States of

Chapter 4
Consciousness
Brain States & Consciousness
Consciousness
• Psychology began as the
study of “states of
consciousness,” but interest
waned with the rise of
behaviorism and then
reemerged after the
cognitive revolution in the
1960s
• Consciousness: Our
awareness of ourselves and
our environment
• But does awareness really
define consciousness?
Consciousness & Vegetative States

• Vegetative state: A loss

of consciousness and
(all?) cognitive function

• Persistent status after

four weeks,
permanent status after
one year

• Wakefulness
differentiates a coma
from a vegetative state
Attention

• Selective attention: The

focusing of conscious
awareness on one particular
stimulus (to the exclusion of
others)

• According to one
estimate, we only
consciously process 40
of the 11 million bits of
information taken in by
our senses every second
Selective Inattention

• Inattentional blindness:
Failing to see visible
objects when our
attention is directed
elsewhere

• Change blindness:
Failing to notice changes
in your environment
The Two-Track Mind

• Dual processing: The

principle that information is
often simultaneously
processed on two separate
tracks-- a conscious high road
and an unconscious low road

• Blindsight: A condition in
which a person can respond
to a visual stimulus without
consciously experiencing it
Sleep
Biological Rhythms & Sleep

• Sleep: Periodic, natural,

easily reversible loss of
consciousness (distinct
from unconsciousness
resulting from a coma,
general anesthesia, or
hibernation)

• Circadian rhythm: The

24-hour biological clock

• Can change based on

age and experience
Theories of Sleep

• Sleep protects
• Sleep is restorative
• Sleep helps us
consolidate memories
• Sleep feeds creative
thinking
• Sleep supports growth
Sleep Deprivation
Stages of Sleep
Stages of Sleep
• Stage 1
• Alpha —> theta waves
• Hypnagogic sensations

• Stage 2
• Theta waves interrupted by
sleep spindles
• Stages 3 & 4 (deep sleep)
• Delta waves

• REM sleep: A recurring

sleep stage characterized by
vivid dreams and full body
paralysis
Dreaming

• Dream: A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts

passing through a sleeping person’s mind

• Notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and

incongruities, and for the dreamer’s delusional acceptance
of the content and later difficulties remembering it

• We often integrate memories from the previous day or

sensations experienced while we are sleeping into our dreams

• 75 percent of people who played Tetris for seven hours

straight before falling asleep reported seeing falling blocks
when they were woken up
Sleep Disorders

• Insomnia: Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

• Narcolepsy: A disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep

attacks in which they may lapse straight into REM sleep at
inopportune times

• Sleep apnea: A disorder characterized by temporary cessations of

breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

• Night terrors: A disorder characterized by high arousal and an

appearance of being terrified

• Unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during deep sleep and are
rarely remembered the next day
Improving Sleep
Drugs
Basic Terms

• Psychoactive drug: A chemical substance that alters

perceptions and moods

• Tolerance: The diminishing effect with regular use of the

same dose of a drug, which requires a user to take
increasingly larger doses to experience the same effect

• Withdrawal: The discomfort and distress that follow

discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

• Substance use disorder: Continued substance craving and

use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk
Depressants

• Depressants: Drugs (e.g., alcohol,

barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce
neural activity and slow body functions

• Barbiturates: Drugs (tranquilizers)

that depress central nervous
system activity, reducing anxiety but
impairing memory and judgment

• Opiates: Drugs derived from opium

(e.g., morphine and heroin) that
depress neural activity, temporarily
reducing pain and anxiety
Alcohol

• Contrary to popular belief, alcohol is a depressant

• It depresses brain activity that controls judgment and

inhibition, disrupts memory formation, reduces our
sense of self-awareness and self-control

• Alcohol dependence: Alcohol use marked by tolerance,

withdrawal symptoms in the event of suspended use, and
a drive to continue use

• As with other psychoactive drugs, expectations about

alcohol impact users’ behavior
Stimulants
• Stimulants: Drugs (e.g., caffeine,
nicotine, amphetamines) that excite
neural activity, speed up bodily
functions, and cause changes in
energy and mood

• Nicotine: A stimulating and

highly addictive psychoactive
drug in tobacco

• Amphetamines: A class of
especially powerful stimulants
(e.g., cocaine, MDMA,
methamphetamine)
Nicotine

• Nicotine is as powerfully
and quickly addictive as
substances like heroin
or cocaine

• If you make it through

college without
smoking, odds are
you’ll never start

• Family members and

peer groups play a
very strong role
Cocaine
Methamphetamine

• Methamphetamine: A
powerfully addictive drug
that stimulates the central
nervous system by
speeding up bodily
functions and inducing
changes in energy and
mood

• Appears to reduce
baseline dopamine levels
over time
Hallucinogens

• Hallucinogens:
Psychedelic drugs that
distort perceptions and
evoke sensory images
in the absence of
sensory input

• LSD (acid)

• Marijuana
Your Handy Guide
Influences on Drug Use