FIRST/SECOND SEMESTER ELECTRICAL SCIENCE 1ES-107/1081 UNIT-I; DC CIRCUITS Introduction ‘The interconnection of various electric element a ae an electric cirenit in order to perform a desired function. The electric clements include controlled and uncontrolled source of energy, resistors, capacitors, inductors, ets. ‘Analysis of electric circuits refers to computations required to determine the unknown quantities such as voltage, current and power associated with one or mote elements in the circuit, To contribute to the solution of engineering problems, one must acquire the basic knowledge of electric circuit analysis and laws. Basic Elements Electrical Network: A combination of various electric elements (such as Ry L, ©, Voltage & current sources) connected in any manner whatsoever is ealled an elec ric network. Circuit Elements (a) Active Element: The elements which supply energy to the network are known as active elements, For example, Voltage sources, de & ac generators, current sources, transistors. (b) Passive Elements: The components which dissipate or store energy are known as Passive elements. For example, Resistors (dissipate energy), inductors (store energy) and capacitors (store energy). Difference between Active and Passive Elements: Refer to Q.1(b), Paige: 12017. Bilateral Element: Conduction of current in both direction in an element with same magnitude is termed as bilateral element. For ex. R, L, ‘ Unilateral Element: Conduction of current in one direction is termed as unilateral clement. For ex. Diode, Transistor. Terminology Linear Circuits: A circuit whose parameters do not change with voltage or current (Fig. 1). The electric circuits containing only linear resistances are called linear circuits. Non-linear Circuits: A cireuit whose parameters change with voltage or current (Fig. 2). The electric circuits containing resistive elements for which volt-ampere characteristics is other than a straight line are called non-linear circuits. For eg. Tungsten lamps, vacuum tubes, transistors, etc. ts in a prescribed manner comprises as —v cc net Fig. 22-2021 First/Second Semester, Electrical Science Potential Energy Difference: The vole or potential ierence ed ee Hein in an electric circuit is the amount of energy required to move’ a unit charge PEN two pr ints, : Re Sesen ciranc a Gaal the time rate ofnet motion of an electric charge "=* © crons-sectionel boundary. Ita unit is ampere (A) * = Rate of transfer of electric charge Quantity of electric charge transferred during a given — "Time duration = @ ‘ive Force (EMF): Itis the fdree that causes an electric current to flow Poteneag out Hs units Va ; i is that ditorene nee: Potential difference between two points in an clectre tovcen them pn eit lestrca state which tends to cause flow of elets fem. Its unit is Vat, etre cures defined as that property ofa substance which oppose the “rent/ electrons through it ts unit is ohm (0), ical Engineering flowing three’, tio of potential difference applied across a conductor and conductor ve it Femains constant provided hose state i. temperature 7 ctor Temaing “unchanged. According to chm's ave : Second law states tha it the magniti oF change of ux that linkages with eee of ; emf induced in a coil is equal tothe rate izes with the coil, fore finger, middle finger and thumb of your right hand in such a way that they are mutually perpendicular to each other. If the fore finger represents the direction of field (PF), Fleming's Right Hand Rule Fig,3LP. University-IB.Tech.|-Akash Books 2021-* the thumb points in the direction of motion or applied force (B), then middle finger points in the direction of the induced current (1) 11, Flomings! Left Hand rule: Fleming's lef-hand Rule shows the direction of motion of motor. Fleming's Left Hand rule states: “ fore finger, middle finger and thumb of your left hand in such a way that they are mutually perpendicular to each other. If the fore finger represents the direction of the field (B) and the middle finger represents that of the current (1), then thumb gives the direction of the force (F)”. 5. Lenz's Law: Lenz’s law states that “The current flowing in a conductor due to the induced emfalways opposes the cause producing it”. According to lenz’s law, “Stretch out the Fleming's Left Hand Rule a ft Fig. 4 6. Laws of Resistance: The resistance of a wire depends upon its length, area of cross-section, type of material, purity & hardness of material of which it is made of and the operating temperature. Therefore, Resistance of a wire is (i) Directly proportional to its length, L i.e. R « L ii) Inversely proportional to its eross-sectional area, A i.e. R ¥ Combining the two factors, we have L L Re orR= Py aGuR= Py where, p is known as Specific resistance or resistivity of the material of the wire. It is named as Rho and is a constant quantity, Its unit is ohm-meters (Q-m). SOLVED EXAMPLE Qu. Refer to Q.1(b), Page: 1-2016 Temperature Resistance Coefficient: The resistance of all pure metallic conduetors increases with the inereasein temperature butthe resistance ofthe insulators ond non-metallic materials generally decrease with the inerease in temperature. 1 3 ° z i 5 INFERRED ZERO s Resistance © TEMPERATURE. - =" t y theo —— TEMPERATURE, tIN'C =" : Fig. 5 a4-2021 First/Second Semester, Electrical Science Ifthe resistance of any pure metal is plotted on a temperature base, it is found th; erature from 0 to 100°C the graph is practically a straight ling 4s illustrate in Fig. 5. If this straight line is extended, it cuts the temperature axis at Some temperature, — f9°C, known as inferred zero resistance temperature. This does no mean that the resistance of the metal is actually zero at that temperature, but ~¢ », is the temperature at which the resistance would be zero if the rat 100 and 0°C were maintained constant at all temperatures. Fro of decrease betwee, triangles in Fig. 5. m the similarity of he x ~ foth, R” y+h “0 where R, and R, are the resistances at temperatures ¢,°C and f,"C respectively. Thug if the resistance R, for any temperature t,°C is known, then resistance for any other temperature, ean be computed from above equation provided that, for that Particular material is known, ‘The variation of resistance with temperature is often utilized in dete temperature variations, For example, in testing of an electric machine, the Tesistance ofthe coil is measured both before and after the ist Tun, and the increase in resistane, is a measure of the rise in temperature. For computation of temperature rise Eq. 1may be transposed to the following form tt, - Bok : R has been adopted as the standard reference temperatur ‘ance, and the handbooks give the resistance of the varioe material at that temper: ‘ature. Consequently, when a designer is computing th resistance of any conductor from its dimensions, the initial temperature t, at which the resistance is known, is generally 20°C, mining (ty +) (2) A temperature of 20°C for measurement of Tesist: Temperature Coefficient of Resistance: Let a metallic conductor having a resistance of. Ry at 0°C be heated to ¢* ‘C and let its resistance at this temperature be. R, From Eq. (1) R, tst By” +0 1 orR, = Rt tRe ty 7 8 or change in resistance, AR = R,— Ry = a Say Rot ) 7 7 ial where a, = 4 and is called the temperature coefficient of resistance of the material t at orc 0 F ; 7 From Eq. (3) it may be concluded that change in resistance due to change vem varies directly as its initial resistance, (b) varies directly as rise in temperature and (c) depends on the nature of the material of the conductor. The Eq. (3) may be rewritten as i o Oo" BeLP. University-[B.Tech.|-Akash Books 2021-5 So that temperature coefficient of resistance may be defined as the ratio of increase in resistance per degree rise of temperature to the original resistance, IERy is the resistance of any conductor at 0°C and dy is the temperature coefficient of resistance at 0°C, the resistance at 1°C is given as R,= Original resistance + increase in resistance = Ny The above expression holds goods for both increas temperature, Itis to be noted that (i) temperature coefficient of resist i.e., the resistance of all pure m« 4 Rytgt = Rll + ag) AB) as well as decrease in tance for all pure metallic conductors is positive ‘ctallic conductors increases with the increase in temperature, that of non-metallic materials such as of carbon is negat'y® ze, the resistance of non-metallic materials such as of earbon decrease with the increase in temperature. The temperature coeflicient of resistance of alloys like constantan and manganin is negligible. stance is not constant but depends on the ce is based. When the then the temperature , value (ii) temperature coefficient of resis initial temperature on which the inerement in resistan increment is based on the resistance measured at 0°C, coefficient of resistance has the value of ay. Atany other temperature of temperature cocflicient of resistance is c, and so on. For any ‘material the temperature coefficient of resistance at 0°C i.e, tg has the maximum value ‘The temperature coefficient of resistance at any temperature (is given @s 1 (6) o, = 1 ath ‘The temperature coefficient of resistance at temperature f, in term of temperature coefficient of resistance at temperature t; is given as AD) IER, is the resistance of any conductor at fC and a, is the temperature coefficient of resistance at t,°C, then resistance of the conductor at 1,°C is given Ry = R14, (4-H) ‘the materials change with the change in tem tivity of the material depends on temperature, AB) perature s0 it (aii) As the resistance of is obvious that resis .e and Conductivity 1 of the resistanct nductor to the flow of current. Its uni Conductane Conductance is the reciprocal inducement offered by the co mho (U). 1 and denoted by ‘G’. It is defined as the ‘it is Siemen (S) or > 1 ape : Gah and RP ~ tivity of the material. Itis the cific Conductance or Conduc! between two opposite forces Where, cis known as Spe .d defined as the conductance reciprocal of the resistivity an of a unit cube. Its unit is Siemen/metre.w Jectrical Science 6-2021 First/Second Semester, HI Voltage and Current Sources (Energy Sources) Independent Sources and Sependent Sources (Refe Ideal and Practical Voltage Source any instant of time ig A Voltage sources is a two-torminal device whose voltage 4 pltaye source is called constant and is independent of the current drawn from it. Such a voltaxe s an Ideal Voltage Source and have zero internal resistance. Practically an ideal voltage source cannot be obtained. as Sources having some amount of internal resistances are inorn as practical Voltage source, Due to this internal resistance; voltage drop takes pl iy erred the terminal voltage to reduce, The smaller is the internal resistance (r ge source, the more closer it is to an Ideal Source. ; ‘The symbolic representation of the ideal and practical voltage source is shown below, A A 1 to Q.A(b), Page: 2-2018) Fig. 6 the circuit diagram and characteristics of an ideal voltage gives the cireuit diagram and characteristics of Practical le of voltage sources is batteries and alternators, Figure 7 shown shows Source and Figure 8 shown Voltage Source. The exampl A v, ye Yor ine nour 3 = {or Time in Mours Fig. 8LP. University-[B.Tech.|-Akash Books Ideal and practical current source: The current source are further categorised as Ideal and Practical current source. An ideal current source is a two-erminal circuit element which supplies the same current to any load resistance connected across its terminals. It is important to keep in mind that the current supplied by the current source is independent of the coltage of source terminals, It has infinite resistance. A practical current source is represented as an ideal current source connected with the resistance in parallel. ‘The symbolic representation is shown: Figure 10 shows its characteristics and Figure 11 shown the characteristics of Practical Current Source. The example of current sources is 2021-7 A GA 1 ' B eB Fig. 9 photoelectric cells, collectors currents of transistors. A Fig. 10 Fig. 11 teal Current Source Voor Time in Hours Practical Currant Source Source transformation: Practically, a voltage sources is not different from a current source. In fact, a source can either operate as a current source or as a voltage source. It merely depends upon its operating conditions. If load impedance is very large in comparison to internal impedance of the source, it will be advantageous to treat the source as a voltage source. On the other hand, if the load impedance is very small in comparison to the internal impedance of the source, t is better represent the source as.8-2021 First/Second Semester, Electrical Science iow i ll whether the a current source, From the circuit point of view it does not matter at ee ee soureo'is treated as a voltage source or a current source. In fact, it is pos a voltage source into a current source and vice versa. ; : in Fi Consider a voltage source of voltage V, and internal resistance R,, shown in Fig 12a) for conversion into nn equivalent current source. The current supplied by this voltage source, When a short circuit is put across terminals A and B will be equal to v, Xs _ A current source supplying this current /, = —*- and having the same resistance across it will represent the equivalent current source (Fig. 10 (e)1 de Practica! Carre Source (0}A Practical Voltage Source (0) Voinage Drop in Ry nt Soa Fig. 12 Similarly a current source of output current J, in parallel with resistance R,, can be converted into an equivalent voltage source of voltage V, = J, Rj, and a resistance R.. in series with it [Fig. 12 (a)]. It should be noted that a voltage source series resistance combination is equivalent toa current source-parallel resistance combination if and only if their respective open. circuit voltage are equal, and their respective short-circuit currents are equal. For example, a voltage source branch consisting of a 10V source in series with a resistance of 2.5 © may be replaced by a current source branch consisting of a 4 A source in parallel with a 2.59 resistance and vice versa as shown in fig. 13(a) and 13(b) respectively. 250 ; i WAM 1 rv : jaan 250 ®. 8 oO (b) Fig. 13 SOLVED EXAMPLE QL. Refer to Q.1(a), Page: 1-2015 Q.2. Refer to Q.1(b), Page: 1-2015 Q3. Refer to Q.3(a), Page: 3-2016LP, University-[B.Tech.|-Akash Books 2021-9 Series and Parallel Cireuits When the resistors are int , then resist connected end to end, so that they form tor are said to be connected in series and only one path for the flow of eurre! such civeuits are known as series circuit: Fig. 14 Series Circuit ies, as shown in Fig.1, and the 0 a ected in seri Let resistors I, Ry and Ry be conn ee potential difference of V volts be applied between extreme ends A and D toca current of 1 amperes through all the resistors Ry, Ry and Its. Now according to Ohm’s law Voltage drop across resistor R,, V, =1 Ry Voltage drop across resistor Ry, V, = 1 Ry Voltage drop actos resistor Ry, V, =I, Voltage drop across whole circuit, V-= Voltage drop across resistor R, +voltage drop across resistor R,, + voltage drop across resistor Ry ie, V= IR, +1R,+1R, = UR, + Ry +Ry) or Fans Rts (9) and according to Ohm’s law 2 gives the whole circuit resistance, say R « Effective resistance of the series circuit, R=R,+R,+Ry (10) Thus, when a number of resistor are connected in series, the equivalent resistance is given by the arithmetic sum of their individual resistances. ie, R=R,+R,+R, +R, LD) From the above discussions for a series circuit we conculde that 1. same current flows through all parts of the circuit, 2. applied voltage is equal to the sum of voltage drops across the different parts of the circuit, 3, different resistors have their individual voltage drops, 4, voltage drop across individual resistor is directly proportional to its resistance, current being the same in each resistor, 5. voltage drops are additive, 6, resistance are additive, 7. powers are additive. Series circuit are common in electrical equipment. The tube filaments in small radios are usually in series. Current controlling devices are wired in series with the10-2021 Fisst/Second Semester, Electrical Science controlled equipment. Fuses are in series with the equipment they protect. A thermostat switch is in series with the heating elementiin an electric iron, Automatic house-heating equipment has a thermostat, electromagnet coils, and safety cut-outs in series with a voltage source. Rheostats are placed in series with the coils in large motors for motor SOLVED EXAMPLE Q.1. Three resistors are connected in series across a 12 V battery. The first resistor has the value of | ohm, second has a voltage drop of 4 V and third has pation of 12 W, Calculate the value of each resistance and circuit current control. 8 power di current, Solution: Let the three resistors be of R (= 19), R and R, ohms, current flowing through the three resistors R,,R,and R, be of amperes and voltage drops across resistor, Ry, Rand Ry be of V,, V, and Vy volts respectively. The circuit is show in Fig 15, ee ee, NowLP. University-[B.Tech.|-Akash Books 2021-11 Pow, and Ry = pt ge 28a hey Ry = 10; R,=20and R= 30 An- 220V supply. What is the to be operated from + Q.2. A100 V, 60 watt bulb ies with the bulb to glow normally? resistance to be connectes 1 cow R A— 100 Vv 120 _!| 20V o——- J Fig. 16 Solution: Rated power of lamp, P = 60 W Rated voltage of lamp, V= 100 V Current drawn by the lamp, when operated on rated voltage, ie., P _ 60 =0.6A Vv ~ 100 Lamp will operate normally on 220V also if the current flowing through the lamp remains the rated current i.e., 0.6A Let the resistance connected in series with the lamp to make it glow normally on 220 V be of R ohms, as shown in Fig. 16. Now since the resistance R is in series with the lamp, the same current will flow through the resistance R, as in the lamp i., 0.6 A and voltage drop across series resistance R will be equal to supply voltage less voltage drop across the lamp (ic., rated voltage of the lamp) or Voltage drop across the series resistance, J R = supply voltage ~ rated current, rated voltage of the lamp = 220-100=120V 1 0 220 _ 120 _ 000 Ans. ” 7 ~ 06 Parallel Circuits . * When a number of resistors are connected in such ‘a way that one end of each of them i joined to a common point and the other ends being joined to another common point, as shown in Fig. 17, then resistors are said to be connected in parallel and such circuit: are known as parallel circuits. In these circuit current is divided into as many paths as, the number of resistances. Let the resistors, Ry and R, be connected in parallel, as shown in Fig. 17, and the potential difference of V volts be applied across the circuit. Since potential difference across each resistor is same and equal to potential difference applied to the circuit i, V : According to Ohm's law12-2021 First/Second Semester, Electrical Science Current im resistor RJ, = hs a A) Current in resistor Ryl, z ; 42) Cr i y ‘urrent in resistor Ry 1, = R A) Adding Eqs. (1), (2) and (3), we have old) and since I, +1, +1, so | | | T=h 4h, +l, | or Elayaya | VOR RR fey Ed and since += where Ris the equivalent resistance of the whole circuit, 1 Edit RRR R (5) Thus, when a number of resistors are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is given by the arithmetic sum of the reciprocals of their individuals resistances. Ingeneral ifn resistors of resistance R,, Ry, Ry, .. R, are connected in parallel, then equivalent resistance R of the circuit is given by the expression AB) AD) From the above discussion for a parallel circuit we conclude that 1. same voltage acts across all branches of the circuit, 2. different resistors (or branches) have their individual currents, 3. total circuit current is equal to the sum of individual currents through the various resistors (or branches),LP. University-[B. ‘Tech.|-Akash Books 2021-13 4, branch current are addi 5. conductances are additive, 6. power are additive ; 7. the reciprocel of the equivalent or combined resistance is equal to the sum of the eum of the reciprocals of the resistance of the individual branches. Parallel circuit are very comon in use. Various lamps and appliances in a house are connected in parallel, so that each one can be operated independently. A series circuit is an “all or none” circuit, in which either every thing operates or nothing operates. For individuals control, devices are wired in parallel, Series-Parallel Cireuits: So far, only simple series an parallel eireuit, have been considered. Practical electric circuit very often consist of pombinations of series and parallel resistance. Such circuits may be solved by the proper application of Ohm's law and the rules for series and parallel circuit to the various parts of the complex circuit, There is not definite procedure to be followed in solving Tomplex circuits, the solution depends on the known facts concerning the circuit and the quantities which one desires to find. One simple rile may usually be followed, however— ejuce the parallel branches to an equivalent series branch and then solve the circuit “as a simple series circuit. For example, consider a series-parallel circuit shown 18 for solution. First of all equivalent resistance of all parallel branches are determined separately eg. of branches AB and CD by the law of parallel circuits. Equivalent resistance of parallel branches AB, 4 simple series and simple Re eh ws TT RFR RR Fig. 18 and equivalent resistance of parallel branch CD Rp 2 = BGR, + RRs + RyRy Now the circuit shown in Fig. 18 gets reduced to a simple series circuit shown in Fig. 19 consisting of three resistance, . ae RRR, __ Ry = Reh Poem amd Reo= Beis hh RR ‘Total resistance of circuit, Ry = Ray + Rac + Rep4-20: First/Second Semester, Electrical Science t/Second Semester, Electrical Scienc 14-2021 ° Re ec het Fig. 19 ‘Dare determi After knowing Z, potential difference across branches AB, BC and C) ined from the relations v PD across branch AB, Yap = Lag = Raw id PD across branch BC, Vag Rao 7 Rac La and PD across branch CD, Vop= Rep = Ff Current in Tesistance R, Current in resistance Ry Current in resistarice Ry= ly Current in resistance Rt,ee LP. University-[B.Tech.|-Akash Books 2021-15 1 ——— =129 Solution: Equivalent resistance of branch AB, Rap = 20° 30 2124+15=279 Effective resistance of the circuit, Reff = Ryn + Bc Ryn200 Ry 150 c Fig. 20 Current through 15 @ resistance = 3A Circuit current, I= (b) Voltage across the whole circuit, (¢) Total power consumed, P= VI=8 (a) Voltage drop across branch AB, Vag=1 Ran Current through 20 9 resistance, I, = Man . 38 21.84.dns. R20 : Van _ 36 Current through 30 & resistance, Ip= “po = yg =» 2A Ans. in Fig. 21, using the method of series-Pal = [Ry = 3x 27= 81 VAns. 1 x 3 = 243 watts Ans. =3x12=36V Q.2. For the circuit shown rallel combination, find V, and I, Solution: Total resistance of the circuit, : Req =254+25+ equivalent resistance of parall and 209 el combination of resistors of 10.50 1 = 542547 TT 10° 50 20 Fig. 21 100 _ 11359 =25+25%75 905" 3H Applied voltage, V = 10V. Sah 10 10x34 Current drawn from the supply, =~“ 7,135 1,135, BL 3416-2021 First/Second Semester, Electrical Science 68 170 i 5OV= = x25 =y Voltage drop across resistor of 2.5 0 Vi =1x26 = nT 227” Ans, er 68 100 _ 400 Voltage drop across parallel combination,V, aa at Power and Energy Power is defined as the rate of doing work or the amount of work done in Unit tim, ‘The MKS or SI unit of power is the joule/second or watt. In practice, ofen found to by » the wary a inconveniently small and so a bigger unit, used. the kilowatt is Prequenay, L kilowatt = 1,000 watts unit of power most comm: 'm) is horse power defined as below: Metric Horse Power: It is the Practical unit of power in MKs 5: seem) which according to IS] specifications is equal to 75 kgf-m second, % The biggey only used in engineering practice (not a ay st systey ystem (not in SI Of Work done pee Energy is defined as work, mentioned above, If. the capacity of doing work. Its units are same as 8 body having mass m, in kg, meters/second, 5 those of is moving with velocity» Kinetic energy = jm? joules Ifa body havin, Sis the Sravitational acceley acquired by the body : ' Mass m, in kg, is lifted vetically through hei ight f, in meters, ang ation, in meters/second? in that re, ion, potential energy ting the body = igh joiles = 9.81 mh Joules : n ed, in SI system the unit of energy ofall forms is joule. Bigger unit of energy is mega joules (Md) where.1 MJ = 198 The thermal units are defined below: Calorie: It is of energy, calorie (gm calorie) and kilocalorie (kilogram calorig), the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water through 1°¢, Kilocalorie: It is the ay water through °C, Lealorie = 4.18.3=4.95 mount of heat required to arise the temperature of 1 kg of ~ 1k. calorie = Electric Unit of Power and En 1,000 calories = 4,180 joules = 4,200 7 ergy ie, Ljoule = 1 watt-second big su wl ar tkLP. University-{B.Tech.|-Akash Books 2021-17 ‘Tho unit of energy, joule or watt-second is too small for pratical purposes: TO & Diggor unit Moga joule (Nl) or kilowatt-hour (kWh) is used in electrical engineering. 1kWh = 1,000 watt-hour = 1,000x3,600 watt-second or joules = 3.6 MJ ‘The kWh, also called the Board of Trade (BOT) unit, is the energy absorbed by eupplying a load of 1 KW or 1,000 watts for the period of one hour. This i¢ egal unit on ‘hich changes for electrical energy are made, and, therefore, itis ealled the Board of Trade (BOT) unit, Watt: Itis defined as the power expended when there is an unvarying current ofone ampere between two points having a potential difference of one volt. As already stated the bigger unit of power is kW or Megawatt. 1kW ,000 watts 1LMW = 1,000 kW = 110° watts Kirecoff's Laws « They are used for the systmatie analysis of electric circuits. * They describe the relationship among circuit voltage and circuit current that must be satisfied. « they are helpful in determining the equivalent resistance / impedance of @ Complex network and the current flowing in the various branches of the network. 1. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) / or Kirehhoff's Point Law: According to KCL, in any network of wires carrying currents, the algebraic sum of all currents meeting at a point (or junction) is zero. ; [oR] According to KCL, in any network of wires carrying currents, the sum of incoming currents 5 towards any points is equal to the sum of outgoing u currents away from that point. IE Iyy Typ Ly Ty Ip Fg ave the currents meeting at he junction O-as shown, then according to KCL, we get Tyaly-Iyt Ty +1g-1g= 9 OR 9 Vth ts=-h-k-ls 2, Kirehhofi’s Voltage Law (KVL) / or Kirchhoff's Second Law Jor Kirchhoff's Mesh Law: According to KVL, in any closed circuit or mesh, the algebraic sum of emfs in that cireuit or mesh is equal to the algebraic sum of the products of the currents & resistances of each part of the circuit. Considering the circuit as shown below, _18-2021 First/Second Semester, Electrical Science According to KVL in mesh AFCBA, By~ (y+ )Ry~ (0 + 1)R,- LR, According to KVL in mesh EFCDE, / Fy~ (ij Hy = (1, +1 Ry ER LR According to KVL in mesh AEDBA, . SOLVED EXAMPLE Page: 13-2018 Page: 3-2015 QA. Refer to Q.1 (a), Q2. Refer to Q.2 (a), Q3. Refer to Q.2 (b), * For ‘n’ number of nodes, the tot tal number of nodal e terms (n -1) number of unkon quation will be (n — 1) in wn variable of nodal vi oltages. Tlustration: Considering a two node network as shown. Node has taken as refernce node. Let V, and V, be the voltages at nodes A and B respectively w.r.t node C. Marking the currents arbitrarily, we get 5-V, Tt, 9A. ® © REFERENCE y, 141) .8 “hou pede R (i) values of I, Now, the eq. (i) and (ii) will be solved to find V, and Vg, and then the values of J, Iy,Iy I, & I, can be computed easily.eer ere eee LP. University-11.Tech.|-Akash Books 221-19 SOLVED EXAMPLE Qu. Refer to Q.Xa), Pane 19-2017 Q.2. Refer to Q.2, Pane: }-2016 QA. Refer to Q.2(b), Pane: 5-2018 QA. Refer to Q.2(a), Pager 15-2018 Network Reduction by Star-Delt ype star Transformation: The replacemnt of delta or mesh by equivalent star system is know as delta-star system. A Oz Ry ‘The two system will be equivalent ifthe resistance measured between any pair of tines is same in both of the system, when the third line is open. For terminal B & C, Ryo = (Ry + RyRy (From Delta System) = y+ R)xRy Foc" “R+Ry+Ry Also, Ryo = By Ro (From Star System) Since, two system are idential, : (R+Ry)xP : RytRo= RoR Ry i) Similarly, Rog = (Ro + Ry Ry (From Delta System) ne, = Fat Banh ca “Ry +Ry+ Ry Also, Roa = Re + Ra (From Star System) Since, two system are identical, : : (Ry+ Ry)x Ry . Rot Ry= RRR ow) : (R+R) similarly, Ry+Ry = Gee Ai) 1 i Adding eq. (i), (ii) & (iii), we get, 2(Ry + Ry + Re) = = aes z Be)SS 20-2021 First/Second Semester, Electrical Science RR ones BRAP ‘i Rarer, oe 9, Gi), & Giiy from eq, (iv), we get respectively, Ri ae solu) Subtracting o = RRR, . RrRsk (viii) Solving eq. (v), (wi), (vii) with °Q. (viii), we ‘get Be Ryo ake By Ryu ; Poe ot QL Refer to Q30b), Page: 20-2017 Q2. Refer to QU), Page: 3-2018 Q3. Refer to Q.3(a), Page: 8-2018 QA. Refer to 0.400), Page: 6-2016 25. Refer to Q.1a), Page: 6-2016 Q7. Refer to Q.1(d), Page: 1-017 Q7. Refer to Q.3(b), Page: 29-2015 Q8. Refer to Q.1(b), Page: 10-2015 Superposition Theorem (Refer to @.3(b), Page: 22-2014) Limitation of Superposition Theorem (Refer to Q.1(a), Page: 10-2015)LP. University-[B.Tech.]-Akash Books 2021-21 SOLVED EXAMPLES ute Refer to @.3(0), Pane 1-008 2. Refer to QCD), Pater i 7 Q3. Refer to Q.2(b), Pane: sor: vonin’s Theore™ Thevenin’s 26-2015 and Refer to Q.1(d), Page: 3-2018) (Refer to Q.2(a), Page SOLVED EXAMPLES. g(a), Page: 14-2017 Q2. Refer to @.5(b), Paste: 12-2016 Q.3. Refer to QAla), Page: 9-2018 Q4. Refer to Q.1(c), Page: 1-2015 Norton's Theorem (Refer t0 Q.1(d), Page: 3-2018) SOLVED EXAMPLES Qu. Refer to QA(a), Page: 9-2018 Q.2. Refer to Q.3(b), Page: 19-2018 Q3. Refer to Q.2(a), Page: 2-2017 Qi. Refer to Q.3(a), Page: 5-2015 ‘Maximum Power Transfer Theorem (Q.2(a), Page: 13-2015) « PLEASE NOTE .ase of Dependent Source, Rp, will be calculated as- Ve = Bn Tse SOLVED EXAMPLES Qu. Refer to Q.2(b), Page: 16-2018 Q2. Refer to Q.3(a), Page: 4-2017 Q3. Refer to Q.2(b), Page: 27-2015 QA. Refer to Q.2(b), Page: 2-2016 ‘Time Domain Analysis of First Order RC & LC Circuits Inductance and Capacitance Behaviour at t= 0° Inductance Qu. Refer to @ Inc i,= Judes) Inductance current, therefore, cannot change suddenly because it would require infinite voltage. Thus at ¢ = 0*, inductance acts as an ideal current source of strength i(0*) = (07). If ,(0~) = 0, the inductance acts as an open-circuit. ‘This is illustrated in Fig. 1 Capacitance fi jidt+0.0)‘2-2021 First/Second Semester, Electrical Science oro) 407 Aor) =O) #0 oe, Open clout Fig. 1 Inductance behaviour at t= 0° Capacitance voltage, therefore, cannot change suddenly because of which it atts ag an idea! source of strength ug(0') = u6(0-) If ve(0-) = 0 it would act as a short. ireuit, This is illustrate in Fig. 2. v0") = vf0") veo") : . fe OO v0") = v0") 20 . Short-cirult Fig.2 Inductance and Capacitance Behaviour at { = <2 (Steady State) for de ixcitation Induetion Under steady, ‘state; the inductance current reaches a constant value. I, ‘The inductance voltage is then dl, a ‘Therefore, the inductance acts as short-circuit. Capacitance Under steady-state, ca ;pacitance voltage reaches a constant value Vy ‘The capacitance current is then ‘ 7 . oa ign OE », ‘Therefore, the capacitance acts as an open-circuit. It is immediately concluded that steady state inductance current and capacitance voltage are determined by the resistive circuit — after all inductance have been short-circuit and — capacitances open-circuited. Step Voltage -Respanse of RL Series Circuit: Consider the RL series circuit of Fig. 4. Just before the application of voltage (step) the circuit history is represented by the inductor current i,(0-) which in this cireuit is zero because Fig.3LP. University-[B.Tech.|-Aknsh Booka 2021-23 the circuit is open before the switching-on operation, ‘on of the cir ‘The KVL equati rabti 2Vj eat w This is a nonhomogencous linear differential (of first order) with the excitation term 5 its right hand side. The solution te ‘i appearing on its right 0 eq. (1) will have two component, viz. complimentary function (natural response, i,) which should satisfy the equation diy ak ‘@) and the particular integral (forced response, i,) which shoul satisfy Eq. (1) ‘Thus, the complete sotution (response) is isi,ti, @ We already know that the natural response is Jer MUL = Appts a) Lot us now discover the forced response (particular integral of eq (1)). Since the excitation is constant it i8 intuitively expected that i, = J(a constant). would satisfy Eq. (1). It Jeads to a RL a at But Lay? vee Te qrh 6) ‘The complete response is then i = aeons V st50 6) in which we must determine the arbitrary constant A such that it satisfies the initial condition on inductance current. As already state above i(0*) = (0) =0 Substituting in Eq, (3.30) v O= Ata Bee or . As R Vie tmenie Hence i = Fone) 150 (7a) = Fa-es t>o (7b) From the response, the current rise exponentially from 0 to = V/R in accordance with the time constant (or natural frequency). It is noticed that the intial (at t = 0") rate of rise of current is J/t and the current reaches a viaue of 63.2% of final value ( ‘in time of one time constant.24-2021 First/Second Semester, Electrical Science " and t= stated earlier is confirmed by the response of Eq. (7) from that behaviour at which it follow : HO) =0 ‘es the inductance acts as an open-cireuit at =O and ito) = ¥ i.e, inductance nets as a shor -cireuit at ¢ = (for de excitation), 2r ery Fig. 4 Consider now the general case with non-zero initial condition, then i(0*) = (0), non-zero From Eq. (6) at t= 0°, we find iO) =A+ Yor A= Won -F Substituting in Eq. (6), we have the solution itt) = [io -Hlom 6d, t>0 (8) We have already shown that ey ifco) = R Then eq. (8) is written in the general form AO) = ile) + [H(0*)—ieole*”*, ¢>0 9) In the general functional form, we replace il) by ft). The complete response is AE) = flco) + [f10*)— flcolle"", ¢>0 (a0) From Eq. at t=0r ie = 0°) = i(0*) Which mean that inductance act as a current source At tao it = 0) = = which mean that inductance acts as short-circuit in steady-state.LP. University-{B.Tech.|-Akash Books 2021-25 SOLVED EXAMPLES 1 shown in Fig. 5, find i(t) after the switch is closed at ¢ = 0. Qu. For the cireut Fig. 5 atural Response: After the switch is closed, short-circuiting the tion: Ni Solution: Pigs the circuit of Fig. 6 from which voltage source yiel 1Rjq = 3/15 = 28, i, = Aet?? : (i) Forced Responses: With switch closed and t > «, the inductance behaves as a short cireuit. The resultant circuit is shown in Fig. 7 from which it follows that 20 6a 3H 159 3H Fig. 6 2Q \ “O Fig.7 2 30A elit) Combining ty iii) i(t) = Ae!? + 30; 1>026-2021 First/Second Semester, Electrical Science Initial Condition bofore closing the switch i(0") = 0 i(0") = (0) =0. Substituting in Bq. (i) 0 = A430 or A =-30 7 i = 3001 = e"/),1>0 - re = 801 - e") ult) of) Q.2. In the cireuit of Fig. 2, the switch 8 has been in position ‘Y’ for a long time. It is thrown to position ‘2’ at t= (a) Find s(t) for ¢> 0 di ) Find ¥L0>), V,(0%) d 50"), Solution: In position ‘1’, steady state has been reached; inductance acts as a short. Then 20 1 V,(0-) = 0V (a) Switch thrown to position ‘2? a) Hence iO) = Ae 4.3 (i) 0°) = (O-)=1A * Substituting in Eq. : 1=A+3o0rA=-2 Hence HO) = (8 - 2c), 1 >0 = (38-26%) u(t) Gi) Which is plotted in Fig. 9, b or Fig. 1 Aftereee a University-[B.Tech.|-Akash Books 2021-27 Fig, 9 (by {0-)=0, under steady-state inductance aets asa short-circuit. Applying KVL att=0* v(0*) + 4i(0*) = 12 vO) +4x1= 12 or v0") = 8V di v= be As ne be di 0) = LZ" v0") = LEO) di vz (0") Sor) = -— a! : L = Se4A/s 2 se of RC Series Circuit: Consider the RC series circuit of sharged to a voltage of Vy. 1e capacitance voltage is Step Voltage Respon Fig. 10, Just before the switeh is closed, the capacitance is < After the switch is elosed, the differential equation governing th Rite = Vj t>0 dey bul = ce it t at w dy ROTP +6 =V;1t>0 ensue Fig. 1028-2021 First/Second Semester, Electrical Science Natural Response: It is the solution of dy Reo #0 =0 which gives Voy 3 Act; t= RC Forced Response dy RCL+vy = a env Response will have the same form as excitation, Let it be Yer = Voy (constant) Substituting in Eq, (1) . Voy v Combining Eqs. (2) and (3), the complete response is Volt) = Aett+ V Substituting the initial condition v,{0*) = V, Vy=A+V orA=V,-V Hence v¢lt) = (Vy— Vet 4 : : = Vert + Vie) t> 0 The plot V¢(¢) is shown in Fig, 11, Fig. 11 Observe that ucit) of Eq. (5) has the general form MO) = flo) + 0 —flelle"; t>0 ‘The expression for current can be obtained from eq, (5) as below dug i = 0Fee _ from which if follows that vv R i(0*) = capacitance acts as a source of voltage if) = 0; capacitance acts as an open-circuit (a) (8) 46) AD (8a) -nf8b)LP. University-IB.Tech,|-Akash Books 2021-29 SOLVED EXAMPLES Qu. In the circuit of Fig, the switch has been closed for a long time. Find the expression for v as the switch is thrown open. What is the rate of enersy consumption in the 400 0 resistance at Fig. 12 olution: It is obvious that v(0*) = v¢(0-) = 100V [after the switchris opened 1 = RC =(400 + 100) x 2x 10-6 = 10s u(t) = Ae u¢(0*) = A= 100V Hence uelt) = 1000-27 P 100 (0%) = —— = 1) = S00 p(0*) in 400 @ resistance = (0.2)? x 400 = 16 W Step Current Response of RL Parallel Cireuit: Consider the circuit of Fig. 13. .2.A (capacitance acts as a source of 100 V) i . Fig. 13 ‘with current source open-circuited) = L/R. * iy = Act i,jtinductance acts as short-circuit) = J Henee ¢ i, = Ae 415420 But i,(0") = 0 ‘ Asa Finally © i) = 1 -e),t>030-2021 First/Second Semester, Electrical Science Step Current Response of RC Parallel Circuit: Consider the circuit of Fig. y4 ‘(with current source open-circuited) = RC Up, = Act Under steady state, capacitance acts as an open-circuit so that all the curren, Passes through R. Therefore . tit “ Fig. 14 Vcr = RI Hence a u¢lt) = Aet!* + RE t>0 But ue{0*) = Vp (say) i Vy A+RlorA=V,-RI Hence Uelt) = (V)—RDe** + RE = ge! + RI (Le); t> 0 ao) SOLVED EXAMPLES QA. In the circuit of Fig. 15, the switch S, has been closed f ti = the eae et has been closed for a long time. At ¢ = 0, Ss 202 Sy Fig. 15 (a) Without solving for up(t) find ug (0), 0"), velce) and igfo) (b) Derive an expression for vo(t) and check the result of part (a) Solution: (a) Before S, is closed, the capacitance is fully charged. o v¢(0*) = vel0-) = 10 V Applying KVL and KCL at ¢ = 0+, KVL (left loop): — 10 + 20 i, (0°) + ug (0") = 0 or i,(0*) =0LP. University-[B/Tech.|-Akash Booka 2021-31 KVL (ight loop): -v, (0°) + 200%) = 0 or ior) = BA 20 Using KCL at the node ‘i icl0*) + 1,00") = 10") > 1,00") = 0-0, AUL=o, capacitance acts as open-cirenit, therefore if) =0 U¢lon) = 1.2 =5V (b) After closure S, To find r, Short-cireuit voltage source. The cireuit is shown in Fig. 16, ‘Then RC=10xd=05 5 Ss Ug, = Act? tr i 1 200 3 202 100 tr Fig. 16 - ‘To find forced response, assume capacitance as open-circuit. 20 Yey= 10x =8V Hence uclt) = Ae? +5; > 0 But ue(0*) = 10 W=A+5 or A=5 : “ volt) = 5(1 +e); t>0. @. a 7 we . Also igft) = pogo +e) =0.5e%,t >0 (i) All the result of part (a) are borne out by Eqs. (i) and (ii). LC Circuit: If is assumed infinite in the parallel circuit of RLC or R is assumed zer0 in the series circuit of RLC, the describing equation of the resulting LC cireuit (Fig. 17)isa second order differential equation in which the first order derivative term 'Sabsent (case of zero damping). It immediately follows (with R= co) that. 2, oe hue =0 ‘ (1) Let v(t)=Aet * . —r 32-2021 First/Second Semester, Electrical Science Which gives (Q) ; Fig. 17, Non-trivial solution is given by 7 1 2 s+ eo co From which 1, ei adit, wld) where ce 1 = Jpg =Fesonant frequency tis seen that in contrast that the term a which causes exponential decay of the response is absent, ‘The natural response is now given by Ut) = Avent + Ayerng = (By cos ogt + By sin wg) (5) ‘Thus v(¢) (and so also i(t)) is a continuous (non-decaying) sinusoidal oscillation. In practical circuit, R is never zero so that dissipation occurs and the oscillation cannot be sustained but decays slowly. First few cycles would correspond to nearly sinusoidal oscillation, 7 Assume LC combination such that 0) = Jee = V8 @ ‘Then ° vie v(t) = B, cos Vi3t + B, sin VI3t Gi) Let the capacitor be initially charged so that v¢(0*) = Vo Gi) Because the inductance acts as an open-circuit * HO") = 0 7 (iv) Substituting Eq. (iii) in Eq. @) ‘o Vo = By From Eq. (ii) ; - w= oH = O(-Vi3B, sin VI8¢ + VIB B, cos V13t) oLP. University-[B.Tech |-Akash Books 2021-33 By use of Eq, (iv) it follws that By=0 (vii) Hence v(t) = Vo cos Vi3 t (viii) ‘Then = chy cos Ji t) = -Vi5 OV, sin Via ¢, Jd = : Vic (ix) rf ~yeet Vise Response: This will be illustrated by means of examples. step reuit of Fig. 18. The circuit is initially quiescent (zero 1, Solve for Ug (t) in the ci jpitial conditions). 20 SH : Fig. 18 olution ‘The describing diferential equation ofthe circuits 2is5% eo, = 10;t>0 dt But and. Substituting in Ea. (@ dve te 452M 4ue = 10 ae Sie 1 i o pete. 46First/Second Semester, Electrical Science UNIT - II: AC CIRCUITS 34-2021 AC Fundamentals Alternating Quantity: continuously in magnit rises from zero to maximum the reverse direction and falls back to zero again. Sinusoidal Quantities (BMF, Voltage or Current): Reasons or advantage, ‘using sinusoidal voltage and current are as follows: ‘Sof 1. The sinusoidal waveform from generation to utilization remains the same, 2. There are no oscillations in develop torque in 3-phase machines and absoneg noise in operation. ot 3. According to Fourier analysis, non-sinusoidal voltages are harmful tothe syst, in term afinereased losses in generators, motors, transformers, transmission. distribution system, $o, using sinusoidal voltages, the losses can be reduce 4. Non-sinusoidal voltages provide more interference (or noise) to near, communication circuits. Terminology 1. Waveform: The shape of the curve of the voltage or current when plotteg against time as abscissa is called the waveform. 2. Instantaneous Value: The value of alternating quantity at any particu, instant is called the instantaneous value. It is denoted by small italic feign such as e for emf, v for voltage, i for current. a 3. Alternation and Cycle Alternation: It is a periodic wave with one complete set: of positive values q negative values. One alternation corresponds to z radians. a An alternating quantity (V or I) is one which cha, ‘le and alternates in direction at regular intervals of time positive value, falls to zero increase to maximum, value it cin Cycle: It is a periodic wave with one complete set of positive values and negative values. One cycle corresponds to 2n radians. 3. Time Period and Frequency ‘Time period: Time taken in second by an alternating quantity to complete on¢ cycle is known as Time Period or Periodic Time, denoted by ‘T” Frequency: Number of cycle complete per second by an alternating quantity i§ known as Frequency, denoted by ‘f. Its unit is Hertz (Hz). 5. Angular Velocity: Each cycle spans 27 radians and if this quantity is divi by time period, angular velocity of sine wave is obtained. idedLP. University-[B.Tech.|-Akash Books 2021-35 2nf radians /sec 6, Electric Time Degrees and Mechanical Degrees Electrical Time Degrees: In circuit network, one complete cycle of voltage or current is termed as 360 clectrical degrees or 2x electrical radians. Mechanical Degrees: The arc through which a coil ofdynamo must rotate in order to generate one cycle of emfis called mechanical degree 7, Amplitude: The maximu, value, positive or negative, which an alternating quantity attains during one eycle, is called the amplitude of the alternating quantity. The amplitude of an alternating emf is designated by E,,,. oF Es amplitude of an alternating voltage is designated by V,,.. or V,,, amplitude of an alternating current is designated by /,,,. orf,” i SOLVED EXAMPLES QL. Refers to Q.3(b), Page: 4-2016 Average and RMS (or Effective) Values of Sinusoidal Quantity: Refer to Q.4(a), Page- 30, 2015 Form Factor and Peak factor: Refer to Q.1(c), Page- 1, 2017. Significance of From Factor: From factor is a means of relating the mean value with the rms value of alternating quantity. It is useful in determination of rms values ofthe alternating quantities whose average values over half a period can be determined conveniently. Significance of Peak Factor: Peak factor of an alternating quantity is very essential in connection with determining the dielectric strength since the dielectric stress developed in an insulating material is proportional to the peak value of the voltage applied to it. Average and RMS (or Effective) Values of Half-Wave Rectified Alternating Quantity _ Average value of Alternating Current or Voltage: Instantaneous values of sinusoidal current is given by i=], sin ot Considering the complete eycle, we have Area of complete cycle a = z f dtot)= Ju sinot dwt)tor, Blectrical Science First/Second Semes' 36-2021 1, i" In = t[-cosoth = * On Iygg 2 0318 Similarly : similarly Fg 0518 . value of sinus, RMS Value of Sinusoidal Current or Voltage: Instantaneou! mui current is given by i=],,sinot 2 p= Areaof complete cycle of = Areaof complete eyele of t = ™ 1 £2 qon2 [2,8in’ of dlot) = Eftaw-sf p Pp. aa _ sin’ et fa cos200 “2 |, 2 Similarly Form factor, Peak factor, Average and RMS (or Effective) Values of a Triangular Waveform Average Value of Alternating Current or Voltage: Let the maximum value of the current be Imax amperes. ‘The expression for the instantaneous current can be written as i= tame for0<0 petanei( Ol R 7 VS 3 ran ie renee nae Ee Fig. 3 Voltage Triangle Fig, 4 Impedance Triangle Let applied voltage voltage be v = V,, sin ot ,then i=1,sinlot-4), where I, = % end )= tan" (%) Fig. 5 Wave Diagram2021 First/Second Semester, Blectrical Science 44 Power in Rel, Cirenit instantancous power, not, sin (ot =) pevisy Yala asinot sin(ot-9))= Yadajcnh- cos(2oot ~ Vale ggg —L20l-cos(2at 4) = Bomb Vole Va dn Average Power, P= “elaeang-O= Bod P=VIcos$ So, the power in an ac circuit is the product of mms values of voltage and current, ang Cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current. 5. Resistance-Capacitance (R-C) Series Circuit: Consider an a¢ cra, Consisting of resistance of R ohms and capacitance of C farads connected in series, | Let the supply frequency be ‘ f’ and current flowing through the circuit be of» | amperes (rms value), Voltage drop across resistance, V, = J Rin phase with current. Voltage drop across capacitance, Kee 4 lagging current Iby F radians “TOR c Ea] v Fig. 4 Circuit Diagram From the phasor diagram, the applied voltage is give as- Via Win VG = UR +X QF = IVR +x351z where, Z= /R?+X?, and Zis know as impedance Vo_ Ke _X, tang=-C = —c.“c_ 7h Also, oy, RR a +X, i Fig, 2 Phasor Diagram | : ta (a z | : pean OR Let applied voltage be v= V,, sin, then T,sinlot +4), where I, = and 9 = tan”2021-45 LP. University-[B.ech.|-Akash Books Fig. 3 Voltage Triangle Ta ilaialel wpa power in R-C Cireuit Fretantancons Power, p= vi = Voslstocin i = “ala fasinot sin(at +4] =~ oosp—cos(2at +9) v J, : ae cosp— Yala at +0) V,, sin ot .J,, sin (ot + 4) Average power, ‘ a V,, 1, V,, = Yate 954-0 = Le tm, Be Mp easd Om pense P= Vicps 6 So, the power in an ac cireuit is the product of rms values of voltage and current and cosine ofthe phase angle between voltage and current. 6, Resistance-Inductance-Capacitance (R-L-C) Series Circuit: Consider an ae ircuit consisting of resistance of R ohms, inductance of L henry and capacitance of C farads connected in series. Lot the supply frequency be ‘f’ and current flowing through the circuit be of ‘ J” amperes (rms value) v Fig. 4 Circuit Diagram Voltage drop across resistance, Vi, = J Rin phase with current. Voltage drop across inductanee, V, = 1 XL = JoL leading current Iby © radians Voltage drop across capacitance, V, = [XC = 4 lagging current I by 7 radians From the phasor diagram, the applied voltage is give as- (Assuming V, > V,) 4AVoTX ve Wye, -VeF UR}? +X, - Xe)" WR, - Xo IR? +(X,-Xo) VoelXo and Z is known as impedance of the circuit. Fig. 2 Phasor Diagram " where, z7 46-2021 First/Second Semester, Electrical Science ES Mi =Vo IX, -IXe IR Also, tang = in t= (Beeke Swill be positive ifX, > Xp and 6 will be nagative ifX, Xe Fig, 2. Phasor Diagram si, The current flowing through the circuits maximum and in phase with applied voltage. The magnitude of the current will be equal to z . jv, The voltage drop across the inductance is equal to the voltage drop across capacitance and is maximum. vy, The power factor is unity. vi, The power expended = VI watts. When this condition exists, the circuit is said to be in resonance and the frequency at which it occurs is known as resonant frequency.” Let the resonant frequeney be fr, then X,=0L=% oe eee Xo- 56 Bape X,=Xe (Condition for resonance) i 1 te oe 1 Vie48-2021 First/Second Semester, Electrical Science ‘Therefore, the value of resonance frequency depends energy-storing elements i.e, L and C. Reason of Voltage Resonance : + When the a in resonance, the current is too large and wil produce < voltage drop across inductance & capacitance, which will oo 7 magi! but opposite in phase, and each may be several times g1 fan *PDlieg voltage, ; + Ifresistance R would have not been present in the circuit, such a circuit y, act like a short-circuit to currents of frequency to which it resonates. ~ Since the voltage is maximum, itis called the Voltage Resonance. Reason of Acceptor Circuit ~ The series resonance is also called an Acceptor Circuit because such a tip, accepts currents at one particular frequency but rejects currents of oy, frequencies, + Such circuits are used in Radio Receivers. Graphical Representation of Series Resonance n the parameters °E the i My Ou Derivation of bandwidth and quality factor for a series RLC circuit Bandwidth: The half-wave bandwidth ofa. circuitis given by the band of frequencies which lies between two points on either side of f, where current falls to £0. Narrower 2 the bandwidth, higher the selectivity of the circuit and vice-versa. As'shown in Fig., the half power bandwidth is given by WITH Low RESISTANCE RESONANT FREQUENCY WITH HIGH IESISTANCE.LP. University-[B,Tech.|-Akash Books 2021-49 Af=h-h pore fai are the comer frequencies shores wi getual power input at /, and fy ae ie p=PR= ‘a ) 7p tae va 1 2 gh 1 P= 3x power input at resonance sterefore,f, and ft the limits of bandwidth are called half-power points on the Tint eal and the corresponding, valve ofthe bandwidth is termed as half-power fra ath (B,) or ~3 AB Bandwidth eas Derivation: The impedance ofthe turned circuit must be JZ times its impedance jg fx ; at resonance so that the current is “75S. But the impedance at resonance, X'= Reso at palfpower points, the impedance is V2R. gees VOR=VR8+X? >) X=R ‘The reactance at the lower half-power frequency is given as— R Here, minus sign signifies that below resonance, the capacitive reactance exceeds the inductive reactance. The above equation may also be re-written as— where, ‘The equation for the lower half-power frequency is atyar+o%, (negative frequency is meaingless, so discarded) ‘The reactance at the upper half-power frequency is given as— 1 Xy= onb-Sa-k Here, minus sign signifies that below resonance, the inductive reactance. the above equation may also be re-written as — the capacitive reactance exceeds on ly elon elc z y= fe (4) poet Fo, where, = . “or * NTE“= 50-2021 *prinat/Second Semester, Electrical Science ‘The equation for the upper half-power frequency is 2 0) = atya? +o?, (negative frequenéy is meaningless, so Fiscardey Now, the equation for the bandwidth becomes Tot Opy = %-% -[a+ ava, |-« [a2 +0%, =20 R my = ; =m R and Bandwidth, Af = f,-f, = a. “sar? Lower half-power frequency, f,= f,-40. ¢ —_R_ oar HZ Upper halfpower frequency, fz= f, + 40 = p eo HZ Also, /,/, =/, : Quality Factor: It is the voltage magnification that the circuit Produces at resonance. Reactive Power wJnxX), _ Xp Active Power Ing,R R OL nfl amb 1 i Re Re cen oie (h-x Le @, Power Tne Xe ActivePower In,,.R R ol 1 _ 2nvEe («- 1 ) w,CR 2xf,CR 2nCR_ " 2nJLE qe if "RVC The Q-factor may also be defined as— Q-factor = 2qx—Maximum stored energy Energy disspated per cycle -factor = Q-factor = He If Q-factor is high, voltage magnification is high and selectivity of tuning coil i also higher. Q-factor may also be defined as the ratio of resonant frequency to Bandwidth.LP. University-[B,Tech, |-Akash Books 2021- 8 I-51 ie g, Parallel or Current Resonance (Refer to @.5(b), Page: 22-2018) Important P : (i Net Susceptance is zero i.e, (ii) Admittance = Conductance (iii) Reactive component of line current is zero. (jv) Impedance is purely resistive, maximum in magnitude and equal to L/CR, 1 () Line current is minimum and equal to *** and is in phase with the applied voltage. ) p= 1 2nJLC Reason of Current Resonance - Since in parallel resonant circuit, circulating current between the branches is many times the line current, Such type of resonance is sometimes known as Current Resonance. Reason for Rejector Circuit - Parallel Resonant Circuit is sometimes called the Rejector Circuit because at resonant frequency, the line current is minimum or it almost rejects it. Tank Cireuit: An inductive coil of Inductance.L connected in parallel with a Capacitance C is called Tank Circuit. Graphical Representation of Parallel Resonance CR? | ADMITTANCE. ¥ - WaTH HIGH | \ rs RESISTANCE | on content anmyiow RESISTANCE ——— current Resonant frequency, Damped resonant frequency and Quality Factor for parallel RLC Cireuit : Resonant Frequency: A parallel RLC circuit is said to be in electrical resonance when the reactive component of line current becomes zero, The frequency at which this happens is known as resonant frequency.ee nd Semester, Electrical Science First/Secon ney: The peak resonance frequency depends on ‘ped as the damped resonant frequency, : Damped Resonant Frequ valve of the resistor and is deseril Z Qefactor: Refer to Q.5, Page: 16-2016 Bandwidth: i pw = RC oth 1, Bandwidth, W=f-h= “> = aR 4 1 Lower half-power frequency, fy = f, -f hag of 7 Upper half-power frequency, fy = f+ Also f,fy= + Hz 4nRC SOLVED EXAMPLE QL. Refer to Q.5(a), Page: 23-2017 Q2. Refer to Q.4(a), Page: 14-2016 Q.3. Refer to Q.3(a), Page: 15-2015 ‘Three-phase Balanéed Circuits * Single-phase systems involve single-phase currents and voltages and they are applicable for domestic applications. For eg, Motors for mixers, fans, air conditioners, refrigerators, ete. However, 1-) system has its own limitation and, therefore, has been replaced by polyphase system. * For general supply, three-phase (3-6) supply has been universally used, For generation, transmission and distribution of electric power, 3-4 system has been universally adopted. * The 2-6 supply and 6-4 supply are obtained from 2-supply. * A polyphase system is essentially a combination of several’ 1-) voltage having same magnitude and frequency but displaced from one another by equal angle (electrical), which depends upon the number of phases. 360electrical degree eetrical di 5 Bectrical displacement = Se and Number of phase > 2. Balanced / Symmetrical System: A supply system is said to be symmetrical when several voltages of the same frequency have equal magnitude and are displaced from one another by equal time, For eg, 3-phase 3-wire or 3-phase 4-wire systems. ‘Unbalanced System: A 3-phase supply will be unbalanced when either of the 3 phase voltage are unequal in magnitude or the phase angle between these phase is not equal to 120°, Balanced Load: A load circuit is said to be balanced when the loads (impedances) connected in various phase are same in magnitude as well as in phase. Unbalanced Load: Any 3-phase load in which the impedances in one more phase differ from the impedances of other phases is called unbalanced 3-phase load. Advantage of 3-phase System over Single Phase Syster Refer to Q.5(a), Page: 32-2015 :LP. University-1B Tech |-Akas| tage ancd Current Relations in Star a volta STAR / WYE (t) Connected Syste h Books nd Delta Connections om 2021-53, Phase Voltage: Voltage betwy the phase winding, Line Volt In above Fig, * Ey By By» Phases of induced emf * Eny By Egy Phase Voltages * Ex»: Eypy Bap —> Line Voltageosn ‘een any line and the Neutral point i.e. voltage across "tis phasor difference of phase emfs of the two phases concerned, (Potential differences between Iwo outers) Now, Bay = Ey~By= By + (-E,) Eny= Ey P+ |-By P+ 21 Epi By leos60" Assuming balanced system, i.e, Eye By=Ey=2, Epy = p+ Eh bb xd = SE, > Three Phase Power Instantaneous Phase Voltages are given by — Ey = V2Epsinot Ey = V2Ep sin(wot-120%) Ey = V2Ep sin(ot—2409) = V2Ep sin(wt +120°) Instantaneous Phase Current are given by- Ty = V2Ipsin(wt-@) Ty = VBIpsin(wt-@-120°) ip = VBlp'sin(ot -0-240°)= VBI p(ot-+120") where, @ is the phase angle between Ey and \, Total instantaneous power, P is given as — P = Eyly + Byly + ByRy [ve sin ot][ 21, sinot-®)]+[2E, sin(ot-120°)| 7 [v2z, sine -O-120°)]+[ V2 sinfot +120°)[V2Ip sin(or-o+ 120)] Egy = Eyp = Eyp = Ey, = BE, and I, i isFirst/Second Semester, Electrical Science [2 sin(at) .sin(ot - B) + 2sinlof ~ 120°).sin(ot — B -120°) + f 2sinloot + 120°). sin(ot - G+ 120°) Eylpleas B — cos (unt =D) + cos B — cos (2 nt -D — 240°) + ©08 © ~ cos (2nt= +240") [+s 2sin A sin B = cos(A~B)— costA + By n18 cas © ~ C08 (2k = B) + cos (nt ~B — 240°) + cos(Bot ~ 9 + 240% B,}p18.e08O=0) (z Sum ofthe three secon harmonic oscillating terms whi have a progressive phase difference of 120° is zero.) ime its the instantaneous power in a 8-0 balanced system is constant and equal ty {mes the average power per phase * Total Circuit Power, P = BEplp cos B= 3 EI), cos D * Reactive Power, Q = S3Eplp sin B= J5H,], sin * Apparent Powor, S = 3 x Apparent power per phase = 3Eplp = 3 By), Key Points in a Balanced Star-Connected System + Line Voltages are 190° apart, 2. Line Voltages are 30° ahead of the respective phase voltages. 5 Line voltages are J§ times of the phase voltages, 4. Line currents are equal to phase currents, 5. The angle between line currents and the corresponding line voltages is (30 + ), te for lagging currents and ~ ve for leading currents 6. True Power output = V3 Ey, cos ©, where @ is the angle between the respective Phase current and phase voltage. 7. Apparent Power = /3E,1,, 8. In balanced system, the potential of neutral or star point is zero as Exp + Exy + Exp = 0 2. DELTA / MESH (A) Connected System: From the fig, itis obvious that line current is phasor difference of phase currents of two phases concerned, Line Current, 1p = Typ Ina = Typ + (Ip) Since, phase angle between phase current phasors Ty, and — Ipg is 60°, Ta = JTig + Thy + 2lyp] yg 00860" Assuming balanced load, the phase current in each winding is equal. Let the phase current in each winding be I, Ta Ub +th+20 1x4 =V3lp Similarly, Line Current, Ly = Iny —Iyp = Ipy + (Ty) By> Vb +I +21,1, x4 = Vly ley + CIpy) And Line Current, In = Iny~Tp = Tp Tp+21,1, 2 = Vil VBlp andLP. University-[B.T'ech.|-Akash Books 2021-55 Three phase power Instantaneous Phase Voltage are given by - Ba = V2Epsinot Ey = ¥2E, sin(wt-120°) Eg = y2Epsin(ot ~240°) = \2E> sin(ot +120°) Instantaneous Phase Current are given by — Ty = V2Ipsin(ot-@) Ty = V2Ipsin(ot-~-120°) ig = V2Ipsin(wt-@- 240°) = V2Ip sin(ot-9 +120°) where, @ is the phase angle between Ep and Ip ‘Total instantaneous power, P is given as — P = Byly + Byly + Egy [v2Ep sinut || V2z, sin(ot— )]+[V2zp sinfor -120°)] . [v2Ipsin(or-o- 1209)]+ [v2ep sin(ot+ 120) ][ 2p sin(ot-+120°)] =E,1 {2 sin(ot) .sin(ot — 2) + 2sin(ot - 120°),sin(ot - @ 120°) + : 2sin(ot + 120°). sin(ot— @ + 120°)] = E,Ipleos © - cos (2unt ~ @) + cos @~ cos (2 at - G— 240") + 05 D— cos (2ut~@ + 240°)] | 2sin Asin B = cos(A—B)— cos(A + B)] P= Eplp[3 cos © — cos (2ot ©) + cos (ot — G~ 240") + cos(2ot — B + 240°) =E,[p[3cos@-0] (- Sum of the three second harmonic oscillating terms which have a progressive phase difference of 120° is zero.) 2 P= 3Bplp cos 6 Thus, the instantaneous power in a 3-0 balanced system is constant and equal to 3 times the average power per phase. * Total Circuit Power, P— 3Eplp cos B= J3 E,l, cos @ * Reactive Power, Q = 3Eplp sin @ = /3 BI, sin G * Apparent Power, S = 3 x Apparent power per phase = SEplp = V3 Eyl,—_— 56-2021 First/Second Semester, Electrical Science Key Points in a Balanced Star-Connected System 1. Line Voltages are 120° apart. 2. Line Voltages are 30° ahead of the respective phase voltages. 3. Line voltages are Jj times of the phase voltages. 4. Line currents are equal to phase currents. 5. The angle between line currents and the corresponding line vol (30 & O); +0e for Ingging currents and — ve for leading currents. }. True Power output= /3 E,1, cos @, where Gis the angle between the Tespecti, Phase current and phase voltage. + Apparent Power = BEI, In balanced system, the tages i 6. a 7 resultant emf in the closed circuit will be zero, Eny + Ey + Ey =0 Hence, there will be no circulati the lines, ing current in the mesh if no load is connected {, SOLVED EXAMPLES QI. Refer to Q4(a), Page: 17-2015.UNIT-I Q.2 (a) State and explain Norton theorem. (6.5) Ans. Statement: "Any two terminal, linear, bilateral network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit conisting of a current source parallel with the resistance (impedance) seen from that terminals. The equivalent current source, Iy is the short circuit between the terminals and equivalent resistance, Ry. is the ratio.of the open circuit voltage to the short circuit current at these terminala” Explaination: ~ Consider a netwoek an fig (a) ‘ Short circuit terminals AB to find out short circuited current R, Ry WW ANW—9 . z e . r B : fig. (a) I, (By replacing reistance R, with a zero resistance thick wire) fig (b) = : R, Re a iF J Fig. (b)= First Semester, Electrical Technology Rqvinlent resistance of the fig. (e) network, Ry, = (( +7911 Ry) + 2 R, Mh——Mi—9 A 2 oB Fig. (e) ~ Nortons equivalent circuit will be as per fig (d) LR, T= Ry+R, (applying current dimension in fig. (d) iG he SR R <4 B Fig. (d) Q.2 (6) Using the node nodal analysis, find the different branch current i the circuit of figure shown, All Branch conductances are in Siemens. (6) Atnode A, apply KCL/nodal analysis 2+1,+1, = 24(Vy-Vy) 14 VV) 2LP. University-( B.Tech)-Ak, ca sh 24V,-Vnt2V,-2Vy = 9 Books a 24+3V,-Vp~2V, = 9 5 3ViVq~2V, = —9 “inne B, apply KCL/nodal analysis val) 45 21, / We Ves = Ve4 : Va-Vy + 5 e V4-Vp~4V, 5 Vy-BVy = -5 atnode C, apply KCL/nodal analysis (2) 1, = 54, > (Vy-Vo)2 = 54V 4 2 2VA~2Vq = 5+ AV, 3 2V,-2V—-4V, = B® . 2V,-6V, = 5 o ‘esolve equation (1), (2) & equation(3), then we get Vy = -6/4, Vy= 3/4, Vo=—5/4 8 ye 4v,24x(-5) =—5amp Ans. Q.3 (a) State and explain maximum power transfer theorem. (6.5) ‘Ans. Statement : For maximum power transfer, oad resistance should be equal to the resistance of the Thevenin equivalent (or Norton equialent) of the network to which jsconnected. However the efficiency of the system is 50%. Explaination: -Consider circuit as in fig (a). For maximum power transfer as per theorem R, = Ry ~Load current IFirst Semester, Electrical Technology J 22-2014 Power eonsumed by the load Network will be - : vn or, PePR= Rem = The value of load resistance Ri, for the maximum power to be consumed, : ¥ Joad can be obtained as ~ 4 ap Vague ae 2 O° Tem rR =? or Ry+Ry, - 2R= (R=Ra) Vi 7 Po = (B+ RF" 4, ‘ Pin = (Rp +R) ~At maximum power transfer, the efficiency (n) ofthe system will be output. _Vy2/4R, N= Gnput = (V42/4R,) ‘Thus the efficiency of the system is 0.50 or 50% Q.3 (6) State and explian superposition theorem 6 ‘Ans. Statement: The total current or voltage in any part of a linear bilatey: network having more than one source is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents, voltage with the sources acting individually while other sources are replaced by th, internal resistances (short circuiting the voltage sources and open circuiting the currey sources) Explaination- Consider a network as per fig (a) ~Procedure/steps for applying Superposition theorem: (a) Select any one source in the circuit and remove all other sources (replace voltay source by short circuit and current source by open circuit keeping the internal resistance R, Ry E 4) he it Ry +(V2/4R,) (b) Calculate the desired voltage or current in an element with only or source seleté in the step 1. (c) Repeat the step 1 and step 2 for all the sources one by one. (d) Add all the computed values of elements obtained with each source acting lo ‘The sum is the actual voltage or current when all the sources are present and acts simultaneously. The polarity of voltage and direction of current must be taken’ carefit! while adding the quantities.il takes acu ) ACoil tal rrent of| a4 Same current with 50} atl jnductance of coil (ii) the ‘0 if ase N08 voltage, : an erent through the coil 1 peste ofc R acvoltage is applied aspen 2° applied voltage V. Resistance of coil ff current,1,, coil impedance, Z ductive reactance of col X= inductance of coil X= al Ls power factor = cos} = cos = cos} = STSILY ty~(B, ‘Tech)-Akash Books ‘When de voltage is apptieg UNIT. 2014-23 6 aahen connected to ot: Uppy the vl ctor of the 24 V DC supply. To tage required was 30 V. coll, (6.5) = 24 volt 6A Me a4 Ty, = G 240 30 volt, same ag A ied nen de is applied 6 Amp y, Ty, 2306250 VaR Vet =30 2nfL=30 3/2nt 3/2 x50 3 Foon 7954 mH ale slp 0.8 (lag). Q4 (6) Discuss resonance the Series RLC circuits. How the resonant frequency is calculate. Give graphical representation of resonance. (6) ‘Ans. Consider an ac circuit containing a resistance R, an inductance L and capacitance C connected in series. as shown in figure. Va eval al k Impedance of the circuit Le M Ve aaa rh ai ae q 4 % z e nt (wt) [RE +(x -#-) = we.24-2014 First Semester, Electrical Technology if for some frequency of applied voltage %),=x, in miagnitude then (i) Net reactance is zero ie. X=0 (ii) Impedance of the cirenit Z = R. (iii) The current flowing through the circuit is maximum and ( in ph, apotied voltage, The magnitude ofthe current willbe equal to V/R, '*9® wig tiv) \ (iv) | when the above condition exists, the circuit is said to be in resonace. and the f, | at which it ocenrs is known as resonant frequency, "igs resonant frequency is denoted by , | If, then e 4, = wh=2nfL y 4 aL : %o = One ' Intl = tee i A ql £ = aE 24, graphical representation of resonance. Current —» > The circuit can be made resonant in two different ways namely, (@ by varying L& C paramerer at a constant supply or frequency. (ii) by varying the supply frequency & with Parameters L and C conistant, — In the above graphical representation, Resistance R is independent of supply frequency, therefore, remains constant. It has been represented by a straight line. ie parallel to the X-axis. > % => a= = f,TP. University a ny soit io represented hy a gy 01 quadrant. Similnry ai pts ane ° *(Ufr), saversely Proprtional to the in ona reson, Itlies in the freq eo%igehyperbola. Tt lies in the four Wadrant fs not reactance i the differen. of » The Ma the curve drawn betwen N*ney and it is represented bya inductive the net reqet reactance x, and capacitive 2g The FFeqUENEY AL Which th pg Cane NE and cap orl frequency. (f.) “nee eu eye econo ) we gue res 1%) and frequency will crotse the frequency axis is, a rv impedance of the circuit, 2 eing o r ; 7 al to AR soap is minimum at 1 ey cles lower than eae cies 10 resonant f : ooo ex, and the power fan is tend f the impedance Zis large and «ost Aquoney the impedance oy eading. dade frequencies higher than seoomt actor bas the maximum vali ge ky >a, i ri > ¥c and power factor is lagging. of unity af. Tesonant frequency, 0 ohm in series with a (6.5) Inductance L = 9 Henry Inductive reactance, X, = 21, Resistance = 50 ohms maximum current, = 1A frequency = 75 Hz Xs OnfL=2nx 5x9 = 4041. 159 Vv v Tae RL Gp BV =50 Volt. 1 1 Inte 7" axe C = W(75x2n).9 C = 14471.23)29 C = 5x107Farud when current is 1 amp Vv, = ky V, = 1(2xfL) = 2nx75x9 V,, = 4241.5 Volt.Ww 26-2014 First Semester, Electrical Technology when current is 0.5 amp Ix, 4241. (0.5) (2xf L) 4241.5 = 0.5x2xnxfx9 =f = 150.01 Hz. Ans. Q.5 (b) Write down the advantges of 3 phase system over single Pha, 8. Ans. Although single phase system is employed for the operation of almost.” domestic & commercial appliances e.g. lamps, fans, electric irons, Tv Sets, co, etc. But it has own limitations in the field of generation, transmission, distribut; Ln Industrial applications. Therefore 3-phase system is universalhy adopted for Bene, a, transmission, and distribution of electric power due to the following main Advan B 4, ally over 1 ¢ system. . — (1) constant power: In single phase circuits, the power deliverd is Pulsag, iY Even when the voltage and current are in phase, the power is zero twice in each,” whereas in 3 $ system, power delivered is almost constant when the loads are balang! — (2) Higher rating: The rating of 36 supply is nearly 1.5 times the Tating y 19 machine of the same size. — (3) Power transmission economics: To transmit the same power over af, distance at a given voltage. 3 $ system requires only 75% of the weight of conduc, material of that required by 1 system. — (4) Superiority of 3 induction motors : The three phase induction Mop, have wide'spread field of applications in the industries because: 3 6 Induction motors are self starting 36 Induction motors have higher power factor and efficiency than that of 14,piRST TERM BXA yy FIR! ‘ ST Seg ph ON (SEPT, 20151 pLECTRICAL TECHNOL (E-TECH Hours. em Y [ETEE-107] ' igec No i8COmMPUBONY. Attempt any _ wo more 4a) Chose tHe COFFE Option ugh Questions from the res. , + Ry, fy Mr it show in Fig. I conta ¥ Your an: cio i (A) 2A (8) 5A oe ide soures, Cron owing teed o A(D) 3A . Current flowing through 6 1a 62 From the ab ss __ From the above circuit di diagram, current through 69" resistance is 5 Amp. when a voltage source , and current source connected in series in a ci ina circuit, the pecs ¥ : source will dominate. So option’'B' is correct. a Qu. (6) Rewrite the complete and corr “eer recap ‘Ans. "Internal resistance of ideal voltmeter is "0"... whereas i : oon ve voltage wouree i8 "= infinite. “ reas internal resistance of ee @ — : ai cn in Fig. 2, the reading of ideal voltmeter is... ji) For a network in Fig. 5, if we find the Thevenin’s Equi ireui terminal X &Y then Thevenin's Voltage willbe oo Ans. Lc) @) ) (v) Fig.2 wading of ideal voltmeter is 100V. From the Fig. 2 the re quivalent, short the voltage source and ‘Ans, 1.(c) (éi) For finding the Thevenin's e* open current source.| Vv First Semester, Electrical Technology | 2-2015 | Vy Now, we R, = 5410-152 ' Gi, - 2V,=0 6Vo —2 10 ~2V0 6V,-20V, = 0 W=9 Because there is no independent source. Q.1. @ For a series RL circuit shown in Fig 4. Draw a phasor di showing all the electrical quantities (Voltage and Current) marked in the Aen Also write the impedance of circuit inj notation. cite, Ans. ' + R L +, yr From the above circuit wll Phasor diagram of RL circuit and impedance of RL circuit is given by Z=R+ IX, s a form factor? Give its value for Sinusoidal voltage. to Average value of Wa" Q.1. (e) What i ‘Ans. From factor is the ratio of rms value of wave form form.l LP. University) Akash Dona mss 5 Porm factor = Vins. Tony “1B 1B ot Tang gly et ar syvo orm factor for sinusoid ig4,y)» al ksh a) Fora network showin in Fig.6,find all the marked mesh currents. (6+4=10) Fig.6 (Applying Mesh Analysis) 124¥, = 61,-1,-51, 0 = -1,+61,-31, -V, = -51,-31,+121, Adding equation (1) to (8), we get 12 = 1,-41, +7 lA) * The relation between the source current and mesh currents is given by 45 ~Now from equation (3), (4), (5) the value of [,, 1, and I, ean be determine, mh4-2015 First Semester, Electrical Technology > Multiply equation (9) by 2, equation (4) by 3, and adding thy. eliminnte 1, my We get 1 = 36 4 fy * From above equation 6 Amp, I, =2 Amp ~t Put the value in equation (3), we get I, = 2Amp S, 1, = 6Amp,[,=2Amp, I,=2Amp Ang ayy 22: (0) For a network shown in Fig. 6, find the current 'T' entering the 'N’. Express 'T'in polar form, s Ans, — % ,. | edsin(atnty [+e Le 2sin (atone) pd 9 ° * From the above, T'is the phasor sum of currents ie, 7 . I = 4sin(wt—r/4)+2 sin (wt + 7/6) fl) = Asinut.co5 4 coswtsin + 2sinwteosx/6 + 2eos.tsinz/6 7 Fpsinet—foeoswt +299 422 on I = 4.560 sin wt ~ 1.828 cos wt 2) Standard form of equation is. i =, sin (wt +a) i = (1,,cosq) sin wt +(1,, sina) cos wt ..(3) By comparing, wefind, I, cosa = 4.560 I,sina = 1.828 * Squaring and adding these quantities we get I,?cos?a+I,,?sin?a = (4.560)?+ (— 1.828)? Im? (cos? a +sin’a) = 20.79 + 3.34 12 = 24.13 1, = 4.91 Amp. > imy LP. University-(B-Tech.)-Akash Books 2015-5 2 in 81M (WE + x) 1 sin (wt ~ 21.8") Ans. ) Find the current through R, in the network shown in Fig.7 using 08.0 em 3) ort 460 ' —. standard current equation anon ww Ct 30 Wd RL Fig.7 ‘Ans. First remove R, and short terminals But I, = 4x2=8Amp > Uae =Iy =8 Amp] Now open the terminals iy 60 - Ow Da # LOFirst Semester, Electrical Technology 6-2018 Nodal Analysis 0 Ve = 3 > 0 0 V,.=8] Now Ry = Q.3. (6) For a AC network shown in Fig. 8, if the reading of voltme, (indicating RMS value) is 60V then find the reading of Ammeter. Note Ame), is also indicating the RMS value. & oF Fe he Fig. 8 Ans. V = 60V (rms) Ammeter reading i, = 60/4 =15 Amp Z, = ni) %y=6+iy) Vp > 154-5) V, = (60-j 60) voltLP, University-(B.Tech,)-Akash Books 2015-7 wt ont parallel voltage is same soit directly appears to, ’ r . 60j60 ig = pera itl, _ = (15 +0) + (10-520) = (25—j20) Amp owAmmeter reads [= 25Amp] Ans, _- 4.(o) For a network shown in Fig. 9,ifR, is load resistance & I, is current @ ow a , goring trout it then complete the table given below. No. R, I, 1 5 0hm 2 10 Ohm Ls 150hmFirst Semester, Electrical Technology = fi, +204 100, -i,) +104, -i,) = 0 = 15i,-1i, = -20 )-20+5i, = 0 4 igi, +100, -1i,+1 15i, = Li Li, = 165, [4 =-0840 Amp, ~(15 x 0.8 40) = 11i,= -20 ~12.6-11i, =.-20 ~lli, = - 204126 -lli, = -74 if, = Ty = 0.672 Amp Q.4. (6) Draw the Power ‘Triangle. Also indicate different types of powers; iy ‘AC network along with their units. Ans. Power triangle is used to define the different types of power. Reactive Power (VAR) 'Q’ Real Power Or True Power Or Active Power (Watts). 'P’LP. University—(B.Tech.)-Akash Books 2015-9 and its unit is "watt", '?Q' and its unit is "VAR i.e. voltage-amp Reactive", y 'S' and its unit is "VA", i.e. voltage- Amp. Sere = Real Power is denoted by 'P" = Reactive Power ig denoted by = Apparent Power ig denoted b; = From the power triangle> , motor is at stand still condition UNITI Q.2. (a) State and explain Thevenin's theorem. (6.5) ‘Ans. A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of voltage source V,,, in series with resistor Rp, Ving = Open circuit voltage at the terminals Rr = input or equivalent resistor the terminal. V; re TH L Roy +R,Q2. (6) Calculate the value of load resistant naximum power i LP. University-(B.Tech)-Akash Books Linear * two-terminal o>or => Vet, Rey +R, _1gq-b are made open-ciruited to ersinals 078 current flows, fe the terminals a-b must be Vy, tel (Vim = Yoo R, ce in branch AB, circuit shown along ‘side. s transferred to the load of the 20, 19 A 20 20 so that 01 9015-27 pen circuit u so that the (6)First Semester, Electrical Technology 28-2015 For Vint F WW 0 A 33 ot Q 3 oB 21+31 = 20 T=4 amp| > Van = Vin=Voc =31=3.4 = 12 Volt For Ray? 2 1 A 3 B 6 Ray = Bry =GUI2+1= 541 =11/, 2099 For maximum power transfer > Maximum power [Prax = 163 watt] Q.3. (a) State and explain Millman's theorem. Ans. This theorem enables a number of voltage or current sources to be combite! into a single voltage and current sources. Ans. (651, Univesity-(0-Tech)- Akash Books 2015-29 Vin = y, Rp=R, 5 I= Q3. (6) Drive expression for converting a star network to adelta equivalent orks. 6) 70 gns.1-4 Transformation: ad -» Incireuit Analysis when the resistors are neither in parallel nor in series then we sey Atransformation, R, © (1) 4-1 Conversion: It is more convenient to work with y - Network as compare to s-Network. R= R,+Ry +R, RR, R= Rsk, +R,30-2015 First Semester, Electrical Technology R= ely R+R, +R, (2) y~ A Conversion: Ryle + Rhy + RyRy R, R, p, = BketRok +h, 2 Rip + RRs + RR, oes Ry ~ For Balanced system > R, = Ry=R,=Ry . R, =RA Ral ay= or [Ry = 3Ry| UNIT, QA. (@) Explain the term RMS value, Average value and form factor wet alternating quantity. Deduce the value of form factor of a sinusoidal vollage (3 Ans. ims Value; ~ Rs value is defined based on heating effect of the wave form, — The voltage (A.C) at which heat dissi ipation in AC circuit is equal to het dissipation in DC eireuitis called V,,. Tp + Vong = Fale Vidue Le ye > ie ph VideLP. University-(B.Tech)-Akash Books 2015-31 raluet Average Value is defined oe (A.0) at which charge ta 'ased on charge transfer in a circuit ’ nsfer in AC j : Mine we ae Average vale, sfer in AC is equal to charge transfer in ond sit aii ® 0 A Vdat o factor: Form factor is the ratio of Rms ‘Value of wave form to average value a "fort ae [Form factor = Ves. Tima Ig age Value for sinusoidal current or voltage, we i= I,sinot saiteseie. when wt varies from oto, a I= Ateaof firsthalf eyele x Vid =-1F ta sinat dot nar = 0-63 Inge [-cos ae], .6371, ms of effective value for sinusoidal current: i = I,,sinwt Area of I"half cycle of i? x Potdot itty 2F gla dot= Sha a = EE f(t-cos20t}dar ony Sf #82) on 2 2 2 Sa! gn Le 4 Form factor = 792-2018 First Semester, Electrical Technology [Form factor = 1.11] Ans, . (b) Explain the concept of bandwidth and quality facto» cuit. Drive their expression, a ‘Ans. Bandwidth: The difference between the to half power fequeng, ie, B= 0-0 RY j1 where ZL 2b) *t6 Rife) 4 = on Vat) “Le fo,@, rad/sec| > B is a half power Bandwidth, because itis the width of frequency bang the half frequencies, : Quality factor: The "sharpness" of the resonance in a reson: quantitatively by the quality factor 'Q’. ~ At resonance the reactive energy in the circuit oscillate between the induct, the capacitor ant is ese, — Quality factor a Peak energy stored in the circuit @= "| Bnorgy dissipated by the cireuit in one period al resonanas Lip > Q= Bre 2 7 Lyf eZ) Shot = Q= ROR . [B= wtcR ~> The quality factor of a resonant circuit is the ratio of its resonant frequency iS bandwidth. Q5. (a) State the advantages of three phase system over single over sing? phase system. 3s Ans. (1) Primary advantage of a 3-phase system over a poly phase or single pi is the inter connection is possible ie, windings can be connected either in the fe star or delta, onLR University-(B.Toch)-Akash Booka ly all electric power is generated ang distributed i ‘i pxentl te when are phaso or two ph uted in threo phase ayatem a Ones 0 ead of gonerating it separetae” 272% 8 fequced they ao taken i i el . We anymore than 3- Phares are node f a spquired then we use the manip a 2015-33 ~ uch asin aluminium company where 48 2 a ing of 3-phase system. sett instantaneous power in a 3-phase syste ye ye {in uniform power transmission and leas vt | itt the same amount of power, the three FOr ase. The amount of wire required pe 688 Gyr an equivalent signle-phase system, in be constant (not pulsating). ibration, of 3-phase machine. hase system is more economical than for a-3- phase system is less than that jw re 5.0) Find the capacitance which must be connected in series with a 100 :*y Jamp in order that the lamp may draw its normal current when the 4 ation is connected t0a220V 60 Hz supply, ® o Ans R —_ ;—>+—$v—| 100W, 110V | C=? 220V, S0Hz P_ 100 joie ee - 0.909 2 = Misia eto ~ 2 Vis Wg tVe? Vc? =V?-Va? Vg = (230)? (110)? = (62900)? — (12100? V¢ = 40800 [V, = 20.19] volt 2 = 7 7 at C= rar x10 Farad, TLLERM EXAM (OT RST oi STATION (SEPT, 2016] gp eCTRICAL TECHNOL Gg ECT a +Y (ETEE-107] is compulsory. Attempt any tay von not a MM. :30 oa what are limitations of Ohy ia Questions from rest Qa: Tye limitation of Ohm's law aren te (5x2) * follow: 5x2 Pemgronae att not have $8 ge-current relat like diode transistors et pdt applicable for Nondinear elon bth ectonsofcurent, rs ete, p) Ifthe length of a Wire of resistance ee gt" 1. (OF tay i Oh riginal value, what will be its new regia Uniformly stretched ton’ inilateral networks, cae ve wire resistance = R ‘ance? hel ln ped length =n ! R= FoRet = [Reni Now resistance =-R=n.1 Ohms tis rms value of an alternati Qu.) What is) in alternating current? ‘Ans. Rms value is defined as the heating ofthe quantity or parameter in AC as well system. Wea ns value for Alternating current is Where I, is the maximum value of current. 1. (d) What is the significance of peak factor? ‘Ans. Peak factor is defined as the ratio of maximum value to the Rms value of Alternating quantity. | «The alternating quantities can be voltage or current. + Maximum value is the peak value of the voltage or current and the root mean square value is the amount of heat produced by the alternating current. la 9 En Peak factor = Tes Ems jhase difference? Qu. (e) What do you mean by phase and p ‘a point in time (instant) on a wave Ans, Phase: It is a definition of the position of firm cycle, Phase difference: It is the difference thasors, Example: In 3-Phase system, Q2.(@) State and derive Maximum po in phase angle between two sinusoids or Phase difference is 120° wer transfer theorem? “ Ans, Maximum Power Transfer Theorem San Maximum Power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equal to the "enin’s resistance i.e.22016 -+ Thevenin’s equivalent is useful in finding the maximum power a ting, can deliver to a load. + If Entire cireui ap ay, 2 Viw First Semester, Electrical Technology Sy it is replaced by its thevenin’s equivalent except for the fey Ny he * : an(gtta] Ry 7 Ron +R 2 7 nite] Ry = RR Val (Bnet Ba) =2Rs (Ron + Rx) 7 (Fru +R)" [Rin +R, ~2R) (BoB) Rr = Ry} Proved. Q.2. (6) Find the value of R in the ckt of fig (1) such that maximum transfer takes place. And how much maximum power delivered to Toayenet indicate in graph? te 2 ag 6) Oy Fi F220 §R Fig. (1) Ans, 20 4{ 22 wv > 10 22 R =e 6v : R=? > For'R’ 20 22 a 12. bi RyRy = (201119)+20420 2 14 = 37442 ; 4 Formaximum Power, [Ry = Rr == | PEPER REE Er. Big=i, t | pyrvalveofi im enuation(D,wopetagi i og A) 42)? _ 26.440 4%4.666 18.664 Paax = L416 Watt] Ans, 3. 7 equivalent voltage and ,jevenin equivalent resistance shown in fig, (2) and draw Norton equivalent tircuit? ) 50, 100 a ; : 52 =] 60v _T30v Fig.2. Ans. Alinear two-terminal circuit can be replaced! cfvltage source Vz is series with resistor Ry. : Where Ryy = Equivalent Resistance ! Vr = Equivalent Voltage. by an equivalent circuit consisting 5 5a ton + i ‘ %-] oF v a ees i b Ryy = 115) +10 12.594-2016 First Semester, Electrical Technology i For Ving 50 = 51 +51 +30 =60 My 101 = 30 sa, re Vyg= V2 10045. +30 . =0+5x3+30 For Norton's Equivalent 45 Iy = 7g5 7960"? Ans, Q.3. (b) Asupply voltage of 230V, 50 Hz is fed to a residential building wy, down its equation for instantaneous value? tite ‘Ans. V,, = 230V, F = 50Hz instantaneous equation-? Instantaneous equation of Alternating voltage V = V,,Ginwt +9) 4 Phase difference §=0 Now w= 2nf =2nx50= 100% 14) Equation is given by [V=230sin 3142] Ans. QA. (a) The equation of an alternating current is i=42.42 Sin 628t. Determine (i) its maximum value (ii) frequency (iii) rms value (iv) average value (v) Form factor (vi) Peak factor. 6) Ans, i = 42.42 sin628t (i) Compare the equation with i= [,sinwt 2.42] amp (ii). wt = 628t w = 2nf=628 628 sud an ok F = 100%] Gii), Rms value ) ies a) det =I,/v2Le. University- Za 3210 ca 4.07 2: 1 10 Fa = 1.150 Amp Ans. . — 2. oe ,7 i ‘ON [SEPr. FIRST TERM EXAMINATI . 2017] FIRST SEMESTER [B.TECH] ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY (ETEE_107] yime! 4 hes, M.M.:30 Note! ONO Liscomputsory. Attempt any tro more questions from the rest, QI.) What are the limitation of Ohm’s law? ms Ans. Limitation of Ohm's law are (0 Ohm's law is appl (ii) Tecan not be ap awdered carbon, thyrite et " Q1-©) Write down the Ans. |-—~"Aetive Elements | Blements which supply energy (? (othe network are known as active elements samples Batteries, DC Gi Eenerators, AC generators photoelectric cell ete. © Components that dissi OWN as paser nl Ssiate energy are ssive ‘components, Ans. Form factor: The ratio of ett odie wave is known as form factor : Effective value thematically, form factor = Mather ly, tor “Reerage aes For sinusoidal wave x, = Hane - Emax! 1 Bygg /a/Q =A Pe av Brgy 212 Peak Cueto: Pealieresvamplitude factor ofa peice vars : scecmum or poakof the effeas orrms value ofthe wave *fted asthe ratio Maximum value = “aximum value , Effective value En ra For sinusoidal wave Ky = guns 1. (d) Three equal resistance of 3 ohm are con sistance in one of the arms i Ans, nected in star, What is the nan equivalent delta circuit? (2) HI