RESEARCH

Research
the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach new
conclusions
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investigate systematically
discover facts by investigation for use in (a book, program, etc.).
Research is defined as a careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or a problem using
scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “Research is a systematic
inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed phenomenon. Research involves inductive and
deductive methods.”
Inductive research methods are used to analyze the observed phenomenon whereas, deductive methods are
used to verify the observed phenomenon. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research and
deductive methods are more commonly associated with quantitative research.
One of the most important aspects of research is the statistics associated with it, conclusion or result. It is
about the “thought” that goes behind the research. Research is conducted with a purpose to understand:
What do organizations or businesses really want to find out?
What are the processes that need to be followed to chase the idea?
What are the arguments that need to be built around a concept?
What is the evidence that will be required that people believe in the idea or concept?
Characteristics of Research
1. A systematic approach is followed in research. Rules and procedures are an integral part of research that
set the objective of a research process. Researchers need to practice ethics and code of conduct while making
observations or drawing conclusions.
2. Research is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive methods.
3. The data or knowledge that is derived is in real time, actual observations in the natural settings.
4. There is an in-depth analysis of all the data collected from research so that there are no anomalies
associated with it.
5. Research creates a path for generating new questions. More research opportunity can be generated from
existing research.
6. Research is analytical in nature. It makes use of all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in
inference.
7. Accuracy is one of the important character of research, the information that is obtained while conducting the
research should be accurate and true to its nature. For example, research conducted in a controlled
environment like a laboratory. Here accuracy is measured of instruments used, calibrations, and the final result
of the experiment.
What are the types of Research?
Following are the types of research:
Basic Research: Basic research is mostly conducted to enhance knowledge. It covers fundamental aspects of
research. The main motivation of this research is knowledge expansion. It is a non-commercial research and
doesn’t facilitate in creating or inventing anything. For example, an experiment is a good example of basic
research.
Applied Research: Applied research focuses on analyzing and solving real-life problems. This type of research
refers to the study that helps solve practical problems using scientific methods. This research plays an
important role in solving issues that impact the overall well-being of humans. For example, finding a specific
cure for a disease.
Problem Oriented Research: As the name suggests, problem-oriented research is conducted to understand the
exact nature of the problem to find out relevant solutions. The term “problem” refers to having issues or two
thoughts while making any decisions.
For e.g Revenue of a car company has decreased by 12% in the last year. The following could be the probable
causes: There is no optimum production, poor quality of a product, no advertising, economic conditions etc.
Problem Solving Research: This type of research is conducted by companies to understand and resolve their
own problems. The problem-solving research uses applied research to find solutions to the existing problems.
Qualitative Research: Qualitative research is a process that is about inquiry, that helps in-depth understanding
of the problems or issues in their natural settings. This is a non- statistical research method.
Qualitative research is heavily dependent on the experience of the researchers and the questions used to
probe the sample. The sample size is usually restricted to 6-10 people in a sample. Open-ended questions are
asked in a manner that one question leads to another. The purpose of asking open-ended questions is to
gather as much information as possible from the sample.
Following are the methods used for qualitative research:
One-to-one interview
 Focus groups
 Ethnographic Research
Content/ Text Analysis
 Case study research
Learn more: Qualitative Research Methods
Quantitative Research: Qualitative research is a structured way of collecting data and analyzing it to draw
conclusions. Unlike qualitative research, this research method uses a computational, statistical and similar
method to collect and analyze data. Quantitative data is all about numbers.
Quantitative research involves a larger population as more number of people means more data. In this
manner, more data can be analyzed to obtain accurate results. This type of research method uses close-ended
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questions because, in quantitative research, the researchers are typically looking at measuring the extent and
gathering foolproof statistical data.
Online surveys, questionnaires, and polls are preferable data collection tools used in quantitative research.
There are various methods of deploying surveys or questionnaires. In recent times online surveys and
questionnaires have gained popularity. Survey respondents can receive these surveys on mobile phones,
emails or can simply use the internet to access surveys or questionnaires.
Learn more: What is Quantitative Research?
What is the purpose of Research?
There are three purposes of research:
1. Exploratory Research: As the name suggests, exploratory research is conducted to explore the research
questions and may or may not offer a final conclusion to the research conducted. It is conducted to handle new
problem areas which haven’t been explored before. Exploratory research lays the foundation for more
conclusive research and data collection. For example, a research conducted to know the level of customer
satisfaction among the patrons of a restaurant.
2. Descriptive Research: Descriptive research focuses on throwing more light on current issues through a
process of data collection. Descriptive studies are used to describe the behavior of a sample population. In
descriptive research, only one variable (anything that has quantity or quality that varies) is required to conduct
a study. The three main purposes of descriptive research are describing, explaining and validating the findings.
For example, a research conducted to know if top-level management leaders in the 21st century posses the
moral right to receive a huge sum of money from the company profit?
3. Explanatory Research: Explanatory research or causal research, is conducted to understand the impact of
certain changes in existing standard procedures. Conducting experiments is the most popular form of casual
research. For example, research conducted to understand the effect of rebranding on customer loyalty.
To understand the characteristic of research design using research purpose here is a comparative analysis:

Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Explanatory Research

Research approach
Unstructured Structured Highly structured
used

Research conducted Asking research Asking research By using research

through questions questions hypotheses.

Early stages of decision Later stages of decision Later stages of decision

When is it conducted?
making making making

Learn More: Primary Research- Examples, Methods and Purpose

Research method is defined as the tools or an instrument that is used to accomplish the goals and attributes of
conducting a research process. Think of the methodology as a systematic process in which the tools or
instruments will be employed. There is no use of a tool if it is not being used efficiently.
To understand research methods we must first understand what research is. Research is a careful study of a
specific problem or concern using scientific methods, tools, and instruments. Remember as kids, we were
given projects in elementary schools and we were asked to know about it in details. Research is the adult form
of that elementary project, only a more precise and thorough version!
Research can be about anything, scientific research, basic research, applied research, market
research- qualitative market research and quantitative market research, problem-oriented research, problem-
solving research. To begin researching something, you need to have a problem or a concern that needs a
solution.
Research really begins with asking the right research questions, what follows next is choosing appropriate
research method to be able to investigate the problem or issue in the right direction and then finally analyze
your findings or observations to draw appropriate conclusions.
When it comes to customers and related research, there should be no stone unturned. Specify and plan the
customer’s research, help make smart decisions about how to market and position your business efficiently.
Choosing the right research method will help you get important answers about your clients. But before we go
any further, first let us identify the research methods
Types of Research Methods and Research Example
Research methods are broadly classified as Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research.
Both research methods have distinctive properties and data collection methods. In this segment of the blog, we
will learn more about both these research methods.
Qualitative Research Methods
Qualitative research is a research method that collects data using conversational methods, where participants
involved in the research are asked open-ended questions. The responses collected are essentially non-
numerical. This method not only helps a researcher understand “what” participant think but also, “why”they
think in a particular way.

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Here are the widely used qualitative research methods:
One-to-one Interview: This interview technique is systematically planned and as the name suggests is
conducted with one participant at a given point in time. One-to-one interviews need a researcher to prepare
questions in advance and to make sure the researcher asks only the most important questions to the
participant. This type of interview lasts anywhere between 20 minutes to half an hour. During this time the
researcher collects as many meaningful data as possible from the participants to draw inferences.
Focus Groups: Focus groups are small groups comprising of around 6-10 participants who are usually experts
in the subject matter. A moderator is assigned to a focus group who facilitates the discussion amongst the
group members. A moderator’s experience in conducting focus group plays an important role. An experienced
moderator can probe the participants by asking the correct research questions that will help him/her collect a
sizable amount of information related to the research.
Ethnographic Research: Ethnographic research is an in-depth form of research where people are observed in
their natural environment with any alterations. This method can prove to be a bit demanding in terms of a
researcher getting adapted to the natural environment of the target audience which could even be the Amazon
rainforest! Geographic locations can be a constraint in this type of research method. Instead of conducting
interviews a researcher needs to experience the settings in person to collect information.
Text Analysis: Text analysis is a little different from other qualitative research methods as it used to analyze the
social life by decoding words, texts etc. through any available form of documentation. The researcher studies
and understands the context in which the documents are furnished with the information and then tries to draw
meaningful inferences from it. In modern times, researchers follow activities on a social media platform and try
and understand the pattern of thoughts.
Case Study Research: Case study research, as the name suggests is used to study an organization or an
entity. This research method has evolved over the years and is one of the most valuable qualitative research
methods known to researchers. This type of research is used in fields like education sector, philosophical and
psychological studies. This method involves a deep diving into the ongoing research and collects data.  
Quantitative Research Methods
Quantitative research methods are the methods that deal with numbers and anything that can be dealt with a
measurable form, in a systematic way of investigating the phenomenon. It is used to answer questions in terms
of justifying relationships with measurable variables to either explain, predict or control a phenomenon.
There are three methods that are often used by researchers to conduct this type of research, they are:
Survey Research- The ultimate goal of survey research is to learn about a large population by deploying
the survey. Gone are the days where a survey was carried out using a pen and a paper. Today, online
surveys are a popular mode of research as they are convenient and can be sent in an email or made available
on the internet. In this method, a researcher designs a survey with most relevant survey questions and deploys
the survey. Once the researcher receives the responses he/she summarizes them to tabulate meaningful
findings and data.
Descriptive Research- Descriptive research is a quantitative research method, which corresponds to identifying
the characteristics of an observed phenomenon and collecting more information. This research method is
designed to depict the participants in a very systematic and accurate manner. In simple words, descriptive
research is all about describing the phenomenon, observing and drawing conclusions from it.  
Correlational Research- Correlational research examines the relationship between two or more variables. Let
us take an example to understand correlational research. Let us take an example to understand correlational
research, Consider hypothetically, a researcher is studying a correlation between cancer and marries women.
Let us say married women have a negative correlation with cancer. In this example, there are two variables:
cancer, and married women. When we say negative correlation it means women who are married are less
likely to develop cancer. However, it doesn’t mean that marriage directly avoids cancer.
Identifying Research Methodology
To choose the appropriate research methods, it is necessary to clearly identify the research objectives. Here is
an example of some of the research objectives you can take into consideration for your business:
To start with, find out the needs of your clients
Know their preferences and understand what is important to them
Find an appropriate way to make your customers aware of your products and services.
Find ways to improve your products or services to suit the needs of your customers.
After identifying what you need to know, you should then ask what research methods will offer you that
information.
Organize your questions within the framework of the 7 Ps of marketing that influences your company –
product, price, promotion, place, people, processes and physical tests.
A well-organized customer research process produces valid, accurate, reliable, timely and complete results.
Research results that rigorously reflect the opinions and needs of your clients will help you grow your sales and
improve your operations. To obtain the results you need to establish and follow the processes that you have
detailed out for your organization:
Set your goals
Consider the client’s research objectives and define those that identify with yours and plan a strategy once you
obtain the information. Make sure that your goals objectives smart  do not presume their result, and define
them intelligently and make sure you set achievable targets, smart goals, and objectives.
Plan your research
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Good planning allows the use of creative and logical approaches to select the research methods that gather
the information. Your plan will be influenced by the type and complexity of the information you need, the skills
of your market research team, and how soon you need the information and your budget. Make an adequate
strategic planning for your market research
Identify your list of questions and decide on the research methods that will best achieve your goals. Detail your
research approach and some initial idea of how you will classify and analyze the data.
Collect and collate your results
Make a list of how you are going to carry out the research process, the data you need to collect and collection
methods. This will help you keep track of your research processes and make sense of your findings. It will also
allow you to verify that your research accurately reflects the opinions of your clients and your market. Create a
record table with:
The consumer research activity
The necessary data
The research method (s) for data collection
The steps to follow for data analysis.
Remember, research is only valuable and useful when it is valid, accurate and reliable. Relying on imperfect
research is dangerous; Incorrect results can lead to customer churn and a decrease in sales.
It is important to obtain information about how the collection of customer information was carried out, and to
ensure that your data is:
Valid – founded, logical, rigorous and impartial.
Accurate – free of errors and including required details.
Reliable – that can be reproduced by other people who investigate in the same way.
Timely – current and collected within an appropriate time frame.
Complete – includes all the data you need to support your business decisions.
Analyze and understand your research
The analysis of the data can vary from simple and direct steps to technical and complex processes. Adopt an
approach, and choose the method of data analysis based on the research methods you have carried out.
Keep the findings ready
Choose a spreadsheet that allows you to easily enter your data. If you do not have a large amount of data, you
should be able to manage them with the use of basic tools available in the software. If you have collected more
complete and complex data, you may have to consider using specific programs or tools that will help you
manage your data.
Review and interpret the information to draw conclusions
Once you have gathered all the data, you can scan your information and interpret it to draw conclusions and
make informed decisions. You should review the data and then:
Identify the main trends and issues, opportunities and problems you observe, and write a sentence about each
one
Keep track of the frequency with which each of the main findings appears
Make a list of your findings from the most common to the least common
Evaluate and perform separately a list of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats that have been
identified in a SWOT analysis.
Preparation of conclusions and recommendations about your research
Review your goals before making any conclusions about your research. Keep in mind if the process you have
completed and the data you have gathered help answer your questions. Ask yourself if what your research
revealed facilitates the identification of your conclusions and recommendations. Review your conclusions and,
based on what you know now:
Choose some strategies that will help you improve your business
Act on your strategies
Look for gaps in the information, and consider doing additional research if necessary
Plan to review the results of the research, and consider efficient strategies.
The Guidelines
What is research? For a successful career in science, you must understand the methodology behind any
research and be aware of the correct protocols.
Science has developed these guidelines over many years as the benchmark for measuring the validityof the
results obtained.
Failure to follow the guidelines will prevent your findings from being accepted and taken seriously. These
protocols can vary slightly between scientific disciplines, but all follow the same basic structure.
Aims of Research
The general aims of research are:
Observe and Describe
Predict
Determination of the Causes
Explain
Purpose of Research - Why do we conduct research? Why is it necessary?
Steps of the Scientific Process

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The steps of the scientific process has a structure similar to an hourglass - The structure starts with general
questions, narrowing down to focus on one specific aspect, then designing research where we can observe and
analyze this aspect. At last, the hourglass widens and the researcher concludesand generalizes the findings to
the real world.

 
Summary of the Elements in Scientific Research
1) Setting a Goal
Research in all disciplines and subjects, not just science, must begin with a clearly defined goal. This usually,
but not always, takes the form of a hypothesis.
For example, an anthropological study may not have a specific hypothesis or principle, but does have a specific
goal, in studying the culture of a certain people and trying to understand and interpret their behavior.
The whole study is designed around this clearly defined goal, and it should address a unique issue, building
upon previous research and scientifically accepted fundamentals. Whilst nothing in science can be regarded as
truth, basic assumptions are made at all stages of the research, building upon widely accepted knowledge.
2) Interpretation of the Results
Research does require some interpretation and extrapolation of results.
In scientific research, there is always some kind of connection between data (information gathered) and why
the scientist think that the data looks as it does. Often the researcher looks at the data gathered, and then
comes to a conclusion of why the data looks like it does.
A history paper, for example, which just reorganizes facts and makes no commentary on the results, is not
research but a review.
If you think of it this way, somebody writing a school textbook is not performing research and is offering no new
insights. They are merely documenting pre-existing data into a new format.
If the same writer interjects their personal opinion and tries to prove or disprove a hypothesis, then they are
moving into the area of genuine research. Science tends to use experimentation to study and interpret a
specific hypothesis or question, allowing a gradual accumulation of knowledge that slowly becomes a basic
assumption.
3) Replication and Gradual Accumulation
For any study, there must be a clear procedure so that the experiment can be replicated and the results
verified.
Again, there is a bit of a grey area for observation-based research, as is found in anthropology, behavioral
biology and social science, but they still fit most of the other criteria.

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Planning and designing the experimental method, is an important part of the project and should revolve around
answering specific predictions and questions. This will allow an exact duplication and verification by
independent researchers, ensuring that the results are accepted as real.
Most scientific research looks at an area and breaks it down into easily tested pieces.
The gradual experimentation upon these individual pieces will allow the larger questions to be approached and
answered, breaking down a large and seemingly insurmountable problem, into manageable chunks.
True research never gives a definitive answer but encourages more research in another direction. Even if
a hypothesis is disproved, that will give an answer and generate new ideas, as it is refined and developed.
Research is cyclical, with the results generated leading to new areas or a refinement of the original process.
4) Conclusion
The term, research, is much stricter in science than in everyday life.
It revolves around using the scientific method to generate hypotheses and provide analyzable results. All
scientific research has a goal and ultimate aim, repeated and refined experimentation gradually reaching an
answer.
These results are a way of gradually uncovering truths and finding out about the processes that drive the
universe around us. Only by having a rigid structure to experimentation, can results be verified as acceptable
contributions to science.
Some other areas, such as history and economics, also perform true research, but tend to have their own
structures in place for generating solid results. They also contribute to human knowledge but with different
processes and systems.
Research comprises "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge, including
knowledge of humans, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new
applications."[1] It is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm the results of previous work, solve new or
existing problems, support theorems, or develop new theories. A research project may also be an expansion on
past work in the field. Research projects can be used to develop further knowledge on a topic, or in the
example of a school research project, they can be used to further a student's research prowess to prepare
them for future jobs or reports. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may
replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole. The primary purposes of basic research (as
opposed to applied research) are documentation, discovery, interpretation, or the research and development (R&D)
of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to research depend
on epistemologies, which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences. There are
several forms of research: scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner
research, life, technological, etc.
Research has been defined in a number of different ways, and while there are similarities, there does not
appear to be a single, all-encompassing definition that is embraced by all who engage in it.
One definition of research is used by the OECD, "Any creative systematic activity undertaken in order to
increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use of this
knowledge to devise new applications."[4]
Another definition of research is given by John W. Creswell, who states that "research is a process of steps used
to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of three steps:
pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question.[5]
The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research in more detail as "studious inquiry or
examination; especially : investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts,
revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised
theories or laws"[3]
Forms of research[edit]
"Original research" redirects here. For the Wikipedia prohibition against user-generated, unpublished research,
see Wikipedia:No original research
Original research is research that is not exclusively based on a summary, review or synthesis of earlier
publications on the subject of research. This material is of a primary source character. The purpose of the
original research is to produce new knowledge, rather than to present the existing knowledge in a new form
(e.g., summarized or classified).[6][7]
Original research can take a number of forms, depending on the discipline it pertains to. In experimental work,
it typically involves direct or indirect observation of the researched subject(s), e.g., in the laboratory or in the
field, documents the methodology, results, and conclusions of an experiment or set of experiments, or offers a
novel interpretation of previous results. In analytical work, there are typically some new (for example)
mathematical results produced, or a new way of approaching an existing problem. In some subjects which do
not typically carry out experimentation or analysis of this kind, the originality is in the particular way existing
understanding is changed or re-interpreted based on the outcome of the work of the researcher.[8]
The degree of originality of the research is among major criteria for articles to be published in academic
journals and usually established by means of peer review.[9] Graduate students are commonly required to
perform original research as part of a dissertation.[10]
Scientific research is a systematic way of gathering data and harnessing curiosity. This research
provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world. It
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makes practical applications possible. Scientific research is funded by public authorities, by charitable
organizations and by private groups, including many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into
different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines. Scientific research is a widely
used criterion for judging the standing of an academic institution, but some argue that such is an inaccurate
assessment of the institution, because the quality of research does not tell about the quality of teaching (these
do not necessarily correlate).[11]
Research in the humanities involves different methods such as for example hermeneutics and semiotics.
Humanities scholars usually do not search for the ultimate correct answer to a question, but instead, explore
the issues and details that surround it. Context is always important, and context can be social, historical,
political, cultural, or ethnic. An example of research in the humanities is historical research, which is embodied
in historical method. Historians use primary sources and other evidence to systematically investigate a topic, and
then to write histories in the form of accounts of the past. Other studies aim to merely examine the occurrence
of behaviours in societies and communities, without particularly looking for reasons or motivations to explain
these. These studies may be qualitative or quantitative, and can use a variety of approaches, such as queer
theory or feminist theory.[12]
Artistic research, also seen as 'practice-based research', can take form when creative works are considered
both the research and the object of research itself. It is the debatable body of thought which offers an
alternative to purely scientific methods in research in its search for knowledge and truth.
Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural process. Though step order may vary
depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are usually part of most formal research,
both basic and applied:
Observations and formation of the topic: Consists of the subject area of one's interest and following that
subject area to conduct subject related research. The subject area should not be randomly chosen since it
requires reading a vast amount of literature on the topic to determine the gap in the literature the researcher
intends to narrow. A keen interest in the chosen subject area is advisable. The research will have to be justified
by linking its importance to already existing knowledge about the topic.
Hypothesis: A testable prediction which designates the relationship between two or more variables.
Conceptual definition: Description of a concept by relating it to other concepts.
Operational definition: Details in regards to defining the variables and how they will be measured/assessed in
the study.
Gathering of data: Consists of identifying a population and selecting samples, gathering information from or
about these samples by using specific research instruments. The instruments used for data collection must be
valid and reliable.
Analysis of data: Involves breaking down the individual pieces of data to draw conclusions about it.
Data Interpretation: This can be represented through tables, figures, and pictures, and then described in
words.
Test, revising of hypothesis
Conclusion, reiteration if necessary
A common misconception is that a hypothesis will be proven (see, rather, null hypothesis). Generally, a
hypothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by observing the outcome of an experiment. If the
outcome is inconsistent with the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is rejected (see falsifiability). However, if the
outcome is consistent with the hypothesis, the experiment is said to support the hypothesis. This careful
language is used because researchers recognize that alternative hypotheses may also be consistent with the
observations. In this sense, a hypothesis can never be proven, but rather only supported by surviving rounds of
scientific testing and, eventually, becoming widely thought of as true.
A useful hypothesis allows prediction and within the accuracy of observation of the time, the prediction will be
verified. As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the hypothesis may no longer provide an accurate
prediction. In this case, a new hypothesis will arise to challenge the old, and to the extent that the new
hypothesis makes more accurate predictions than the old, the new will supplant it. Researchers can also use a
null hypothesis, which states no relationship or difference between the independent or dependent variables.
Historical research[edit]
Main article: Historical method

German historian Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886), considered to be one of the founders of modern source-
based history
The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use historical sources and
other evidence to research and then to write history. There are various history guidelines that are commonly
used by historians in their work, under the headings of external criticism, internal criticism, and synthesis. This
includes lower criticism and sensual criticism. Though items may vary depending on the subject matter and
researcher, the following concepts are part of most formal historical research:[13]
Identification of origin date
Evidence of localization
Recognition of authorship
Analysis of data
Identification of integrity
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Attribution of credibility
Artistic research[edit]
The controversial trend of artistic teaching becoming more academics-oriented is leading to artistic research
being accepted as the primary mode of enquiry in art as in the case of other disciplines.[14] One of the
characteristics of artistic research is that it must accept subjectivity as opposed to the classical scientific
methods. As such, it is similar to the social sciences in using qualitative research and intersubjectivity as tools to
apply measurement and critical analysis.[15]
Artistic research has been defined by the University of Dance and Circus (Dans och Cirkushögskolan,
DOCH), Stockholm in the following manner - "Artistic research is to investigate and test with the purpose of
gaining knowledge within and for our artistic disciplines. It is based on artistic practices, methods, and
criticality. Through presented documentation, the insights gained shall be placed in a context."[16] Artistic
research aims to enhance knowledge and understanding with presentation of the arts.[17] A more simple
understanding by Julian Klein defines Artistic Research as any kind of research employing the artistic mode of
perception.[18] For a survey of the central problematics of today's Artistic Research, see Giaco Schiesser.[19]
According to artist Hakan Topal, in artistic research, "perhaps more so than other disciplines, intuition is utilized
as a method to identify a wide range of new and unexpected productive modalities".[20] Most writers, whether
of fiction or non-fiction books, also have to do research to support their creative work. This may be factual,
historical, or background research. Background research could include, for example, geographical or
procedural research.[21]
The Society for Artistic Research (SAR) publishes the triannual Journal for Artistic Research (JAR),[22][23] an
international, online, open access, and peer-reviewed journal for the identification, publication,
and dissemination of artistic research and its methodologies, from all arts disciplines and it runs the Research
Catalogue (RC),[24][25][26] a searchable, documentary database of artistic research, to which anyone can
contribute.
Patricia Leavy addresses eight arts-based research (ABR) genres: narrative inquiry, fiction-based research,
poetry, music, dance, theatre, film, and visual art.[27]
In 2016 ELIA (European League of the Institutes of the Arts) launched The Florence Principles' on the
Doctorate in the Arts.[28] The Florence Principles relating to the Salzburg Principles and the Salzburg
Recommendations of EUA (European University Association) name seven points of attention to specify the
Doctorate / PhD in the Arts compared to a scientific doctorate / PhD The Florence Principles have been
endorsed and are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS and SAR.
Steps in conducting research
Research is often conducted using the hourglass model structure of research.[29] The hourglass model starts
with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through the method of the project
(like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of discussion and results. The major
steps in conducting research are:[30]
Identification of research problem
Literature review
Specifying the purpose of research
Determining specific research questions
Specification of a conceptual framework, sometimes including a set of hypotheses[31]
Choice of a methodology (for data collection)
Data collection
Verifying data
Analyzing and interpreting the data
Reporting and evaluating research
Communicating the research findings and, possibly, recommendations
The steps generally represent the overall process; however, they should be viewed as an ever-changing
iterative process rather than a fixed set of steps.[32] Most research begins with a general statement of the
problem, or rather, the purpose for engaging in the study.[33] The literature review identifies flaws or holes in
previous research which provides justification for the study. Often, a literature review is conducted in a given
subject area before a research question is identified. A gap in the current literature, as identified by a
researcher, then engenders a research question. The research question may be parallel to the hypothesis. The
hypothesis is the supposition to be tested. The researcher(s) collects data to test the hypothesis. The
researcher(s) then analyzes and interprets the data via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what is
known as empirical research. The results of the data analysis in rejecting or failing to reject the null
hypothesis are then reported and evaluated. At the end, the researcher may discuss avenues for further
research. However, some researchers advocate for the reverse approach: starting with articulating findings and
discussion of them, moving "up" to identification of a research problem that emerges in the findings and
literature review. The reverse approach is justified by the transactional nature of the research endeavor where
research inquiry, research questions, research method, relevant research literature, and so on are not fully
known until the findings have fully emerged and been interpreted.

9
Rudolph Rummel says, "... no researcher should accept any one or two tests as definitive. It is only when a
range of tests are consistent over many kinds of data, researchers, and methods can one have confidence in
the results."[34]
Plato in Meno talks about an inherent difficulty, if not a paradox, of doing research that can be paraphrased in
the following way, "If you know what you're searching for, why do you search for it?! [i.e., you have already
found it] If you don't know what you're searching for, what are you searching for?!"[35]

Maurice Hilleman, the preeminent vaccinologist of the 20th century, is credited with saving more lives than any
other scientist in that time[36]
The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge or deepen understanding of a topic or issue.
This process takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries between them may be
obscure):
Exploratory research, which helps to identify and define a problem or question.
Constructive research, which tests theories and proposes solutions to a problem or question.
Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence.
There are two major types of empirical research design: qualitative research and quantitative research.
Researchers choose qualitative or quantitative methods according to the nature of the research topic they want
to investigate and the research questions they aim to answer:
Qualitative research
This involves understanding human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior, by asking a broad
question, collecting data in the form of words, images, video etc that is analyzed, and searching for themes.
This type of research aims to investigate a question without attempting to quantifiably measure variables or
look to potential relationships between variables. It is viewed as more restrictive in testing hypotheses because
it can be expensive and time-consuming and typically limited to a single set of research subjects.[citation
needed] Qualitative research is often used as a method of exploratory research as a basis for later quantitative
research hypotheses.[citation needed] Qualitative research is linked with the philosophical and theoretical
stance of social constructionism.
Social media posts are used for qualitative research.[37]
Quantitative research
This involves systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their
relationships, by asking a narrow question and collecting numerical data to analyze it
utilizing statistical methods. The quantitative research designs are experimental, correlational, and survey (or
descriptive).[38] Statistics derived from quantitative research can be used to establish the existence of
associative or causal relationships between variables. Quantitative research is linked with the philosophical
and theoretical stance of positivism.
The quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data collection instruments
that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories.[citation needed] These methods produce
results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize.[citation needed] Quantitative research is
concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of
interest.
If the research question is about people, participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments (this is
the only way that a quantitative study can be considered a true experiment).[citation needed] If this is not
feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics to statistically control for
their influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research
participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.[39]
In either qualitative or quantitative research, the researcher(s) may collect primary or secondary data. Primary
data is data collected specifically for the research, such as through interviews or questionnaires. Secondary
data is data that already exists, such as census data, which can be re-used for the research. It is good ethical
research practice to use secondary data wherever possible.[40]
Mixed-method research, i.e. research that includes qualitative and quantitative elements, using both primary
and secondary data, is becoming more common.[41] This method has benefits that using one method alone
cannot offer. For example, a researcher may choose to conduct a qualitative study and follow it up with a
quantitative study to gain additional insights.[42]
Big data has brought big impacts on research methods so that now many researchers do not put much effort
into data collection; furthermore, methods to analyze easily available huge amounts of data have also been
developed.[43]
Non-empirical research
Non-empirical (theoretical) research is an approach that involves the development of theory as opposed to
using observation and experimentation. As such, non-empirical research seeks solutions to problems using
existing knowledge as its source. This, however, does not mean that new ideas and innovations cannot be
found within the pool of existing and established knowledge. Non-empirical research is not an absolute
alternative to empirical research because they may be used together to strengthen a research approach.
Neither one is less effective than the other since they have their particular purpose in science. Typically
empirical research produces observations that need to be explained; then theoretical research tries to explain
10
them, and in so doing generates empirically testable hypotheses; these hypotheses are then tested empirically,
giving more observations that may need further explanation; and so on. See Scientific method.
A simple example of a non-empirical task is the prototyping of a new drug using a differentiated application of
existing knowledge; another is the development of a business process in the form of a flow chart and texts
where all the ingredients are from established knowledge. Much of cosmological research is theoretical in
nature. Mathematics research does not rely on externally available data; rather, it seeks to
prove theorems about mathematical objects.
Research ethics
Research ethics involves the application of fundamental ethical principles to a variety of topics involving
research, including scientific research. These principles include deontology, consequentialism, virtue
ethics and value (ethics). Ethical issues may arise in the design and implementation of research involving human
experimentation or animal experimentation, such as: various aspects of academic scandal, including scientific
misconduct (such as fraud, fabrication of data and plagiarism), whistleblowing; regulation of research, etc.
Research ethics is most developed as a concept in medical research. The key agreement here is the
1964 Declaration of Helsinki. The Nuremberg Code is a former agreement, but with many still important notes.
Research in the social sciences presents a different set of issues than those in medical research[44] and can
involve issues of researcher and participant safety, empowerment and access to justice.[12]
When research involves human subjects, obtaining informed consent from them is essential.[42]
Problems in research
Methods of research
In many disciplines, Western methods of conducting research are predominant.[45] Researchers are
overwhelmingly taught Western methods of data collection and study. The increasing participation of indigenous
peoples as researchers has brought increased attention to the lacuna in culturally-sensitive methods of data
collection.[46] Non-Western methods of data collection may not be the most accurate or relevant for research
on non-Western societies. For example, "Hua Oranga" was created as a criterion for psychological evaluation
in Māori populations, and is based on dimensions of mental health important to the Māori people – "taha
wairua (the spiritual dimension), taha hinengaro (the mental dimension), taha tinana (the physical dimension),
and taha whanau (the family dimension)".[47]
Linguicism[edit]
Periphery scholars face the challenges of exclusion and linguicism in research and academic publication. As
the great majority of mainstream academic journals are written in English, multilingual periphery scholars often
must translate their work to be accepted to elite Western-dominated journals.[48] Multilingual scholars'
influences from their native communicative styles can be assumed to be incompetence instead of difference.
[49]
Peer review is a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant field. Peer
review methods are employed to maintain standards of quality, improve performance, and provide credibility. In
academia, scholarly peer review is often used to determine an academic paper's suitability for publication.
Usually, the peer review process involves experts in the same field who are consulted by editors to give a
review of the scholarly works produced by a colleague of theirs from an unbiased and impartial point of view,
and this is usually done free of charge. The tradition of peer reviews being done for free has however brought
many pitfalls which are also indicative of why most peer reviewers decline many invitations to review.[50] It
was observed that publications from periphery countries rarely rise to the same elite status as those of North
America and Europe, because limitations on the availability of resources including high-quality paper and
sophisticated image-rendering software and printing tools render these publications less able to satisfy
standards currently carrying formal or informal authority in the publishing industry.[49] These limitations in turn
result in the under-representation of scholars from periphery nations among the set of publications holding
prestige status relative to the quantity and quality of those scholars' research efforts, and this under-
representation in turn results in disproportionately reduced acceptance of the results of their efforts as
contributions to the body of knowledge available worldwide.
Influence of the open-access movement[edit]
The open access movement assumes that all information generally deemed useful should be free and belongs
to a "public domain", that of "humanity".[51] This idea gained prevalence as a result of Western colonial history
and ignores alternative conceptions of knowledge circulation. For instance, most indigenous communities
consider that access to certain information proper to the group should be determined by relationships.[51]
There is alleged to be a double standard in the Western knowledge system. On the one hand, "digital right
management" used to restrict access to personal information on social networking platforms is celebrated as a
protection of privacy, while simultaneously when similar functions are used by cultural groups (i.e. indigenous
communities) this is denounced as "access control" and reprehended as censorship.[51]
Future perspectives[edit]
Even though Western dominance seems to be prominent in research, some scholars, such as Simon
Marginson, argue for "the need [for] a plural university world".[52] Marginson argues that the East Asian
Confucian model could take over the Western model.
This could be due to changes in funding for research both in the East and the West. Focussed on emphasizing
educational achievement, East Asian cultures, mainly in China and South Korea, have encouraged the
11
increase of funding for research expansion.[52] In contrast, in the Western academic world, notably in the
United Kingdom as well as in some state governments in the United States, funding cuts for university
research have occurred, which some[who?] say may lead to the future decline of Western dominance in
research.
See also: Academic ranks, Academics, and Scientists
Further information: Research fellow, Research associate, and Research assistant
In several national and private academic systems, the professionalisation of research has resulted in formal job
titles.
In Russia[edit]
In present-day Russia, the former Soviet Union and in some post-Soviet states the
term researcher (Russian: Научный сотрудник, nauchny sotrudnik) is both a generic term for a person who
carried out scientific research, as well as a job position within the frameworks of the USSR Academy of Sciences,
Soviet universities, and in other research-oriented establishments.
The following ranks are known:
Junior Researcher (Junior Research Associate)
Researcher (Research Associate)
Senior Researcher (Senior Research Associate)
Leading Researcher (Leading Research Associate)[53]
Chief Researcher (Chief Research Associate)
Publishing
Academic publishing is a system that is necessary for academic scholars to peer review the work and make it
available for a wider audience. The system varies widely by field and is also always changing, if often slowly.
Most academic work is published in journal article or book form. There is also a large body of research that
exists in either a thesis or dissertation form. These forms of research can be found in databases explicitly for
theses and dissertations. In publishing, STM publishing is an abbreviation for academic publications in science,
technology, and medicine. Most established academic fields have their own scientific journals and other outlets
for publication, though many academic journals are somewhat interdisciplinary, and publish work from several
distinct fields or subfields. The kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions of knowledge or
research vary greatly between fields, from the print to the electronic format. A study suggests that researchers
should not give great consideration to findings that are not replicated frequently.[54] It has also been
suggested that all published studies should be subjected to some measure for assessing the validity or
reliability of its procedures to prevent the publication of unproven findings.[55] Business models are different in
the electronic environment. Since about the early 1990s, licensing of electronic resources, particularly journals,
has been very common. Presently, a major trend, particularly with respect to scholarly journals, is open
access.[56] There are two main forms of open access: open access publishing, in which the articles or the
whole journal is freely available from the time of publication, and self-archiving, where the author makes a copy
of their own work freely available on the web.

The title summarizes the main idea or ideas of your study. A good title contains the fewest possible words that
adequately describe the contents and/or purpose of your research paper.
The title is without doubt the part of a paper that is read the most, and it is usually read first. If the title is too
long it usually contains too many unnecessary words, e.g., "A Study to Investigate the...." On the other hand, a
title which is too short often uses words which are too general. For example, "African Politics" could be the title
of a book, but it does not provide any information on the focus of a research paper.
The following parameters can be used to help you formulate a suitable research paper title:

1. The purpose of the research

2. The narrative tone of the paper [typically defined by the type of the research]
3. The methods used

The initial aim of a title is to capture the reader’s attention and to draw his or her attention to the research
problem being investigated.
Create a Working Title

Typically, the final title you submit to your professor is created after the research is complete so that the title
accurately captures what was done. The working title should be developed early in the research process
because it can help anchor the focus of the study in much the same way the research problem does. Referring
back to the working title can help you reorient yourself back to the main purpose of the study if you feel
yourself drifting off on a tangent while writing.

The Final Title

12
Effective titles in academic research papers have several characteristics.

 Indicate accurately the subject and scope of the study.

 Avoid using abbreviations.
 Use words that create a positive impression and stimulate reader interest.
 Use current nomenclature from the field of study.
 Identify key variables, both dependent and independent.
 May reveal how the paper will be organized.
 Suggest a relationship between variables which supports the major hypothesis.
 Is limited to 10 to 15 substantive words.
 Do not include "study of," "analysis of" or similar constructions.
 Titles are usually in the form of a phrase, but can also be in the form of a question.
 Use correct grammar and capitalization with all first words and last words capitalized, including the first
word of a subtitle. All nouns,  pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs that appear between the first
and last words of the title are also capitalized.
 In academic papers, rarely is a title followed by an exclamation mark. However, a title or subtitle can be
in the form of a question.

The Subtitle

Subtitles are quite common in social science research papers. Examples of why you may include a subtitle:

1. Explains or provides additional context, e.g., "Linguistic Ethnography and the Study of Welfare
Institutions as a Flow of Social Practices: The Case of Residential Child Care Institutions as
Paradoxical Institutions."
2. Adds substance to a literary, provocative, or imaginative title, e.g., "Listen to What I Say, Not How I
Vote: Congressional Support for the President in Washington and at Home."
3. Qualifies the geographic scope of the research, e.g., "The Geopolitics of the Eastern Border of the
European Union: The Case of Romania-Moldova-Ukraine."
4. Qualifies the temporal scope of the research, e.g., "A Comparison of the Progressive Era and the
Depression Years: Societal Influences on Predictions of the Future of the Library, 1895-1940."
5. Focuses on investigating the ideas, theories, or work of a particular individual, e.g., "A Deliberative
Conception of Politics: How Francesco Saverio Merlino Related Anarchy and Democracy."

13