39445 Wang (MCGHP) Chap_17 SECOND PASS bzm 6/28/00
CHAPTER 17
AIR SYSTEMS:
AIR DUCT DESIGN
17.1 BASICS OF AIRFLOW IN
DUCTS 17.2
Bernoulli Equation 17.2
Steady Flow Energy Equation 17.2
Static Pressure, Velocity Pressure, and
Total Pressure 17.3
Stack Effect 17.5
Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow 17.6
Velocity Distribution 17.7
Equation of Continuity 17.7
17.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF AIRFLOW IN
DUCTS 17.8
Types of Air Duct 17.8
Pressure Characteristics of the
Airflow 17.8
System Pressure Loss 17.10
Criteria of Fan Energy Use 17.10
17.3 DUCT CONSTRUCTION 17.12
Maximum Pressure Difference 17.12
Material 17.12
Rectangular Ducts 17.13
Round Ducts 17.17
Flat Oval Ducts 17.17
Flexible Ducts 17.18
Fiberglass Ducts 17.18
17.4 DUCT HEAT GAIN, HEAT LOSS,
AND DUCT INSULATION 17.19
Temperature Rise or Drop due to Duct
Heat Gain or Loss 17.19
Duct Insulation 17.19
Temperature Rise Curves 17.21
17.5 FRICTIONAL LOSSES 17.22
Darcy-Weisbach Equation 17.22
Friction Factor 17.22
Duct Friction Chart 17.24
Roughness and Temperature
Corrections 17.25
Circular Equivalents 17.27
17.6 DYNAMIC LOSSES 17.31
Elbows 17.31
Converging and Diverging Tees and
Wyes 17.34
Entrances, Exits, Enlargements, and
Contractions 17.38
17.7 FLOW RESISTANCE 17.38
Flow Resistances Connected in
Series 17.40
Flow Resistances Connected in
Parallel 17.41
Flow Resistance of a Y Connection 17.42
Flow Resistance of a Duct System 17.42
17.8 PRINCIPLES AND CONSIDERATIONS
IN AIR DUCT DESIGN 17.43
pg 17.
Optimal Air Duct Design 17.43
Design Velocity 17.45
System Balancing 17.46
Critical Path 17.48
Air Leakage 17.48
Shapes and Material of Air Ducts 17.50
Ductwork Installation 17.50
Fire Protection 17.50
17.9 AIR DUCT DESIGN PROCEDURE
AND DUCT LAYOUT 17.51
Design Procedure 17.51
Duct System Characteristics 17.52
Duct Layout 17.52
17.10 DUCT SIZING METHODS 17.53
Equal-Friction Method 17.53
Constant-Velocity Method 17.53
Static Regain Method 17.54
T Method 17.55
17.11 DUCT SYSTEMS WITH CERTAIN
PRESSURE LOSSES IN BRANCH
TAKEOFFS 17.56
Design Characteristics 17.56
Cost Optimization 17.56
Condensing Two Duct Sections 17.59
Local Loss Coefficients for Diverging Tees
and Wyes 17.60
Return or Exhaust Duct Systems 17.63
17.12 DUCT SYSTEMS WITH NEGLIGIBLE
PRESSURE LOSS AT BRANCH
DUCTS 17.66
Supply Duct Systems 17.66
Pressure Characteristics of Airflow in
Supply Ducts 17.66
Return or Exhaust Duct Systems 17.71
17.13 REQUIREMENTS OF EXHAUST
DUCT SYSTEMS FOR A MINIMUM
VELOCITY 17.72
17.14 COMPUTER-AIDED DUCT DESIGN
AND DRAFTING 17.72
Drafting 17.72
Schedules and Layering 17.72
Design Interface 17.73
Running Processes 17.73
17.15 DUCT LINER AND DUCT
CLEANING 17.74
Duct Liner 17.74
Duct Cleaning 17.74
17.16 PRESSURE AND AIRFLOW
MEASUREMENTS 17.75 __SH
Equal-Area versus Log Tchebycheff __ST
Rule 17.77 __LG
REFERENCES 17.78
17.1 DF
 39445 Wang (MCGHP) Chap_17 SECOND PASS bzm 6/28/00 pg 17.2

17.2 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

17.1 BASICS OF AIRFLOW IN DUCTS

Bernoulli Equation

The Bernoulli equation relates the mean velocity v, in ft / s (m / s), the pressure p, in lbf / ft2 absolute
(abs.) or psia (Pa abs.), and the elevation z, in ft (m), of a frictionless or ideal fluid at steady state.
When a fluid motion is said to be in steady state, the variables of the fluid at any point along the
fluid flow do not vary with time. Assuming constant density, the Bernoulli equation can be
expressed in the following form:

p v2 gz
   constant (17.1)
 2gc gc

where p  static pressure, lbf / ft2 abs. (Pa abs.)

  fluid density, lbm / ft3 (kg / m3)
g  gravitational acceleration, ft / s2 (m / s2)
gc  dimensional constant, 32.2 lbm ft / lbf s2 (1)
For convenience, lb  lbm (mass).

Steady Flow Energy Equation

For a real fluid flowing between two cross sections in an air duct, pipe, or conduit, energy loss is in-
evitable because of the viscosity of the fluid, the presence of the mechanical friction, and eddies.
The energy used to overcome these losses is usually transformed to heat energy. If we ignore the
kinetic energy difference between the value calculated by the mean velocity of the cross section and
the value calculated according to the velocity distribution of the cross section, then the steady flow
energy equation for a unit mass of real fluid is given as

p1 v 21 gz 1 p2 v 22 gz 2
 u 1J    qJ   u 2J   W (17.2)
1 2gc gc r2 2gc gc

where u  internal energy, Btu / lb (J / kg)

J  Joule’s equivalent, 778 ft lbf / Btu (1)
q  heat supplied, Btu / lb (J / kg)
W  work developed, ft lbf / lb (J /s)
In Eq. (17.2), subscripts 1 and 2 indicate the cross section 1 and 2, respectively, and p1 and p2
denote the absolute static pressure at cross section 1 and 2. Signs of q and W follow the convention
in thermodynamics, i.e., when heat is supplied to the system, q is positive and when heat is released
from the system, q is negative. When work is developed by the system, W is positive; and for work
input to the system, W is negative.
Multiply both sides of Eq. (17.2) by , ignore the difference in densities, and rearrange the
terms. Then each term has the unit of pressure, in lbf / ft2 abs. (Pa abs.), or

1v 21 1gz 1 2v 22 2gz 2

p1    p2    W  J(u 2  u 1  q) (17.3)
2gc gc 2gc gc

For an air duct or piping work without a fan, compressor, and pump, W  0.
SH__ Let the pressure loss from viscosity, friction, and eddies between cross sections 1 and 2 be
ST__ pf  J(u2  u1  q); then each term of Eq. (17.3) can be expressed in the form of pressure
LG__

DF
 39445 Wang (MCGHP) Chap_17 SECOND PASS bzm 6/28/00 pg 17.3

AIR SYSTEMS: AIR DUCT DESIGN 17.3

1v 21 1gz 1 2v 22 2gz 2

p1    p2    pf (17.4)
2gc gc 2gc gc

If both sides of Eq. (17.2) are multiplied by gc / g and W  0, then each term of the equation is ex-
pressed in the form of head, in ft or in. (m) of fluid column. That is,

gc p1 v 21 gc p2 v 22 gc pf

  z1    z2  (17.5)
g1 2g g2 2g g

Static Pressure, Velocity Pressure, and Total Pressure

Pressure is the force per unit area exerted by a fluid or solid. In an air duct system, a water piping
system, or a refrigerant piping system, fluid pressure including air, water, refrigerant pressure at a
surface or a level, or inside an enclosed vessel, or pressure difference between two surfaces is often
measured under the following conditions:
●
Fluid pressure is measured related to a datum of absolute vacuum. Such a measured fluid pressure
is given as absolute pressure and is often represented by the pressure exerted at the bottom surface
of a water column.
●
Fluid pressure is often more conveniently measured related to a datum of atmospheric pressure.
Such a measured fluid pressure is given as gauge pressure. The measured gauge pressure that is
greater than the atmosperic pressure is expressed as positive gauge pressure or simply gauge pres-
sure. That part of measured gauge pressure which is less than the atmospheric pressure is ex-
pressed as negative gauge pressure or vacuum.
●
Fluid pressure is measured as a pressure difference, pressure drop, or pressure loss between two
surfaces, two levels, or two cross-sectional surfaces. The involved two measured pressures must
be either both gauge pressure or both absolute pressure.

Consider a supply duct system in a multistory building, as shown in Fig. 17.1. In Eq. (17.4),
since p1  pat1  p1 and p2  pat2  p2, where p1 and p2 represent the gauge static pressure and pat1
and pat2 the atmospheric pressure added on the fluid at cross sections 1 and 2. The relationship of
fluid properties between cross sections 1 and 2 can be expressed as
1v 21 1gz 1 2v 22 2gz 2
pat1  p1    pat2  p2    pf (17.6)
2gc gc 2gc gc
If the air temperature inside the air duct is equal to the ambient air temperature, and if the stack ef-
fect because of the difference in air densities between the air columns inside the air duct and the
ambient air does not exist, then
g
pat1  pat2  (2z 2  1z 1)
gc

Therefore, Eq. (17.6) becomes

1v 21 2v 22
p1   p2   pf (17.7)
2gc 2gc
Equation (17.7) is one of the primary equations used to determine the pressure characteristics of an
air duct system that does not contain a fan and in which the stack effect is negligible.

Static Pressure. In Eq. (17.7), static pressures p1 and p2 are often represented by ps. In air duct sys- __SH
tems, its unit can be either Pa (pascal, or newtons per square meter) in SI units, or the height of water __ST
__LG

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