Cells = the fundamental unit of life. Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms.

Cells make up
living things and carry out activities that keep a living thing alive.\
Cell Theory = is a collection of ideas and conclusions from many different scientists over time that describes cells and
how cells operate.
1. All known living things are made up of one or more cells.
2. All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.
3. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in all living organisms.
1665 = Robert Hooke discovered cell.
1673 = Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed living cell.
1883 = Robert Brown discovered nucleus.
1838 = Matthias Schleiden proposed all plants are made up of cells.
1839 = Theodor Schwann proposed all animals are made up of cells.
1858 = Rudolf Virchow proposed all cells arise from the pre-existing cells.
Unicellular Organisms = an organism that is made up of only one cell. Ex. Euglena, Paramecium, Yeast
Multicellular Organisms = an organism that is made up of more than one cell. Ex. Plants, animals, fungus.

Size of cells. Most cells are very small (microscopic), and some cells are very large (macroscopic). The unit used to
measure size of a cell is micrometer.
1 µm = 1 / 1000 millimeter
 The smallest cell is Mycoplasma (0.1 µm)
 The largest cell is Ostrich Egg (18 cm)
 Sperm Cell (5 µm)
 Ovum Cell (120 µm)
 Nerve Cell (1 m)

Structure of Cell

Bacterial Cell: Animal Cell Plant Cell

1. Capsule 1. Nucleus 1. Nucleus
2. Cell Wall 2. Golgi Body 2. Golgi Body
3. Plasma Membrane 3. Vesicle 3. Vesicle
4. Cytoplasm 4. Plasma Membrane 4. Lysosome
5. Flagellum 5. Mitochondria 5. Plasma membrane
6. Food Granule 6. Cytoskeleton 6. Mitochondria
7. Plasmid (DNA) 7. Centriole 7. Chloroplast
8. Ribosomes 8. Lysosome 8. Cell Wall
9. Nucleoid 9. Cytoplasm 9. Vacuole
10. Pili 10. Rough Endoplasmic 10. Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum Reticulum
11. Smooth Endoplasmic 11. Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum Reticulum
12. Nucleolus 12. Nucleolus
If we study cell under a microscope, we would come across three features: Plasma Membrane, Nucleus, Cytoplasm.
1. Plasma Membrane
2. Nucleus
3. Cytoplasm

a. Cytosol
b. Cell Organelles

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Body
Lysosomes
Vacuoles
Mitochondria
Plastids
Centrosome
Cytoskeleton

Plasma Membrane
extremely delicate, thin, elastic, living, and semi-permeable membrane. Made up of two layers of phospholipid.
Phospholipid Molecule = is composed of phosphate group, glycerol, and two fatty acids,
Molecules that can easily pass through the plasma membrane: carbon dioxide, oxygen. Lipid
Molecules that cannot pass throguth the cell membrane needs to go through the protein channel.
Functions of Plasma Membrane:
1. Maintains the shape and size of the cell
2. Protects internal contexts of the cell.
3. Regulates entry and exit of substances in and out of the cell.
4. Maintains homeostasis.

Cell Wall
Non-living and outermost covering of a cell in plants and bacteria. Can be
tough, rigid, and sometimes flexible. May be thick or thin, and multilayered
structure.
3 Components of Cell Wall: Cellulose, Hemicellulose, Pectin.
Functions of Cell Wall:
1. Provides definite shape, strength, and rigidity.
2. Prevents drying up of cells.
3. Helps in controlling cell expansion.
4. Protects cell from external pathogens.
 Nucleus
Dense spherical body located near the center of the cell. Present in cells except the red blood cells and sieve tube cells.
Well developed in plants and animals.
Undeveloped in bacteria and blue-green algae = Cyanobacteria.
Most of the cells are unnucleated = having only one mucus.
Few types of cells have more than one nucleus = Skeletal
Muscle Cells

 Nucleus has a double layered covering called nuclear

membrane
 Nuclear membrane has pores of diameter
 about 80-100 nm
 Colorless dense sap present inside the nucleus known as
nucleoplasm
 Nucleoplasm contains round shaped nucleolus and
network of chromatin fibers
 Fibers are composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
and protein histone
 These fibers condense to form chromosomes
 during cell division
 Chromosomes contain stretches of DNA called genes
Genes transfer the hereditary information from one
generation to the next

FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEUS:
1. Control all the cell activities like metabolism,
protein synthesis, growth and cell division
2. Nucleolus synthesizes ribonucleic acid (RNA) to
constitute ribosomes
3. Store hereditary information in genes

Cytoplasm
Jelly-like material formed by 80% of water. Present between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. It contains:
1. Cytosol = is a clear liquid portion. Cytoplasm contains cytosol.
2. Various particles:
 Proteins
 Carbohydrates
 Nucleic Acids
 Lipids
 Inorganic Ions
3. Organelles that are only visible in electron microscope.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
Network of tubular and vesicular structures which are interconnected with one another. Some parts re connected to the
nuclear membrane, while the others are connected to the cell membrane.
Two types of Endoplasmic reticulum:
1. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum = Lacks Ribosomes.
2. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum = Studded with ribosomes.
Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum:
1. Gives internal support to the cytoplasm.
2. RERsynthesize secretory proteins and the membrane proteins.
3. SERsynthesize lipids for the cell membrane.
4. In liver cells, SERdetoxify drugs and poisons.
5. In muscle cells, SERstore calcium ions.

Golgi Body
Discovered by Camillo Golgi. Formed by stacks of 5-8 membranous sacs.
Sacs = are usually flattened and are called the cisternae.
2 ends of Golgi Body:
1. Cis face = situated near the endoplasmic reticulum.
2. Trans face = situated near the cell membrane.
Functions of the Golgi Body;
1. Modifies, sorts, and packs materials synthesized
in the cell.
2. Delivers synthesized materials to various
targets inside the cell and outside the cell.
3. Produces vacuoles and secretory vesicles.
4. Forms plasma membrane and lysosomes,

Lysosomes
Small, spherical, single membrane sac. Found throughout the cytoplasm, filled with hydrolyctic enzymes. Occur in most
animal cells and in a few type of plant cells.
Functions of the lysosomes:
1. Help in digesting the large molecules.
2. Protect the cell by destroying foreign invaders like
bacteria and viruses.
3. Degradation of worn out organelles.
4. In dead cells perform autolysis.
 Vacuoles
Single membrane sac filled with liquid or sap (water, sugar, and ions). In animal cells, vacuoles are temporary, small in
size and few in number. In plant cells, vacuoles are large and more in number. May be contractile or non-contractile.
Functions of the Vacuoles:
1. Store various substances.
2. Maintain osmotic pressure of the cell.
3. Store food particles in amoeba cells.
4. Provide turgidity and rigidity to plant cells.

Mitochondria
Small, rod-shaped organelles bounded by two membranes-inner and outer. Contain their own DNA which are responsible
for many enzymatic actions.
Inner Membrane = is folded in the form of the shelf like inward
projections called cristae.
Outer Membrane = is smooth and encloses the contents of mitochondria.
Inner Cavity = is filled with matrix which contains many enzymes.

Functions of the Mitochondria:

1. Synthesize energy rich compound ATP.
2. ATP molecules provide energy for the vital activities of living cells.

Plastids
Are double membrane-bound organelles found inside plants and some algae. They are responsible for activities related to
making and storing food. They often contain different types of pigments that can change the color of the cell.
 Chloroplasts
Double membrane-bound organelles found mainly in plant cells. It is usually spherical or discoidal in shape.
Distinct regions of Chloroplasts:
1. Grana = are stacks of thylakoids (membrane-bound,
flattened discs).
thylakoids = contain chlorophyll molecules which
are responsible for photosynthesis
2. Stroma = is a colorless dense fluid.
Functions of Chloroplasts:
1. Convert light energy into chemical energy in the
form of food.
2. Provide green color leaves, stems, and vegetables.

Centrosome
It is the membrane bound organelle present near the nucleus. Consist of two structures called “centrioles”.
Centrioles = are hollow, cylindrical structures made of microtubules.

It is arranged at right angles to each other.

Functions of the Centrosome:
1. Form spindle fibers which helps in the movement
of chromosomes during cell division.
2. Help in the formation of Cilia and Flagella.

Cytoskeleton
Formed by microtubules and microfilaments.
Microtubules = are hollow tubules made up of protein called
tubulin.
Microfilaments = are rod shaped thin filaments made up of
protein called actin.
Functions of the Cytoskeleton:
1. Determine the shape of the cell.
2. Give structural strength to the cell.
3. Responsible for cellular movements.
The difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms is said to be the most significant distinction among the
groups of living things.
Two main types of cells:
1. Prokaryotes = pro meaning before and karyon meaning nut which all mean “Before the Nut”.
2. Eukaryotes = came from Greek word eu meaning true and karyon meaning nut.
The presence of the specific type of cell allows biologists to classify organisms based on their complexity.
Difference of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes:
1. Eukaryotic Cells are much more complex because they have bound membrane organelles; prokaryotic cells are
much obvious because it has no bound membrane organelles.
2. Prokaryotic Cells have no nucleus but have nucleoid; eukaryotic cells have nucleus.
3. Prokaryotic Cells have no bound membrane organelles; Eukaryotic Cells have bound membrane organelles.
4. They differ in cell wall, most prokaryotes have cell wall; some eukaryotes have cell wall.
5. Prokaryotes are unicellular(composed of only one cell); eukaryotes are multicellular(composed of many cells).
6. Prokaryote’s DNA is circular/simpler; Eukaryote’s DNA is linear/complex.
7. Prokaryote’s cell division by binary fission; eukaryote’s cell division by mitosis and meiosis.
8. Prokaryotes have flagella for locomotion; eukaryotes have cilia for locomotion.
9. Prokaryotes are bacteria and archaea; eukaryotes are plant and animal cells.
Similarities:
1. Both have DNA
2. Both have Ribosomes
3. Both have Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)
4. Both have cell wall, however, in prokaryotes most have cell wall, but in eukaryotes some have cell wall.
5. Both have cytoplasm
6. Both undergo cell division
Review:
Cilia = are short, hair-like structures that are used to move the entire cell.
Mitochondria = this part of ell serves as a venuew for the cellular respiration and is known as the powerhouse of the cell,
Lysosome = this contains digestive enzymes that helps break down larger molecules in the cell.
Chloroplast = this organelle functions for the photosynthetic activities of a plant cell. \
Ribosomes = make protein
 Organisms have a lot in common with construction jobs – as the task increases in complexity, more specialized tools
(cells) are required to perform the various functions
Cell Specialization = also referred to as cell differentiation, cell specialization is the process wherein “general” or
“common” cells evolve to form specific cells, that have specific functions.
Specialization = is the adaptation of a cell to perform a specific function. In most multicellular organisms, as their
structures and life functions become more complex, their cells become more and more specialized for performing
particular activities.

 Not all cells look the same

 Specialized cells have different size, shape, and structure that allow them to perform unique functions.
 There are over 200 different types of cells in the human body.
How do animal cells specialize?

 In animals the first type of cells in the developing embryo are stem cells.
 These are undifferentiated cells that go on to form all the different cell types in the adult.

Stem Cells
 Cells that can differentiate into many different cell types.
 Stem cells provide new cells for the body as it grows, and replace specialized cells that are damaged or lost.
 They have 2 unique properties:
i) They can divide over and over again to produce new cells.
ii) As they divide, they can change into the other types of cells that make up the body.
Types of Stem Cells:
1. Embryonic Stem Cells = these supply new cells for an embryo as it grows and develops into a baby. These stem cells
are said to be pluripotent, which means they can change into any cell in the body.

Embryonic stem cells are taken from inside the blastocyst, a very early stage embryo.
Blastocyst = is a ball of about 50-100 cells and it is not yet implanted in the womb. It is made up of an outer layer of
cells, fluid filled space and a group of cells called the inner cell mass. Embryonic Stem Cells are found in the inner
cell mass.

Embryonic Stem cells are exciting because they can make all the different types of cell in the body, scientists say that
these cells are pluripotent.

2. Adult Stem Cells = are undifferentiated cells found throughout the body that divide to replenish dying cells and
regenerate damaged tissues. These are said to be multipotent, which means they can only change into some cells in
the body, not any cell, for example:
Blood (hematopoietic), stem cells can only replace the various types of cells in the blood.
Skin (epithelial), stem cells provide the different types of cells that make up our skin and hair.

Adult stem cells can often make several kinds of specialized cell, but they are mote limited. They can only ,ake kinds
of cell fond in the tissue they belong to; Blood SC can make kinds of cell in the blood, Brain SC can only make kinds
of cell in the brain, Muscle SC can only make kinds of cell in the muscle and so on.

Scientists say that tissue stem cells are multipotent because they can make multiple types of specialized cell, but not
all the kinds of cell in your body.
 Examples of Specialized Cell and their Adaptation:
1. Red Blood Cell
Location: Blood
Function: it carries oxygen around the body, delivering it to organs that require this life-giving gas. It makes the
blood red because of hemoglobin.
Adaptations: it has biconcave disc-shape for more surface area in exchanging gases. It has no nucleus so that there
is more space available to carry oxygen.

2. Muscle Cell
Location Muscular System
Function: such specialization enables the muscle to perform their function during the contraction and relaxation of
muscles in order to produce movements. Having a lot of mitochondria, muscle cells generate a lot of ATP enegery
which then sustains the high energy requirement for locomotion.
Adaptations: have a spindle-shaped cell body containing numerous mitochondria.

3. Nerve Cell
Location: nervous system
Functions: to carry nerve impulses to the different parts of the body.
Adaptations: it contains several branches like dendrites that receive impulses. Long axon transmits impulses,

4. Sperm Cell
Location: Male Reproductive System (testes)
Function: to transfer genes from male body to female gamete during sexual reproduction
Adaptation: has a tail to allow it to swim to egg cell and contains many mitochondria to supply ATP for energy.
Its head contains enzymes that are released to help it break thtough the outer membrane of the egg cell.

5. Egg Cell
Location: Female Reproductive System (Ovaries)
Function: they carry the mother’s DNA and are essential during reproduction.
Adaptations: has a special cell membrane that only allows one sperm cell to fertilize it. They are very large
compared to other cells in the body.

Stem Cell Therapy

 Cells, tissues, and organs can sometimes be permanently damaged or lost by disease, injury, and genetic conditions.
 Stem cells may be one way of generating new cells that can then be transplanted into the body to replace those that are
damaged or lost.
 Adult stem cells are currently used to treat some conditions, for example;
Blood Stem cells are used to provide a source of healthy blood cells for people with some blood conditions, such as
thalassemia, and cancer patients who have lost their own blood stem cells during treatment.
Skin stem cells can be used to generate new skin for people with severe burns.

 Age related muscular degeneration (AMD) is an example of a disease where stem cells could be used as a new form
of treatment in the future.
Some people with age related muscular degeneration lose their sight because cells in the retina called retinal pigment
epithelium cells stop working.
Scientists are using induced pluripotent stem cells to produce new RPE cells in the lab that can be put into a patient’s
eye to replace the damaged cells.

 Stem cells could be used to generate new organs for use in transplants.
Induced pluripotent stem cells generated from the patient could be used to grow new organs.