn what the organization is really like.
Change and acquisition phase
requires employees to master important tasks and roles and adjust to have their work group's
values and norms
Five career functions that enhanced career development
1. Sponsorship
2. exposure and visibility
3. Coaching
4. protection
5. Challenging assignments
Four psychosocial functions
1. Role modeling
2. acceptance and confirmation
3. counseling
4. friendship
Human Capital
productive potential of an individuals knowledge, skills, and experiences.
Social capital
productive potential resulting from relationships, goodwill, trust, and cooperative effort.
Organization
system of consciously coordinated activities or forces of two or more persons
Span of control
describes the number of people reporting directly to a given manager
Learning Organizations
proactively creates, acquires, and transfers knowledge and changes its behavior on the basis of
new knowledge and insights
Process of Organizational Learning
1. Information Acquisition
2. Information Distribution
3. Information Interpretation
4. Knowledge Integration
5. Organizational Memory
Seven types of Organizational structure
1. Functional
2. Divisional
3. Matrix
4. Horizontal
5. Hollow
6. Modular
7. Virtual
Functional Structure
groups people according to the business fountains they perform, for example manufacturing,
marketing and finance
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Divisional Structure
employees are segregated into organizational groups based on industries, products or services,
customers or clients, or geographic regions.
Matrix Structure
Combines Vertical structure with an equally strong horizontal overlay
Horizontal Structure
teams or work groups, either temporary or permanent, are created to improve collaborations and
work on common projects
Hollow Structure
also known as a network structure, is designed around a central core of key functions and out
sources other functions to outside companies or individuals who can do them cheaper and faster.
(Nike)
Modular Structure
The company assembles product parts, components or modules provided by external contractors.
Virtual Structure
Members are geographically apart, usually working with email and other forms of information
technology, but that generally appears to customers as a single, unified organization with a real
physical location.
contingency approach to organizational design
tend to be more effective when they are structured to fit the demands of the situation, and when
the structure is aligned with internal activities and actions of the organization
Five Contingency Factors
1. Strategy and Goals
2. Market Uncertainty
3. Decision making processes
4. Technology
5. Size
Centralized Decision making
Occurs when key decisions are made by top management
Decentralized Decision Making
decisions are made by middle and lower lever managers
Mechanistic organizations
Rigid bureaucracies with strict rules, narrowly defined tasks, tip down communication, and
centralized decision making
organic Organizations
flexible networks of multitalented individuals who perform a variety of tasks