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    Current Electricity

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    Current Electricity

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    Avinash Tiwari
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    3. Current Electricity

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    Current Electricity

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    Avinash Tiwari

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    Chapter Three CURRENT ELECTRICITY 3.1 Introduction © Chapter 1 #24 charges ™i¥ free Wa bound, rest # consider fre TE a1 ‘© Motion # charges, electric current constitute * © 8 current many situations # naturally occur Bi &i Lightning ‘@ Ber phenomenon t, fraH charges atmosphere @ Wart through clouds @ earth 7 flow aa faa result sometimes disastrous ta @1 © Lightning # charges #1 flow steady 71 #1, but BH ste everyday life T aEF atfees devices Fae “#, Far charges steady manner flow #4 #; $4— river # smoothly flow Bat water| © Torch @ cell driven clock #8 devices % example #1 © Present chapter 41 87 steady electric currents % concern #4 ara $e basic laws #1 study #1 3.2 Electric Current Charges % flow 44 ditection % normal small area 4 imagine #fFU) Positive att negative charges 2H arca % across forward #1 backward flow #1 3 #i © Fre-Te time interval 3 FT g, positive charge "Bnet amount (.e. forward minus backward) & ail area % across forward direction 4 flow éial a © Similarly, Let ¢_ negative charge 7 net amount @, # forward direction # area # across flow wat * Charge # net amount, H time interval £# forward direction # area ® across low @1 7H @, gag. 9g mes * Steady current * fore =e ¢% proportional tat sft quotient following # og it (31) i forward direction # area ® across current #4 define ea €1 (if 7% number negative # 7% current #1 backward direction # imply #4 €)/ * Let AQ net charge @, 3H time interval As [ie. times (¢ + At) 4] % during Frat conductor % cross-section % across flow @ TI @1 © ‘Then, timet % conductor * cross-section % across current, AQ ® At & ratio FFA WE define ea & fir fora8 At limit zero ¥ aie tend weal € T(t) = lim Ag (3.2) aso At © STunits #, current #4 unit ampere tr €1 © UH ampere ai current % magnetic effects & define frat sta &, fererai study ¥ following chapter # © Domestic appliances # = ampere typically current % magnitude # order #at #1 © (G average lightning, ampere * ten thousands * order 4 currents #1 carry 31 @ ait other extreme 'R, é¥id nerves 4 current microamperes # él #1 3.3 Conductors Electric Currents © if fae electric charge % 4M electric field apply feat an 8, at ae Ue force experience sem © if a move FF F fa free &, A Ae move TA *h current contribute FM! * Nature # atmosphere 4 upper strata, f7% ionagphere 784 #, charged particles exist 7 # © However, atoms # molecules # negatively charged electrons positively charged nuclei H-FEt F bind Ht € siz thus move BH & fer free WE Far + Bul mater many motes 31am BB, for example, W] gram water # approximately 10” molecules ai #1 * & molecules %4 closely packed @ # f& electron individual nuclei # afte ara THE eH attached "Et Tem! © 5 materials ¥ electrons #4 “4 bind @A @, ic. even if electric field apply Frat ste, a +4 accelerate 71 #1 © Other materials, notably metals 4, 8 electrons bulk materials % 2% move #A fer practically free ai @1 © Fi materials, f-% generally conductors 784 %, 4 4 electric field apply FAT Sa @, Hl FT electric current develop Sn @! © if @ solid conductors #1 consider #2, of course atoms W-GFt A tightly bind ze @, fara negatively charged electrons, current # carry ¥@ #1 © However, other types % conductors *f #8 #; $4 electrolytic solutions, FAA positive negative Sr charges move 3 W#3 #1 © WHR discussion ¥, #1 HAE solid conductors % focus ¥t, fH fixed positive ions 3 background # negatively charged electrons current #t carry ti + Wea case #7 consider 29 &, a AHf electric field present 721 21 © Electrons, thermal motion #1 move #2, f47* during @ fixed ions 4 collide #4 #1 © frat ion & collide 7 eM electron, collision 3 WH Bt WE same speed # emerge Bt #1 © However, collision % 4 TH#i velocity #1 direction completely random tat #) © feel fey 1 time *H, electrons 4 velocities % fery #18 preferential direction *@l el 81 «© Thus, average © @, feral direction * travelling electrons #1 number oppostie direction # travelling electrons ® number % equal €™m So, 31 net electric current Tel EM! wa eH tei @ fT conductor * UH piece W if electric field apply frat aM, a wT ten 2? ‘avi thoughts # focus #3 % fa, Rradius % cylinder # shape % TH conductor 1 imagine we ¢ (Fig. 3.1)1 ae Fig. 3.1 Metalic ender % ends charges Q 7 ~ QT & Charges neatalice 3H ¥ created lac etd PE lca drift HN Tha, charger+ Q F— QF continuously replenished BF ¥ ATE current top 22 TEM * Suppose 37% FF dielectric # * thin circular discs #4 #, F474? radius same # aR WH disc +Q positive charge « similarly other disc % — Q charge distribute 48 21 © WHET TA discs F cylinder HF @ Mat surfaces % attach FA #1 & electric field create Hm 24 positive @ negative charge #1 #K directed WT +Q ¥ toward ¥ field % #1 electrons accelerate EH © Thus, @ charges # neutralise #2 * fer move Ei © Electrons 34 7% move #4 TH, 7a TH 4 electric current #1 constitute FA WA © Hence, consider #4 "8 situation #, 4g short time * fer current flow erm 3% thereafter 7 id current flow i én © 7 mechanism 41 1 imagine F FHA E, FAY conductor F=X moving electrons # Feat charge #4 neutralised #7 ® fare cylinder ® ends # fresh charges supply fara aren $1 ‘#38 case # conductor #1 body # UF steady electric field rm © Fa result # current, time short period 3 fet 7 BET continuous current ¥Mhl # & mechanisms, 3 WH steady electric field maintain 2 ¥, cells batteries aaa #, Fara study @4 #4 chapter # are #1 ati © Next sesons eH steady current i study #8, For result conductor # steady electric field 8 ater @1 53.4 Ohin’s Law © Currents % flow % fer responsible physical mechanism ® discover #9 % El We G.S. Ohm 7 1828 ¥ current ® flow # regarding @& basic law discover fa © GF conductor imagine %¢, fara J current flow # wi # ai let Vconductor % ends % aa potential difference #1 Then, Ohn’s law state eat & fe Ver a V=R 3.3) “a@t, proportionality constant , conductor resistance Eat #1 Resistance ¥ SI unit ohm #i # ait #8 symbol Q @ denote feat ra #1 Resistance R only conductor ® material % # depend 7@1 ae, but conductor # dimensions 7% Mf depend ea &| * Conductor #1 dimensions % K #1 dependence following ¥t #7 easily determine i =I wa 1 © Length (4 cross-sectional area AW slab #1 form 4 Eq,(3.8) 41 satisly “tot &™ conductor consider # [Fig. 3.2(a)]! « 7 a w C Fig. 32 Length! @ cose section area A #9 retangaler sla 3 relation R = OL 7 liutration # 24 & identical slabs 4 placing * side by side imagine Z%, fer combination @ length 2% © Combination #@ through flow #8 ata current fe GF slab HF flow HA aa current % wa Bra & [sce Fig. 3.2(b)]! * ifV first slab % ends ¥ across potential difference @, 74 second slab % ends ® across # potential difference V erat €, since second slab, first slab % identical ® aft eri # same current flow @ x1 &t © Combination % ends ® across potential difference clearly @ individual slabs ® across potential difference I sim tat # att hence, 2 % equal at ti * Combination ¥ current / a combination * resistance Re * following way ¥ fern set & Eg. 8.3) 31 (3.4) # Since 1 Rem CH la resitance #1 © Thus, conductor #4 length double #4 ¥ resistance double ®t @ © a general way # resistance, length % proportional #1 @, Rel # ‘Next, slab 4 lengthwise @ parts ¥ divide 7 imagine BY, faa@ slab w/ length arch @ identical slabs, FAP each # cross-section area“ &, % form ¥ consider a3 Isee Fig. 3.260]! © Slab ® across 4 7 voltage V % fem, if entire slab 4 current /@, 74 clearly @t 4 @ each half slabs 9-8 Pass A ae current J © Since, half slabs % ends ® across potential difference V €, ic. full slab % across potential difference % same @, so each half-slabs 7 resistance R, following way # a™m— ee 2, © Thus, conductor ® cross-section area *I half #4 %K resistance double # =e @1 # 0g, general way 3, resistance R cross-sectional area % inversely proportional #m @, 1 Res (3.7) =2R (3.6) *# Eqs. (3.5) # (3.7) # combine =, we have ! Red (3.8) ik hence fart faq 7 conductor % fem, =P! f Ree (3.9) ‘ati, proportionality constant p, conductor % material %« depend sea & + fi set dimensions TR pF resistivity SEA €1 * Last equation = use 23%, Ohm's law read em V=IxXR # .(8.10) © Curent per unit area (coment 3 normal #6), a current density et # aft #HjF denote ‘wet Current density 8 ST unit 9, vr ‘© Further, if [length are Fr con oe wor leceac RA magnitude E 8, 74 5% ends ® across potential difference El em © TUR use FTF equation read FF El=jpl a © MagnitudesE @ j % fem above relation 3 vector form # cast frat aI Aaa #1 © Current density (f#@ #84 current % normad, unit area % through current 41 # define frat #) HE ® along directed # att vector ( ale t (3.11) © Thus, last equation 4 following way # write fara st zara &— E=jp (8.12) a j=ok (ata) atios 7 fH conductivity eA Et © Ohm's law # Eq, (3.3) % ae-a4 Eq, (3.13) # equivalent form # + often stave fra sr th * Next section #, #H Ohm's law % origin #1 understand 23 try 8, $8 fH ZT electrons drift 34 characteristics © arise G1 #1 Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854) + 3 German physics, Munich * professor #1 Ohm heat % conduction # ## anology & a7 law 3 led FAT: electric Bld, tempeceture gradient % analogous € aft elect current, heat flow 7 analogous #1 3.5 Electrons @1 Drift & Resistivity &T Origin + sta fir we remark 1 BE, electron heavy fixed ions % #4 collision suffer WA, but collision 3 i, a same speed & but random direction % emerge #1 #1 # if tH 7H electrons #1 consider F¥, a TAH average velocity zero Hr, since STF directions random 8 #) © Thus, if N electrons # afx fee-TE time WE ith electron (f= 1,2 3 ..V) #I velocity v; &, 7a 18 wht =0 (8.14) © 39 Gai situation 4 consider #¢ sia electric field present 21 © field * 4m electron accelerate FT (3.15) ‘wet -c, charge ait m electron #1 mass @1 © Again, fee 7% times % ith electron #1 consider # © Blectront % $e time Wee AH last collision U1 az let ¢, #4% last collision * Ig elapsed. time @ © if v, 38% last collision % immediately ae ai velocity, 7a time ¢ % FHA velocity V, following way 3 ert &— -£), (8.16) Since, 4% last collision @ start #7 ¥ 4E time interval ¢, % fre 4 mE Eq, (3.15) 8 fee my acceleration % #4 accelerate gi [Fig. 3.3]| d MMe a aeicine Ch pa ktn aught a electron, point BY (dotted lines) 5 end up 8 W1AT BY Electric field % opposite diection # TH slight drift visible Bar #1 * Time t electrons 4 average velocity #4 V;, #1 average été 1 © Bil v, 1 average zero [Eq. (3.14)] tat @, since ft “1 collision ® immediately 4 electron velocity #1 direction completely random #rai @1 * Electrons 1 collision regular interval 1% =é @t @, but random time W 2m @1 © Successive collisions % 317 average time #11 @ denote 7 @, 7a feet FW time T, FT electrons #7 @ afte ax ae #1 BR time spent fm eM © Other words #, 8-98 #H values i =1, 2,...V % through 8 #, # Eq. (3.16) ¥ timer, Fo % four 3 am oie ge & four Sates a © at, At average value, t (relaxation time see @) Wet #1 «¢ first fie 7H times WE N-clectrons % FTG Eq, (3.16) average AA Te TH average velocity vy ‘red t— Vg =(V lca = (Veloce = Cee -0-8,--%, 28 last result surprising #1 28 &# wren fr electrons fret average velocity, 3 time % Iudepeudent de, 3 ever move em &, although electrons accelerated $1 © 38 drift 31 phenomenon # ait Eq. (3.17) # velocity v, drift velocity Sect @1 © Drift & a1, E % perpendicular fei #7 area ¥ across charges #1 transport #1 © Conductor # inside located @ planar area A # consider ¥%, =i E% parallel area normal # (Fig. 3.4)! Ax= oA ig 34 Pe Mec cdc Yer Nea erent deity made it tea 7 length 2g ender cota charge magutade BL © 39 drift % 41, time % Fe infinitesimal amount A¢ ¥, area % left % FF electrons| v, | At distance 4 area #1 cross sil © ifmetal # per unit volume, free electrons = number n 2, 74 n At |v, | A 7 electrons #1 # Since, each electron, ~ ¢ charge canry 7TH @, so At time # $4 area A ¥ right % transport farat 7H total charge — ned |v, | A¢ caf © Eleft ® toward direct ¢ 24% hence area ® across E ® along transport f#41 74 total charge 771 negative tm © Time At 3 area A @ cross #2 ¥ charge #1 amount definition [Eq, (3.2)] 21 At tar é, set current #1 magnitude & Hence, TAt=+nedlv, [At (3.18) © Eq, (3.17) 8] v, | Ht value substitute 23%, rare 24 ate | (3.19) m © Definition @ J, current density % magnitude | j|# following way ¥ related @, T=|jl4 © Hence, Eq, (3.19) 4 3.20) %, 2 ne j t|E (21 l= lel (3.21) © Vector j, E parallel # aff hence Bq. (3.21) 1 #4 vector form 4 write 3 FHT F— j=" Er (8.22) m if TT conductivity o 4 following way 7 identify = * (3.23) Eq, (3.13) ¥ compare #3 show tat & fF Eq, (3.22) exactly Ohm’s law #1 ‘Thus, #47 @a1 fF electrical conduction #1 G aE simple picture Ohm's law #1 reproduce eat #1 Of course, 7% assumptions #18 w # fH ta n, E @ independent constants #1 ‘Next section # # Ohm's law #4 limitations 4 discuss #7 EXAMPLE 3.1 (a) 1.0107 # conduction 1 average drift speed estimate "TRI Assume 7 FF each copper atom roughly conduction electron contribute ®t &i Copper ®t density 90 10” kg/m? 34 atomic mass 63.5 0 (b) Above # obtain drift speed 7 following compare # ( ordinary temperatures "% copper atoms 1 thermal speed. (i) conductor % along electie field % propagation @ speed, St drift motion cause et Sol, (a) Conduction electrons drift velocity W direction, electric field direction % opposite Wf &, i. electrons increasing potential dcection # cxf 5H #1 © Drift speed vy #4 Eq. (3.18) & Rear ren wld) Now,¢=1.6 x10 ©, A=L0x107 m?, 1=15A * Conduction clecton # density, per cubic metre # atoms % number % equal Het € (assume 7 fF per Cu ‘atom ¥ conduction electcon &, t Fh valence electron # count 1 A ae #1 # Copper cubic metre mass$.0 10? kg #t Since, 6.0 x10 copper aloms ®t mass 63.5 g #1 60108 1m’ cross-section area 7 copper wire, $1.5 A current carry #CTEE, 1.0 x 108 =8.5 10° eas whieh gives, Py ge jet d0" ms .Lmms! 85 10 x 1.6 10 x 1.0% 107 (b) &) Temperature 7%, Mf mass % copper atom +) thermal spped* ( set Note “Class X17 bok & Chapter 13 39 Eq. (13.25) €81 + 300 K ¥ copper; about 210? m/s #a #1 figure conductor # copper atoms #4 random ‘ibraional speeds indicate Fe #1 + Note # fin ordinary temperature electrons #1 daft speed *E4 smal, about typical thermal speed 107 mes A #1 (0) Conductor ® along travel "6 @ elect field # speed Pt electromagnetic wave # speed ie 3010" ms"! @ equal Het (THR AR H STU Chapter B 9 learn FI + rat comparision ¥ drift speed extremely small; 10"! & factor @ small tt €1 - (3 kg Rain seme pial AE order tt &, 32 ky, Boltzmann constant #1 EXAMPLE 5.2 {a) Example 3.1 %, few amperes #¥ range # current % fe electron drift speed only few m ms"! estimate 8 &1 Then, circuit close TF @ almost $2 instant # current 48 establish set &? (b) ft conductor & SFE electric Held # electron ® experience WME force % FMM electron deft arise eat Butforce # acceleration Wa "FEW Then, electrons steady average drift speed 7 acquive ®t eae? (©) ifelectron dif speed ¥4p small 3H electron #1 charge small @, © Pst conductor ¥ current *1 large amount $8 obtain # Wa 2? (a) 34 Fre metal electrons lower potential @ higher potential 37 dit 22 @, #1 a1 FTE mean #| f% metal % Mil free electrons same direction 1 move A % #2 {e) ®H successive collisions {metal % positive ions % ™4) * AH electzons 3 path () elects field absence # [i electic field # presence #, straight lines #2 Sol. (a) Pr Circuit H electric eld almost instantly establish I WH & (light Wi speed #5 Ia), every point TS local electron 7 drift cause (develop) a tl * Current & establishment 7% wait él ra @ f& electron, conductor # w end @ Ga end WF travel ath + However, curcent 398 steady value 38 reach #9 & fe fle time 3 | (b) Each free electron accelerate arm &, Faea Fae drift speed Wwe ap fa a AS metal & positive ion & We collide 7 # Fm) © Collision & ar 5 S174 drift speed lose #1, but accelerate ET start Bert ak Te ATCA drill speed again increase 5 # 54M 2 again collision Al wen se WE Process RN Tee 1 + Therefore, on the average, electrons only drift speed acquise #23 #1 (9 Simple, beeause electron number density enormous (~107 m-") He # (4) By no means. Drift velocity, electrons #1 large random velocities *® superpose rd $1 (9) cle td stent, nip oe Alri Sd pence pte gee way curved #4 #1 3.5.1 Mobility ¢ a1 fe wat Bm conductivity, mobile charge carriers @ arise Wt #1 © Metals 9 inobile charge carriers, electrons &8 &, iunised gus 4, 9 electrons @ positive charged ions @2 &; electrolyte #¥, 2 positive ¥ negative ions e+ @ aaa #1 ‘© & important quantity mobility. ttt @, FFA per unit electric field 41 drift velocity * magnitude i TRE define far ara @— Ival ae (8.24) © Mobility 4 SI unit m*/Vs #4 practical unit (em*/Vs) ¥ mobility ¥ 10’ ai 21 mobility positive at #1 © Eq. (3.17) ®, wehave by =@E/m Hence, att lence, Ea “aa, electrons & fee average collision time #1 3.6 Ohm’s Law #1 Limitations © Although, Ohm’s law materials #2 large class ® over valid find frm wa &, wel electric circuit # use 8H a1 FS BA materials sik devices exist #d ¥, sei V 4 J at proportionality hold =i adi #1 * Deviation broadly following way #7 & a sifirs type = tent (a) V 41 J % fare Proportionallity cease (end) a ar @ (Fig. 3.5)! — Fig 5 Dash one linear O's ae 9 represent ich Soi ine geod condactr & F2 cltageV sera crrent 181 (0) V4 2% is sclation, V sign 1% depend ea é1 © Other words %, if certain V % fem current J @, a V #1 magnitude fix 794 ET FAet direction @ reverse BEI ® opposite direction ¥ J % same magnitude ™ current produce 7é #rt & (Fig. 3.6)! Fig. 46 Diede 1 chaactevicic curve. Veltage@ curren 9 negative postive caus 3 FE diffrent scales note © For example, diode # ta i tia @, fara ey Chapter 14 # study #81 (cq) V4 ata a relation unique 7, ie. same current J % fey V #1 we a sifere value Sot & (Fig. 3.7)1 a 87h Negative Fiowlincee seein ore Voluge 7(V) Fig 3.7 Gads Fr carrent ves cle variation ‘¢ & behaviour exhibit 77 ae GF material GaAs #1 © Materials & devices, a Eq. (3.3) #1 form # Ohm’s law # obey #4 ei, actually electronic circuit 7 widely use &@ &i © However, 7H 3 Fe subsequent chapters # EH 37 materials ¥ electrical currents * study wt, at Ohm's law obey #4 #1 3.7 Various Materials #1 Resistivity * Various common materials #1 resistivity 3 18 given Table 3.1 9 list feat 7H * Resistvities % dependence, S744 values ¥ increasing order ¥ materials #1 conductors, semiconductors 3 insulators % form # classy fea #1 ‘Table 3.1 GB Materials Wt Resistivities Resistivity 2 Temperature Materia Rene LO) Coote 00) HE OC ° ‘Conductors Silver 16x10" 0.0081 Copper Lrx10* 0.0068 Aluminium 27107 0.008 Tungsten 5x10 0.0085 Iron 16x10 0.0085 Platinum 1x0 0.0039 Mercury oa" 0.0000 Nichrome alloy of Ni,Fe, Cr) ~100 x10" 0.0004 Manggnin (alloy) aexa0* 0.00210 Semiconductors Carbon (graphite) 35x10 = 10003 Germanium 0.46 ~ 0105 Silicon 2300 007 Insulators Pure water 25x10" Glass 10-10! Hard rubber 108-10 NaCl -10"" Fused quartz ~108 Metals #1 resistivities low étd @, sii 10° Q m @ 10 Q m Fi range 4 él 21 Other end ¥ insulators; #4 ceramic, rubber 4 plastic #, Favt resistivities metals & 10'* times a ars ért #1 FF 2 & aa semiconductors 278 ti However, 374 resistivities, temperature * rise #4 characteristically decrease #rf #1 Semiconductors # resistivities impurities % small amount % presense affect tt #1 “3 last feature electronic devices % fae semiconductor ® use ¥ exploit farar a1 #1 © Domestic @ laboratories # use #3 =a commercially produced resistors % major types Tt ‘8 wire bound resistors 2% carbon resistors. © Wire bound resistors FeAl alloy, vi, manganin, constantan, nichrome @I similar wires 34 winding #0 art aa #1 © Mostly 74 materials #1 choice ¥# fact ‘% dictate ai # fi T7t resistivities ¥ temperature Effect relatively insensitive @at 31 4 resistances typically 1 ohm @ ¥% hundred ohm ® fraction #1 range # #@ @ © Higher range ® resistors mostly carbon & wt at * Carbon % resistor compact @ inexpensive #1 # sf thus electronic circuits ¥ extensively use fru we #1 * Carbon resistors size % small #i & 2k hence HAI value UH colour code #1 use A 2 sill 81 * Resistors * co-axial coloured rings 1% set eet @, fri significance ¥1 4 given Table 3.2 A list fran ei Table 3.2 Resistor Colour Codes Colour Number Multiplier ‘Tolerance (*) Black 0 1 Brown L aot Red 2 10? Orange 3 10 Yellow 4 wot Green 3 10" Blue 6 10° Violet 7 we Gray 8 10" White 9 10? Gold 1 5 Silver ct 10 No colour 20 © End @ first tzo0 bands ohms % resistors #1 first two significant figures 4 indicate #77 #1 © Third band decimal multiplier ($41 f& Table 3.2 # list Far 77a €) #1 indicate Sea 81 © Last band indicated values ® about percentage tolerance or possible variation * ferg stand aaa @1 © Sometimes, 2€ last band absent tn @ 24 Gt 20% a tolerance indicate Fem & (Fig, 3.8)! Vinee Red v Red Siver Yellow i @ © Fig. 3.8 Colour coded resistors (22 102) + 10%, ()(A7 x 10.4} 5, © if SK colours orange, blue, yellow # gold @, a 5% a tolerance value # #14 resistance #1 value 36 x 10" QF 3.8 Resistivity %t Temperature W® Dependence «© frei material # resistivity temperature % depend eh #1 © Different materials, temperatues % same dependence exhibit "eh #1 ‘© Temperature #1 limited range * over, i aes afirs ati tic, metallic conductor 4 resistivity appoximately following way # @ ard &— Pp =Pofl+a(T -%)] (3.26) where pp, temperature I ¥ resistivity 4 pq reference temperature Ty % resistivity #1 sa, petty I temperature cogficient He % 3H Eq. (3.26) A cx #1 dimension (Temperature)! ate © Metals % fee, o po: ist Pen ar 21 © Eq, (3.26) #1 relation implies sem @ f T % against plotted p, #1 graph & straight line # Fea é1 © However, 0°C @ ag #H temperature % graph straight line & considerably deviate wean (Big. 3.9)1 ve that ate Ge metals F fore Ty CW a AA values #8 Table 3.1 H Resistivity p (10"%am) rr Temperature T()— Fig. 3.9 Temperature % futon © form # copper % reistvtyp, © Thus, Eq, (3.26) #9 frei 4 reference temperature 7, % around W& limited range ® over approximately use fa st zat t, SCF graph approximate UW straight line @ ze th © Fe materials; 48— nichrome (if nickel, iron 4 chromium 37 1G alloy @) temperature ty i aE weak dependence exhibit FTI # (Fig. 3.10)1 120 Resitivity pu em) 1.00 2004060 WO Temperature FS) Pg S10 Abilte enpeatare® faction 6 8 H ichome resi, Manganin 3% constantan 44 similar properties eat €1 Thus, 2 materials wire bound standard resistor # widely use G® &, since TA? resistance value temperature % 1a ag FH change Tt Unlike metals, semiconductors #4 resistivities temperature increase 84 WC decrease Er #1 following given Fig. 3.11 4 typical dependence show fa 727 | r Fig. 3.11 FA opical emicanducr © FE resstcty BH temperatere ¥ dependence. WH Eq, (9:23) % derivation % Base % light # resistivity #1 temperature ' dependence @ qualitatively understand ®t 3&8 #1 & equation & material #1 resistivity following way 92 afl (827) ‘Thus, p per unit volume electrons * number 2 2 collision ® #4 average time t Si depend #1 @1 Fa GF temperature 4 increase FT @, TI electron 1 average speed, Vi current carriers #4 IRE act BUH , increase GaN &, FAH collision more frequent & He $1 ‘Thus, & average time collision, temperature & a decrease a #1 Metal 4, n fel +f appreciable extent % fq temperature 4 depend 71 dar ait thus temperature % rise 4 @ t #1 value decrease hii ¢, faa p increase eat @, Seat Fe eA observe fara! However, insulators 3% semiconductors % fey temperature % 4 increase Sat €1 7B increase Eq. (3.23) 9, + 4 fee A decrease 4 Hf4% FH compensate Sem @, fra 13 materials % fet p, temperature % 44 decrease Wat €1 EXAMPLE 3.3 whlectric tonster 43 heating element nichrome # use #1 £1 3a gH8 HF negligibly small current pass tat, # room temperature (27.0°C) ee resistance 75.8.2 wer we £1 a toaster 230-V supply @ connect 77 9 &, MI current few seconds ® me current 2.68 Al steady value ® settle “ait #1 Nichrome element ™ steady temperature = #7 Nichrome average temperature range 3 resistance 1 temperature cofficient 170 10°C" €1 Sol 3H clement 4% pass HY 7H current HET small #, 73 heating effects # ignore fre waa # clement 1 temperature 7, room temperature % same Be i + 4 toaster 8) supply connect fa sat &, 4 FEAT snl current TFT steady value 2.68 A * slighly high aos) + But curent heating effect 3 71 temperature rise Fl resistance ¥ increase #1 sft current ¥ slight deerease @M ‘© Few seconcis &, steady state fot SIT 3 temperature S17 increase 7H ATG element WI resistance 7 courtent 2 steady values achieve 271 + Steady temperature T; resistance Ry #— 230 ae ‘258A cee €£=1.70 x10-C! a following elation °H use EE R=Ri+a(M-T) aa 753 We H-He “ (5.a)x 1.70% 10% ‘Thats, 1, =(820+ 2707C=M177C + Thus, heating element steady temperature (5 current % EET heating effect sursoundings heat loss % equal #) 847°C tm sure EXAMPLE 3.4 oF platinum resistance thermometer % platinum wire ice point % resistance 5 ake steam point & 5.30.0 #1 -9a thermometer 34-7 hot bath # insort fave wer f, platinum wire 1 resistance 5.795 © at #1 Bath 3 temperature calculate 1 SOL, Ky = 5.2 Ry) =82829 R Now, 3.9 Electrical Energy, Power © End points A B ama t conductor consider ¥%, fe current /, A BT flow wi & © A7B T electric potential # V(A) 4 V(B) # respectively denote fea 71 #1 © Since, current A@ 2 7 flow 2 78 8, soV (A) >V(B) 3€ AR % across potential difference V =V(A)-V(B) >0 * Time interval Af 4, charge #1 amount AQ = JAt, A&B a% travel #1 #1 * Definition & 4 w charge * potential energy QV(4) * at similarly Bw 7 QV(B) &1 ‘© Thus, 374 potential energy AU jy # change #1 wx = Final potential energy ~ Initial potential energy OV (B) - V(A)] =~ AQV TVAL<0 -(3.28) © if charges @ conductor #8 without collisions % move erat Wha &, #h SA kinetic energy change @r, f78 fF total energy unchange 781 © Conservation of total energy imply ti fr AK =~ AU py ~(3.29) that is, AK =1VAt>0 (8.30) © Thus, conductor # # clectric field ® under ® through charge freely move =a, # 3781 kinetic energy increase #1 © However, t yee Zant FF on an average charge carriers acceleration % = move Ai Fe, but steady drift velocity = 14 move #Ta #1 ‘FE transition # during ions > atoms * collision # #1 tat @ Thus, collision % during, charges @ gain 24 7 energy atoms % ™# share # af art #1 Aloms more vigorously vibrate #2 @, i.e. conductor heat up @ 17 @1 Thus, actual conductor ¥, time interval At % during, Energy +1 amount heat % form # dissipate & a1 &, AW =17at (8.31) Per unit dissipated energy, dissipated power P = ae Bh & at we have Pav (8.32) Ohm’s law V = 1R 7 use WH, we get, 2 ParR- (3.33) R GH® Rresistance * conductor, f##4 current J carry (flow) # 2 , 4 power loss (“ohmic loss”) #1 WE, aE heat & Gi, for example, electric bulb #t coil #1 incandescence #4 * fet 34 heat up ‘ctl &, Fret heat @ light radiate @4 #1 Power #1 & ait #? dar f& eT Tee reason & gw @ fF conductor # steady current #1 flow zai % feu ei extemal source #1 need zi &1 7 clear @ f& 7 source @, f¥8 =a power 7 supply en eT! ‘Simple circuit , Fa cell % = show fea Tt (Fig, 3.12), * cell Bt chemical energy &, 3 Fe power #1 74 TF supply edt ¢ aa TH aE aT Ta 1 Pontve Negative electrode dlecrose R Eloctrcyte Fig, 12 Col % terminal % ass connect PE yest RH produce #5 ea, Resistor isipate TE energy eect chemical ency 2 STA #1 Eqs. (8.32) 4 (8.98) ¥ power expression % fer a show 28 @ fF resistor RY dissipated power &38 current 4 52 across voltage * depend =e &) Eq, (3.33) power transmission ® f7 important application #1 Electrical power # power stations @ transmission cable % nia homes @ factories ¥ transmit ‘art &, SH hundred miles ® distance *% & 738 i 1 power stations ® homes ® factories # connect %A MA transmission cables # power loss # obviously minimise #1 rea #1 374 TH BSH fe TE FG achieve fem TAT EL WH device R consider #, FAY R, resistance 74 transmission cables * via power P 3H deliver #22 &, ol finally dissipate eal &1 if R® across voltage V @ sit 34H flow @ Ti current J @%, 7 P=Vr (884) Power station # connecting wires # connect #7 AA wires * resistance R, finite Fat #1 Connecting wires # dissipated power P,, sf waste @rat @, Eq. (3.32) @ following @— PPR, BaPRATG Thus, power P device # derive #1 % fart, connecting wires 4 wasted power V? inversely proportional #4 @ © Power stations # transmission cables hundred miles long #8 @ sik 37=1 resistance R, considerable #at #1 © P, reduce 2 % fer, % wires ¥ # enormous values ™ current carry Wee # se 7H reason 4'F% transmission line "% high voltage danger sign 74 82 &, 31 BH populated arcas 3 FAT ‘frag 23 #1 © Tell voltage W electricity #1 use eA safe ai dial sii hence other end "Us deviee, 3 transformer teat ¢, 74 value T# voltage # lower #1 €, A use * Fae suitable Wel th 3.10 Resistors %1 Combination-Series & Parallel ‘© single resistor R, faa across potential difference V %, @ current J #1 Ohm's law J = F a R fear aren #1 © Resistors @ sometimes together join fem arm ¢ att £8 combination ® equivalent resistance Fi calculation fq simple rule #4 #1 © G resistors 3 series # set are &, if 3 id point 8-8 ae GH join B (Fig. 3.13)! ew a wr te ie ca) m Fig 513 2 esse Ry srs combination © if & resistor ® series combination % = third resistor * join fen Bra, WHat w series F wea @ [Fig. 3.14]! WA oe ce mae 7 Fig. 5.14 #7 vexicons RR, 7 B, #7 sre combination * Clearly, resistors % fart sf nomber 7 series combination % fe FA FS definition W extend waa ai © a afm resistors parallel # 4 Wt , if HT resistors #1 TF end AVG # join Feat wy ai similarly other ends *t 3174 # join fem ar [Fig. 3.15]! 8 1 4 a um Fig. 3.95 Paral concedes Ry © T resistors R, 7 R, 7 series # consider | Charge, 51 R, 7 leave Fa %, 34 Ry 7 enter ser wea © Since, current charge % flow % rate 3 measure Fat #, FH meaning $ FF RFR HA same current flow #1 @1 © Ohm's law 3, R, ® across potential difference = V, = JR, 3% R, % across potential difference = V © Combination % across potential difference V, + V @1 Hence, V=V, +¥, =1(R, +R) (3.36) + 2 ter & fe if combination a equivalent resistance Ryg SHH Olin's law & following Sat ae ) 97 Bay 2 = UR + Be) (8.37) IR if TH cr resistors series # connect fare #, 4H similarly, V = IR, + IR, + IR, =1(R, + Ry + Ry) (3.38) ¥ obviously resistors K,, Ry.....R, ¥ fat t nnumber % series combination 7 extend Fat Sea a Equivalent resistance Ry at Ray = Rt Ry tot Ry (3.39) ‘371 tH resistors parallel combination consider #7 € [Fig. 3.1511 Si charge left & A we axe a ie flows aH #, A, through partly 3 R, % through partly =e 28 ait flow ar #1 Figure # show fq 7 currents J, ,, I) indicated point % charge * flow % rates @1 Hence, T=h+l, (3.40) R, % Ohm's aw apply 2h A B® aha potential dilference following way ¥ fear ora #— VLR (8.41) 2 % 99 Ohm's law apply 0%, Vehk (842) . tehih=peper (peg (3.43) if combination # equivalent resistance R.y % replace #%, 4 Ohm's law & fae 7" Hence, fetish Ry hm FH easily 2a waa # fF three resistors #4 parallel 44a extend # Bae & [Fig. 3.16]! Ry Spr Rs Fig. 3.16 Thre reser, Ry and RT parle combination Exactly We #7, [=h+h+h (8.46) Ry, Ry 7 Ry A Ohin’s law apply WAR, we get Vat, RV =1,R,V =1,Ry wfB.47) So that, 1 1 1 retheh(pe pet] (3.48) Equivalent resistance R.q, Sif combination 41 replace #2at @, ten am Fe (3.49) Teele ft hence pe ay (8.50) Ry Ro Rm © Parallel ¥ resistors ® fri sf number % fe EF similarly reason % FHA th © nresistors R,, Ry....R, 1 equivalent resistance #— Pedy ta yt (8.51) sete Ra & Ry Equivalent resistances * fer¢ 74 formulae 1 aftr complicated circuits # currents # voltage find out #2 % fere +f use feat st GT gi For example, #9 given Fig (3.17) # circuit #1 consider ¥%, Sei GH resistors R,, Ry FR, #1 he 4 & Z al B ¢ L ® Ts ee é ee i en ee Pigs 3.17 5 restr Ry. Ry 7 Ry combination Ry, Ry evant eitonce RE AU parle * RF RY eguinaent esitance RIE A series © Ry 7 Ry parallel 4% ait hence 7 F# point B 3 C % AM equivalent resistance R2? @ replace wane, : cet Re oR, R,R, a ys “23 (3.52 ers ad © om circuit 4 R, 4 RY series # ¢ 37K hence 741 combination following equivalent resistance 3 wa replace frat a wer a RE ARES, 3) © if A449 C% A voltage V @, Tt current / following & fea TTF v Vv aR +1 Rs /(R, + Ry) =F ats) “RR, + R,Ry + R,Ry 3.11 Cells, EMF, Internal Resistance © F198 F mention HGH # fF fe eleciric circuit ¥ steady current # maintain we % fere simple device, electrolytic cell Set 21 © Basically & cell % @ electrodes #4 *, 3H positive (P) 4 negative (N) Fears #, ta fe following given Fig 3.18 # show frm 71 #1 (8.54) ; ; GI alae be i) wo Fig, 3.18 (a) Poste frminalP 7 negative terminal % WH dll cll sheich. Blerodes A gop dary a exaggerate BT B1lecroye # A B peinu , WP BN F pal doe Bi Q) ell FC oymbolPelecrode Bt “ign rr TT © HCN lactrade gn refer HEAT #1 Cll % elec connaton P WN WT #4 electrolytic solution # immerse Ta #i * Solution ¥ dipped electrodes, electrolyte * 4 charges I exchange @ @ © Positive electrode #1, 477 27 (itself) * ait figure 4 marked A * immediately adjacent electrolyte solution * ais potential difference V, (V, >0) &1 © Similarly, negative electrode, 377% adjacent electrolyte * relative T negative potential —(V_) (V_ 20) develop #0 @, f¥4 figure # B-& mark fren Tat #1 © 39 4 current 7 #ai, a throughout electrolyte #1 potential same dat #, faa fe P aN ‘ita potential difference V, ~(V_)=V, +V_ a 1 © WE difference, cell #t electromotive force (emf) want # ak Te F denote 7 #1 Thus, e=V. +50 © Note a f&, ¢ actually potential difference ¢ 7 f& force. * However, historical reasons # 17 emf name use at arat @ it Se time ¥ fear Ta a Ta phenomenon 4 properly understand =H F™ 721 © © ® significance # understand #3 % few, cell ® across connected U& resistor Rt consider at (Fig. 3.18)! © RB across current J, C8 D 6 flow =H &i © Sar f& WH wee explain FFI, W] steady current ¥ maintain fT aA é, because current electrolyte 4 # N @ P 7 flow =u #1 © Clearly, electrolyte % across, electrolyte 4 same current flow Gf @, but V8 P a, whereas, resistor RHA FE PB NS flow Het f © Electrolyte, Fe4 F current flow rH #, a finite resistance rat &, Fe internal resistance =e #1 © First, df sitmation #1 consider #% 44 Rinfinite @, fad fe 1=V /R=0, ai V, Pa N*% dia potential difference #1 © Now,V =P 4 4% 21 potential difference + 4B 3% potential difference +B 4 N ® #4 potential difference =e ...(3.56) © Thus, emfopen circuit # ie. cell ¥ & a ai current flow 7H # 7H &, postive sft negative electrodes % a potential difference ¢1 © However, if Rfinite #, # J zero =e ert © 38 case 4 Pa N % ax potential difference & V=V,+¥_- r= “fh * 4-4 B® 4 potential difference % expression (fj # negative sign % note ®t Practical calculation ¥, circuit # cell 3 internal resistance # neglect frat sr Fen & wer current 188 @ fe > > Ir. cell % internal resistance 7 actual value different cells % 45 different af #1 However, dry cell #7 internal resistance common electrolyte cell 4 314% high em @ ‘=H 7 +f observe fra fF since R ¥ across potential difference V &, # Ohm's law 8, V=R Eqs. (3.57) 5 (3.58) 1 combine 7%, we get a Ina d= 2.58) (8.59) Rer 0% faq cell F maximum current drawn fea HI AHA é Sit AE 7... =e/r Be el However, most cells # maximum allowed current 4 71 #4 Gat @, 74 cell 7 permanent damage 2 prevent fa 31 =i Clouds # Charges Old days 3, lightning #9 supernatural origin ®t atmospheric lah * form % consider fea en emt 38 God @ great weapon 31 3a ah Bu 3 igh 5 phenomenon 3 physic clementary principles @ sclentifteally explain Per ar rar 1 -Aumospheticelectcty, electric charges % separation # TH arse Ionosphere % magnetosphere # strong electric current solarerrestral interaction % generate fara 3TH #1 Lower atmosphere #, current weak @a¢ af¢ thunderstorm & maintain far ara #1 tel Clouds # ice particles #7 #, grow 3 &, collide Wf, fracture WA & aft break HHT apart (ae @ aa & ‘Smaller particles, postive eharge She larger particles, negative charge acquire = fi 2 charged particles clouds & gravity # updrit & separaie 8 Hi ln pe prion pot charged 1 mite eich im & Fe ole sour j Sometimes, cloud * base 3 near WM weak positive charge find Fg wa “Thunderstrom ¥ development % time T% ground positively charged Get £1 Also, cosmic # radioactive radiations, postive @ negative ions # air #1 ionise eh & sft alr elecially conductive (weakly) # sr #1 + Charges 7 separation coud % 2 cloud ™ ground yA of elecsical potential 7 tremendous ammount proudee 62 #1 + 7G millions vols amount @ warm & a eventualy air W eecrical resistance * break down @ ae & aft lighting fash begin @ "Hh # = thousand ampere I current flow @ar £1 Electric field 10° V/m order 21 #e #1 1B lighining fash average 8 four strokes @ series & compose Wt # ft each Mash % duration about 30 seconds Bit Per stoke average peak power about 0" wats #@ @1 Fair weather % during “atmosphere 4 charge ft Fair weather 1 elect eld ground ® stmospheric conduetiviy "surface charge densty 7H existence % ‘BING ionosphere ® earth surface 4% current % flow (if picoampere/square metre order # diet @) ar arse BB Ground surface charge density negative HA aft lect field downward directed He #1 + Land % over, average electric Held about 120 Vim Hat @, 3-12 x10" Cian? 9 surface charge deasiy % comespond te @ Entre eath surface total negative charge FT amount about 600 kC He #1 ‘Atmosphere 31% equal postive charge exist 5 #1 “WE electric field WF daily life ® notice 7 a #1 Bronce $0 teas SEE vs 0 aly Aine Reverting cmp 8 conductor EXAMPLE 5.5 Resistors 16 network 12 ¥ internal resistance # 16 Vw ed wre FA given Fig 8.19 % according connect a 77 #1 {a} Network 35 equivalent resistance @¥ compute #5 {b) Bach resistor # current obtain {c} Vohage diops Vys,Vgc # Vex obtain i Fig 3.19 Sol, (a) Network, resistors °7 1 simple series parallel combination #1 First, parallel ¥ 214 22% resistors resistor =[[4 x4) /(4 + 4] 2 =20 % equivalent #1 # Same way @, parallel 912.0 9 6.0 3 resistors, resistor [12 <6)/ (12 + 6)] = 492% equivalent & ‘+ Network #1 equivalent resistance R, 7 resistors (20 4 402) #10 % 74 series ¥ combine 73% obiain #n, ie R=20+ 4 +19=70 {b) Circuit # total current, © _ iv R+r (7+Q— 2. esr consider F410 resto 8 FA cure ber caret +4 1, hxaehxe ie. I, = fy, A otherwise @ arms 2h symmetry & cbviows #1 © Butd + fp == 2A. Thus, J IA, ie. each 402 ® resistor 4 current 1A #1 © BAC ® A 10 ¥ resistor # current 2A eh * Now, @'4 D394 resistance # consider 723 €1 © if £5,120 % cessor % current a Z,, 160% resistor # current €, 1x12 I, x6te.J,=2y as 4-(2)-(2)a ve 12.0% rexitor (2) caren, white 6% restr 84) a cree Ht a 3 (©) AB across voltage drop, Yup x4 sta x42 4V 3815 Bas total curent 1.474 BAH equivalent cesistance-& multiply WA A obian fear EM ie Vg =2A 22024 *# BC % across voltage drop, Vgc =2A 210-2 + Finaly, CD % across voage drop, Vogimix i siaax(2)acav 8,65 Data otalcurrent DCAD EA equivalentresitance Wn te. Von =2A x40 =8V + Note 5 f AD % across total voltage drop 4V + 2V-+8V=14V #1 + Battery @ terminal volage 14 V @, while FH emf 16 V #1 + Voltage 2 loss (= 2V) battery % 1.0% intemal essance ® fem # [2A x10 = 2V] 3.12 Series Parallel % Cells © Resistors 41 WE, cell # * electric circuit 7 37H # combine fen wt FT th © Resistors # ACE, currents @ voltages @ calculation % fet, cells % combination = equivalent cell @ replace fat a1 Aa #1 © Wa F cells #1 series combination ¥ consider ¥¥, Hei G7 cells % TF terminal, cell * other terminal # free BSH BE aT # joined # (Fig. 320]) q 1 fe, ares 5 ieee ence c Fig, 3.20 Series combination 9 Eels enje, Ve, Bin, Tr BP itera ridane 8A TC % acres connections % 4, combination BF emf, SHE inirnalrescanct rg WH cil BY WT easier BL HH BY hiply 7% obtain Pea sreeraTA ©), €) SA cells % emfs € 21x r,, ry respectively 21% internal resistances #1 * Let above given Fig. (3.20) 8 points 4, B 4 C P(A), V(B) a V(C) potential &1 * Then, (4) -V(B) 98a cell % positive negative terminals 44 potential difference #1 © 88 Eq. (8.57) 8 already calculate @ GH @ Ft hence -V(B)=e, - Ih (8.60) Similarly, B) -V(C) =€ — In (8.61) tion % terminals A C % #4 potential difference following @, Vac -V(C)=V(4) -V(B) +V(B)-V(C) = (ey tea) Fly, +m) (8.62) °° if 4 combination # AaB % AW eq, emf 7 rq internal resistance Wei TF single cell & replace #1 ae, © Hence, combi Vao= 3) ‘© Last @ equations @ compare #1, we get eq =E, +Ep (8.04) oie tg = th (3.65) © Fig. 320 #, 17 ore cell & negative electrode # GA cell & positive electrode ® connect fea an © if 13% instead BH negatives # connect WH, # Eq. (3.61) Vyg =—€y — fry ¥ change @ tien gat 9. (8.61) Vag ng we get, Cy =€; —en(e >€2) (3.66) © Series combination % fer rule clearly cells # fea sf numbers % fem extend fa] 1 FFT Zh () neells % series combination $1 equivalent ef 34% individual emf 1 sum dar aie (i) eal ' series combination 1 equivalent internal resistance 37% internal resistances #1 sum j + tar-7a t, aa current each cell positive clectrode % Fret #1 ifcombination 4, Fra of cell & negative electrode & current Fred @, dey 3 expression A, cell 31 emf negative sign % #4 dat €, FH fe Eq, (8.66) 8 fear wer 8) ‘Next, cells % parallel combination #1 consider #74 # (Fig. 3.21)! Ad, « ae : in TW a Ok Te Th Te IN, ms ig. 321 9a paratel combination 3 1A 9 C # ass rections ¥ FG combination Be ef ig internal resitance TH ell replace PH Ta B, Free als Bs (3.73) 903.74) #2 th 1, 3 Jy cells & positive electrode & Fravertt G currents #1 Point B, % [, 3 fy ei flow tat &, 3ei current / et #1 2K flow ea &1 Since, fa’ charge 4% flow #1 @, 301 #i aTex flow za #, we have Lel+h (367) Let B, 4 B, * respectively potentials V(B,) 4 V(By) #1 Then, first cell #1 consider #4 Gz F4% terminals * across potential difference V(B,) - V(B,) #1 Hence, Eq. (3.57) #, V(B,)-VIB,) =e, — 14, (3.68) Points B, 3 By exactly similarly second cell & connect FR 7 #1 Hence, second cell 3 consider 23 BU, we also have V(B,) -V(B_) =e, — orp (3.69) Last three equations #¥ combine "73%, eye +207, itn if & combination % B, 3B, % a4 TF single cell FAH emfe,g 7 internal resistance rq %, replace ot we, Ht we ‘have V meq — Py (8.72) Last 2 equations same #4 wife at hence ern Fea : =o ah (3.73) he (9.78) hin fq = (3.74) nth 11 equations 9 simpler way # put we F#8 B + (8.75) (8.76) © Fig. (3.21) 4, TF positive terminals 41 374 4 join Fea a SIX similarly @ negative terminals Bi join fara an FaBB positve termenal @ current /, % fy. Te Fre © if'second cell % negative terminal @ first cell & positive terminal 8 connect t, # Eqs. (3.75) 7 (3.76) e) > —e, % 74 valid Trt © Haqs. (3.75) 3 (3.76) easily extend farm st wa #1 © ifrespectively emfSe,,....£, 4% internal resistances y,.....%, #4 neells 1 parallel # connect ‘ea1 ame, at combination emfe ., 4 internal resistance oq IC WF single cell % equivalent #01 Such that, 3.13 Kirchhoff’s Rules # Generally electvic circuit sometimes *f resistors @ cells # complicated way ¥ interconnect fra amt © Series itt parallel combinations % feq #7 Ye BT formulae derive ft @, circuit 4 a currents @ potential differences #1 dtermine #0) % fet always sufficient 72 #al © A rules, H Kirchhoff rules #eer4 &, electric circuits #t analysis # #EA useful BA ei © fax circuit #, FF each resistor ¥ current # symbol 18 label tt FI aM indicate 7 FE direction # arrow @ resistor * along flow #14 aIeit current [#7 indicate # EE start FA # © if Fultimately positive determine 8 &, # resistor 4 actual current arrow % direction # &rf'@1 aK negative turn out Bi &, a actual current arrow 3 opposite direction ¥ flow =m, © Similarly, each source (i.e. cell a electrical power * ¥@ other source) * fer negative 4 positive electrodes #1 cell % through flow #1 @i current * ert @ symbol % a2-a4 arrow @ label a #1) #2 FH potential difference, / =V(P) -V(N) =e ~ Ir, positive terminal P= negative terminal N % ata FF Eq, (3.57); 7 Icell % through N@ PT flow #4 7h current #1] ‘© ft cell % through current #7 labelling P & N wi afz FY, tH of course Vecth (8.79) © Labelling #1 clarify #4 € FF rules 47 state ti itt proof (a) Junction rule fF junction ‘%, junction @ enter 2 at currents 7 sum junction # Frew’ ‘act current sum % equal tat # (Fig. 3.22} © if several lines % junction % instead (except) equally apply #4 %, 1 #4 line # GH point # consider tt @1 #2 rule 2 proof ¥ fact follow am # fr Ga currents sendy Wet #, wa line # fart af junction @ frat sf point + charges @ accumulation wit ea © Thus, 42% flow #7 areft total current (1 junction # flow #4 a charge #1 rate #1), ame flow @F are total current ® equal ert =afeay (b) Loop rule: Resistors aft cells % Fae closed loop * around potential # changes algebraic sum zero @mt & [Fig 3.22]! wa 7 2 wd 4 in ae tng vie 4 oy 20 10 3 mae L - sv Fig 322 Jeon 9 FETA TB amen I + Ly AE emer FT cent Ly Bion rade ETB, = f+ 1 Point h eter AT urea, 1 8B BIE arent ew oe uncon rae eI, Ws ya 0-304 +214, ~80=0 Loops ‘abba’ ‘hfe % FE lop rales ®2 80h, — AMI + 45 © 7 rule 4 obvious @, since electric potential, point #1 location *% dependent #7 #1 © Thus, Fat point start FC, if T1 FA point K ATT aT z, total change zero WA eT © Gi closed loop #, # starting point ¥% aIva 2A Wit # aft hence 7 rule #1 Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887) + 35 German physicist, t Heidelberg tt Becin# professor 72 4+ & mainly FF spectroscopy % development fere ara sa &, FAA mathematical physics # ‘it @¢5 important contributions FY, fH circuits % FE SAE first 4 second rule #1 EXAMPLE 3.6 10V oft negligible intemal resistance #1 battery W cubical network ® opposite coners % across diagonally connect 217 @, faa 0 % 12 resistors 7H [Fig. 3.23 equivalent resistance 3% cube # each adge ® along current @ determine sq) Fig, 3.23 Sol, Nework, resistor 3 simple series 4% parallel combination % few reducible 2 ‘+ However, problem #1 clear symmetry #, F481 7 network % equivalent resistance # oblain FA % ER exploit 52 34 £1 Network # path AA", AD % AB ® symmetrically place Pear 77a #1 ‘Thus, each * current ™i 7 WEE, same Ha eee Further, corners 4', B@ DW incoming current, @ out going branches # equally split €=1 ww) FH manner 8, Kirchhoff frst rule sft problem % symmetry use TR WU cube WW 12 edges ‘current #1 easily 141 terms i write 4 2a #1 Next, closed loop ABGC™ EA #8 # she Kirchhof % second rale apply = &, ~-($) 1e-m+e= ‘ya, Reach edge 31 resitance fe ballery emf 1 Ths + Network equivalent resistance Rg = Ra=ap~g® + 104 Ry =(2) sft e=10V fey network # sal curen= 3) a-wv(3) le. T=4a + Bach edge # flow # are current 3 Fig. 3.23 @ read #11 Wea #1 24, -2e note fara ara =e FH network #H symmetry ¥ #7 Example 3.6 4% Kirchhoff’s rules = great power @§A apparent (use) #2 al 7 21 General network # symmetry & #7 tel Bi simplification 7 Bh hz junctions wT closed loops (network # unknown # solve #7 % fey far7 necessary et) T Fa Kirchhoff’s rules application 2 #1 8 problem #1 handle Hea #1 a Example 3.7 4 illustrate fa 71 21 EXAMPLE 3.7 Fig 3.24 # show fry 1m network # each branch ¥ current determine fry z 0 4 20 th \e c 0 > Fig. 5.24 Sol. Network # each branch FEM UF unknown curent assign 3 ME &, Fam KirchholTs rules #t application 8 determine frat are © Oulsel unknown 1 number reduce 4% fr, each branch * unknown current 3 assign 3 3 Fe, every junction % Kirchhoff ® frst rule I use 2 #1 + Then, TH Wa 47 unknowns J, fy % Js &, f4# ar dlfecent closed loop " Kirchhoff = seoncd rule apply EF find Peers HEM #1 + Closed loop ADCA # fe, Kirchhoff 1 second rule following equetion % &— 1=4(4, 4) 42 + ly hy = 0 {s.x0(a] thats, Th ~6hy - 2h, =10 + Closed loop ABCA % Ft, we get 4h, -2H + 1)-f,=0 that i I+ 61, + 2h, =10 {2.8090} *+ Closed loop BCDEB % fee, we get 5-2(Ip + fy) 22 + Fahy thats, 2, 41,4, 30(] + Eaquations [2.20 (al, (b, (dhe unknowns & #1 simultaneous equations #8 usual method @ solve Fem see NBA =ZAL ‘+ Network #f various branches # current # 5 1 7 7 1 IBA, CA:2 HZ, Al s , BC:2. AB: 2A, C42) A, DEB:I7 A, AD:I7 A, CD:04, BC:21 A + easly verify feet 31 TAATé fF remaining closed loop # Kirchhoff second rule apply FAT 7 FTA (loop) * additional independent equation provide 7 FT, that is eurzent #7 above values network ‘every closed loop * fem second rule # satisfy 24 #1 + For example, closed loop BADEB % over total voltage drop, wv+(Fx4)v-(xa]v zeco % equal tn, ser fe Kirchhoff second rule ® required 1 3.14 Wheatstone Bridge * Kirchhoff rules "4 application % form #4 given Fig, 3.25 % show fe" circuit ®1 consider BY, Gt Wheatstone bridge WERT #1 Fig. 325 Bridge # aR resistors Rj, Ry, Ry 7K, BIEL Diagonally opposite points (figure ¥ A « C) % wm pair % across & source connect Fa +a @i WE (ie, AC) battery arm "eee &1 Other two vertices B 3 D % a WG galvanometer G (#4 device, H current FH detect Ft #) connect faa 7H #1 2 line, 3H figure # BD & show 44 7 €, gulvanometer arm ear €1 Simplicity 3 fee, WF assume a € fir cell 371 Ff internal resistance 7H #1 General way 4, #4 resistors # current flow gi ¢ $4 G3 @ sf current J, flow m1 [WE balanced bridge % special interest % case #1, 3 resistors 8 # fa" J, = 01 BH TH balance condition easily get a &, fea GB aE current 7 een FH case ¥, junctions D @ B (figure #8) % Kirchhof’s junction rule apply far wat &, st immediately relation 1, = Jy 3 Ly = 1, 27 @1 © Next, #4 closed loop ADBA # CBDC % Kirchhofi’s loop rule apply 4 #1 © First loop &a1 @— -1R, +0+1,R, =0 U, =9) (3.81) © 1, =1, 1, = Ly ¥1 SIM HE second loop tate 1,R, +0-1,Ry (3.82) © Eq, (3.81) & & obtain dat (8.83(a)] © aidi resistors @ relate Set GZ $4 last equation 4 galvanometer # zero I null deflection & % fare balance condition et =r ti ‘© Wheatstone bridge 2it r#i balance condition unknown resistance #4 determination * ferz practical method provide #2 #1 © Let us suppose, Hf 474 unknown resistance @, fer EH fourth arm # insert #8 @, thus R, know 7% * Kuow resistances R, 1 Ry bridge fist = second ana 8 cert gy es Ry Hoo wee vary wee ‘94 TH galvanometer null detection show 7 @) * 1 bridge balance # 31 balance condition @ unknown resistance R, #1 value following way # a ond a R=R 7 -f383(b)] ‘© Fa principle #1 use ¥e aT practical device meter bridge seETA £1 =H next section * discuss ‘fara sem EXAMPLE 3.8 Whealstone bridge (Fig. 3.26) #1 3% arms ® resistances following & AB =100.0, BE =10.9,D=5 Fig. 326 BD % across 15 0 resistance #1 TH galvanometer connect fat WA Bi Fa AC ¥ across 10 V potential diference maintain Fa stat &, at galvanomecer% through current calculate ir Sol. Mesh BADB 1 consider #0 ¥, we have 100/, +157, 602, =0 or 201, + 31, ~12/, =0 [5.84] + Mesh BCDB % consider WO, we have (1,4) 15h, ~5 (y+ F120 10, ~ 801, -151, =0 2-61, -1,=0 13840) 4 Mosh ADCEA 2 consider 2%, GIy + 5p + Fy) 10 65l, + 51, =10 13h, +1, =2 -lf.84(}] + Bg. 384(0) W108 multiply =C, 20h ~601, ~101, {3.84(a)] Ege. 3.84(d) 3 3.84(a) 4, we have s BAe] + Ba, 3.84(¢) ¥& Z, WH value substnte ER, we have 13(81.51,)+ J, 3.15 Meter Bridge #8 given Fig. 3.27 8 meter bridge # show fiver mex #1 UE (Sa ; fea Metre cate Ite \ 2 Fig. 327 0 meter ridge #1 Wire AG tm lng #1 R mean 15 3 resistance @ SAF STF standard resistance 81 449) 1 m length 4 uniform cross-sectional area si \h stretched taut wire 2 aft 4H wire 4 right angle *® bent @ thick metallic strips ® a4 clamp fear war @, dar fe shown 1 © Metallic strip # & gaps @, FAA across resistors connect FR Bt AFT End points, 34 wire 3 clamp fen 7H €, GF key ¥ through UF cell % connected #1 Galvanometer 1G end, el gaps * als metallic strip % midway 4 connected @1 Galvanometer #1 other end, % jockey’ # connecied #1 Jockey essentially % metallic rod &, FHF TF end knife-edge TAA t, electrical connection & fart wire % over slide = Waa #1 RG unknown resistance @, faut value # #4 determine FEI Fee 1 7 et gap #8 fardi ww A connected #1 Other gap ® across 4 | standard known resistance § connect #7 @1 Jockey, end A'@ Jem % distance W wire % fat point D # connected #1 Jockey, wire % along move #% 54a @1 Wire % portion AD resistance R..,! @, 78 Ro, wire I per unit centimetre # resistance @) Similarly, wire % portion DC ® resistance R.,, (100 ~ 1) #1 Four arms AB, BC, DA # CD [resistances R, S, Rey, Rey, (100 ~ 1) =18] battery arm AC = galvanometer arm BD % #14 obviously ( Wheatstone bridge form #7 #1 «© ifjockey, wire % along move ea é, @t wi w teh position et, et galvanometer ¥é current show 7 em © Let balance point % end A @ jockey #1 distance / = J, @1 ‘Then, balance point % bridge ® four resistances R, S, Royly Rew (100 ~ 4) #1 * Bq [3.83(a)] 3 according balance condition R__ Roh S Reg (100 © Thus, $8 # #4 j find out #t 89 #, al BY standard known resistance % terms ¥ unknown resistance R fret sat @— -(3.85) -(3.86) © # various values choose #7 ¥, TH f, # various values Fre, TT each time Recalculate 8 ti © 4, % measurement # a error #4 & R# naturally & error 3 si) © ae tar aT E fH RF percentage error, balance point #1 bridge * middle # near, ie. vm 1,, 50 cm % close @, adjust *% minimise #1 % ai @ [F3 S ¥i WH suitable choice #4 requirement tt #1 EXAMPLE 3.9 fe meter bridge [ig. 3.27] 8, A 8337 em % distance % GF null point find FH 7&1 Now, if12 © 1 resistance, 5 #4 parallel connect Fete, at mull point 51.9 em "WE sa 1 RA $ i values determine AFG) Sol. First balance point @, we get (387) xe, + Hence, new balance concition tt = 519 _ RIS +19 181 Sq 12S + Eq G87) & RISA value substitute FAT, we get 88) # which gives, + above @ 7 R/S a value use FAW, we get R = 6.86 0 3.16 Potentiometer © Fe G versatile instrument #7 #1 © 3 basically fet uniform wire #1 T long piece t, faeT#t length few meters tf sit, wae across G standard cell (B) connect m1 #1 © Actual design #, wire #1 something several pieces # cut 2% side by side place 9 fear sm & it ends * GF thick metal strip connect +

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