Chapter 4: Hydrodynamic power transmission

4.1 Introduction
In general practice, power can be transmitted either by one of the following forms:
Mechanical system (gear system, shaft or belt), Electrical system or Hydrodynamic
system. For hydrodynamic system, power transmission occurs via fluid media. The main
task of the operating fluid is to transport its kinetic energy in a closed circuit between the
primary part (driving shaft) and the secondary part (driven shaft). This transmission
system utilizes both the hydraulic pump and turbine. It is recommendable for use under
conditions of heavy but slow and steady thrust. Its merits include silence, simplicity and
smoothness in operation (i.e. no vibration). Examples of hydrodynamic transmission
systems are: (a) Hydraulic or Fluid coupling (b) Hydraulic torque converter (c)
Hydrodynamic brakes (retarders)

4.2 Hydraulic/Fluid coupling

A hydraulic coupling is a hydrodynamic device used to transmit rotating mechanical
power. It comprises a sealed chamber containing a pump and a turbine immersed in fluid
(usually oil). The pump impeller is mounted on the driving shaft (primary part of
coupling) and is rotated by the prime mover, which is typically an internal combustion
engine or electric motor. The motion of the pump's radial plates imparts a centrifugal
motion to the fluid. The moving fluid reaches the center of the turbine runner (on the
driven shaft - secondary part of coupling) with increased kinetic and pressure energy
transferring its angular momentum outward, applying torque to the turbine and thus
causing it to rotate in the same direction as the pump. The fluid leaving the outer edges of
the turbine returns to the pump, where the cycle repeats. Since the tangential (whirl)
component of the oil velocity and hence momentum at the impeller outlet remain
unaltered, at entry to the runner, the torque on the runner equals that acting on the
primary (driving) shaft. But since this torque has to overcome frictional resistance on the
secondary side, then a speed ratio has to exist between the input and output and is
expressed as follows:

P1 = T11 ; P2 = T22 but T1 = T2

Power o / p T22 2
Efficiency = =  (Speed ratio)
power i / p T1 1 1

A centrifugal head is created when the pump impeller rotates which enables the oil to
flow towards the runner but the centrifugal force developed in the runner tends to throw
the oil towards the periphery of the runner thereby opposing the flow from impeller to
runner. If the speeds of impeller and runner are equal then the centrifugal actions will
balance out resulting in no rotational motion of oil and hence no coupling.

A hydraulic/fluid coupling has found popular application in automobile transmissions as

an alternative to a mechanical clutch. It also has widespread application in marine and
industrial machine drives, where variable speed operation and/or controlled start-up
without shock loading of the power transmission system is essential. In automotive

MPE 331 Fluid Mechanics II Prof (Eng) A. Makokha 2020/21

applications, the pump is connected to the flywheel of the engine (in fact, the coupling's
enclosure may be part of the flywheel), and thus is turned by the engine's crankshaft. The
turbine is connected to the input shaft of the transmission. As engine speed increases
while the transmission is in gear, torque is transferred from the engine to the input shaft
by the motion of the fluid, propelling the vehicle. In this regard, the behavior of the fluid
coupling strongly resembles that of a mechanical clutch driving a manual transmission.

(a) Slip
A fluid coupling cannot achieve 100 percent power transmission efficiency, as some of
the energy transferred to the fluid by the pump will be lost to friction (transformed to
heat). As a result, the turbine will always spin slower than the pump. This speed
difference is called slip. The power and torque are higher if the slip is greater. However,
increased slip may result in a decrease in the speed of the driven shaft which is
undesirable as the driven shaft is usually designed to run at a speed close to the driving
shaft.

1  2 n p  ns n 
Slip (S) =   1 s  1 2
1 np np 1

Efficiency () = 1-S

The efficiency of a fluid coupling is further affected by the fact that the fluid returning
from the turbine to the pump is moving in the opposite direction of the pump's rotation,
resulting in some braking effect and a good deal of turbulence. This effect substantially
increases as the difference between pump and turbine speed increases, causing efficiency
to rapidly deteriorate with increasing load.

(b) Stall speed

An important characteristic of a hydraulic/fluid coupling is its stall speed. The stall speed
is defined as the highest speed at which the pump can turn when the turbine is locked and
maximum input power is applied, a condition which could occur in an automobile if the
driver were to fully open the throttle while applying the brakes with a force sufficient to
keeping the vehicle from moving. Under stall conditions, all of the engine's power would
be dissipated in the fluid coupling as heat, possibly leading to damage.

4.3 Hydraulic Torque Converter

A hydraulic torque converter is modified form of a hydrodynamic fluid coupling i.e. has a
series of fixed vanes (stationary members to provide reaction) between the pump impeller
and the turbine runner. Like the fluid coupling, the torque converter is used to transfer
rotating power from a prime mover, such as an internal combustion engine or electric
motor, to a rotating driven load. Unlike a fluid coupling, however, a torque converter is
able to multiply torque when there is a substantial difference between input and output
rotational speed, thus providing the equivalent of a reduction gear. The fixed vanes
decrease the velocity of the fluid as it passes from the impeller to the runner thus
increasing the secondary speed. Since some torque is transferred to the fixed vanes, the

MPE 331 Fluid Mechanics II Prof (Eng) A. Makokha 2020/21

torque transferred to the driven shaft is not equal to that of the driving shaft. The most
widespread usage of torque converters is in automobile, bus and light truck automatic
transmissions. Torque converters are also found in marine propulsion systems and
industrial applications.

(a) Torque Converter Elements

Whereas a fluid coupling is a two element drive that is incapable of multiplying torque, a
torque converter has at least one extra element—the fixed vane (stationary member)
which alters the drive's characteristics during periods of high slippage, producing an
increase in output torque. In a torque converter there are at least three rotating elements:
the pump, which is mechanically driven by the prime mover; the turbine, which drives
the load; and the fixed vane, which is interposed between the pump and turbine so that it
can alter oil flow returning from the turbine to the pump. The classic torque converter
design dictates that the fixed vanes be prevented from rotating under any condition, hence
the term fixed vanes (stationary member).

Power input (P1) = T11 ; Power output (P2) = T22 but T2 = T1 + TR

TR is the reaction torque provided by the stationary member (fixed vanes)

(b) Operational Phases

For the purposes of explanation, a torque converter can be considered to have three stages
of operation:

 Stall. The prime mover is applying power to the pump but the turbine cannot
rotate. For example, in an automobile, this stage of operation would occur when
the driver has placed the transmission in gear but is preventing the vehicle from
moving by continuing to apply the brakes. At stall, the torque converter can
produce maximum torque multiplication if sufficient input power is applied (the
resulting multiplication is called the stall ratio). The stall phase actually lasts for a
brief period when the load (e.g., vehicle) initially starts to move, as there will be a
very large difference between pump and turbine speed.

 Acceleration. The load is accelerating but there still is a relatively large

difference between pump and turbine speed. Under this condition, the converter
will produce torque multiplication that is less than what could be achieved under
stall conditions. The amount of multiplication will depend upon the actual
difference between pump and turbine speed, as well as various other design
factors.

 Coupling. The turbine has reached approximately 90 percent of the speed of the
pump. Torque multiplication has ceased and the torque converter is behaving in a

MPE 331 Fluid Mechanics II Prof (Eng) A. Makokha 2020/21

 manner similar to a fluid coupling. In modern automotive applications, it is
usually at this stage of operation where the lock-up clutch is applied, a procedure
that tends to improve fuel efficiency.

The key to the torque converter's ability to multiply torque lies in the stationary member
(fixed vanes). In the classic fluid coupling design, periods of high slippage cause the fluid
flow returning from the turbine to the pump to oppose the direction of pump rotation,
leading to a significant loss of efficiency and the generation of considerable waste heat.
Under the same condition in a torque converter, the returning fluid will be redirected by
the fixed vanes so that it aids the rotation of the pump, instead of impeding it. The result
is that much of the energy in the returning fluid is recovered and added to the energy
being applied by the pump itself. This action causes a substantial increase in the mass of
fluid being directed to the turbine, producing an increase in output torque. Since the
returning fluid is initially traveling in a direction opposite to pump rotation, the fixed
vanes will likewise attempt to counter-rotate as it forces the fluid to change direction, an
effect that is resisted by the one-way stator clutch.

Efficiency and Torque Multiplication

A torque converter cannot achieve 100 percent coupling efficiency. The loss of efficiency
as the converter enters the coupling phase is a result of the turbulence and fluid flow
interference generated by the fixed vanes. The maximum amount of torque multiplication
produced by a converter is highly dependent on the size and geometry of the turbine and
fixed vanes, and is generated only when the converter is at or near the stall phase of
operation. While torque multiplication increases the torque delivered to the turbine output
shaft, it also increases the slippage within the converter, raising the temperature of the
fluid and reducing overall efficiency. For this reason, the characteristics of the torque
converter must be carefully matched to the torque curve of the power source and the
intended application.

Power input (P1) = T11 ; Power output (P2) = T22 but T2 = T1 + TR

TR is the reaction torque provided by the stationary member (fixed vanes) hence

Power o / p T22 (T  TR )2 T 

Efficiency = =  1  (1  R ) 2
power i / p T1 1 T1 1 T1 1

4.4 Hydrodynamic brakes (Retarders)

Hydrodynamic brakes as safety devices convert the introduced mechanical energy,
completely and without wear, into heat. The braking signal from the driver is converted
into air pressure which then presses the operating fluid from the oil sump into the
working circuit. The rotor connected to the cardan shaft forms an internal and external
braking circuit. The engine cooling water serves as cooling fluid, with a supply
temperature ranging from 85°C to 95°C. For high vehicle speeds and thus for high
braking forces, only partial fillings contribute to heat dissipation. The braking fluid

MPE 331 Fluid Mechanics II Prof (Eng) A. Makokha 2020/21

considerably gets in contact with air in the sump and the partly filled working chamber.
The air, which is partly absorbed in the fluid, should be capable of escaping quickly
enough and without formation of aerosol when the retarder is switched off. To be
compatible with the ABS system, switch-off times of less than 0.6 seconds are expected.

Figure: Torque Converter system

MPE 331 Fluid Mechanics II Prof (Eng) A. Makokha 2020/21