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    Ib Biology 2014 Edition Cambridge

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    Ib Biology 2014 Edition Cambridge

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    Biology l for the IB Diploma Second edition Brenda Walpole with Ashby Merson-Davies Leighton Dann Contents Introduction 1 Cellbiology Fewoducon {LE taeodcion wo cel 12 Ulraarucere of eth 13 Membrane sractre 14 Membrane transport, 115 The origin of cell 16 Cell ion Beam questions 2 Molecular biology Ineroducton 21 Moleales to metabolism 22 Water 23 Catbolydtes nd pide 24 Prone 25 yin 26 struct of DNA and RNA, 27 DNA replication, mcription and eva 28 Callmspiton 29 Photoryahais sample questions 3 Genetics Iodueton 31 Genes, 32 Chromosomes 33. Meioie 34 Iahertince 35 Genetic modiistion ad biotechnology [Beamle quctons 4 Ecology trdcton 4.1 speci communis and ecoryems 42 Energy fom 43 Cabo ecytng 44 Ginute change Enum ale qvions Beoo < » 20 33 % 8 ° 54 9 os 8 2 9 93 %3 103 110 24 133 136 136 136 “7 151 157 5 Evolution and biodiversity 159 Incaction 19 5:1 Brdece fr evoton 159 52 Natunlckction 164 53 Chsiiaton of biden 1% 54 Clade 1% sam ale quions 18s 6 Human physiology 187 Inrodcton 17 61 Digestion and sborpion ts? 662 Thetlood sym 3 43 Defence apm inctiow diene 302 64 Gaveachange 20 65 Newors a yapcs 28 6. Hlxmones homeo nd rpadstion 220 Banoeye ques m 7 Nucleic acids (HL) 235 Toon - 2s Z-DNA seucne ael epletion 2s 72 ‘Tharp and gene exon 245 73 Talaton aI Exan-syegoetions 0 8 Metabolism, cell respiration and photosynthesis (HL) 262 Ingoatcton 282 81 Meabolam 2a 82 Cal repaon 28 83 Photons m6 Eel ution: an 9 Plant biology (HL) 285 Inrdicion 25 9.1 Tempo in he em of pans 2s 92 Tianport inthe poo of 233 93 Growth in pa =m 94 Repro in plants sao Emap uesone 0s 7 10 Genetics and evolution (HL) 308 Answers to test yourself questions 380 Inrdcion sis 101 Meiosis 303 Glossary ane 10.2 bere 33 1013 Gene pol and speition kay Index ot Emre queton: 335 Adknowledgements 407 11 Animal physiology (HL) 337 lection 37 1 Any podcson sd ccintion 397 1.2 Morement Mo 13 TheKdmy nd omomepon 353 114 Ser reprodcon xs Ensmtle questions 7 Gee ‘The website accompanying this book contain further resources to support your IB Biology tues. Visit education.cambridge.orgbscences and register to access these resources: ‘options Self-test questions Option ANeurobiology and behaviour —_ Assessment guidance Option B Biotechnology and bioinformatics Model exam papers ‘Option € Ecology andl conservation ‘Nature of Science Option D Human physiology Answers to exam-style questions [Answers to Options questions ee Introduction | eee eee ¥ “To keep pace with new developments, the IB Biclyy course is epuatly | cess oe mien eoe | een (entesats opener ae Nt Seen ee eer “Theory of Knowledge (TOK) provides erou-carecuar ink herween © Ps Aierene objec I smules thought about eta ehinking ad how swe can sy we know wine we chim to know Throughout ths book, TOK ‘aur highligh concept in Biology at ean be considered from a TOK enpestve Thee a indicate by the TOK log, shown here. ‘Sciences uly international endesou, being practised aro all continents query in iteration or even gla partnership Many problems that science sims to solve ate international and wil reuie lobull inplemented rlatony, Throughout this book, Intentions Mindednes features highlight sotenaional concerts it Biology The re Indestd by theTneatona-Mindsne ag, shown ete, Nite of Stowe ian overarching here ofthe Biology cous ‘The theme examines the proceses and concepts that ae cena ‘ciate endeavor, and ow ince serves and connect withthe wider community Ar dhe end a each section this book these Nature of| ! “~~ Ah Science’ potagaph hat discs a parca coept or dcovery tn the point of ew of one or more spect of Nature of Sence A chips ving ager introduction tothe Nature of Seence theme i alae , ea eenine mea we Free online material Akitionsl material to spport he IB Boley Diploma coune awe ‘online Viit education cambridge or/ibcences and egies to acces ‘hese estes Besides the Options and Nature of Science chapter you wil fod a callecion of resources to help with revision and exam preparation, Tit Inlues guidance on the sessment, crate sles questions and ‘model em papers Additonal aero the exa-sie questons it ‘his book and to all dhe questions inthe Opins are avaible Introduction In he mide ofthe seventeenth cenary one ofthe pioneers of mirosopy; Robert Hooke (1635-1703) decided to examine piece ‘sf crk tie with is home-built mscroscope, He sew numerous Box shaped structures dat he doughtsesembled monks cell or rooms in ! monastery. e called them cell Ax iescopes became more Sophisticated other scents cluerved cell ad fund tha they occured ‘evry onanism, No onanism has yet been dscovered that does tot have a est one cel Living ing may ar in shape sd sine bat resets age they ae all composed of els The stay of ell has enabled ue to Tern more about how whole organisms ncton, 1.1 Introduct The cell theory “Td cenit gre th the ell the anarentl unit fal i form Cal theory proposes atl organisms are composed of one or more cells and farthermore, that ell at he small uit of i An nil Callcan perform al the fonctions of He and anything dati not made ‘cel such svt, cannot be considered Hing (One of the key ie proce ofl ving gens reproducion “Therefore one of theft prinpes ofthe el theory is at cell ea ‘only cone Gen pre-existing cell Loan Paweur (1822-1995) caried out ‘experiments tht povided evidence fo thie Exteneexaminition of many organs and milion of ieent ‘ype fell support the cel theoryalthough afew examples have been fed chat donot Bt dhe theory perfect One example fre whose structures const oflong the called hype (Fg 1.1), wich have many ic ba ate not vdd nt spare cll by el wal. Another tcempleskeleol unele, which s composed of cle fed ne ‘much age than a single cell nd contain seve hunked nul, Cel fom ge ale ae somewhat anomalous becase their singe cll are ‘dierent bat re tached o chains of dental cele or rounded bya mir of exe cellar materi oth they frm lrg aces, snc mma erythrocytes ed blo cll do ot contin moc once they ave mstered and ben elesed inc the Bloodsteam, which means 2 thie tge oftheir ye they eannot carry otal the Sanctions of| Lies they too depart fo ell hor. ion to cells Unicellular organisms By definion.a Hing organism comprising just ne cel has to pevfoom all he necesry Factions or survival Cell biology 1 Learning objectives You shoul understand tha: ‘Cal eheory exis that ving ‘xyz ae componed of cel, Unicel oxpnisms ery oot alle ancior ofe ‘Surf ae to wohime ri is an important factor in iting ics Interactions between their cellar component ead 22 ‘nucle onganisn Malis ans have specaed times, which develop ‘areal of cel difrentation (Call ifeenation rls Foss the exprenion of ome genes, bueno thes, Stem ell ae able to divide an ifecinte sku dierent thay and te een or tmiryonie developmen. This abley makes chem suiable for therapeu wes iatlatonshetie knoe Secrest yon te lp ‘Shes teepedaeprer 0, Key principles ofthe coll aa + sng oni ate composed feels + col are the small unis fie all col come fm pre-exiting cal Drawing cell structs “When you dew cel they appear tndera microscope sayy fae sharp poll and dew ingle Hiner show the eave ee and postions of he sructtes you cn See: Do not ue shading occa Itching on your dig, Label cach sractre witha tag ne $0 that the amc of cach pre ppeats at he side of your igen, ‘Avaya nce tie and the ‘magneton of your daring You an see an example of how to do this in Pgure 1.2 gure 1.3 helenae opin nang chore "The factions of ie a + meublien + ition 2 prone + reproduction response (or senitvy) + excetion 2 emacs A anicearongnim such a Pasco Figure 1.2) nes co ‘metabolise organic mater in oner to make the chemicals needed to. if 1 mst abo beable to excrete wate produced daring ‘metabolism and dispose oft emus beable to tet change i ite ‘rmtonment so ican respond to moe foatabeo es fouroble ‘onions. Some uiceular organs photosynthesis nd they hve alight spot da enables hen o move toa brighter environment © ‘maximise photosydheni. A niclar organi mat ao beable to ont tsimermal eavtonment (homeostasis ne changes in water tlt concentations may have a detrimental eft om metabolism snd ‘othe ella functions. emt alo aban fod, whether preshced fom simple inorganic sbtances through photosynthesis in Chel, Fare 1.3) or ingested s complex organic materia Sm oie soe ‘of muiton. Ihe species it survives, ogists mu be bet spruce Thi could be either eal or emul yeprohction, Investigations of some life processes in Paramecium and Chlorella Parmesan can be observed under igh microscope. ara ave «ili, which dhey Bick ia eye waves to move about in water and hey ab have row of specie ela chat wat fod pris owas he ‘gwe 1.2 Pecneckmcares cut he anctions wths sple ce al goove. Mstaned yes cell re aed to the clare of Praca it ‘posible wo observe the path ken by ood particles through the bay ‘tthe organi and he food wacule eh are formed If amin i Placed in water of diferent saliis om distill water ~0.1% 0.2%, 1. and 0.8% sodium chloride soliton, fr example de connate ‘tol, which conta he water alsce ofthe ell can be seen forming od emprying. Chola is photosynthetic organs with aap owe ate Akboush ts col ze spall nd mast be viewed with 3 microscope t ‘a quickly produce lange numbers of india, which turn water fren and opaque Thi mos ely t happen when Chel gos in ter tht sich innate or phosplates.The organism hs been wid In many scenic experiments the Nobel prize winner Ono Wan, pushed bis pioneering work on cellar etbols llowing intensive "experiments cn Chel in 1919, and in 1961 Melvin Clin cased out his experimene on photorynthas using Chol Subtopic 83). Call size (One ofthe few el age enough tobe vise tothe unaided ey i the ‘mate human ure wich hat a aeter of appeal 150m Howewt most cel are much salle than hs, and an only Be seen sing 2 microscope ight mieseopes, which can magnify up 1 2000 times reve some intra suc sch tthe nace but gear sera requis the use of more power microscopes such asthe secon tuicotcope, which mri cleans upto 500000 times Virwes taonlybe sen with thse mioscopes 0 the suet of ise wat unkown unt the invention of thes micacope inthe 2h centr. Elecon microscopes use a beam af electrons nad of ight, 0 produce an image, The resolution ofan cleeon miccscpe mitch Dec thin tht aah microcope beau ofthe shore wnelength of elecons, Resolving power ide ability ofthe micrscope to separate ‘objec tha ar clove togethers tat more detail can be ee, Oaly Hon living material canbe observed in a elecuun micrenegpe and wpecimens ut be prepared wits heay neta or couted with carbon or gl. These ine ewo type of electron crcope:the TEM (satsmiion electron micioscope) and SEM (eansing ecto mirozope).ATTEM produce ler image of thin secon of mer while in an SEM electrons ate bounced off objects to proce deed age of thei exer appearance Both spe of microscope pace Black nd whie sages but hese are often artical colored so ha certain Fees can be sem ‘more cleat Tabe 1. compares the diferent types of microscope en the electron microscope canoe ditagush individ moles (Other techniques sich f Xr enstllogrphy ae needed to do this Figure 14. indicates the relive sts of some biological sactres oreo lancet '00-fmom 234m amas abject vio {tan iprtrxne vex nth alheinope TEM sem esol ny power Figure 1.4 Theses sere bloc Ligne microscope ro som feerghto poducemmaps: | ussdecroneansioprozuce | wes decvon bearsto pode " ones images asia | 300m Tn 9m Maximum 000 pox o00m00 ‘00000 mmagniation Preparation [insects ofmaierlmaunted | vey tin ocios ol mates very insects a mater fotmateiat | onsicer oppor onrmetal gids, ‘ported ental gas Ming oromanscanbe examined | eng organisms cantor be sarine | ing organs conor be ‘amined Tainased [aud er Tenameas ‘atbonor gl nang Image |viened diay vough peice | vewedonasceenorphotouaphc | vewed onscreen or hes pate photoraphlate “able Conpation fight mize wth tasmiion eletonmioxope TEM) ndacnning deco mospe EM, Magnification and scale ‘Kowing the ins of objects viewed under the micscope cn be very ‘wef (Figure 1.5). For example, x pe scents might want to compare the late ses of pllen grain fom plans inthe se ges to bp ident dierent specs. c "Magnification i defined the rato ofthe size oF he image to he sie ofthe ject gan = =F gue 1.5 cl compoundlign micscope With compound microscope the magifcation isthe proc of both lemes 0 acroscope hi 3 X10 eyepiece and 40 objective, the oa smognifcaton i x40. Primed mages of roctares en with 2 microscope ly show 3 see har orgie the magnification, so tat the sine ofan objet can be ‘alealted. For example, the magitiation of the micrograph in Figure 16 gen 3165, Figure 18 owes ight mioogaph ofasecton tough theconect any 15. 1 Figure 1.6, there ae thre perc omer presents the image, sch one ir approximately 25mm seo, You can check thi wing a ue. Th acu ize of gomerus = ES _ Sam “6 = 045m, 1s decron micrographs, ott measurements ae expreed in nermetes. Armirometce un) 10mm, 1mm s 1000), So the diameter ofthe glomeruli = 0.5 x 1000 gon. Worked example 1.1 This image shows red blood cell The sale br shows 2 wm. From this, yo cin calcateboth the ize af he cell andthe magiicon of he age Size of the cll | Step 1 Usea rlerto mesure the Ing of he cel is dancer in this se)‘ 30.mm, Step 2. Usea rlerto measure he Ing of the ele ba Ti i 9 mi Step 3. Use dhe rato of thx roves to workout the actual length ofthe ce 2m acta length ofl 3000s 007m (Remember to convert al the ni to um. Iexm = 1000p.) -Rearangng the equi: 0000 ya cul eng of the cell = mx OOOH a 300mm = 674m Magifcation of the image ‘Use the formula messed length of the cll magneton = Tal engi ofthe call Soin this cae: smagiication = = = 4500 you ae given vale forthe magifcaion, you can meas the length ofthe ject nthe image and then rearrange the eqution to werk ou the actual lent fe objec, Stunts tnternaioml Sytem ‘Becoming multicellular 1m, Surface area to volume ratio tn Cells are very sal. no mutter whit the sie ofthe ong that they a par of Cels do not ad ean row tbe very lng ad ths is mportane nthe way ving ong are bua faction 1 mee 1 inet a) 1 micomete jn) = 10-8 m {nome a) = 10% The volume of cl determine the lew of metab cy at meee ne taker pce thin The sure ae cll datermins the tae of ‘acange of materi with he ote cvinmen A the vole of 1 decimetre cubed = 1a? Sy 1 cl increases, so does ie aries, but not inthe sme proportion, 1 cond = 15 Table 1.2 shown fra theoretical cubeshaped cell Soa cll rows i eae a Jaeger ith proportionately le wtfice ae to obtain the mater ie neds and to dispose of waste The ate of exchange of sterile cet 1 hour 1h LecislatonltS apa ‘he our membrane becomes iting and cannot keep up wih he cll concentrations mesured in requirement Some cela hove pried structres. sah flan eld cristo provide alrger src ares ela other lame bt sevethles thee i mit othe ie of single cll, Beyond his init cell nus divide and an organs mit become miei. ‘Bove ihc ng coma aninnges ion a row in sie and its cells can differentiate - cha they can take on specific fnesons.so che organism can growin complexity a well see A mules onanism may have specialied nerve cell fo Communication and interaction with the ouside, and muse cell for movement ey al have speci productive cell and wecrtory Cel at produce enrynes for digestion. Difererition allows for new Proper to emerge diferent cell types inert with each che 0 ow more complex ncn to ike place For example acre calls xy inert with muscle cell stimulate movement Sideofeabeimm [Surfaceara/mm? |Votumeimn® | Ratio of surface area volume 7 é n ea 2 2 = 3A 2 se z 3a 2 Testyourself 1 Many cla ogy in shapeThe ohm of ‘sphere is $nr? and its surface area is 4s”. Make a table similar {TBE 12h tine fra phere wing een nda tit pola Digerati ct ok tohune inthis ce Emergent properties ‘One person playing the Flat can produce simple recogni tne but ise musicians wih oer stument join is and pay tgetber a 3 soup they prodice + wide variety ofsound and many dierent effec. New propetes emerge in the cell of malicellar enon ina sim wy Their eelllar component interacts ha the oxganisn can carey out {Linge of more complicated functions One cel en anton on it tu wth other cl a groupe can produce tsues and organs chat erry ‘outa rnge of os inthe organs. For example, lungs ate made of aay celles ony hen all then cell work a+ ane ha the angst able ‘o psf the faneon. Cll for ise, tses orn orgs organs {om onan systems and ong systems workin synergy o that che whole ‘npn ean ary ots complex ange of tk ad greater dan he composition of pats “Take a2 cm cube of modeling lay Change shape ao cht ‘becomes seabed ein eyinder ‘ora phere. Calle sree aren each tine. Try eeting fis in the fice Which shape proces the rete sce ae? Questions to consider The systems approach ‘A sytem is defined an aserblage of parts andthe 1 What ae the advantage and ‘ito between them that cable dem to work together ab sadamtages othe tems ‘ fanctioning whole The yen approich has ong ben ed in approach camped withthe csinering bu for many year natal tems wee examined fom 4 tectons approach co the dy reductions point of view. We can se how the tw approaches der ofcels? ‘fe comider the dy ofa pond. reductions idy ofthe pond + Inscence, the reductions and ‘would decribe the gems Found there i terms of hee etre ad she ems approach may se ‘racers fr exanpe whether they are verter or iversbats, sar methods of sy. What pont or animal Buta reductionist study would not uycocomiderhow the most important difeence the pond worked at dye ste. bere the philosophies of he ‘Acystens approach would ake a hoi vew ofthe pond and sre approaches? consider inecreltonshis rich food chins nd non eying that occur between dhe Yasin component ofthe pond. thi wy = Picts ofthe interdependence of he dierent pars ofthe pond — tit ‘the yen stuetre~ could be bu p ia seudy of ells and cher components the stews approach would oordera single cel in tem of the os of energy ad ters Teen the various strctres within iat Oa a age scale, rope fel an organ or even a whol organi canbe studied sing the syst approach ott heparan the nteraconsbeowen them (a be viewed ars complete Ganong ett Emergent pope fn any system can only be sid by means ofa sstems approach Differentiation ow dn hints opin en ae woe ey {fon ete we ee pe i inicio mae aoe thse ps aa ch yt Tepe nes ann reel ces ep nae Ine ean er pl peel pen ccdepomnesagsnecmenirtaieteasicd | ‘ir Ditton tr peso sme pe he Stem cells | “The frtned egg of any ngis const al the informacion needed or Aeveloping that sage cella 3 complex gin consi of ny ‘eren ypes of el This information ial within the gene inert | fom the maternal and paternal DNA a fine the called chromo, (Ther is more information on DNA and chomorome aru in Subtopics 2.6 and 3.2) A fered eg divides rply and proces» all feel ald a Borat in which al the cell ae alike. Graal er ths soge.dhe els diferente and come dened form seca tsses suchas msde or iver The proces of difeentation produces cell for specie purposes ~ muvee ell for contraction, ver cll for ‘netboim of toning ands on. Once derentiton bas happened, ‘aot be reversed Cells inthe blastocyst have the potential to ea eto Spent any diferent cel type: they are dt be plriptent snd are mown as embryonic stem cel. Embryonic tem calls are unique in their potential vest 0 ieee it al dhe boy cll ype. However, ome alee contain a diferent frm of stem cll one that can only erent into ell socited with hat tue For example, bore marrow cons em fell tht en form ll dhe fern types oF Hood el, bat not mle el oc ver cel (Figure 1.7. Stem el ifr fm most ther el nthe allowing ways They ar umpeinled. 1+ They ean divide repeatedly co make lage numbers of new el 1 They ean diferente ina sever ype of cel They have a age cies ative 6 the volume ofthe eytophem, Ethical issuesin stom call research Scents began to investigate and clr stm ell inthe 1980 nd it on becate apparent that there wat enorsous potent in sing thew all therapeutical Some of the mow recent etetch ai o grow se elit epic damaged or dented tein patents fering om Aegencative conditions sah a mull lero or Aldea’ dice. Ently work concentrated on wing embryonic stem cell but thes en tly be obtained om discarded enya vite elation (VF) ‘lnc Theres mich debate about the thie of doing ths Kind of wok, sou many peopl fel tha the destruction ofan embryo to aban stem Cells morally anacexpae, Others argue that his ype of crc will ontebue significa to the weanment of disease and can therefore be fal june, The we ofadut stm els ia les conser ares ofeach En hs «ae,calls at obtained fn bone martow or other te ou a donor whol gves consent Calls can be harvested apd grow and ein retical extent Bone marrow earplnt aed help many leaks pens 0 fll covery. Although sient lm many counties hae cooperated ‘on em cell sar, the ws governing esearch vay fom plice wo pce. Inthe Earopean Union rea sing ma esos permuted in ome countries bu i eg others sacha ‘Gers. lind tay, Portal and Asi. nthe USA snes fund dhe research while cbr bn and athough Amal permits research, New Zend resist Laws abo die in thei appetion to embryonic wom cell esearch and in stems call ken fo alt. tise: Beene I depend on poltcl and eigios viewpoints, ‘hey may change new ifoemton and esearch deelop- acess Plat alo contin ste cell "These ate ound in the merges jst behind the cps of growing ems and root There ell cat ‘ieenie to become vous ‘ses of the wea and woe ‘ott ann cord ie ‘Therapeutic use of stem cells ‘Another source fer cll which hasbeen sce sed in medical testa the bod in the ublal con of newton baby gare 418) The stem calls can divide and become any typeof oo cel, (Cont bled canbe wed to wet certin type oF euaena a cance hat ‘aes orrprodction of white blond cls inthe bone martow: Cell fom the cod ood ae called nd theese type deter ‘Aller chemotherapy to desay the pater own bone matt cel, stem call which athe core mach tothe patente are gen by tension They become etuished in the pesca’ bone araw and stare producing blood els as norma ‘This teatmest can work wel n-young chile, ba thee ae not enough cll in a single cord met the needs of an adult aie. Sens have been looking for ways to ether combine te el rom ‘more than one bly, et ncrese the numberof els nthe habontory. ‘Allowing the sem cll to divide inthe bortory prods many blood call bt not more stem cell In 2010, ents athe Fr Hutchion (Cancer Reearch Centr Sete, USA, managed oar sigalg payin the ste cll 50 they ould incre in mmber without losing sem cll properties Ara et f th proces, nwa a thenpentic ‘toning ub eond Hood may prove to bean even more vale tource of ster el in the tie ‘One ofthe mont recent aa fem cel recarc has bem inthe tweament of Sangudt’s diease using til pigment eptelam (RPE) Sra dene san inherited condition which begin in childhood and esd vo macular degenention a gral desrucion of eas inthe ene ofthe rein) and eventually cuss Hindnes. Reina ells ean be made Som erbryonic tem cll In 2012 profs ager tia he ft patents ‘woe given eats of etal cell developed om human emsyoaie seem cello teat ther conn. The cll were ijt ety into he etn and roenches found ta noe only dhe tem el save but {ie number of el incensed over a period of 3 months. The cells began co develop smportine wl pena he patents noice proween ‘ek son Sens hope hatin the Se, stem cells wl store some Sight not ony to people with tga dseae but ako many miions of ler people lering hm age-mlated maculr degeneration the most ‘comon eats o nds. Sem cell heap hs abo bern succes ‘wed inthe texment of ype I bees and reset is continuing eo Gent Get ge of ender ech nearbogial damageouc sige slr tt Aeeiers ene Nature of science Looking for trends and discrepancies - developing theories In oreo exphin aspect of the mata wond cenit develop chores. ‘A dheory ita well seabed and widely accepted principle sha ares. from extensive abteration of tend and dcepuncies, and incorposes fe, laws, predictions and tested hypotheses. A hypothesis isa specu, specifi and teal prediction about what expected ko happenin tn iaveigtion. Sa theory predic event in gener ters wl & hypothe makes specie predic abou 2 marly defined set of| ‘icsnstances. any evidence is colected which coated 3 hypothe, the hypothe nt be rejected anda new hypothe formate, ‘in developing theory ts important wo consider nc aly the ain tre ofan ide ~ tone obrermtions tha are in genera agement — Buta tek out cranes which might go gant the tend, and pehap upg cable lporhese leading to change in the theory Sy for example, wth eat o eel theory scents mig kif observations get tha the secure of al par ofl organs conform ro the thet orf here ae any dcrepancis, “As we have sen, many milion of cel have been examined and the jority do confora to the princi ofl hear But fang hype tnd the fibres in muncls cll could be considered challenge to Mammalian re lod cell ave 0 maleu (even thongh srr cel in replies and other vertebrates de), which mes they enor cary out all the fiesone of ie and depre om cell theory in that respect. Singe- called protect sch x Armory cou be thought of a challenge the idea tha every cell has a speiaiedFaneson a hee rps cary out all the fancons of, Science must consider abervatons ike thet orn tat diferent fils of dy al be prepared to revise accepted theories, it neces Questions to consider How can evidence be obsined fo the pincpe ofthe cel theory? (Can we prove ha cells vas are fom preexisting cell? + Do de examples of ang ype and mince cel cprove the cll theory? ‘Whar shout hppen if evidence i collected that cannot be explained bya heory? ‘What happens evidence i collected that doponesIypothes? 2 Test yourself 4: Caso many cs of 00pm comer wl song =e {Us xine of where he concep of neg popes can ‘ef rs roi a bdo owen inc esteos tmapestesifee cc elo een ile ene le Fe specie fon iriiteai bess Reenter ea eager or Famine poe Learning objectives Yow shuld understand that: + Prokaryete hve a simple call cere wie 30 ‘comparementlsacon + Eakaryots have « conparmentled cell seractre wth membeane- bound organelles preset the «opts 4 The esaaton of electron mies ie mich iger than that of ight mrcape, which allows idensiation of ell sauces and organelles Figwe 1.9 Thebacwom ico cs ype petrotcca Coloured TEN ‘ooo 1.2. Ultrastructure of cells Living things at divide nto two types prokaryotes and eukaryotes = acconigt the wraetre of thee cel Prokarysie ell are wally ‘auch alle han exkaryocic cll and ave 2 mich simpler sacar. Prokayots ate though o be the Sst ell ove eve. Bacteri re all prokaysic cols, Prokaryotic cells rokaryotie clare so called becuse they have no mcs (prokaryote comes om the Gree, mesing'beore de nucleus) Tey so hive to angles ermal racers). cel fncions donot ake pen ‘epunte compartments within the eytoplasm From the mi-20th century, ‘when the elect microcope was developed i became posible to ly {he ineral deta of el, Fgucs 1.9 and 440 show dhe main Features of pial prokaryote cel ia Figwe 1.10 The sinc pa planet +The cll wall urmund the ol protect the cel fm bursting and is compond of pepidogycan, which ia miatureofebolydae and amino ai «The planma membrane cont the movement of materia ino an cut of the ell Some sobtnees ze pumped in and ou xing active ceaspore ‘+ Gytoplam inside the membrane conan al the enzymes forthe ‘hema actions ofthe eal Ilo contin the genetic materi «The chromosome i found ina region af the cytoplasm eld the nycleoid The DNA isnot contained in a nuclear envelope adit sho “haked— that is not acct with ny proteins. Bacteria ao comin ditional sail eels of DNA calle plasmids. Pais repate Independently and may be passed Gom one cell to another «+ Ribosomes ae found in al prokaryote cell, where they synthesie proteins They can be seen in very Inge number i el a etvelypodcing protein. Prokaryots have 7 bows, which te Salt dan thon avn in eukaryote «A lagellam is present in we prokarysic cells. agli, which Projets om te cel wal enables cell to move, ener «Some hatra have pl nar pis). These sructares found on the at wal on connect her Bats cel ding them together 0 that genetic nue can be exchanged between thm, pokarore cells ar wally moch smal ia volume than more complex “The'S ami wid ees shown a Seeders eit I isa meanre ofthe bebsviour of pails doringsedienttin, Simard tate sdece Smee eee Fee iD giaamigessie eaten | Lette an tase apn whch hen dre poi ee! say a See igh ion nea ncaa Gio L8. — eigeaTay ees fA . ‘tomar edinetaton cnn Eukaryoticeels \ tay opis hve cl tht conn cs Ana pln, | fing pototata lave eukaryotic cls "The complet of eukarya cell anno be fly appreciated sing compound light micecope. Bt neuer mde wing a eleeton f Inirscope, which haa mich higher raohtio, the fine ders of many Ahfrent onl ate wable Fgure 1.11 shows what can be sen of k ila plant cll ong ight mirecope~ compte thse imap with the lecton micrograph nd inerpcve dings in Figures 1.12 0118. ene Figure 11 Phtcorpks ndiereti wings to show pica aninalandslant es they appr nga ght ios AN owe 1.15 Davin of pase mop pint celimade fam he lcton micogaph Figure 1.4, Bularyotic cell contin scum called organelles, cach of which forms 2‘compartnetin which pectic function take place This ‘omparannetion enables 3 eokayoi ell © esr out various ‘emia actions or proce in septate pt of the cell which al orm yt ofthe sie tem. Dilferent pes fell have dierent organelles a ‘Silent proporsons depending on the rl ofthe cel "The gst nd mt cious stractte in enka al ithe rcleus which contin he cells chromovomes. Chromosomes are Composed of DNA combined wid histone pci, forming atria known acon The nice surrounded by a doue-layered ‘membrane the maclear envelope. Sl gap inde enyeope,caed Incl prea vile and tough tse that mers pes ete the sucks and the re ofthe call A dine tare of the cle the daly ning mateo Thi she site of iboome rodaction ‘Asoviatd with the nck etveope i erie of membranes known. the endoplatniereicalams (ER). Riboromes tach (this network to form rough endoplasme rtinluan GER), the ste of protein syhens At protein produced they calc inte paces bern the ‘membrane known the cisternae. From hee dey cn be eansported in vesicles to other pats ofthe cell such asthe Golgi appara. ER. that hs no iboats ached is known at smooth endoplasmic ‘reticulum (VER), The membrane of ER have many enzymes on thir surfices Smoot ER he diferent roles in dient type fell hve lt where toxin ate broken doi the vas cs he ste of| ‘sogen production. Sood ER ako produces phosphite ‘omtructon of membranes and pds for use in the cell. “The Gog apparatus similar in appearance to the sER, composed ‘of sacks of ftened folded membwanes process proeig made i the ZER electing, pickaging and moving ther, and den lesing them in vies for nape to vatious parts af he ela for seretion from the cell The pancreas conte may secretory el hic awe age aes ‘Gol apparatus (Fgues 1.12 and 1.13), Pakyotie cell abo contain mitochondeia(inguat mitochondrion These ae congited srctnes sartounded by 2 double tenbrne tht te found throughout the eyoplsm. Mitochonde ate own asthe cls powerhouse becute they ae the ste of aerobic seston. The inner menrane ile to form erste, which geal Increase the sic re for the prodacion oF ATP sn the cll Cel tae respite rapid sch mee ells, have sumerousmitochonde “Lysosommes te pirical onaneis with ede iternal ctr, which are made bythe Golgi appartae Thy contain hydoytic enzymes for breaking dow component of cell They ae importa i el deat ia reskin down old organs ada white Hood cls, digesting bacteria that have been engl by phagocytosis, Plan eells donot nocrmlly contain soso. "Ribosomes ave the sit af rotsin yen ell. They maybe fee Jn the eytplan ov tached the FER. They ae made of RNA and proc bt they donot havea membrane aman hem. kayo cel ‘contin 80S bosoms, which are lage han thse Found sn prokaryote ‘Asin polayosc cell the plasma membrane contol the movement ofrmateri et and out of he clad the ge ke eytoplasm, which 5s much of the volume ofthe cel provides s medium for many setbolie rstons Pan els have thee addtional tracers All plane cells ave a ‘outer cello cel wall and moet have a ge cet vacuole Some pln cel such paid mesmphyl el (Figues 1.14 and 1.18), ‘ootincloroplats The chloroplasts ae found incl exposed to the light they ae the ses of phoeceythess Chloroplasts ave & double ‘membrane and ane about the sume ie a bacteria, Both cloroplas a mitochon have their ovn DNA and ribosomes an ar abe | ‘epedace independent ofthe cel "The large centzal vacuole contin: water and wl The membrane tha rounds eis de prerefom within aed eer a force om the _ytopai, eich in rm exert fe onthe el wal aking the ell ‘ung and frm The ote ell wall composed of eso and other Cartohydates such signin and pee, ging plan cell farther appre snula more rgd strctre than animal cll The cell walls nd trgey of plant cl give sength and seppore to ses ike leaves holding ‘hem nthe optimum position to catch the energy fom slight for photos Although they are bod eukaryote cell, there ae several hy ferences between ail and plane cell These ate summaied in Table 13. Anica Plant calle calabro celal pet smal acolessometinespreset [lrg cena veil resentin “ rmatrecele nochlorlt chleopasts fen aesent cholestoln lama enbane | nochohsteol psa membros centices pest ee 09636) | erie abot — Ree hogan sors rh Table 13 erences between arian anes Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells Comparisons of mages of prokaryotic and eukaryotic ells show ames Aifeencesberween them. These ae summed in able 1.4. Note, fr ‘cxample he diference in sie of ribosomes been prokarydc and akaryotc el suctre | Eukaryouceatl Prokaryotc cl ‘clus [asl present surounded | noncleus and therfore ne byanuciearenvelope and | nuclarerlope or mucins ‘Setling hemos ae ae ae — a a erm | seu present ever resent ome (Stes See oes | ettege [ear | once | ores = ee stat Sapam [Saree erent [er pecan a — rename Sse uses compares of logos Nature of science cs Scientific advance follows technical innovation the electron ‘microscope ‘A typical nial els 10-20 ym in ameter which is about one-ith {he ze of the smallest pile visible to che naked eye Rober Hooke ‘va the fin ent 1 sce and describe cll alhough he di nw ‘shat dey were Later, Anton van Leewsenboek, who bul one ofthe fst _mcscopesin 167, was able ose living cel of Span bacteria Can we believe our eyes? ‘Our ow perception a cracil source ofknowlege-The ‘way we sec things depend on the interaction berwcen ur sense organs sd our mind, apd what we perce sa selective interpretation "When seadyng terial tht his ben prepaed fr micmopic ‘examination we must alas hearin mid at staining and etn els ‘wil ake theér penance. Inteypeting images equ cre and what ‘ve perceive in a price image is ely 0 be infivenced by these Tecique a well oor own expectations, ‘Questions to consi Consider the saps of ‘mitochondria in Figure 1.42. “Why do some mitachondia sppesr clindsia nd ties circu? Pht els have sng ceted vacuole Examine the plan cell in Fignte 1.14 How many vacuoles ny eel Hew arya pla ei? ? Test yourself 7 is tev dees beeen paket and eka cal 8 Disingeth between he pa of res 4 ce vals mena 8 ‘hsoome’ and von” 9 Suar one ana» is for being compared = tata oe avg opel. 10 Ontie the Kncton ofthe enoplenic eculm. aa ou shoal desta ta «Phyo fon igen 1.3 Membrane structure are genera eer aes ‘The structure of membranes ‘* Membranes contain a range of protein which dir in ir structure, fonction and postion tn he phosphoii byer, + Cholesteral ian portant “Meosbrnes not ony provide shape fra cll and enclose its conten there alo conden activity a membrane stices, epi the Flam membeane is comet with dhe exracllr space. Our curent ‘model of membrane structure, the fad mosaie model helps oexphin how membranes carry ou the fanctons. component of te membranes of anid ca Amphipathic compounds poses bth yophic(xater- Foving, poland pope (Galvin) properties. The ees phosptolpid ns membrane fla the waya membrane secre frm, Phospholipids arrange themeler nto bayer ‘oth thei pole groups facing the surmoonding aqueous (watery) ‘medium and thei hytophobic ‘hin icing towed the ide fof the ble In this wy. 2 aon polit epin i formed besveen 9 polarons. Phospholipase Princal constituent of boogie ‘membranes, ut choeserl and ycoipid and glycoproteins are Serbia eal der pees inthe blr gives membranes, Aierene physical aed Wolo properties You can ind ost mote Shout the importance of pole ‘ou in Subtapie 2.2, High le cen ype of cholera the Hood ane been tuocated with hem de You find out more sbout his on page 198-The body pradacesitsown, eter inthe ier bt i ab0 oan ary food that we ea All membranes, whetever they gern als, have the same basic stricture Membranes ae asl between 7 and 0 nm thick and are composed of ro Lyers of phospholipid which orm 2 byes. Phospholipids ae made up of pol, yap rea containing a phosphate group bonded oglycea, nd non-pa ipphc aes onaining fy acs. In the baer, he Hpophile or hydeophobic (vaterhaing pats al point towas each her. and che hydophil (vate Joving) aes poi ouvardy a ig 1.16 shown is he Aiferen properties ofeach end ofthe molecule ha case the phospholipids to arange chereles inthis way The hyophlc “hes ofthe molecules lvays peat onthe ouside ofthe membrane where water is present we the hydrophobic“ ovienat inside the double layer, ay om water The recta ial 3"momie’ Beet, jt a4 monic picture made up of many smal separate ples, s0 the surice ofthe membrane s composed of the heads of may spate Phospholipid molecale, The whole sructre ie Hesle ord! becuse the phospholipids can float into a postion anywhee in the membrane Research using ndioactvely beled phospholipid show tht chve rmolecales move nt only within their wn ayer, bt alo between he ‘v0 layers of he membrane "Embedded inthe bilayer ate diferent molecules that contribute to the functions of membranes, Cholesterol i ofen preset in nial cells and is moet commonly found in the pam membrane. Oe end of the cholestrol molecule anocnte withthe pol head of phospholipid molecules whl other parts of i are embedded inthe membrane nex to the non-poa ity acid chains This interaction makes the membrane less "ui more rigid and les permeable to wateraolble mec ‘There at ao diferen types of protein i the bye. Htegral protein re embede inthe ble, wheres peripheral proteins se mache to the surfce Many ofthe proteins on the outer sce ae tveoprotsins~ that i they have erboyaate groups attached eo them. Sonte of thee serve at hormone binding tes and lve perl ape 0 recognise dhe specie hormones to whi the cll wl pond. Others tempor in el-t-call comsmniaon and aden, Some nega (tptecresmnd roan 2 — ssupotmn vom ase ben ~ henerggnrrminnnt Seeeteresaces sevens /| Nn, gure 1.16 pospoipd mec induces posh ay and monty ac bt pas ch gue 1.17 te ‘psec ef smgifed ond shown ose th twota, protein ae ensynes immobilised wihin the membrane sacar and pref placed vo carry ou Sequences of meabolic reactions. ial there ar prensa pn che ber cing channel for ions and olecle ops by pasive wasporor Forming pumps that we seve truport to move molecules in or oof the eel Models of membrane structure (Our curent understanding ofthe trocar of the membrane ha aien fon the work of numberof ents over nny year. Each op refined previous knowedge of membranes, eect theories tht were hot supported by evidence and werkingt other new dts micrcoPY tnd eer techniques improved The exstence of pid bjer was ‘iginally proposed and outlined by Gorter and Grendel in 1925: Their iden were developed and improved by Hugh Daven and amex Dane, vo proposed in 19382 model ofa phospholipid bayer beween 690 lye of obula poten, the o-cled Te andwich model The Daron nit del was new and eaensecd vo explain thei baertions see ure tension oid layers Since that tine the phenomenon tf afce terion in bilayers ic been beer explained by dying the yoperte ofthe pont bends Neverthele, the Dirson-Daniei ‘mole predominated, and vas supported by observations wing the eeon micsicope nl 1972 when Singer and Nicokon decribed the nd moi? model The fd mossic model included description of integral prosins cat wee sted through the membrane, and itejected the idea ofa"andwic:-ike'globulor rosin yer beast ws 20 Toagee wel suppored by expesimental evidence (ce Nature of ence’ alow) Fresh abserotonsabained ing anew technique ale freeze ttching were abo porn “The model of membrane seactre acceped toy is bused onthe Singer and Nicolion tid morse model, strated n gue LT, nds been apported by more recent research, with nly minor modcavons Nature of science Folsification of theories ~ developing a model of membrane structure Scien theories embody our curent undestanding of aspects ofthe rel wor and may nce model to represent thoe aspects, Homes, any iene theory or model cen only exit ut ice disproved. The Davios-Danel model of menbrane structure was accepted unt ew evidence elle the model nto question The Dsvin-Danel mode as very clos to what snow acepted except htt proposed that ll enlbeanes ae ake. Tit at doves hoo, when was ond tht diferent oqjanies rnsport very diferent stance erm dir embrans,wsig diferent preceas. For exanple, mammalian cel ‘emport sodium and poe io cou th plasma nembranes ‘ia spec protein channel, while methane pradacing cera mone Freeze-etching ita method of preparing membanes 0 fea three dimensional view (tthe rice and deal of the ‘membrane sructtes, Call art rapidly frren and flactared by Tenking thes in uid nog. The factued neice tskdoed with evaporated easy meat tinder meni and eabed. The ie notes selene fine mcal ged vo tate can be wed in the eleeonmirscope to reveal the 3D arrangement of Ip and press ha are resent As you rad the evidence tat hat sccumulited and helped our understanding ofthe secre of membranes consider ‘he following quesions. + Why iit inpotant Sor scientists eo ue forward tie es in the form of heoie® How wif ae model in developing ideas 0 biologic + Tsicumporane co earn about ‘hears hat have bees Adhordited or supencted? ‘orionsandineopiemeeces pas go aeons NETO mh vl _ I eee, yh Mo szomecumnt hai Fgwe 1.17 Dgasto shoe fd marae! ofmembrane tucks ‘methane out o thei els via diesent protein channels Esidence such {this showed tht ll membranes ae oe ak, sd ied the Dasson- Daniell model, which was superseded by ou current mode 2 Test yourself 14 Suge wy the cr ‘id mone’ ed describe smemaneasctre 12 Suggr wy the ay aia’ of he phonpholpid molecules ahvayalig themselves inthe mide of the menbeie. 13 Outive the dite between nel membrane roti es 1.4 Membrane transport Diffusion, facilitated diffusion and osmosis Many toecse as scm the plasma membrane Water, oxy, fabon diode, excretory prods nrient and tone ae continuously changed and many call sho crt pradacs sachs horsiones snd nays ezough dhe puma membrane “The snplest way in which molecule can move into. oof el isby simple dilfision though te pisma merrbrane Dasion 8 2 sce proces, which aes place as molecules move randomly No energy Inputs equired and maovemers occur by way of ple concentration trons A concentration gradient a ifeeace in concentration fof asolsianceberween two regions and diison wil always occur Ine sich» gradient exis unt pales ofthe absences ar evenly Gist and equine reached One inpocnt exarple of snle ‘ison i ole inthe proces of cll repatin, Oxygen i needed ty cle acts continu sed up in spit. Asa cell spires, the type concentation inside Becomes les than the concentration ouside, so oxygen molecules ifs n.tn a ile way, carbon donde i oni foned during eprtion concentration bald yp aside the cll andi diffe ue tough the pis membre to an ates where the concentration is wer, Simple diffsion occurs where the membrane is filly permeable tothe sulaance or where channel proteins in the membrane are lage enough forthe substance eo ps through Lage molecules, and charged partic such a chloride tons (CI) nd potasum ons ("cannot ps trough the membrane by simple ‘sion so certain protein form channels hough which they can tev Asin ample difision no energy is use by the call and the omspore relies onthe kinetic energy ofthe pres moving down thet oncenrtion graien, Channel proteins ve an setrir which Iyophile (Faure 1.18) so wser-solule mucriacan ps hough ‘her and hey ane specie i they only allow a price ubwance to more trough Some of thee channels are permanently open, wheres ets ae gated ad only open tallow cerein ons wo pas when they tne mulated to dow, For example, ited channel inthe axons of nerve cell open when three change in the wolge (potenti dierence) zeros the membrane Gated potsiam chanel only allo Kons wo sue though the membrne afer # nerve impale aspen the ‘You can rend mre about nerve imple in Subtopie 6.5, (Other channel proteins allow the movement fsubsnces suchas Juco ani sino acids, which ae polar an cannot if hough the Tp ligr ofthe mermbrae, Subwacs lie these ae tranyported aes membranes by fitted difasion, In ths asa crix protein ft Combines withthe ifising molecules on ane se of the membrane, ‘aris them trough the channel protein and then releases them onthe ser se Figure 118), Fitted dion allows fer difison te Learning objectives = tier ore aro erbrie ‘by camo, active tampa, simple difision and fated ‘Sifisic, “+ Materials canbe taken intel 1 endocyor an eve ale by exocytosis due to the fad rata ofthe membrane. ‘Within a all vesicles nave materi around, Pusve teansport the movement of mibeances down 3 concenrion {gation fom ar area ot high ‘oncentation oan ates of loner ‘concentration witha the need fo nergy to be med Dison one example of pave eanpor; many mec ase, into and ou fell by difiion i axygen carbon donde and ocore ‘Onmosis another exple of sive tanspore br the teem sr wed only the context of ‘water molecule uma the ‘ovement of water molecules enon april permestle ‘membvane fam 1 1egon oflover sole concentration, where there ‘8 high concensaion of water ‘molecules ta region of higher sole concentration, hers the ‘concentration of water molecies inlowee ‘Active tremapost the monet ofsubances agin the sneer gradient, which "hey involve the expendiae of ‘ergy i the form of ATP Dison trough a protein channel I $988 mo Seeman p99 |f\ ooaanaaaae eee0 ‘eecugh membranes Tey mM T T a = I _ eens i boddvocedvos Succes Facitateddifusion via a case protan =o aenageazccse i: crema TT | © concenaton Smo U ce Tmoncma! bobdodereee! Eee pec gue 18 Sone orhaged as and ecru ember soe can tes for molecules tha particular ells need for example the difision of ‘con into active mice cls No energy inp reed because the Imolecales move dwn thei concentration gaint. "A specia ee of ifn i osmovi (Figure 1.19) This sche pase movement of water crow pial permeable membyane fom nea fot lower slut concentration 1 an aa of higher ste concentration TT elect ‘sun a pastas apo pom maninne tbe owns et agen ae erm mks Sines naccrencen nn ema ‘octon han amaton thee aretha renatageipactoomen pms ibemnbanetate Tevasdieseater ote soisenscnsontng tn ‘retina ahem “eva pana tanen oe eae Sivan naan anaes gue 1.19 osm. “Wen the solute concentraons inside and outside cll ae the ime, the same number of water molecules will ys acros dhe membrane nto the fellas dove tha leave. An anima el hae x place in pure water wl ake in wate by ommostunelevently tay burst (Fgue 1.20) iced in 4 foluion widh very high concensation of lute the cell wil shrink or feenal water leaves the cel by om. In eter station, animal ells wil not function propedy and tee metabo wl be feted. In madicalprocedares sues and organs te bathed in solason of nol ln’ whic ha ray he ame oxmolarty (esse ofthe sole conceatation 2 sluton) a humas ell eytopasm and sid to be itotonie with che cytoplnm. In thi cite oxo does na cur and cell ae not dame widcloeenaae nate pata sae agente Aedobeadinwteraty Catania fenmeconencre! | cnsipshighr ‘atts ne ane gue 1.20 Responses of animale clan of rn concen ne sioPowe ai ater potential the tendency of voter lec to move fom ate of higher eoneentaion 1 3 se oflowerconcenttion. "Norma sine wlion of ‘090% w/e (eight by vole) fodion chloride ed a totoaie ‘vith haan cell eis used Frequently in insavenous drips (Vo for patients who cant ake fois ealy and aren danger of becoming deleted A pln in asin a concn tan cl atone Phan cells are ao fected by the movement of water int and out ofthc cell bat the presence of cel wl prevents pln el Being

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