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Filiere: English Studies.

Semester 4.

Module: Translation

Module: 26.

Instructor: Dr. Rachid Agliz.

Lecture 1: Some Theoretical Perspectives on Translation

Translation is generally qualified as a means of bridging the gap between languages and
cultures. In addition to this, it is a communicative process which basically transfers the
message of a source language text to a target language. Generally, translation is defined as
being neither a creative art nor an imitative art, but stands somewhere between the two. Still,
it is a discipline that gives too much importance to structure and meaning. Following House
(2000), “A good translation should not read like a translation at all, but like a target language
original”. (47). It is obvious that this perfection in translation is the ultimate goal and hope of
every translator. After all, the gifted translator has to be faithful as much as possible to the
original text. Furthermore, Catford (1965) strongly argues that translation is essentially “the
replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in other
language (TL)” (20). Here, Catford induces the notion of equivalence which evokes some
effect constrictions notably those of explicitness, implicitness, culture and language. Catford
still remains unambiguous in his approach and interpretation of equivalence. He states that
“Translation is an operation performed on language, a process of substituting a text in one
language for a text in another. Clearly, then, any theory of translation must draw upon a
theory of language”. (1). The theory of translation and that of language are intrinsically
related to each other. From Catford words, it is clear that any theory of translation ought to be
built on that of language. The interdependence between the theory of language and that of
translation has long historically been debated since the advent of the langue-parole distinction
backed up by De Saussure in 1913. That great achievement in linguistic science has
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effectively resulted in a host of attitudes and approaches toward the translation process as a
whole. Hence, researchers in the field started to consider translation theory as a sort of science
or rather as a science of parole which should exclusively focus on the message of the text
rather than on language as a code. Fawcett (1997) staunchly supports and approves this
approach by maintaining that “the view that translation must be studied as parole
(communicative event) rather than langue (an abstract system) is now widely accepted” (4).

The translators are exposed to many challenges and problems while dealing with some
legal and highly sensitive texts which require a good command of the target and source
languages and cultures respectively. I think that the interdependence of the language theories
and those of translation have triggered off and brought about to the surface a lot of burning
issues such as ethics in translation and the role of equivalence in bridging the gap between the
source and target cultures and languages. The translator has to be faithful to both cultures in
order to convey the message clearly to his target audience. After all, a source text is not
merely a chain of words that have to be replaced by their correspondences in the target text. It
is, however, a whole mixture of different linguistic and extra linguistic features and levels that
have to be taken into account and treated, therefore, on equal bases.

In the same vein, translators have to take into account both the structure and the
meaning before translating a particular text. Bassnett (1954) argues that the translation
process:

involves the rendering of a source language text into the target language so as to ensure that
the surface meaning of the two will be approximately similar and the structures of the source
language will be preserved as closely as possible but not closely that the target language
structures will be seriously distorted. (2)

From the above quotation, it is clear that there are no specific, correct, good or agreed
upon definitions for translation. Each one focuses on certain concepts, but all tend to agree
that the function of the translator is basically to bring about in the minds of the readers of the
target language text, “as closely as possible” (Bassnett, 1954, 2) the same feelings as those
achieved by the source language text. Translation is undoubtedly a more complicated process
since the translator cannot always be viewed as George Steiner (1975) claims “Someone who
invades, extracts and brings home” (298). Instead, the translator should try to create an
equivalent effect of the source text on the target text reader so that the text can be adaptable to
its new socio cultural environment. In this respect, Basil Hatim and Mason (1990) point out
that:

The role of the translator as reader is then one of constructing a model of intended
meaning of source text and of forming judgments about the probable impacts of source text on
intended receivers.(92)

This testifies to the fact that translators have to find the appropriate words and
expressions in order to convey the exact meaning. The basic task of translators is to formulate
a new text in which they express their intended meaning. Moreover, they have to be very
effective in their judgments in order to create an outstanding impact on readers. However,
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translators are often confronted with many problems while translating texts from English into
Arabic. One of the problems that translators face is equivalence and since translation “is a
model of communication where choices are further subjected to a principle of equivalence
between a source text in one language and a target text in another” (Beaugrande,1994, 56),
translators should be very careful if they want to succeed in producing relevant translations
which produce similar effects on the reader to those achieved by the original text. In other
words, translators ought to work within the core of the target culture and know the rules of the
target language community so as to find appropriate equivalents to achieve pragmatic
competence which “…consists not only of linguistic knowledge but also of knowledge of the
rules of language use”. (Olshtain and Blum Kulka, 1996,16).

Above all, translators are very crucial components in any translation process. Hence,
a good translator is required to produce a good and convincing translation. For researchers in
the field, translators have to be gifted and highly qualified in both source and target cultures
and by the same token have to be characterized by qualities such as “loyalty” and “fidelity”.
The successful translator is the one who is faithful to the original source and target texts
respectively. Thus, such an attempt to be faithful to both cultures seems to be difficult to
attain sometimes as translators are confronted with difficulties at the linguistic, pragmatic and
cultural levels. This in fact is also due to the problem of equivalence in both target and source
texts. Yet, translators around the globe do their best to achieve a sort of equilibrium between
the source and target languages. Translators strive to come up with an acceptable translation
that really looks like the original one. To be faithful to the source text seems to be a hard task
for any gifted translator. Nord (1991) concurs with this argument in his manner by pointing
out that faithfulness and loyalty are the key and striking elements that translators have to take
into account to achieve success. Nord further defines “loyalty” as a moral principle
indispensable in the relationship between human beings who are partners in a communication
process and “fidelity” as a rather technical relationship between two texts” (29).

Before achieving those moral principles, translators have to be highly qualified and
very competent in both target and source texts. In other words, they should not only master
source text and target text languages, but ought to have a good command of the subject of
their translation because “the more unequivocal and definite the description of the target text
recipient, the easier it is for the translator to make his decisions in the course of translation
process. The translator, therefore, should insist on being provided with as many details as
possible”. (Nord 1991,9). The mastery of all these elements enables the translator to go
beyond the surface level of the source text and to avoid reading it an intuitive way. According
to Nord, the true and gifted translator has to read “every new source text in the light of his
experience as a critical recipient and translator”. (Nord 1991,11).

In the very challenging translation process, translators have to be both good

recipients and producers. The translator is supposed to be a kind of recipient who “reads the
source text instead of the initiator or some other recipient who belongs to a target culture
which may be quite different from the source culture”. (Nord 1991,10). Moreover, a true
translator is compelled to be a good producer who “may be compared with a ghost writer who
produces a text at the request, and for the use, of somebody else” (10). Thus, translators
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occupy a central position in the translation process. They are both the reproducers of the
source text and the recipients of the target text. In other words, they are at the same time
rewriters and readers of the texts translated.

It is obvious that the mastery of two languages is not enough for translators to be good
reproducers of source text and good recipients of target text at the same time. Hence, a gifted
translator has to be bi-cultural “which means a perfect command of both the source and the
target culture” (11). The perfect command of both languages and both cultures paves the way
for the translator to be a good rewriter of source text and producer of target text.
Communication is also another important criterion in the translation process. A translator is
impelled to be a good communicator and his translation should really reflect that stance.
Hatim (1997) states that a true translator is the one who conveys his message clearly to his
target audience. He describes the translator as “a special category of communicator” (2). Such
a description is further supported by Gutt (2000) who points out that “the translator must be
seen and must see himself clearly as a communicator” (19).

Lecture 2: Equivalence in Translation

Equivalence is a very important element in translation and translators are usually

confronted with difficulties while translating texts for their target language audiences. In other
words, the translator has to find the most suitable words in order to create an impact on his
audience. Consequently, equivalence means “the correspondence of effects: those of the
original on the source language audience versus those of the translation on the target language
audience”. (Beaugrande, 1994,56). There are many types of equivalence but the most
important ones are formal equivalence, functional equivalence, ideational equivalence and
dynamic equivalence.

Nida (1964) divides the notion of equivalence into two categories which are
respectively, “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. The first one exclusively
“focuses on the message itself, in both form and content…One is concerned that the message
in the receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the
source language” (159). Here, the main concern or the major goal of formal equivalence is to
preserve all the elements of the source text. In other words, the content and the form must not
be distorted in any way. The second type is completely different from the first one as there is
a considerable shift from the message to the receiver. Accordingly, this concept is best
“defined in terms of the degree to which the receptor’s language responds in substantially the
same manner as the receptors in the source language. This response can never be identical, for
the cultural and historical settings are too different, but there should be a high degree of
equivalence of response, or translation will have failed to accomplish its purpose”. (Nida
1969,24). Nida argues, here, that in spite of the fact that the receptor’s response is as crucial
as the target text; still the degree of the response to the target text will never be similar to that
of the source text. This brought us to the notion of sameness in translation which I strongly
believe can never be attained. This is further backed up by Bassnett (1991) who stresses that
“equivalence in translation…should not be approached as a search for sameness, since
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sameness cannot even exist between two versions of the same text, let alone between the
source language and the target language version” (29).

The notion of equivalence has actually created two opposite different views concerning
the organization of the diversity of natural languages. Both the formalists and the
functionalists see natural languages from different perspectives. The formalist Chomsky sees
natural languages as “a system of finite rules for generating an infinite number of abstract
sentences and they relegate lexical items to movable syntactic pieces or counters to be
selected and manipulated by the principle of open choice: any word can serve if it fits the
syntactic constraints”. (Beaugrande 1994, 55). This is a clear indication that formalists are
much more interested in the linguistic forms that ought to be arranged in an appropriate way.
Apart from this, the functionalists stress the importance of natural languages. According to
them, the natural language is a very significant means of communication and its importance
resides in the fact of attaining basic “communicative acts and moves”. (Beaugrande, 1994, 56)

The above facts are clear evidence that equivalence is an outstanding element in
translation. Both Arab and European translators are exposed to the problem of equivalence
while translating texts, which contain words that do not have an equivalent in the target
language. A case in point here is the word: ‫ الشريعة‬To translate this word from Arabic into
English is not an easy task because it does not have an equivalent in the target language and if
a translator finds this word in a sentence or in a text, he is compelled to translate the meaning.
Translators should take into consideration, the notion of acceptability and adequacy before
translating a particular text. The target language audience will accept a translation if it
embodies both the notions of adequacy and acceptability. This is exactly what Toury (1980)
said about translation and more specifically about one of the elements of literature, which is
“Haiku”,

Thus, what may be said to operate in translation is not any fact about the reception of its end
product (which is not there, in the first place), only certain assumptions with respect to it,
namely, assumptions as to the prospects of a text whose structure and linguistic make up
follow a certain pattern which is acceptable to the target end. Being members of the target
culture, or tentatively assuming the role of ones, translators are more or less aware of the
factors, which govern the acceptability of texts and textual linguistic features in that culture or
certain sector thereof. To the extent that they choose to subject themselves to these factors and
resort to the appropriate translation strategies, the act itself is executed under the initial norm
of acceptability, whether the end product will indeed be admitted into the target system or no.
(Connor 1996,122).

This means that the translator should master the rules of the language and ought to come
up with expressions that would be accepted by the target language audience. In other words,
he must stick to the syntactic and the grammatical structures of the language of his target
audience in order to create an impact on them. Likewise, Hatim and Mason (1990) have
further elaborated on the effect of equivalence on the target audience. They have defined
Nida’s dynamic equivalence as “the principle of equivalence of effect on the reader of target
text” (7). In other words, dynamic equivalence is the fact of making a significant effect on the
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readers of the target audience. Thus, in order to attain this, the method goes for cultural
transposition. That is to say, replacing items or idioms by another, which would be known to
the speech community of the target language and which, would imply the adequate idea and
have more or less the same idea.

Lecture 3: Representation, Transmission and Transculturation in Translation

In her illuminating book, Enlarging Translation, Empowering Translators (2010),

Maria Tymoczko expounded on the three categories or forms of cultural exchange in
translation, namely representation, transmission and transculturation. Hence, all sorts of
translation are representations. A translation, as a system of representation, provides the
readers or the target audience with “an image or likeness of another thing” (112).
Furthermore, as a representation, translation basically aims at exhibiting and showing that
object or thing in a clear and straightforward manner. In this respect, translation is essentially
geared to transmit a particular message and “to convey a particular aspect of a subject so as to
influence its receptors”. (112). The symbolical implications of translation are further explored
by Maria Tymoczko when she strongly maintains that any representation aims at providing a
sort of argument for the receivers within a particular society and in this sense all translations
encompass diverse representations which basically encapsulate messages to be conveyed to
the target audience. As a matter of fact, translation is perceived as a means to attain “mental
clarity” (112). In addition to the above facts, Tymoczko points out that representations in
translation, most of the time, are vividly geared to suit the basic views of those translators
who have been much involved in transmitting their messages from one culture to another.
Like other representations, the translations of any source texts are very much governed by
certain criteria and are in particular shaped by certain ideologies.

Apart from this, there is another mode of cultural exchange or interface that can
actually be adopted as a means or frame of reference for any translation. This model is called
transmission. In western cultures, translation has always been qualified as a means of
representation which is intrinsically linked to transfer and transmission. By assessing
translation from the perspective of transmission, we get a deep insight into the notion of
translation as a mode of transferring and transmitting messages and meanings from source
texts to target ones. Transmission in translation can, therefore, take many shapes. According
to Tymoczko, like other forms or means of transfer, translation is very much concerned with
“the transmission of substance on the macro levels of the text, most commonly semiotic
meanings, discourses or elements having to do with the content or structure of the source text
or utterance”. (117) In the same vein, there are other features of transfer and these are to be
traced or found on the micro levels of any translation which can therefore “ take the form of
word to word transference, including borrowings, which import some of the meanings of
source language words into the translated text.” (117). In this respect, the translator’s basic or
main duty is to transfer the meaning or the message clearly to the target audience. Such
transmission has to take into account the lexical and linguistic tools that have to be wisely
used in order to achieve the desired target production and the most accurate translation that
suits both the aspirations of the source and target audiences. Tymoczko backs up her
assessment of this category of cultural exchange by stating that the lexical and linguistic
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transfer have been considered through history as significant tools which motivated much
translators in their constant efforts to transfer and transmit the most appropriate linguistic and
lexical terms from source texts to target ones. Translators are often confronted with the
challenging tasks of rendering or transferring source texts in such an appropriate and adequate
manner that can help the target readers to decipher the intended meaning. Manipulating
source texts is essentially the key to any successful assessment or interpretation of target texts.
Tymoczko concurs with this argument when she states that there are different sorts of
translation. Hence, there are the ones which completely “diverge from the linguistic features
of the source text” and there are other “translations that add significant contextual or
supplementary materials”. (117). Thus, in both cases, the translator has to use the right
linguistic or lexical equivalent in order to maintain a sort of balance between the source and
target texts respectively. Manipulating source texts in diverse manners helps translators in
their mission which is “to transmit the contents to the targeted audience most effectively and
most efficiently”. (117).

The authenticity of representation in translation raises a whole range of burning issues.

Is there really an authentic representation in a particular text? Are all translations good
representations of the source texts? Can we really conceive all translations as mere examples
of transfer or transmission? Is it really possible to consider translation as a means of
representation, as a cultural and linguistic tool involving no sort of transfer whatsoever?
Catford’s definition of translation encompasses such an attitude and perspective. According to
him, translation is essentially “an operation performed on languages: a process of substituting
a text in one language for text in another” (1965:1). Catford further backs up his arguments
by saying that translation can be defined as “the replacement of textual material in one
language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL).” (1965:20).

What can be extrapolated from the given definitions is that there is still the possibility
of tracing some minimal transmission in the translation process and this in part is due to the
meanings of equivalent. According to Maria Tymoczko, transmission in translation evokes the
challenging tasks that translators are confronted with in the translation of source texts and
rendering them in an almost acceptable and readable way. In certain cases, a particular
translation “might involve almost no transfer or transmission of content”. (118). Again, the
process of translation here is oriented toward the use of the right equivalent in such a wise
manner to keep both the source and target texts in equilibrium without taking into account the
significance of “semantics, meaning or other forms of semiotic equivalence”. (118).
Transferring the meaning or the intended message from source texts to target ones is a crucial
element in the translation process. Yet, Catford’s definition of translation sets the mood for
“zero transfer as a limit in the process of translation”. (118).

The other most important mode or means of cultural exchange or interface is

transculturation which is defined as “the transmission of cultural characteristics from one
cultural group to another” (120). This concept is very similar to the other two categories. Yet,
like transmission, transculturation “goes far beyond the exchange of verbal materials”. (120).
Such a mode of cultural exchange encapsulates things such as “the transmission and uptake of
beliefs and practices related to religion, social organization and government from one people
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to another, as well as the spread of artistic forms, including music, the ritual arts, literary
forms and even tale types”. (120). Transculturation does not only mean acculturation, rather
this process involves many stages. Ortiz concurs with this approach when he points out that
the concept “transculturation” aims both at exploring and expressing:

The different phases of the process of transition from one culture to another because this does
not consist merely in acquiring another culture, which is what the English word acculturation
really implies, but the process also necessarily involves the loss or uprooting of a previous
culture, which could be defined as a deculturation. In addition it carries the idea of the
consequent creation of new cultural phenomena, which could be called neoculturation. (Cited
in Tymoczko, p.123).

This quotation highlights the importance as well as the cultural significance of

transculturation in translation. Illuminating the performative nature of translation seems to be
the hallmark of the translator’s task and duty. After all, it is incumbent upon the translator to
take into consideration all the important features of transculturation in order to accurately
“insert elements from one culture into another” (125) clearly and effectively. To support her
approach, Maria Tymoczko further provides examples which really involve transculturation.
One of the examples given here is the famous play, Hamlet, which was performed in Africa
by Laura Bohannan with her chosen audience. The main objective was to tell “the story
within the receptors’ cultural framework so they could appropriate it, even if the process
meant adjusting the story to local performance norms and cultural mores”. (125). In the same
stream, the interactive nature of storytelling that Bohannan firmly delineates has produced “ a
translation that epitomized transculturation with both the source and target cultures being
altered”. (125). The translation process fully involved the active participation of the audience.
Such an approach would not be conceived as ordinary bearing in mind that translation as a
means of representation should necessarily and primarily aim at “the transmission or
representation of Hamlet as an artifact of its own system”. (125) Likewise, Ezra pound’s
translations of Chinese poetry fall within the same scope. According to Maria Tymocyko,
such translations ought to be looked at as tools that “ stress transculturation more than
transmission, the aim was to perform new literary types for the purpose of shifting the
receptor literary and cultural systems toward the models being translated”. (125).

Equally important, dynamic equivalence translations as well as the other types of

functionalism in translation are often directed toward transculturation than toward
representation or transmission. The translator is not only preoccupied with the most accurate
and exact representation of the source text or with the transmission of the basic literal
message that is eminent in such types of translations, but it seems that the main objective is
the production of “ a translation that will insert the text operationally into the system of the
receptors”. (125). Transculturation is paramount in the new contemporary commercial
translation and notably the translation of advertisements and multimodal translation where the
translator’s main goal is to closely and accurately transfer the most important lexical and
textual features and to be faithful as much as possible to the content. (126).
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Above all, translation and transculturation are intrinsically interwoven as both strive to
achieve a sort of exchange at the linguistic and cultural realms or boundaries. Translation is
very often conceived as a metonymic process and that the manners in which gifted translators
represent a source text, transmit it and transculturate it will automatically be metonymic.
(128). It is significant to stress that representation, transmission and transculturation as modes
of cultural exchange are closely interconnected and are therefore complementary. Using such
models or frameworks in the assessment, evaluation and interrogation of the validity and the
authenticity of our translations of source texts helps to uphold and to question the whole
process of translation. Hence, in any scholarly field and in translation studies in particular,
what is valued more is this cultural exchange between source and target cultures. In other
words, in translation studies, cultural difference and otherness become in the long run the
scope or the target of investigation and inquiry.

Lecture 4: Foundation Methods of Translation

Methods of translation are classified into six types: word-for-word translation, literal
translation, faithful translation, communicative translation, adaptation and free translation. Let
us start with the word for word translation. This type of translation keeps the SL word order;
words are translated out of context according to their most common meaning. Such kind of
translation can be used as a preliminary translation step but it is not applied in real translation
tasks. The following lines are from The Secret Sharer by Joseph Conrad with their translation
into Arabic following the word-for-word method.

“On my right hand there were lines of fishing stakes resembling a mysterious system of
half-submerged bamboo fences, incomprehensible in its division of the domain of
tropical fishes.” The following is the word for word translation:

‫على يميني يد كانت خطوط الصيد حصص تشبه غموض نظام نصف مغمور لبامبو أسيجة غير مستوعب في تقسيمه‬
‫لمجال االستوائية األسماك‬.

Yet, it seems that such a translation is meaningless to an Arab reader since neither its
grammatical structure nor its semantics can help the reader make sense of what he or
she reads. An acceptable translation would be:

‫وكانت على يميني خطوط ألعمدة الصيد تشبه نظاما غامضا من سياج الخيزران نصف المغمورة غير المراعى فيتقسيماتها‬
‫لحركة األسماك االستوائية‬

As we can see from the above example, word-for-word translation does not take context into
consideration. It might be helpful as a first step in the translation but a great deal of editing
and modifications have to be made in order to convey the message to the target language
reader. The translator has to make sure that the translation follows the word order of the target
language and that the choice of semantic equivalents is carried out accurately. Word-for-word
translation can also be called interlinear translation.
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For the literal translation, there is so much focus on the preservation of the
grammatical structures of the source language which are translated into their nearest target
language equivalents. Hence, it takes place when the source language and target language
share parallel structures. Words are translated out of context paying no attention to their con-
notative meanings. The following example illustrates this point. To throw dust in the eyes.‫يلقي‬
‫التراب في العيون‬The word ‘dust’ is translated literally as ‫ التراب‬while the equivalent expression in
Arabic is ‫ الرماد في العيون يذر‬where ‘dust’ is translated into ‫الرماد‬, ashes. This choice could be
justified by the cultural as well as ecological contexts that are different for both languages. If
we take the English idiom to throw dust in the eyes, its associative meaning is based on the
effect of dust once thrown in someone’s eyes blurring their vision and impeding their ability
to see. The same sense is expressed in Arabic by using the equivalent ashes rather than dust.
Dust is, therefore, not expected to blur vision and hide reality in the Arabic context.

Examples of Literal texts translated from Arabic into English

‫ هل كانت مصابة بالتهاب في‬.‫ كنت أجرى تجربة تجريبية عليها كنقطة انطالق‬، ‫ما يفعل األطباء في كثير من األحيان‬
‫ لكن تعبير‬.‫ هل يؤلمك حلقك؟ أضيفت األم إلى الطفل‬.‫ تقول أن حلقها ال يؤذيها‬، ‫ ال‬. . .‫ ال‬:‫الحلق؟ أجابني الوالدان م ًعا‬
‫ لكنني لم أستطع الرؤية‬، ‫ هل نظرت؟ قالت األم حاولت ذلك‬.‫الفتاة الصغيرة لم يتغير ولم تحرك عينيها عن وجهي‬

(The source text)

The target text is as follows:

As doctors often do I took a trial shot at it as a point of departure. Has she had a sore
throat? Both parents answered me together, No . . . No, she says her throat don’t hurt
her. Does your throat hurt you? Added the mother to the child. But the little girl’s
expression didn’t change nor did she move her eyes from my face. Have you looked? I
tried to, said the mother, but I couldn’t see.

-For the faithful translation, a balance must be maintained between the literal meaning of
the source language word and the target language syntactic structures. It sounds more
reasonable as it takes the context into consideration, aiming at producing more precise
meaning of the source language texts.

Examples of faithful translation

The Source Text in Arabic:

.‫ لكنه ال يزال مرتبطًا بالحياة في جميع الزوايا األربع‬، ‫ ربما يكون مرتبطًا بشكل خفيف جدًا‬، ‫الخيال يشبه شبكة العنكبوت‬
‫غالبًا ما يكون التعلق غير محسوس‬

The Target Text in English

Fiction is like a spider’s web, attached ever so lightly perhaps, but still attached to life at all
four corners. Often the attachment is scarcely perceptible.

- Communicative translation aspires to create the same effect created by the SL text on the
TL reader. Though it is not as accurate as semantic translation which sticks to the original
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text, it communicates the meaning at the expense of accuracy. However, it is preferred by

many translators because it resorts to concepts that are more familiar to the TL reader on
cultural and social levels. It is usually used for culturally specific idioms, proverbs or clichés
where the translator replaces a SL word or concept with one that already exists in the
TL. Communicative translation concentrates on the message and the main force of the text,
tends to be simple, clear and brief, and is always written in a natural and resourceful style
(Newmark (1988: 48).

Examples of Commuicative translation (The Source Text)

‫ لديه مشاكل‬، ‫ ال تنسي‬:‫ إنه من حقه أن يعرف؟ األخ‬، ‫ يجب علينا‬:‫ هل أنت متأكدة أنك تريدين إخباره؟ األخت‬:‫أخي‬
‫ كان يعرف كل هذا بالفعل قبل وقوع‬، ‫ إلى جانب ذلك‬.‫ أعرف‬، ‫ أعرف‬:‫خطيرة في القلب عندما يتعرض للمفاجآت؟ األخت‬
، !‫ من حقه أن يعرف‬:‫ األخت‬... ‫ لكن‬، ‫ ربما يكون قد أضر بنصف أعصاب دماغه وفقد من ذاكرته‬، ‫ حسنًا‬:‫الحادث األخ‬
‫ فهمتك؟‬.‫ فهذا خطأك‬، ‫ولكن إذا حدث خطأ ما‬

-The Target Text in English:

Brother: Are you sure you want to tell him?Sister: We should, he has the right to know?
Brother: Don’t forget, he has serious heart issues when he gets exposed to surprises?Sister: I
know, I know. Besides, he knew all of this already, before the accident happened.Brother: Ok,
he might have damaged half of his brain nerves and lost ¾ of his memory, but ...Sister: He has
the right to know!Brother: Fine, but if anything goes wrong, it is your fault. Got it?

-Adaptation is considered as the freest form of translation, and it is not usually

differentiated from the following types (free translation). Adaptation is used mainly for
plays (comedies) and poetry; the themes, characters and plots are usually pre-served,
the source language culture is converted to the target language culture and the text is
rewritten.

Examples: The Source Text in Arabic

ً ‫ كنت فقصصط جبانًصصا صصصغيرًا مبتص‬، ‫راينا [تضصصحك وتجلس مصصرة أخصصرى] نعم‬
‫ أن‬- ‫ أعتقصصد أنصصه كصصان كصصل شصصيء صصصحيحًا‬، ‫ص أوه‬.‫صذال‬
‫ أن العالم حقًا عالم مجيد للنساء اللواتي يمكنهنص رؤيصصة مجصصده والرجصصال الصصذين يمكنهم تمثيصصل‬- ‫سرجيوس رائع ونبيل كما يبدو‬
‫] !الرومانسية! ما هي السعادة! يا له من إنجاز ال يوصف‬.‫ترمي نفسها على ركبتيها بجانب والدتها وتقذف ذراعيها بشصصغف‬
، ‫ وهي فتصصاة جميلصصة وفخصصورة ترتصصدي فسصصتان فالح بلغصصاري جميصصل مصصع مصصئزر مصصزدوج‬، ‫تمت مقاطعتهم من خالل دخول لوكا‬
‫ هي‬.‫ ولكن حصصتى معهصصا تصصذهب إلى أبعصصد مصصا تجصصرؤ‬، ‫ إنها خائفة من كاثرين‬.‫متحدية لدرجة أن خنوعها لراينا يكاد يكون وق ًحا‬
‫ لكنها ال تتعاطف مع نشوة‬.‫ اآلن فقط متحمسة مثل اآلخرين‬Raina ‫وتنظر بازدراء إلى نشوات االثنين قبل أن تلبسهما‬.[

The Target text in English

RAINA ]laughing and sitting down again[ Yes, I was onlya prosaic little coward. Oh, to think
that it was all true– that Sergius is just as splendid and noble as he looks– that the world is
really a glorious world for women whocan see its glory and men who can act its romance!
Whathappiness! What unspeakable fulfillment!Ah! ]She throws herself on her knees beside
her mother and flings herarms passionately round her. They are interrupted by the entryof
Louka, a handsome, proud girl in a pretty Bulgarianpeasant’s dress with double apron, so
defiant that her servilityto Raina is almost insolent. She is afraid of Catherine, buteven with
 12

her goes as far as she dares. She is just now excitedlike the others; but she has no sympathy
for Raina’s rapturesand looks contemptuously at the ecstasies of the two before sheaddresses
them.[

-Free Translation

This strategy basically preserves the meaning of the original text but uses natural forms
of the target language, including normal word order and syntax, so that the translation can be
naturally under-stood. It preserves the content at the expense of the form, and it provides a
longer para-phrase of the original. It is a form of idiomatic translation that favours
colloquialisms and idioms which do not exist in the source language.

Examples:

The Source Text:

‫ وأنجبت‬.‫ أنا وهذه المرأة ساكنان في نفس البيت‬، ‫ يا سيدي‬:‫ فقالت امرأة‬.‫وأتت امرأتان زانيتان إلى الملك ووقفتا أمامه‬
‫ وكنا معا لم يكن معنا أحد في المنزل إال نحن‬.‫ضا‬
ً ‫ ثم في اليوم الثالث بعد والدتي أنجبت هذه المرأة أي‬.‫وهي في المنزل‬
‫ فقامت في منتصف الليل وأخذت ابني من جانبي‬.‫ وتوفي ابن هذه المرأة في الليل ألنها اضطجعت عليه‬.‫االثنين في المنزل‬
‫ وعندما استيقظت في الصباح ألرضع‬.‫ ووضعت ابنها الميت في حضني‬، ‫ ووضعته في حضنها‬، ‫ بينما جاريتك نائمة‬،
‫ لم يكن ابني الذي ولدت به بالفعل‬، ‫ ولكن عندما قمت بفحصه في الصباح‬.‫ كان هناك ميتًا‬، ‫ابني‬.

The Target Text:

Now two women who were harlots came to the king, and stood before him. And one
woman said, ‘O my lord, this woman and I dwell in the same house; and I gave birth while
she was in the house. Then it happened, the third day after I had given birth, that this woman
also gave birth. And we were together; no one was with us in the house, except the
two of us in the house. And this woman’s son died in the night, because she lay on him. So
she arose in the middle of the night and took my son from my side, while your maidservant
slept, and laid him in her bosom, and laid her dead child in my bosom. And when I rose in the
morning to nurse my son, there he was, dead. But when I had examined him in the morning,
indeed, he was not my son whom I had borne.’

The Source Text:

‫أمضت سندريال وقتا في غاية المتعة في حفلة الرقص حتى سمعت دقات الساعة تعلن حلول منتصف الليل فتذكرت ما قالته‬
‫ وبينما كانت تركض‬.‫الجنية فانسلت من غير بخاطركم وال مع السالمة بخلسة من بين يدي األمير ونزلت الدرج بسرعة‬
‫سقطت منها إحدى فردتي الحذاء لكنها لم تتوقف ولم تحدث نفسها حتى بالتوقف ألنها إن فعلت ذلك فيا ويلها ويا سواد ليلها‬
‫فركضت مسرعة واختفت في الظالم‬.

The Target Text:

Cinderella had a wonderful time at the ball until she heard the first stroke of midnight! She
remembered what the fairy had said, and without a word of goodbye she slipped from
the Prince’s arms and ran down the steps. As she ran she lost one of her slippers, but not for a
moment did she dream of stopping to pick it up! If the last stroke of midnight were to
sound ... oh ... what a disaster that would be! Out she fled and vanished into the night.
 13

Lecture 5: Source and Target texts

For this module, the students are required to translate texts from Arabic into English. Hence, they
have to take into account the basic characteristics and features of each language. Obviously, the
Arabic language has got its own linguistic features which essentially differ from the English one. The
students have to translate the meaning and to draw a comparison between the source and target
texts to make sure that they have kept the meaning and have, therefore, been faithful to the source
or original text. On the day of the exam, they are allowed to use the dictionary to look for suitable
equivalents or synonyms that they see relevant to the context. The following are source texts
translated into English. These examples will surely help students to master the techniques of
translation and to be ready to translate any passage from Arabic into English.

Examples:

Source Text:

ً ، ‫وغدا‬
‫ إلى آخر مقطع لفظي من الزمن المسجل ؛ وكل أيامنا الماضية‬، ‫ يزحف في هذه الوتيرة الصغيرة من يوم آلخر‬، ‫وغد ا‬ ً ، ‫غ ًدا‬
‫ العب فقير الذي يتبختر‬، ‫ شمعة قصيرة! الحياة ما عدا ظل المشي‬، ‫ خارج‬، ‫ خارج‬.‫قد أضاءت الحمقى الطريق إلى الموت المترب‬
‫ويقلق ساعته على خشبة المسرح‬

Target Text:

Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow,Creeps in this petty pace from day to day,To the last
syllable of recorded time;And all our yesterdays have lighted foolsThe way to dusty death.
Out, out, brief candle! Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player That struts and frets his
hour upon the stage.

Source Text:

‫ وتحدث عندما ال‬، ‫من األسباب التي تستدعي إجراء عملية زراعة القلب اإلصابة بالقصور القلبي الذي يعرف ب “بالقصور القلبي‬
‫ بحيث يستمر القلب في عملية الضخ‬،‫يتمكن القلب من ضخ الكمية الكافية من الدم الذي يحمل األكسجين إلى أعضاء الجسم المختلفة‬
‫ فيحتفظ جسم اإلنسان المصاب بالقصور القلبي االحتقاني بكمية أكبر من السوائل مما تؤدي‬.‫إال أنها ليست بنفس فعالية القلب السليم‬
‫ كما و تتجمع السوائل في الرئتين مسببة ضيق في التنفس‬،‫إلى انتفاخ الكاحلين والساقين‬.

Target text:

One of the reasons for performing a heart transplant is heart failure, which is known as “heart
failure, and it occurs when the heart is unable to pump enough blood that carries oxygen to the
various organs of the body, so that the heart continues to pump, but it is not as effective as a healthy
heart. . The human body with congestive heart failure retains more fluid, which causes the ankles
and legs to swell, and the fluid collects in the lungs, causing shortness of breath.

Source Text:

‫ لم يفشل أبدًا في إدهاشي كيف يمكن لألحداث غير المهمة على ما يبدو أن يكون لها تأثير بعيدص‬:‫ترجمة الفرصة إلى مهنة‬
‫ دفعتني ثالث حوادث بالصدفة إلى االنتقال من إنجلترا إلى ثالث دول أخرى ألصبح‬، ‫ في حالتي‬.‫المدى على حياة الناس‬
‫ مع هطول األمطار المتساقطة‬، ‫ قرب نهاية الليلة األخيرة‬.‫ وقد بدأ كل ذلك في مهرجان موسيقى الروك‬، ‫مترج ًما محترفًا‬
.‫ سألنا أحدهم بلغة إنجليزية متعثرة كيفية الوصول إلى المحطة‬، ‫ اقترب ثالثة من رواد المهرجان من مجموعة منا‬، ‫كالعادة‬
‫ وكانت المحطة‬، ‫ كانت لغتي األلمانية أساسية إلى حد ما‬.‫اتضح أنهم من ألمانيا وكانوا يسافرون في جميع أنحاء أوروبا‬
 14

‫ بقينا على اتصال واخترت دراسة اللغة األلمانية في‬، ‫ لقص قصة طويلة‬.‫ لذلك عرضت عليهم حضور العرض‬، ‫بعيدةص جدًا‬
‫ أصبحت مفتونًا بكل األشياء األلمانية التي كنت أرغب في الذهاب إليها‬، ‫ وبحلول الوقت الذي تخرجت فيه‬، ‫الجامعة‬
‫ وجدت‬، ‫ وبعد شهر واحد فقط من حصولي على شهادتي‬، ‫ كان التدريس هو الوظيفة الواضحة بالنسبة لي‬.‫والعيش هناك‬
‫ لقد حدث أن‬.‫ حيث أقوم بتدريس اللغة اإلنجليزية والترجمة للطالب من جميع األعمار والخلفيات‬، ‫نفسي أعيش في إيسن‬
‫ وعندما عرض عل ّي بعد عامين فرصة‬، ‫ وكان يطمح منذ فترة طويلة إلى افتتاح مدرسة لغات في بلده‬، ‫رئيسي كان إيطاليًا‬
‫ ذهبت‬، ‫ لذلك‬، ‫ بدا أن هناك مدرسة أخرى كانت المغامرة تلوح في األفق‬، ‫ رئيس اللغات الذي يعمل به‬، ‫الذهاب إلى بيزاس‬
‫ واصلت لقضاء ثالث سنوات‬.‫ مسل ًح ا بقليل من اإليطاليين واالعتقاد بأن ما فعلته مرة واحدة يمكنني القيام به مرة أخرى‬،
، ‫ وأخذت المزيد والمزيد من أعمال الترجمة مع تحسن لغتي اإليطالية‬، ‫في تدريس اللغة اإلنجليزية واأللمانية في إيطاليا‬
‫ كان أحد األصدقاء الذين كانوا معي في المهرجان يعمل اآلن‬.‫وهذا هو المكان الذي بدأت فيه المجموعة الثالثة من األحداث‬
‫ لمسابقة نظمتها‬- ‫ كان اإلنترنت شيئًا من الخيال العلمي في تلك األيام‬- ‫ لقد صادف إعالنًا في الصحيفة‬.‫في الدنمارك‬
‫ لم أفكر مطلقًا في أن أصبح مترج ًما متفر ًغا من‬.‫المفوضية األوروبية للمترجمين بلغتين على األقل في االتحاد األوروبي‬
‫ وبتوقعات قليلة تقدمت بطلب وجلست في المنافسة في‬، ‫ قررت أن أجربها‬، ‫ مع لغتي األلمانية واإليطالية‬، ‫ ولكن اآلن‬، ‫قبل‬
‫ وبعد عامين أصبحت‬، ‫ضا‬ ً ‫ وقد نجحت في ذلك أي‬، ‫ دُعيت الحقًا إلى بروكسل لالختبار الشفوي‬، ‫ ولدهشتي كثيرًا‬.‫روما‬
‫ بصرف النظر عن شكر‬، ‫ أوه‬. ‫ ولم أنظر إلى الوراء أبدًا‬، ‫ كان ذلك قبل عشرين عا ًما‬، ‫مترجما ً كامالً للجنة بروكسل‬
‫نجومي المحظوظين الذين سألني ثالثة ألمان عن االتجاهات‬

Target Text:

Translating chance into career . It never fails to amaze me how apparently insignificantevents
can have such a far-reaching impacton people's lives. In my case, three chance occurrences
led me to move from England to three other countries and become aprofessionaltranslator.It
all started ata rock festival. Towardsthe endof the final night, with the rain drizzling downas
usual, a group of uswere approached by three somewhat bedraggledfellow festival-goers, one
of whom asked us in faltering English how to get to the station. It emerged that they were
from Germany and had been travelling around Europe. My German was fairly basic, and the
station was a long way away, so I offered to showthem attheend of the show. To cut a long
story short, we stayed in touch and I opted to study German at university.By the time
IgraduatedI had become sofascinated byall things German that I wanted to go and live there.
Teaching was the obvious jobfor me and,only one month after obtaining my degree,I found
myself living in Essen, teaching English and translation to students of all agesand
backgrounds. It so happened that my boss was Italian, and he had long cherished an ambition
to open a language school in his own country.When, two years later, he offered me the chance
to go to Pisaas his Head of Languages, it seemed that another adventure was beckoning.So,
off I went, armed with a smatteringof Italianand a belief that what I'd done once I could do
again. I went on to spend three yearsteaching English and Germanin Italy, taking on more and
more translation work as my Italian improved.And this is where the third combination of
events came into play. One of thefriends who had been at the festival with me was now
working in Denmark. He came acrossan advertisement in the paper -the Internet was a thing
of science fiction in those days-for a competition organised by the European Commission for
translators withat least two EU languages. I had never thought about becoming a full-time
translator before, but now, with my German and Italian, I decided to give it a go.With
fewexpectations I applied and duly sat the competition in Rome. Much to my surprise, I was
subsequently invited to Brussels for the oral test. I passed that as well, and two years later
became a fully-fledged translator for the Commission in Brussels.That was twenty years ago,
 ‫‪15‬‬

‫‪and I've never looked back. Oh, apart from to thank my lucky stars that three Germans asked‬‬
‫‪me for directions.‬‬

‫‪Lecture 6: The Practical Part‬‬

‫‪The students are required to translate the following source texts from Arabic into‬‬
‫‪English. These texts are mainly intended to help the students to prepare well for the‬‬
‫‪exam:‬‬

‫‪Text 1:‬‬

‫يمكن للسياح القيام بدورهم السياحة الجماعية هي ظاهرة حديثة أحدثتها التطورات في تكنولوجيا النقل وتحسين مستويات‬
‫المعيشة‪ .‬من ‪ 10‬ماليين سائح فقط في جميع أنحاء العالم في عام ‪ ، 1950‬تشير التقديرات إلى أنه بحلول عام ‪ 2010‬سيصل‬
‫الرقم إلى مليار سائح‪ .‬اليوم ‪ ،‬يسافر ماليين األشخاص حول العالم لتجربة عجائب طبيعية وعجائب من صنع اإلنسان‪ .‬هذا‬
‫االهتمام بالتراث الطبيعي والثقافي مهم لالقتصاد ‪ ،‬ألن السياحة تولد الدخل من اإلنفاق المباشر وتدعم الوظائف في‬
‫مجموعة متنوعة من الصناعات‪ .‬لكن ليس كل شيء في الحديقة وردية‪ .‬إذا كانت السياحة خارجة عن السيطرة ‪ ،‬يمكن أن‬
‫تسبب أضرا ًر ا جسدية واجتماعية ال رجعة فيها ‪ ،‬ليس فقط للوجهات السياحية ولكن للمجتمعات المحلية التي تعيش هناك‪.‬‬
‫يحرص الكثير من السائحين على السفر إلى األماكن المعروفة بجمالها الطبيعي ‪ ،‬على سبيل المثال ‪ ،‬إال أن بعض أجمل‬
‫وجهات العطالت بها بيئات هشة ومجتمعات محلية تتعرض لضغوط متزايدة من نمو السياحة‪ .‬يمكن أن يتراوح ذلك من‬
‫لفائف السمك والبطاطا التي يتم إلقاؤها في الشارع إلى موقع القافلة بالقرب من محمية الطيور‪ .‬لحسن الحظ ‪ ،‬يتم اآلن‬
‫التعرف على تأثير سفرنا على البيئة الطبيعية‪ .‬بدأت صناعة السفر في تقديم رحالت تسمح للسائحين بتقديم مساهمة إيجابية‬
‫في الحفظ وفي اقتصادات المجتمعات المحلية مع تقليل اآلثار السلبية التي يمكن أن تحدثها السياحة‪ .‬يُعرف هذا باسم‬
‫"السياحة المسؤولة" أو "السياحة البيئية"‪.‬ص على سبيل المثال ‪ ،‬قد يشارك السكان المحليون بشكل حقيقي في المشاريع‬
‫السياحية ويمكن تشجيع منظمي الرحالت السياحية على إعادة اإليرادات إلى التنمية المحلية‪ .‬كما يمول االتحاد األوروبي‬
‫البرامج في مجال التنمية الريفية التي تشجع الشباب على تكريس بعض عطالتهم لألنشطة التي تفيد المناطق الريفية بشكل‬
‫مباشر‪ .‬من خالل القيام بذلك ‪ ،‬لديهم الفرصة ليس فقط لتحسين معارفهم ومهاراتهم ولكن أيضًا لمقابلة أشخاص جدد‬
‫واكتشاف أماكن جديدة ‪ ،‬بينما يمكنهم في نفس الوقت إحداث فرق في الحفاظ على الريف‬

‫‪Text 2:‬‬

‫المهندسين المعماريين والمهندسينص في أوروبا الحالية في الخمسين عا ًما الماضية ‪ ،‬مرت أوروبا بتغييرات جذرية‪ .‬مرة‬
‫واحدة أكثر بقليل من مرادف لكيان جغرافي بحت ومرحلة حروب دامية ‪ ،‬فإن معظم القارة لديها اآلن هوية سياسية مشتركة‬
‫‪ ،‬حيث يعيش المواطنون في سالم ‪ ،‬وقادرون على السفر بدون جوازات سفر والتسوق في أي مكان يريدون ‪ ،‬باستخدام‬
‫نفس الشيء في الغالب‪ .‬عملة‪ .‬عالوة على ذلك ‪ ،‬يحق لمواطني االتحاد األوروبي العيش والعمل والدراسة في أي دولة‬
‫عضو ‪ ،‬مع االعتراف بمعظم مؤهالتهم المهنية في أي مكان يتواجدون فيه تقريبًا‪ .‬إنها بعيدة كل البعد عن أوروبا من الغيرة‬
‫الوطنية والصراعات على السلطة ‪ ،‬وحرس الحدود الكئيب ‪ ،‬والضوابط الجمركية والقواعد التي ال يمكن اختراقها بشأن‬
‫تصاريح العمل واإلقامة‪ .‬كيف كل هذا؟ الجواب البسيط هو أن الناس في أوروبا أرادوا أن يحدث ذلك‪ .‬ولكن سيكون من‬
‫األدق القول إن المؤسسات قد تم إنشاؤها لتحقيق ذلك‪ .‬تم إنشاء البرلمان األوروبي لمنح شعوب أوروبا صوتًا‪ .‬ممثال‬
‫للحكومات الوطنية ‪ ،‬تم إنشاء مجلس االتحاد األوروبي التخاذ القرارات ؛ جنبا إلى جنب مع البرلمان ‪ ،‬فهي مسؤولة عن‬
‫تمرير قوانين االتحاد األوروبي‪ .‬للتأكد من إعداد القرارات بشكل كامل وتنفيذها بشكل صحيح ‪ ،‬تم إنشاء جهاز تنفيذي ‪،‬‬
‫وهو المفوضية األوروبية‪ .‬أخي ًرا ‪ ،‬تم إنشاء محكمة العدل األوروبية لضمان تطبيق قانون االتحاد األوروبي بشكل صحيح‬
‫ومتسق في جميع أنحاء االتحاد األوروبي‪ .‬لقد شكلت هذه الهيئات وال تزال تشكل أوروبا‪ .‬بفضلهم ‪ ،‬على سبيل المثال ‪ ،‬يدفع‬
‫المصطافون في أي مكان في أوروبا اآلن رسوم تجوال مخفضة عند االتصال هاتفيا ً بالمنزل على هواتفهم المحمولة‪ .‬لقد‬
‫أدت سياسة المنافسة الخاصة بهم إلى توسيع نطاق المنتجات والخدمات المعروضة بشكل كبير ‪ ،‬مما أدى إلى خفض‬
‫األسعار في هذه العملية‪ .‬هناك العديد من المجاالت حيث يمكن ألوروبا ‪ ،‬بالعمل معًا ‪ ،‬أن تحقق تقد ًما حقيقيًا للجميع‪ .‬تعمل‬
 ‫‪16‬‬

‫مؤسسات االتحاد األوروبي ‪ ،‬التي يجتمع فيها ممثلو ‪ 27‬دولة من الدول األعضاء للتصميم والمناقشة واتخاذ القرار ‪ ،‬على‬
‫ضا‬
‫‪.‬تطوير االتحاد األوروبي باستمرار‪ .‬إنهم مهندسو ومهندسي أوروبا اليوم وغدًا أي ً‬

‫‪Text 3:‬‬

‫تحويل برج بابل إلى برج للقوة أثناء انتقالهم من بلد إلى آخر للعمل أو ألسباب عائلية أو لمجرد السياحة ‪ ،‬يحتاج الناس إلى‬
‫التواصل بلغات أخرى غير لغتهم األم‪ .‬إن تأثير الهجرة والهجرة على الحياة االقتصادية والسياسية والفكرية في أوروبا آخذ‬
‫في االزدياد‪ .‬في حين أن العالم المتغير قد يولد مخاوف بشأن فقدان الهوية ‪ ،‬فإن التنوع الثقافي يوفر إمكانيات لالبتكار‬
‫والنمو‪ .‬ويتمثل التحدي في تبديد المخاوف وتسخير الطاقات الجديدة لتمكين أوروبا من تحقيق إمكاناتها الكاملة‪ .‬يُنظر إلى‬
‫تعلم اللغة على أنه أولوية ألهداف النمو االقتصادي والتماسك االجتماعي في إستراتيجية لشبونة ‪ ،‬ولهذا السبب ‪ ،‬في عام‬
‫‪ ، 2007‬تم إنشاء التعدديةص اللغوية كمحفظة منفصلة للمفوضية‪ .‬التعددية اللغوية هي عبارة عن تواصل األشخاص بأكثر من‬
‫لغة أثناء ممارسة حياتهم اليومية‪ .‬على الرغم من أن مهمة تأسيس التعدديةص اللغوية في جميع أنحاء أوروبا تبدو مخيفة للوهلة‬
‫األولى ‪ ،‬إال أنها ليست كما لو كنا نبدأ من الصفر‪ .‬تشمل أشكال االتصال متعددةص اللغات اللغات واللهجات اإلقليمية )مثل‬
‫كوكني وجوردي( ولغات اإلشارة‪ .‬األشخاص الذين يتحدثون لغة إقليمية أو أقلية باإلضافة إلى لغتهم الوطنية هم متعددو‬
‫اللغات لكنهم غير مدركينص للحقيقة! يتحدث معظم المهاجرين في أوروبا اللغة التي يصلون بها ‪ ،‬باإلضافة إلى لغة البلد‬
‫المضيف‪ .‬ينشأ العديدص من األوروبيين في أسر مختلطة اللغات‪ .‬مفهوم "اللغة األم" ليس له معنى يذكر بالنسبة لهم‪ .‬ربما‬
‫"يشعرون بأنهم في وطنهم أكثر مع فكرة اللغة األولى ‪ ،‬أو حتى عدة "لغات أولى‬

‫‪Text 4:‬‬

‫لقد تضاعف عدد المهاجرين في العالم في جيل واحد ‪ ،‬ويقدر اليوم عدد األشخاص الذين استقروا في بلد آخر غير بلدهم بص‬
‫‪ 190‬مليونًا في جميع أنحاء العالم‪ .‬ويمثل هذا ‪ 3‬في المائة من سكان العالم ‪ ،‬ويمكن مقارنته بسكان البرازيل‪ .‬تتأثر جميع‬
‫البلدان تقريبًا بالهجرة الدولية ‪ ،‬سواء أكانت بلدان مرسلة أم عبورًا أم مستقبلة ‪ ،‬أو مزي ًجا من الثالثة‪ .‬أصبحت الهجرة‬
‫الدولية سمة متأصلة في العولمة‪ .‬مع عولمة العالم من حيث اقتصادات الدول والتجارة واالستثمار ‪ ،‬يتم فتح الحدود بسهولة‬
‫ضا بحرية التنقل في جميع أنحاء العالم ‪ ،‬حيث يهاجر الناس من‬ ‫أكبر لتدفق "أكثر حرية" للسلع والمنتجات‪ .‬يتمتع الناس أي ً‬
‫بلد إلى آخر لمجموعة متنوعة من األسباب المعقدة‪ .‬العديدص من المهاجرين لديهم أسباب اقتصادية لالنتقال‪ .‬يبحث الكثيرون‬
‫عن وجهات نظر اجتماعية واقتصادية أفضل ويسعون للعمل في الخارج‪ .‬يعمل البعض بشكل قانوني بينما ال يمتلك البعض‬
‫اآلخر تصريح عمل ويعملون في اقتصاد الظل‪ .‬يتنقل المهاجرون بسبب الظروف السياسية أو االضطهاد السياسي‪ .‬إنهم‬
‫يهربون من الحرب أو الحرب األهلية أو الصراع العرقي أو انتهاكات حقوق اإلنسان أو غيرها من الظروف‪ .‬يتم االعتراف‬
‫بالبعض كالجئين على الفور ‪ ،‬غالبًا في البلدان المجاورة‪ .‬يصبح آخرون من طالبي اللجوء‪ .‬ال يحق دائ ًما لطالبي اللجوء‬
‫والالجئين العمل ‪ ،‬لكن العديدص منهم يعملون بشكل غير قانوني‬

‫‪Text 5:‬‬

‫كان كل شيء حول كل شيء ال يزال بعيدًا عن األذن‪ .‬تحول ضباب مشاعره بيننا ‪ ،‬كما لو كان منزعجًا من صراعاته ‪،‬‬
‫ومحموال بجاذبية غامضة مثل شخصية رمزية‬‫ً‬ ‫وفي شقوق الحجاب الالمادي كان يبدو لعيني المحدقتين مختلفتين في الشكل‬
‫في صورة‪ .‬بدا الهواء البارد في الليل وكأنه ملقى على طرفي ً‬
‫ثقيال مثل لوح من الرخام‪ '' .‬أرى ‪' ،‬تمتمت ‪ ،‬ألثبت لنفسي‬
‫أنني أستطيع كسر حالة الخدر لدي أكثر من أي سبب آخر‪ .‬التقطنا قبل غروب الشمس بقليل‪" .‬على البخار مباشرة بالنسبة‬
‫لنا‪ .‬كان علينا فقط أن نجلس وننتظر‪ .‬اللورد جيم ‪ ،‬جوزيف كونراد ‪ ،‬الفصل ‪12‬‬

‫‪Text 6:‬‬
 ‫‪17‬‬

‫ُ‬
‫جلست أحدق في الساعة‬ ‫عندما عدت إلى المنزل لتناول العشاء لم يكن عمي قد عاد إلى المنزل بعد‪ .‬ال يزال الوقت مبكرًا‪.‬‬
‫لبعض الوقت ‪ ،‬وعندما بدأ دقاتها يزعجني ‪ ،‬غادرت الغرفة‪ .‬صعدت السلم وامتلكت الجزء العلوي من المنزل‪ .‬حررتني‬
‫الغرف المرتفعة والباردة والفارغة والقاتمة ‪ ،‬وانتقلت من غرفة إلى أخرى وأنا أغني‪ .‬من النافذة األمامية رأيت رفاقي‬
‫يلعبون باألسفل في الشارع‪ .‬وصلني صراخهم ضعيفًا وغير واضح ‪ ،‬وأمنت جبهتي على الزجاج البارد ‪ ،‬نظرت إلى‬
‫المنزل المظلم الذي تعيش فيه‬

‫;‪Text 7‬‬

‫المعنى الكامل لإلسالم‬

‫اإلسالم هو آخر ما نزلت به األديان السماوية‪ .‬يتميز ببساطته ويسهل قبوله من جميع العقول‪ .‬تعاليمه تهم البشر في كل مكان‬
‫‪.‬وزمان‬

‫بمجرد أن يعلن أي شخص "الشهادة" أي "ال إله إال هللا وأن محمدًا رسول هللا" ‪ ،‬يصبح مسل ًما له حقوق وواجبصصات محصصددة ‪،‬‬
‫وكلها منظمصصة في إطصار ديصصني واجتمصصاعي وثقصصافي كامصصل‪ .‬نظصصام يأخصصذ في االعتبصصار الظصصروف الماديصصة والطموحصات الروحيصصة‬
‫)للجماعات واألفراد‪1[ .‬‬

‫بسبب سوء الفهم الواسع االنتشار أو عدم فهم اإلسالم ‪ ،‬يصبح لزاما علينا تقديم معناه الكامصصل في حالتصصه األصصصلية وكصصذلك من‬
‫‪.‬حيث تاريخ نشأته ‪ ،‬مستخدمين كأساس مصادره األساسية التي تشير مباشرة إلى اإلسالم‪ .‬القرآن الكريم والسنة النبوية‬

‫‪.‬لإلسالم أربعة مقومات أساسية ‪ ،‬والتي بدونها ال يمكن أن يقوم نظامه‪ :‬العقيدة ‪ ،‬والطقوس ‪ ،‬واألخالق ‪ ،‬والتشريع‬

‫مكان العقيدة هو القلب‪ .‬وهو اإليمصصان بوحدانيصصة هللا ‪ ،‬وخصصالق الكصصون ‪ ،‬وخصصالق نظامصصه ‪ ،‬والعصصارف بأسصصراره ‪ ،‬والوحيصصد الصصذي‬
‫يستحق العبادة ‪ ،‬وكل ما يصاحبها ‪ ،‬من الدعاء والتوبة والصالبة‪ .‬االستعانة ‪ ،‬ثم اإليمان بالقيامة بعد الموت ‪ ،‬وكصصل مصصا يتبصصع‬
‫‪.‬هذا االعتقاد ‪ ،‬من الحكم والمكافأة والجزاء‬

‫وقد حصر القرآن والسنة مقومات العقيدة في اإليمصصان باهلل ومالئكتصهص وكتابصصه وأنبيائصصه والقصصدر أي في الخصصير والشصصر وفي يصصوم‬
‫‪.‬القيامة‬

‫‪Text 8:‬‬

‫لماذا حرم اإلسالم الرجال من لبس الذهب والحرير؟‬

‫حرم اإلسالم على الرجال لبس الذهب والحرير ألنه دين يهدف إلى بناء مجتمع يسوده العدل والمساواة ‪ ،‬تسوده روح‬
‫التضامن واألخوة‪ .‬ومن المرجح جدا أن مشهد عدد قليل من الرجال يرتدون مالبس حريرية باهظة الثمن ومجوهرات‬
‫ذهبية باهظة الثمن قد يكسر قلب الفقراء ‪ ،‬ناهيك عن احتمال تضليل هؤالء المتميزين لالعتقاد بأنهم متفوقون على‬
‫‪.‬القرعة‬

‫ضا ‪ ،‬بما أن اإلسالم يجعل احترام مشاعر الفقراء واجبا ً ‪ ،‬فهناك خطر أن المظاهر االستفزازية قد تولد مشاعر المرارة‬
‫أي ً‬
‫‪.‬والكراهية بين المحرومين ‪ ،‬وهي حقيقة يمكن أن تهدد االستقرار االجتماعي والنظام‬
 ‫‪18‬‬

‫باإلضافة إلى ذلك ‪ ،‬قد يحرض الذهب والحرير لمن يرتديهما نوعًا من اللطف والحنان الذي يحاربه اإلسالم في الرجال‬
‫الذين يحتاجون إلى أن يكونوا قاسين ليكونوا قادرين على مواجهة مشاكل الحياة واالرتقاء إلى المسؤوليات التي يتعين‬
‫عليهم تحملها‪ .‬يحظر بنفس القدر األثاث والديكور واألواني الفضية المصنوعة من الذهب أو الفضة‪ .‬هذه من بين األمور‬
‫التي ال يمكن ألحد أن ينكر مساهمة الدين في السيطرة عليها والفوائد التي تضمنها تلك السيطرة‬

‫‪Text 9:‬‬

‫‪.‬االدعاء بأن تحريم اإلسالم لحم الخنزير غير مبرر ألن لحم الخنزير مثل أي حيوان آخر‬

‫على الرغم من أنه مذكور في سياقات مختلفة ‪ ،‬إال أن القرآن ال يشرح أسباب حظر لحم الخنزير ‪ ،‬ألنه لم يشرح أبدًا‬
‫‪.‬أسباب تحريم الشجرة في جنة عدن على آدم‪ .‬لذلك ‪ ،‬يجب اعتبار تحريم اإلسالم لحم الخنزير أم ًرا إلهيًا يجب طاعته‬

‫ض ا إلى أن اإلسالم ليس الدين السماوي الوحيد الذي يحرم لحم الخنزير ألن لحم الخنزير محظور في‬
‫وتجدر اإلشارة أي ً‬
‫ض ا ‪ ،‬وكما ثبت ‪ ،‬كان القديس بولس هو الذي جعل المسيحيين يأكلون لحم الخنزير على الرغم من القديم‪.‬‬‫العهد القديم أي ً‬
‫‪.‬العهد أيضا ملزم للمسيحيين‬

‫الغريب أن المسلم يلقى الرفض عندما يرفض لحم الخنزير بينما ال أحد في أوروبا أو الواليات المتحدة يلوم يهوديًا لرفضه‬
‫أكل لحم الخنزير‬

‫‪Text 10:‬‬

‫يشعر العديدص من ‪ 1.5‬مليون طفل في الواليات المتحدة الذين يطلق آباؤهم كل عام كما لو أن عوالمهم تنهار‪ .‬عادة ما يكون‬
‫اآلباء المطلقون قلقين للغاية بشأن رفاهية أطفالهم خالل هذه العملية المزعجة‪ .‬يشعر بعض اآلباء بالقلق لدرجة أنهم يظلون‬
‫‪.‬في زيجات غير سعيدة ‪ ،‬معتقدين أنها ستحمي ذريتهم من صدمة الطالق‬

‫ومع ذلك ‪ ،‬فإن اآلباء الذين انفصلوا لديهم أسباب لألمل‪ .‬وجد الباحثون أن نسبة صغيرة نسبيًا من األطفال يعانون من‬
‫مشاكل خطيرة في أعقاب الطالق أو في وقت الحق عندما يصبحون بالغين‬

‫‪Lecture 7:‬‬

‫‪For the final exam, the students have to be very much careful about the way they translate.‬‬
‫‪That is to say, they have to be faithful to source texts in order not to come up with an‬‬
‫‪awkward target text. Here is a list of books to be checked by students which will certainly‬‬
‫‪help them to understand the different strategies and methods of translation. The books are as‬‬
‫‪follows:‬‬
 19

Bassnett, S. (1991). Translation Studies. Revised Edition, Routledge.

Catford, J.C. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation. An Essay in Applied

Linguistics. London: Oxford University Press.

Connor, Ulla.(1996). Contrastive Rhetoric: Cross Cultural Aspects of Second

Language Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

De Beaugrande, Robert and Shunnaq, Abdulla and Heliel, Mohamed, eds.(1994)

Language, Discourse and Translation in the West and Middle East.

Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

Faucett, P. (1997). Translation and Language. ST. Jerome Publishing,

Manchester, UK.

Gutt, E. A. (2000). Translation and Relevance Cognition and Context.

S T Jerome Publication.

Hatim, B and Mason, I. (1990). Discourse and the Translator.

New York: Longman.

Hatim, B and Mason, I.(1997). The Translator as Communicator. Routledge,

London and New York.

House, J. (2000). A Model for Translation Quality Assessment. Tubingen.

Nida, E. (1964). Towards a Science of Translation.

Leiden: E. J. Brill.

Nida, E. and Charles, T. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation.

Leiden: Brill.

Nord, C. (1991). Text Analysis in Translation.

Amsterdam-Atlanta, GA.

Olshtain, E and Blum Kulka, S.(1996).“Cross Cultural Pragmatics and the Testing of
Communicative Competence”. In Journal of Pragmatics 12 (1), June 16-30.