Unit 1 - 4 Es Notes

PaperCode: ES107 / ES108 Paper: Electrical Science L T/P C
PaperID: 199107 / 199108 3 - 3

Marking Scheme:
1. Teachers Continuous Evaluation: 25 marks
2. Term end Theory Examinations: 75 marks
Instruction for paper setter:
1. There should be 9 questions in the term end examinations question paper.
2. The first (1st) question should be compulsory and cover the entire syllabus.This question should be
objective, single line answers or short answer type question of total 15 marks.
3. Apart from question 1 which is compulsory, rest of the paper shall consist of 4 units as per the syllabus.
Every unit shall have two questions covering the corresponding unit of the syllabus. However, the
student shall be asked to attempt only one of the two questions in the unit. Individual questions may
contain upto 5 sub-parts / sub-questions. Each Unit shall have a marks weightage of 15.
4. The questions are to be framed keeping in view the learning outcomes of the course / paper. The
standard / level of the questions to be asked should be at the level of the prescribed textbook.
5. The requirement of (scientific) calculators / log-tables / data – tables may be specified if required.
Course Objectives:
1: To impart knowledge of the basics electrical engineering.
2: To impart knowledge of the working of RLC circuits.
3: To impart basic knowledge about filters and magnetic circuits.
4: To impart basic knowledge about electrical machines.
Course Outcomes (CO):
CO1: Ability to understand and use Kirchpff‟s Laws to solve resistive circuit problems.
CO2: Ability to analyse resistive, inductive and capacitive circuits for transient and steady state
sinusoidal solutions.
CO3: Understand the first order filters and magnetic circuits.
CO4: Understand the design of electrical machines.
Course Outcomes (CO to Programme Outcomes (PO) Mapping (scale 1: low, 2: Medium, 3: High
CO/PO PO01 PO02 PO03 PO04 PO05 PO06 PO07 PO08 PO09 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 3 3 3 3 3 - - - 1 1 1 2
CO2 3 3 3 3 3 - - - 1 1 1 2
CO3 3 3 3 3 3 - - - 1 1 1 2
CO4 3 3 3 3 3 - - - 1 1 1 2
Unit - I
DC Circuits: Passive circuit components, Basic laws of Electrical Engineering, Temperature Resistance
Coefficients. voltage and current sources, Series and parallel circuits, power and energy, Kirchhoﬀ‟s Laws,
Nodal & Mesh Analysis, delta-star transformation, superposition theorem, Thevenin‟s theorem, Norton‟s
theorem, maximum power transfer theorem. Time domain analysis of first Order RC & LC circuits.
[9Hrs] [T1]
Unit – II
AC Circuits: Representation of sinusoidal waveforms, peak and rms values, phasor representation, real power,
reactive power, apparent power, power factor. Analysis of single-phase ac circuits consisting of R, L, C, RL,
RC, RLC combinations (series and parallel), resonance. Three phase balanced circuits, voltage and current
relations in star and delta connections.
[9Hrs] [T1]
Unit - III
D. C. Generators & Motors: Principle of operation of Generators & Motors, Speed Control of shunt motors, Flux
control, Rheostatic control, voltage control, Speed control of series motors.
A. C. Generators & Motors: Principle of operation, Revolving Magnetic field, Squirrel cage and phase wound
rotor, Starting of Induction motors, Direct on line and Star Delta starters, Synchronous machines. [9Hrs [T1]]
Unit - IV:
Transformers: Construction and principle of operation, equivalent circuit, losses in transformers, regulation
and efficiency. Auto-transformer and three-phase transformer connections.
Measuring Instruments: Electromagnetism, Different Torques in Indicating instruments, Moving Iron
Instruments: Construction & Principle, Attraction and Repulsion type; Moving Coil instruments: Permanent
Magnet type; Dynamometer type Instruments.
[9Hrs] [T1]
Textbooks:
1. Electrical Engineering Fundamentals by Vincent Del Toro, PHI (India), 1989
References:
1. An Introduction to Electrical Science by Adrian Waygood, Routledge, 2nd Ed. 2019.
2. Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology by John Bird, Elsevier, 2007.
3. Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering by Giorgio Rizzoni, MacGraw-Hill, 2007.
4. Electrical Engineering by Allan R. Hambley, Prentice-Hall, 2011.
5. Hughes Electical & Electronic Technology by Edward Hughes revised by Hohn Wiley, Keith Brown and Ian
McKenzie Smith, Pearson, 2016.
6. Electrical and Electronics Technology by E. Hughes, Pearson, 2010.
7. Basic Electrical Engineering by D.C. Kulshrestha, McGraw-Hill, 2009.
8. Basic Electrical Engineering by D. P. Kothai and I.J. Nagrath, McGraw-Hill, 2010.
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D.C. Generators
1.1 Generator Principle
An electric generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into

electrical energy. An electric generator is based on the principle that
whenever flux is cut by a conductor, an e.m.f. is induced which will
cause a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed. The direction
of induced e.m.f. (and hence current) is given by Fleming’s right hand
rule. Therefore, the essential components of a generator are:
a. a magnetic field
b. conductor or a group of conductors
c. motion of conductor w.r.t. magnetic field.
1.2 Simple Loop Generator
i. Consider a single turn loop ABCD rotating clockwise in a
uniform magnetic field with a constant speed as shown in
Fig.(1.1). As the loop rotates, the flux linking the coil sides AB
and CD changes continuously. Hence the e.m.f. induced in these
coil sides also changes but the e.m.f. induced in one coil side adds
to that induced in the other.
ii. When the loop is in position no. 1 [See Fig. 1.1], the generated
e.m.f. is zero because the coil sides (AB and CD) are cutting no
flux but are moving parallel to it
iii. When the loop is in position no. 2, the coil sides are moving at an
angle to the flux and, therefore, a low e.m.f. is generated as
indicated by point 2 in Fig. (1.2)
iv. When the loop is in position no. 3, the coil sides (AB and CD) are
at right angle to the flux and are, therefore, cutting the flux at a
maximum rate. Hence at this instant, the generated e.m.f. is
maximum as indicated by point 3 in Fig. (1.2).
v. At position 4, the generated e.m.f. is less because the coil sides
are cutting the flux at an angle.
vi. At position 5, no magnetic lines are cut and hence induced e.m.f.
is zero as indicated by point 5 in Fig. (1.2).
vii. At position 6, the coil sides move under a pole of opposite polarity
and hence the direction of generated e.m.f. is reversed. The
maximum e.m.f. in this direction (i.e., reverse direction, See Fig.
1.2) will be when the loop is at position 7 and zero when at
position 1. This cycle repeats with each revolution of the coil.
Note that e.m.f. generated in the loop is alternating one. It is because

any coil side, say AB has e.m.f. in one direction when under the
influence of N-pole and in the other direction when under the influence
of S-pole. If a load is connected across the ends of the loop, then
alternating current will flow through the load.
The alternating voltage generated in the loop can be converted into
direct voltage by a device called commutator. We then have the d.c.
generator. In fact, a commutator is a mechanical rectifier
Construction of d.c. Generator

The d.c. generators and d.c. motors have the same general onstruction.
In fact, when the machine is being assembled, the workmen usually do
not know whether it is a d.c. generator or motor. Any d.c. generator can
be run as a d.c. motor and vice-versa. All d.c. machines have five
principal components viz.
(i) field system
(ii) armature core
(iii) armature winding
(iv) commutator
(v) brushes [See Fig. 1.7].
i. Field system
The function of the field system is to produce uniform magnetic field
within which the armature rotates. It consists of a number of salient
poles (of course, even number) bolted to the inside of circular frame
(generally called yoke). The yoke is usually made of solid cast steel
whereas the pole pieces are composed of stacked laminations. Field
coils are mounted on the poles and carry the d.c. exciting current. The
field coils are connected in such a way that adjacent poles have opposite
polarity.The m.m.f. developed by the field coils produces a magnetic
flux that passes through the pole pieces, the air gap, the armature and
the frame (See Fig. 1.8).
Practical d.c. machines have air gaps ranging from 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm.
Since armature and field systems are composed of materials that have
high permeability, most of the m.m.f. of field coils is required to set up
flux in the air gap. By reducing the length of air gap, we can reduce the
size of field coils (i.e.number of turns).
ii. Armature core
The armature core is keyed to the machine shaft and rotates between
the field poles. It consists of slotted soft-iron laminations (about 0.4 to
0.6 mm thick) that are stacked to form a cylindrical core as shown in
Fig (1.9). The laminations (See Fig. 1.10) are individually coated with
a thin insulating film so that they do
not come in electrical contact with each other. The purpose of
laminating the core is to reduce the eddy current loss. The laminations
are slotted to accommodate and provide mechanical security to the
armature winding and to give shorter air gap for the flux to cross
between the pole face and the armature “teeth”.
iii. Armature winding

The slots of the armature core hold insulated conductors that are
connected in a suitable manner. This is known as armature winding.
This is the winding in which “working” e.m.f. is induced. The armature
conductors are connected in series-parallel; the conductors being
connected in series so as to increase the voltage and in parallel paths so
as to increase the current. The armature winding of a d.c. machine is a
closed-circuit winding; the conductors being connected in a
symmetrical manner forming a closed loop or series of closed loops.
iv. Commutator
A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating
voltage generated in the armature winding into direct voltage across the
brushes. The commutator is made of copper segments insulated from
each other by mica sheets and mounted on the shaft of the machine (See
Fig 1.11). The armature conductors are soldered to the commutator
segments in a suitable manner to give rise to the armature winding.
Depending upon the manner in which the armature conductors are
connected to the commutator segments, there are two types of armature
winding in a d.c. machine viz., (a) lap winding (b) wave winding.
v. Brushes
The purpose of brushes is to ensure electrical connections between the
rotating commutator and stationary external load circuit. The brushes
are made of carbon and rest on the commutator. The brush pressure is
adjusted by means of adjustable springs (See Fig. 1.12). If the brush
pressure is very large, the friction produces heating of the commutator
and the brushes. On the other hand, if it is too weak, the imperfect
contact with the commutator may produce sparking. Multipole
machines have as many brushes as they have poles. For example, a 4-
pole machine has 4 brushes. As we go round the commutator, the
successive brushes have positive and negative polarities. Brushes
having the same polarity are connected together so that we have two
terminals viz., the +ve terminal and the -ve terminal.
E.M.F. Equation of a D.C. Generator
Types of D.C. Generators

The magnetic field in a d.c. generator is normally produced by
electromagnets rather than permanent magnets. Generators are
generally classified according to their methods of field excitation. On
this basis, d.c. generators are divided into the following two classes:
i. Separately excited d.c. generators
ii. Self-excited d.c. generators
The behaviour of a d.c. generator on load depends upon the method of
field excitation adopted.
D.C. Motors
D.C. Motor Principle
A machine that converts d.c. power into mechanical power is known as
a d.c.motor. Its operation is based on the principle that when a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor
experiences a mechanical force. The direction of this force is given by
Fleming’s left hand rule and magnitude is given by;
F = BIl newtons
Basically, there is no constructional difference between a d.c. motor
and a d.c.generator. The same d.c. machine can be run as a generator
or motor.
Working of D.C. Motor

Consider a part of a multipolar d.c. motor as shown in Fig. (4.1). When
theterminals of the motor are connected to an external source of d.c.
supply:
(i) the field magnets are excited developing alternate N and S poles;
(ii) the armature conductors carry ^currents. All conductors under N-
polecarry currents in one direction while all the conductors under S-
pole carry currents in the opposite direction.
Suppose the conductors under N-pole carry currents into the plane of
the paper and those under S-pole carry currents out of the plane of the
paper as shown in Fig.(4.1). Since each armature conductor is carrying
current and is placed in themagnetic field, mechanical force acts on it.
Referring to Fig. (4.1) and applying Fleming’s left hand rule, it is clear
that force on each conductor is tending to rotate the
armature in anticlockwise direction. All these forces add together to
produce a driving torque which sets the armature rotating. When the
conductor moves from one side of a brush to the other, the current in
that conductor is reversed and at the same time it comes under the
influence of next pole which is of opposite polarity. Consequently, the
direction of force on the conductor remains the same.
Three Phase Induction Motors
Three-Phase Induction Motor
Like any electric motor, a 3-phase induction motor has a stator and a
rotor. The stator carries a 3-phase winding (called stator winding) while
the rotor carries a short-circuited winding (called rotor winding). Only
the stator winding is fed from 3-phase supply. The rotor winding
derives its voltage and power from the externally energized stator
winding through electromagnetic induction and
hence the name. The induction motor may be considered to be a
transformer with a rotating secondary and it can, therefore, be described
as a “transformer type” a.c. machine in which electrical energy is
converted into mechanical energy.
Advantages
i. It has simple and rugged construction.
ii. It is relatively cheap.
iii. It requires little maintenance.
iv. It has high efficiency and reasonably good power factor.
v. It has self starting torque.
Disadvantages
i. It is essentially a constant speed motor and its speed cannot be
changed easily.
ii. Its starting torque is inferior to d.c. shunt motor
Speed Control of 3-Phase Induction Motor
Methods of Starting 3-Phase Induction Motors
The method to be employed in starting a given induction motor depends
upon the size of the motor and the type of the motor. The common
methods used to
start induction motors are:
(i) Direct-on-line starting

(ii) Stator resistance starting
(iii) Autotransformer starting
(iv) Star-delta starting
(v) Rotor resistance starting
Methods (i) to (iv) are applicable to both squirrel-cage and slip ring
motors. However, method (v) is applicable only to slip ring motors. In
practice, any one of the first four methods is used for starting squirrel
cage motors, depending upon, the size of the motor. But slip ring
motors are invariably started by rotor resistance starting.
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CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION 2015
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
1.1 Definition of instruments

An instrument is a device in which we can determine the magnitude or value of the
quantity to be measured. The measuring quantity can be voltage, current, power and energy etc.
Generally instruments are classified in to two categories.
Instrument
Absolute Instrument Secondary Instrument
1.2 Absolute instrument
An absolute instrument determines the magnitude of the quantity to be measured in terms of the
instrument parameter. This instrument is really used, because each time the value of the
measuring quantities varies. So we have to calculate the magnitude of the measuring quantity,
analytically which is time consuming. These types of instruments are suitable for laboratory use.
Example: Tangent galvanometer.
1.3 Secondary instrument
This instrument determines the value of the quantity to be measured directly. Generally these
instruments are calibrated by comparing with another standard secondary instrument.
Examples of such instruments are voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter etc. Practically
secondary instruments are suitable for measurement.
Secondary instruments
Indicating instruments Recording Integrating Electromechanically

Indicating instruments
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1.3.1 Indicating instrument
This instrument uses a dial and pointer to determine the value of measuring quantity. The pointer
indication gives the magnitude of measuring quantity.
1.3.2 Recording instrument
This type of instruments records the magnitude of the quantity to be measured continuously over
a specified period of time.
1.3.3 Integrating instrument
This type of instrument gives the total amount of the quantity to be measured over a specified
period of time.
1.3.4 Electromechanical indicating instrument
For satisfactory operation electromechanical indicating instrument, three forces are necessary.
They are
(a) Deflecting force
(b) Controlling force
(c)Damping force
1.4 Deflecting force
When there is no input signal to the instrument, the pointer will be at its zero position. To deflect
the pointer from its zero position, a force is necessary which is known as deflecting force. A
system which produces the deflecting force is known as a deflecting system. Generally a
deflecting system converts an electrical signal to a mechanical force.
Fig. 1.1 Pointer scale
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1.4.1 Magnitude effect
When a current passes through the coil (Fig.1.2), it produces a imaginary bar magnet. When a
soft-iron piece is brought near this coil it is magnetized. Depending upon the current direction
the poles are produced in such a way that there will be a force of attraction between the coil and
the soft iron piece. This principle is used in moving iron attraction type instrument.
Fig. 1.2
If two soft iron pieces are place near a current carrying coil there will be a force of repulsion
between the two soft iron pieces. This principle is utilized in the moving iron repulsion type
instrument.
1.4.2 Force between a permanent magnet and a current carrying coil
When a current carrying coil is placed under the influence of magnetic field produced by a
permanent magnet and a force is produced between them. This principle is utilized in the moving
coil type instrument.
Fig. 1.3
1.4.3 Force between two current carrying coil
When two current carrying coils are placed closer to each other there will be a force of repulsion
between them. If one coil is movable and other is fixed, the movable coil will move away from
the fixed one. This principle is utilized in electrodynamometer type instrument.
11
Fig. 1.4
1.5 Controlling force
To make the measurement indicated by the pointer definite (constant) a force is necessary which
will be acting in the opposite direction to the deflecting force. This force is known as controlling
force. A system which produces this force is known as a controlled system. When the external
signal to be measured by the instrument is removed, the pointer should return back to the zero
position. This is possibly due to the controlling force and the pointer will be indicating a steady
value when the deflecting torque is equal to controlling torque.
Td = Tc (1.1)
1.5.1 Spring control
Two springs are attached on either end of spindle (Fig. 1.5).The spindle is placed in jewelled
bearing, so that the frictional force between the pivot and spindle will be minimum. Two springs
are provided in opposite direction to compensate the temperature error. The spring is made of
phosphorous bronze.
When a current is supply, the pointer deflects due to rotation of the spindle. While spindle is
rotate, the spring attached with the spindle will oppose the movements of the pointer. The torque
produced by the spring is directly proportional to the pointer deflection θ .
TC ∝ θ (1.2)
The deflecting torque produced Td proportional to ‘I’. When TC = Td , the pointer will come to a
steady position. Therefore
θ∝I (1.3)
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Fig. 1.5
Since, θ and I are directly proportional to the scale of such instrument which uses spring
controlled is uniform.
1.6 Damping force
The deflection torque and controlling torque produced by systems are electro mechanical.
Due to inertia produced by this system, the pointer oscillates about it final steady position before
coming to rest. The time required to take the measurement is more. To damp out the oscillation
is quickly, a damping force is necessary. This force is produced by different systems.
(a) Air friction damping

(b) Fluid friction damping
(c) Eddy current damping
1.6.1 Air friction damping
The piston is mechanically connected to a spindle through the connecting rod (Fig. 1.6). The
pointer is fixed to the spindle moves over a calibrated dial. When the pointer oscillates in
clockwise direction, the piston goes inside and the cylinder gets compressed. The air pushes the
piston upwards and the pointer tends to move in anticlockwise direction.
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Fig. 1.6
If the pointer oscillates in anticlockwise direction the piston moves away and the pressure of the
air inside cylinder gets reduced. The external pressure is more than that of the internal pressure.
Therefore the piston moves down wards. The pointer tends to move in clock wise direction.
1.6.2 Eddy current damping
Fig. 1.6 Disc type
An aluminum circular disc is fixed to the spindle (Fig. 1.6). This disc is made to move in the
magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet.
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When the disc oscillates it cuts the magnetic flux produced by damping magnet. An emf is
induced in the circular disc by faradays law. Eddy currents are established in the disc since it has
several closed paths. By Lenz’s law, the current carrying disc produced a force in a direction
opposite to oscillating force. The damping force can be varied by varying the projection of the
magnet over the circular disc.
Fig. 1.6 Rectangular type
1.7 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument

One of the most accurate type of instrument used for D.C. measurements is PMMC instrument.
Construction: A permanent magnet is used in this type instrument. Aluminum former is
provided in the cylindrical in between two poles of the permanent magnet (Fig. 1.7). Coils are
wound on the aluminum former which is connected with the spindle. This spindle is supported
with jeweled bearing. Two springs are attached on either end of the spindle. The terminals of the
moving coils are connected to the spring. Therefore the current flows through spring 1, moving
coil and spring 2.
Damping: Eddy current damping is used. This is produced by aluminum former.

Control: Spring control is used.
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Fig. 1.7
Principle of operation
When D.C. supply is given to the moving coil, D.C. current flows through it. When the current
carrying coil is kept in the magnetic field, it experiences a force. This force produces a torque
and the former rotates. The pointer is attached with the spindle. When the former rotates, the
pointer moves over the calibrated scale. When the polarity is reversed a torque is produced in the
opposite direction. The mechanical stopper does not allow the deflection in the opposite
direction. Therefore the polarity should be maintained with PMMC instrument.
If A.C. is supplied, a reversing torque is produced. This cannot produce a continuous deflection.
Therefore this instrument cannot be used in A.C.
Torque developed by PMMC
Let Td =deflecting torque
TC = controlling torque
θ = angle of deflection
K=spring constant
b=width of the coil
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l=height of the coil or length of coil

N=No. of turns
I=current
B=Flux density
A=area of the coil
The force produced in the coil is given by
F = BIL sin θ (1.4)
°
When θ = 90
For N turns, F = NBIL (1.5)
Torque produced Td = F × ⊥ r distance (1.6)
Td = NBIL × b = BINA (1.7)
Td = BANI (1.8)
Td ∝ I (1.9)
Advantages
Torque/weight is high
Power consumption is less
Scale is uniform
Damping is very effective
Since operating field is very strong, the effect of stray field is negligible
Range of instrument can be extended
Disadvantages
Use only for D.C.
Cost is high
Error is produced due to ageing effect of PMMC
Friction and temperature error are present
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1.7.1 Extension of range of PMMC instrument

Case-I: Shunt
A low shunt resistance connected in parrel with the ammeter to extent the range of current. Large
current can be measured using low current rated ammeter by using a shunt.
Fig. 1.8
Let Rm =Resistance of meter
Rsh =Resistance of shunt
I m = Current through meter
I sh =current through shunt

I= current to be measure
∴Vm = Vsh (1.10)
I m Rm = I sh Rsh
I m Rsh
= (1.11)
I sh Rm
Apply KCL at ‘P’ I = I m + I sh (1.12)
Eqn (1.12) ÷ by I m
I I
= 1 + sh (1.13)
Im Im
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I R
=1+ m (1.14)
Im Rsh
 R 
∴ I = I m 1 + m  (1.15)
 Rsh 
 Rm 
1 +  is called multiplication factor
 Rsh 
Shunt resistance is made of manganin. This has least thermoelectric emf. The change is
resistance, due to change in temperature is negligible.
Case (II): Multiplier
A large resistance is connected in series with voltmeter is called multiplier (Fig. 1.9). A large
voltage can be measured using a voltmeter of small rating with a multiplier.
Fig. 1.9
Let Rm =resistance of meter
Rse =resistance of multiplier
Vm =Voltage across meter
Vse = Voltage across series resistance

V= voltage to be measured
I m = I se (1.16)
Vm Vse
= (1.17)
Rm Rse
V R
∴ se = se (1.18)
Vm Rm
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Apply KVL, V = Vm + Vse (1.19)
Eqn (1.19) ÷ Vm
V V  R 
= 1 + se = 1 + se  (1.20)
Vm Vm  Rm 
 Rse 
∴V = Vm 1 +  (1.21)
 Rm 
 Rse 
1 +  → Multiplication factor
 Rm 
1.8 Moving Iron (MI) instruments

One of the most accurate instrument used for both AC and DC measurement is moving iron
instrument. There are two types of moving iron instrument.
• Attraction type
• Repulsion type
1.8.1 Attraction type M.I. instrument
Construction: The moving iron fixed to the spindle is kept near the hollow fixed coil (Fig. 1.10).
The pointer and balance weight are attached to the spindle, which is supported with jeweled
bearing. Here air friction damping is used.
Principle of operation
The current to be measured is passed through the fixed coil. As the current is flow through the
fixed coil, a magnetic field is produced. By magnetic induction the moving iron gets magnetized.
The north pole of moving coil is attracted by the south pole of fixed coil. Thus the deflecting
force is produced due to force of attraction. Since the moving iron is attached with the spindle,
the spindle rotates and the pointer moves over the calibrated scale. But the force of attraction
depends on the current flowing through the coil.
Torque developed by M.I

Let ‘ θ ’ be the deflection corresponding to a current of ‘i’ amp
Let the current increases by di, the corresponding deflection is ‘ θ + dθ ’
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Fig. 1.10
There is change in inductance since the position of moving iron change w.r.t the fixed
electromagnets.
Let the new inductance value be ‘L+dL’. The current change by ‘di’ is dt seconds.
Let the emf induced in the coil be ‘e’ volt.
d di dL
e= ( Li ) = L + i (1.22)
dt dt dt
Multiplying by ‘idt’ in equation (1.22)
di dL
e × idt = L × idt + i × idt (1.23)
dt dt
e × idt = Lidi + i 2 dL (1.24)
Eqn (1.24) gives the energy is used in to two forms. Part of energy is stored in the inductance.
Remaining energy is converted in to mechanical energy which produces deflection.
Fig. 1.11
21
Change in energy stored=Final energy-initial energy stored

1 1
= ( L + dL)(i + di) 2 − Li 2
2 2
1
= {( L + dL)(i 2 + di 2 + 2idi) − Li 2 }
2
1
= {( L + dL)(i 2 + 2idi) − Li 2 }
2
1
= {Li 2 + 2 Lidi + i 2 dL + 2ididL − Li 2 }
2
1
= {2 Lidi + i 2dL}
2
1
= Lidi + i 2 dL (1.25)
2
Mechanical work to move the pointer by dθ
= Td dθ (1.26)
By law of conservation of energy,
Electrical energy supplied=Increase in stored energy+ mechanical work done.
Input energy= Energy stored + Mechanical energy
1
Lidi + i 2 dL = Lidi + i 2 dL + Td dθ (1.27)
2
1 2
i dL = Td dθ (1.28)
2
1 dL
Td = i 2 (1.29)
2 dθ
At steady state condition Td = TC
1 2 dL
i = Kθ (1.30)
2 dθ
1 2 dL
θ= i (1.31)
2 K dθ
θ ∝ i2 (1.32)
When the instruments measure AC, θ ∝ i 2 rms
Scale of the instrument is non uniform.
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Advantages
MI can be used in AC and DC
It is cheap
Supply is given to a fixed coil, not in moving coil.
Simple construction
Less friction error.
Disadvantages
It suffers from eddy current and hysteresis error
Scale is not uniform
It consumed more power
Calibration is different for AC and DC operation
1.8.2 Repulsion type moving iron instrument
Construction: The repulsion type instrument has a hollow fixed iron attached to it (Fig. 1.12).
The moving iron is connected to the spindle. The pointer is also attached to the spindle in
supported with jeweled bearing.
Principle of operation: When the current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is produced by
it. So both fixed iron and moving iron are magnetized with the same polarity, since they are kept
in the same magnetic field. Similar poles of fixed and moving iron get repelled. Thus the
deflecting torque is produced due to magnetic repulsion. Since moving iron is attached to
spindle, the spindle will move. So that pointer moves over the calibrated scale.
Damping: Air friction damping is used to reduce the oscillation.
23
Fig. 1.12
1.9 Dynamometer (or) Electromagnetic moving coil instrument (EMMC)
Fig. 1.13
24
This instrument can be used for the measurement of voltage, current and power. The difference
between the PMMC and dynamometer type instrument is that the permanent magnet is replaced
by an electromagnet.
Construction: A fixed coil is divided in to two equal half. The moving coil is placed between the
two half of the fixed coil. Both the fixed and moving coils are air cored. So that the hysteresis
effect will be zero. The pointer is attached with the spindle. In a non metallic former the moving
coil is wounded.
Damping: Air friction damping is used.
Principle of operation:
When the current flows through the fixed coil, it produced a magnetic field, whose flux density is
proportional to the current through the fixed coil. The moving coil is kept in between the fixed
coil. When the current passes through the moving coil, a magnetic field is produced by this coil.
The magnetic poles are produced in such a way that the torque produced on the moving coil
deflects the pointer over the calibrated scale. This instrument works on AC and DC. When AC
voltage is applied, alternating current flows through the fixed coil and moving coil. When the
current in the fixed coil reverses, the current in the moving coil also reverses. Torque remains in
the same direction. Since the current i1 and i2 reverse simultaneously. This is because the fixed
and moving coils are either connected in series or parallel.
Torque developed by EMMC
Fig. 1.14
25
Let
L1=Self inductance of fixed coil
L2= Self inductance of moving coil
M=mutual inductance between fixed coil and moving coil
i1=current through fixed coil
i2=current through moving coil
Total inductance of system,
Ltotal = L1 + L2 + 2M (1.33)
But we know that in case of M.I
1 2 d (L)
Td = i (1.34)
2 dθ
1 d
Td = i 2 ( L1 + L2 + 2 M ) (1.35)
2 dθ
The value of L1 and L2 are independent of ‘ θ ’ but ‘M’ varies with θ

1 dM
Td = i 2 × 2 (1.36)
2 dθ
dM
Td = i 2 (1.37)
dθ
If the coils are not connected in series i1 ≠ i2
dM
∴Td = i1i2 (1.38)
dθ
TC = Td (1.39)
i1i2 dM (1.40)
∴θ =
K dθ
Hence the deflection of pointer is proportional to the current passing through fixed coil and
moving coil.
26
INDUCTION TYPE INSTRUMENT
 Such instruments are suitable for ac measurements only.

 In this instrument the deflecting torque is produced by the eddy currents
induced in an aluminium or copper disc or drum by the flux created by an
electromagnet.
 The main advantage of such instruments are that
1. A full-scale deflection of some 300° can be obtained giving long
and open scale.
2. The effect of stray magnetic field is small
3. Damping is easier and effective
 The greater deflection causes more stresses in the control springs.
 Variation in supply frequency and temperature may cause serious errors
unless compensating device is employed.
 These instruments are costlier and consume more power as compared to
other instrument.
 Such instruments are mostly used as wattmeters or energy meters.
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
Consider an aluminium disc placed between the poles of an electromagnet.

Let the flux produced by flow of current of I ampere through the coil be Ø
and lagging behind I by a small angle 
Since aluminium disc acts as a secondary of the transformer, an emf (say E

volts) lagging behind the flux Ø by Π/2 radians is induced in it.
As the disc is a pure resistive, therefore eddy current I’ will lag behind the
main flux Ø by Π/2 radians.
As the component of I’ along flux Ø is zero therefore torque produced is

zero.
Let the instantaneous flux and eddy current be given by Ø=Ømaxsinθ and
I’=I’maxsin(θ-α)where αis the phase angle between eddy current and flux.
Instantaneous torque α Øi’
Mean torque T α ∫ Ø. 𝑖 . 𝑑𝜃
1
𝛼 Ømax. I’max. sinθ. sin(θ − α). 𝑑𝜃
𝛱
α . Ømax/√2. I’max√2.cosα. α (ØI’cosα)

1. Pole Shading Method :
In this method the working current is passed through the coil of an

electromagnet which has an air gap in one limb. Permanent magnet is
used for damping. The aluminium disc is mounted on pivots and jewel
bearings. Springs are employed to provide controlling torque. Half of
each of the pole faces is surrounded by a copper band in order to split the
working flux.
The copper band acts as a single turn short circuited secondary winding.
Let ‘Φ1’ be the flux of the unshaded portion of the pole.

The flux ‘Φ1’ will induce an emf E in the ring which lags the flux Φ1 by
900 .
The induced emf will cause a current , say I to flow in the copper ring
which will be lagging behind flux Φ1 by 900 .
The current flowing in the copper ring will produce its own magnetic
field say Φ2’ in phase with current ‘I’.
The flux given by the shaded portion of the pole will be the vector sum of
Φ1 and Φ2’ which is equal to Φ2 lagging behind flux ‘Φ1’ by an angle
‘β’. The value of ‘β’ is between 400 and 600 .
Let the fluxes Φ1 and Φ2 in unshaded portions of the pole respectively
induces emf of E1 and E2 in the disc , each of which is 900 phase behind
the flux inducing it . These induced emf E1 and E2 will induce eddy
currents (I1 and I2 ) in the disc lagging by a small angle say α behind its
voltage due to the inductance of the path in the disc. From phasor
diagram shown in above figure it is obvious that each of the currents I1
and I2 has component in phase with the other flux such I1’ and I2’.
Hence two torques acting in opposite directions are developed in the
instrument. These two torques result in an operating torque.
From above expression for main deflecting torque it is clear
i. The deflecting torque is directly proportional to cosine α.
So to have the deflecting torque largest possible it is necessary that
angle α should be near to zero as possible. For this it is necessary that
the path of the eddy currents should be highly resistive.
ii. The deflecting torque is directly proportional to sine β.

So in order to have the deflecting torque large it is necessary that
angle β should be as near to 900 .
Maximum torque will be developed when α = 00 and β = 900 .
Two Pole method :
In this method two laminated magnets A and B are placed near to each
other. A non inductive resistance R is connected in series with the
magnetizing coil of magnet A and inductive coil L is connected in series
with the magnetizing coil of magnet B. Thus there will be two magnetic
fields having a phase difference of nearly 900 with each other acting on
the disc which will produce a resultant torque on the disc.
Let the flux produced by magnets A and B be Φ1 and Φ2 respectively, Φ2
be lagging Φ1 by an angle β, as shown in the last phasor diagram. Hence a
torque will be produced as explained in case of shaded pole method.
ADVANTAGES –
 A full scale deflection of over 300 degrees can be obtained.
 Good damping.
 Less effect of stray magnetic fields as the operating fields are large.
DISADVANTAGES –
 Errors are caused due to changes in frequency and temperature.
 Non-uniform scale.
 Large power consumption and high cost.
 Can be used for AC only.
Compensation for Frequency and Temperature errors:
Variation in frequency causes serious errors because deflecting torque is

directly proportional to frequency and also the values of z and cosine α depend
upon the supply frequency. The error is compensated by use of non inductive
shunt in case of an ammeter. When the frequency increases , the increase in
impedance of the winding causes a greater proportion of the total current to
flow in the non inductive shunt ( whose impedance remains constant for all
frequencies) and lesser proportion of the total current to flow in the winding and
to an extent thus compensate the increase in torque (since T α f ).
In case of voltmeter, the impedance of the winding increases with the increase
in frequency , hence smaller current is drawn by the winding , which tends to
compensate the increase in torque due to increase in frequency.
Variation in temperature changes the resistance of the eddy current paths,

therefore may result in serious errors. The error is compensated in case of an
ammeter, employing a shunt of material having a high temperature co-efficient,
than the material of the disc. This shunt may be the same one as used for
frequency compensation. When the temperature increases the resistance of the
shunt increases, hence the greater proportion of the current flows through the
coil and decrease the torque due to small eddie current in the disc owing to
increase in resistance at high temperature is compensated.
The combination of shunt and swamping resistance in series with the instrument
is often employed to compensate the temperature error in case of voltmeters.
Since the frequency errors in inductance type instruments are so serious that
cannot be compensated satisfactorily. These instruments are used only for
constant frequency supply or where the fluctuation in frequency is negligible.

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PaperCode: ES107 / ES108 Paper: Electrical Science L T/P C

PaperID: 199107 / 199108 3 - 3

An electric generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into

Note that e.m.f. generated in the loop is alternating one. It is because

Construction of d.c. Generator

iii. Armature winding

Types of D.C. Generators

Working of D.C. Motor

start induction motors are:

(i) Direct-on-line starting

1.1 Definition of instruments

Absolute Instrument Secondary Instrument

1.2 Absolute instrument

1.3 Secondary instrument

Indicating instruments Recording Integrating Electromechanically

1.3.1 Indicating instrument

1.3.2 Recording instrument

1.3.3 Integrating instrument

(b) Controlling force

1.4 Deflecting force

Fig. 1.1 Pointer scale

1.4.1 Magnitude effect

1.4.2 Force between a permanent magnet and a current carrying coil

1.4.3 Force between two current carrying coil

1.5 Controlling force

1.5.1 Spring control

(a) Air friction damping

1.6.2 Eddy current damping

Fig. 1.6 Disc type

Fig. 1.6 Rectangular type

1.7 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument

Damping: Eddy current damping is used. This is produced by aluminum former.

Torque developed by PMMC

Let Td =deflecting torque

l=height of the coil or length of coil

Td = NBIL × b = BINA (1.7)

1.7.1 Extension of range of PMMC instrument

Let Rm =Resistance of meter

Rsh =Resistance of shunt

I m = Current through meter

I sh =current through shunt

Apply KCL at ‘P’ I = I m + I sh (1.12)

Case (II): Multiplier

Rse =resistance of multiplier

Vm =Voltage across meter

Vse = Voltage across series resistance

Apply KVL, V = Vm + Vse (1.19)

1.8 Moving Iron (MI) instruments

Torque developed by M.I

e × idt = Lidi + i 2 dL (1.24)

Change in energy stored=Final energy-initial energy stored

1.9 Dynamometer (or) Electromagnetic moving coil instrument (EMMC)

Torque developed by EMMC

The value of L1 and L2 are independent of ‘ θ ’ but ‘M’ varies with θ

 Such instruments are suitable for ac measurements only.

Consider an aluminium disc placed between the poles of an electromagnet.

Since aluminium disc acts as a secondary of the transformer, an emf (say E