Central Dogma of Biology:

➢ The process by which the instructions in DNA are converted into a functional
product.
➢ Explain the flow of genetic information from DNA----RNA----PROTEIN
RIBOSOMES
-serves as factories in the cell where the information is translated from a code
into the functional product
 DNA- Deoxyribonucleic acid is a thread-like
chain of nucleotides carrying the genetic
instructions used in the growth, development,
functioning and reproduction of all known living
organisms and many viruses.
 RNA-Ribonucleic acid is a polymeric molecule
essential in various biological roles in coding,
decoding, regulation, and expression of genes.
 PROTEIN-Proteins perform a vast array of
functions within organisms, including catalysing
metabolic reactions, DNA
replication, responding to stimuli,
and transporting molecules from one location to
another.
DNA and RNA

• Differences
• Structure
• Location
• Sugar
• Bases
• Role/Job
DNA vs RNA: structure

 DNA - Typically a double-

stranded molecule with
a long chain of
nucleotides
 RNA - A single-stranded
molecule in most of its
biological roles and has a
shorter chain of
nucleotides
DNA vs RNA: location

 DNA – nucleus
 RNA – nucleus and
cytoplasm
 DNA vs RNA: Sugar and Base

 DNA – sugar is deoxyribose

(double strand) and bases are
cytosine, guanine, adenine and
thymine.
 C GAT
 RNA – sugar ribose (single strand)
is and bases are cytosine,
guanine, adenine and uracil.
 CGAU
Pairing of BASEs
 DNA vs RNA: role

 DNA - Medium of long-term storage

and transmission of genetic
information
 RNA - The main job of RNA is to
transfer the genetic code need for the
creation of proteins from the nucleus
to the ribosome.
 Why does DNA replicate?
 Process by which DNA makes a copy of
itself during cell division.
 Cells copy genetic information before cell
division so that each new cell has a
complete set of DNA
Steps in DNA Replication
1. The first step in the DNA replication is to
unzip the double helix structure of the
DNA molecule.
2. This carried out by an enzyme called
HELICASE which breaks the hydrogen
bonds holding thee complementary bases
of DNA together.
3. The separation of two strands of the DNA
creates a “Y” shape called a replication
fork. The two separated strands will act
as a templates for making the two strands
od DNA.
LEADING STRAND:
- A short piece of RNA called primers(
produced by enzyme called primase)comes
along and binds to the end of the leading
strand
The primer acts as the starting point for DNA synthesis.
-DNA Polymerase binds to the leading strands and then walks
along it, adding new complementary nucleotide bases to the
strand of the DNA
-This sort of replication is called Continuous.
. Finally, an enzyme DNA ligase seals up the sequence of DNA
into two continuous double strands.
Semi Conservative Replication:

❑ The result of DNA

replication is two DNA
molecule consisting of
one new and one old
chain of nucleotides.

❑ This is why DNA

replication is described
as,half of the chain is
part of the original DNA
molecule,half is brand
new.
This result in 2 identical DNA molecules.
Protein Synthesis occurs in two
steps:

1) Transcription: DNA RNA

2) Translation: RNA Protein

1. TRANSCRIPTION
➢Frst step during protein
synthesis when DNA in a gene is
coped to produce an RNA
transcript called messenger
RNA(mRNA)

➢In the transcription,the

information in the DNA of every
cell is converted into a
small,portable RNA messages.

➢This process happens inside

the nucleus of the cell.
Types of RNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA)

 Carries copy of instructions

for making protein from
nucleus to ribosome
 mRNA leaves the nucleus
and enters the cytoplasm
 1. mRNA attaches to the ribosome.

Translation
( RNA Protein)
-Second step during protein
synthesis where the message
from DNA for making protein
has been taken to the
ribosomes and the protein is
2. The tRNA molecule with
constructed with the help of
the correct anticodon
transfer RNA or tRNA. attaches to the mRNA
- During translation, these codon.
messages travel from where
the DNA is in the cell nucleus
to the ribosomes where they
are read to make specific
proteins.
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Transfers an
amino acid
to the
ribosome to
be added to
the protein.
3.The mRNA slides through the
ribosome to the next codon and another
tRNA comes and attaches to mRNA.
4. The 1st tRNA releases its amino acid
to attach to the 2nd amino acid on using a
peptide bond.

***This process continues until

a STOP codon is reached.
 Translation into a Protein

 Proteinsare made by joining amino acids

with a peptide bond into long chains called
polypeptides.
 The genetic code is read three letters at a
time, so that each “word” of the coded
message is three mRNA bases long.
 This 3-letter “word” is known as a codon.
 Each
codon corresponds to a particular
amino acid (the anti-codon on tRNA).
Decoding codons into amino acids
The Genetic Code

 One codon, AUG, specifies the amino acid methionine and

also acts as a start codon to signal the start of protein
construction.
 There are three more codons that do not specify amino acids.
These stop codons, UAA, UAG, and UGA, tell the cell when a
polypeptide is complete.

 this collection of codon-amino acid relationships is called

the genetic code, because it lets cells “decode” an mRNA
into a chain of amino acids.
Example:

Template

DNA: TAC TGG CCT TCG ACT

mRNA:

AUG ACC GGA AGC UGA

tRNA:

UAC UGG CCU UCG ACU

Amino
Acids:

Met- Thre- Gly- Ser -stop

Example:

Template

DNA: TCG AGG CTT ACC AGT

mRNA:

AGC UCC GAA UGG UCA

tRNA:

UCG AGG CUU ACC AGU

Amino
Acids:

Ser- Arg- Leu- Thr -Ser

Practice:

Template
1.DNA: ATG GTA GCT AAC CTT
2.DNA: CAG GAA TTG CTC GAT
Practice:

Template

DNA: ATG GTA GCT AAC CTT

mRNA:

UAC CAU CGA UUG GAA

tRNA:

AUG GUA GCU AAC CUU

Amino
Acids:

Met- Val- Ala- Asp -Leu

Example:

Template

DNA: CAG GAA TTG CTC GAT

mRNA:

GUC CUU AAC GAG CUA

tRNA:

CAG GAA UUC CUC GAU

Amino
Acids:

Gln- Glu- Phe- Leu -Asp