materials
Article
Stiffness and Frequency Response Characteristics of Glass Fiber
Reinforced Plastic Wave Springs with Different Periods and Its
Finite Element Analysis
Xianglong Wen 1,2 , Kai Fu 1 , Yukuan Dou 1,3 , Xu Xia 1
Citation: Wen, X.; Fu, K.; Dou, Y.; Xia,
X.; Zhang, J. Stiffness and Frequency
Response Characteristics of Glass
Fiber Reinforced Plastic Wave
Springs with Different Periods and
Its Finite Element Analysis. Materials
2022, 15, 9045. https://doi.org/
10.3390/ma15249045
Academic Editor: Luigi Calabrese
Received: 24 November 2022
Accepted: 14 December 2022
Published: 17 December 2022
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Materials 2022, 15, 9045. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15249045
and Jinguang Zhang 1,4, *
1 School of Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
2 Hubei Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Magnetic Suspension, Wuhan 430070, China
3 Sanya Science and Education Innovation Park of Wuhan University of Technology, Sanya 572000, China
4 Institute of Advanced Material and Manufacturing Technology, Wuhan University of Technology,
Wuhan 430070, China
* Correspondence: jgzhang@whut.edu.cn
Abstract: Based on the stiffness theory of wave spring, this paper proposes the wave springs made of
glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) and investigates the effect of the number of periods on the GFRP
wave springs’ stiffness and frequency response characteristics. First of all, five different periods of
composite wave springs which have identical outside dimensions are designed. Afterwards, the load-
displacement curves of the GFRP wave springs are obtained using a combination of experimental
and finite element analysis (FEA). Finally, the frequency response characteristics of the GFRP wave
springs are measured using a force hammer excitation, and the experiment results of a GFRP wave
spring are compared with a metal helical spring. The results show that the stiffness of the GFRP wave
spring decreases from 34.84 N/mm to 20.59 N/mm with the increase in the number of periods. As
the number of periods increases, the vibration attenuation increases from 16.32 dB to 69.17 dB. The
stiffness of the GFRP wave spring is increased by 90.30% and the weight is reduced by 26.78%. The
vibration isolation interval and vibration attenuation amplitude of the GFRP wave spring are higher
than the metal helical spring.
Keywords: GFRP; stiffness; wave spring; finite element analysis
1. Introduction
Spring is an elastic body whose function is to store energy when compressed and
release the stored energy when it returns [1]. To save energy and improve the performance
of vibration isolation systems, advanced springs with light weight and high performance
have been used for automotive and mechanical systems. Because of their high specific
strength, more elastic strain storage capacity, excellent corrosion resistance and damping
properties, fiber reinforced composites have gradually replaced steel or conventional metals
and have become a key material for making advanced springs in recent years [2].
Currently, most of the research focuses on the materials, mechanical properties and
vibration characteristics of springs. Material properties will directly affect the performance,
process feasibility and manufacturing cost of composite springs. Therefore, choosing
the right material is the primary issue in composite spring design. Some scholars have
used glass fiber-reinforced polymer to reinforce tubular T/Y joints, and the results show
that glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) significantly improves the flexibility of tubular
joints [3]. The suitability of steel, S-glass fiber and carbon fiber prepreg composites as
automotive suspension springs has been investigated in related literature. It was found
that although the load bearing capacity of fiber-reinforced composite helical springs is
lower than the steel springs, but the specific strength of composite springs is higher [4].
Part of the literature investigates the feasibility of replacing metal helical springs with
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Materials 2022, 15, 9045 2 of 16

composite helical springs. It was found that by using a composite helical spring with a
rubber core and a woven outer layer, the load capacity and stiffness of the helical spring
were increased [5,6]. The related literature gives the results of stiffness and damping
predictions using finite element methods on the basis of laminated, corrugated, metal-
polymer composites. It is concluded that decreasing the thickness of the viscous polymer
layer will increase the damping and stiffness [7]. Springs are often subjected to impact
loading, and the damage of fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composite materials induced
by impact load is one of the most critical factors that restrict extensive use of these materials.
Therefore, the material, geometry, event- and environment-related conditions that affect
the structural behavior of fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composites to impact loading is
discussed [8]. It was found that the use of helical springs made of composite materials is
problematic in some cases because significant torsional stresses are generated and these
stresses cause delamination of the helical springs [9]. From the above studies, it can be
seen that process defects can seriously affect the performance of the structure. Relevant
literatures have studied the effects of laser beam power, welding speed, blank holder force
(BHF), material properties and friction coefficient on laser welding blanks. In addition, the
laser welding and deep drawing processes were numerically simulated using Simufact
Welding and Abaqus/Explicit software, with optimal points of 1.15 mm and 0.21 KJ for
weld line displacement and absorbed energy, respectively. Additionally, an automated real-
time computer-aided inspection (CAI) method and distortion analyses of aluminum laser
welded blanks (LWBs) using a 3D laser scanner are presented, along with experimental
validation that the proposed method identified defects on flange area in the range of
±3 mm, which enables rejecting parts out of tolerances before succeeding to the next step
in the value chain [10,11].
Several scholars have conducted studies on the vibration characteristics of composite
helical springs. Timoshenko beam theory was used to derive the control equations and to
study the dynamic characteristics of arbitrarily shaped composite helical springs [12]. The
study not only theoretically models the free vibration problem of unidirectional composite
cylindrical helical springs, but also investigates the effect of the number of coils, the helix
pitch angle, the ratio of the minimum to maximum cylindrical radius and the ratio of the
maximum cylindrical diameter to the wire diameter on the free vibration frequency of
composite helical springs [13,14]. Some scholars have studied the free vibration behavior of
cylindrical helical springs of laminated composite materials with rectangular cross-section
and derived the differential equations of motion for the springs consisting of 14 first-
order partial differential equations using natural bending and twisted anisotropic beam
theory [15–18]. Some scholars proposed to use the stiffness matrix method based on the
first-order shear deformation theory to predict the basic natural frequency and buckling
load of the non-cylindrical unidirectional composite spiral spring under the initial static
axial force and bending moment [19,20]. A method for calculating the intrinsic frequency
of a carbon epoxy helical spring is presented in the related literature. The method describes
the linear dynamical behavior of a composite excitation helical spring [21]. The modal
model of a five-degree spring-mass vibration system has also been predicted by using the
state-space method [22].
At present, the main research object of fiber-reinforced composite spring is helical
spring, and there is little research on composite wave springs. Composite helical springs
are usually prepared using pultrusion and fiber-winding technology processes [23], while
GFRP wave springs can be prepared by using autoclaves. The preparation process of GFRP
wave spring is simple, and the mold can be reused, which is suitable for mass production.
In addition, the helical spring mainly bears the torsional load, and the shear modulus is
the main factor affecting its stiffness, while the wave spring mainly bears the bending
load, and the modulus in the fiber direction is the main factor affecting its stiffness. For
fiber-reinforced composites, the modulus in the fiber direction is generally 1–2 orders of
magnitude higher than the shear modulus [24]. Composite wave springs are more in
line with the current design requirements of high stiffness and low mass of composite
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17

For fiber-reinforced composites, the modulus in the fiber direction is generally 1–2 orders
Materials 2022, 15, 9045
of magnitude higher than the shear modulus [24]. Composite wave springs are more in 3 of 16
line with the current design requirements of high stiffness and low mass of composite
springs [2]. In addition, the spring is a kind of damping unit, and research on the fre-
quencysprings [2]. In
response addition, theof
characteristics spring is a kind
the spring of damping
is also unit, and research on the frequency
necessary.
response
This papercharacteristics
focuses on theofeffect
the spring
of theisnumber
also necessary.
of periods on the stiffness and vibra-
This paper
tion characteristics of focuses
compositeon the
wave effect of the
spring. number
Firstly, of periods
based on the stiffness
on the stiffness theory ofand vibration
wave
characteristics
springs, five kinds ofof composite
GFRP wave spring.
wave springs Firstly,periods
with different based on
arethe stiffness
designed. theory
Then, GFRPof wave
wave springs are prepared by the autoclave process, and a combination of experimentsGFRP
springs, five kinds of GFRP wave springs with different periods are designed. Then,
waveelement
and finite springs simulations
are preparedisby usedthe to
autoclave
obtain theprocess, and a combination
load-displacement curves of of
experiments
the com- and
positefinite
waveelement
springs.simulations
Finally, theisfrequency
used to obtain
responsethe characteristics
load-displacement curves
of the of thewave
composite composite
wave
springs aresprings.
studied Finally,
by the the frequency
force hammerresponse
excitationcharacteristics
method, andofthethe vibration
compositeisolation
wave springs
are studied
intervals by the force
and attenuation hammer excitation
amplitude of the GFRP method,
waveand the vibration
springs isolation
are obtained. Theintervals
paper and
attenuation amplitude of the GFRP wave springs are obtained.
also compares the experiment results of the GFRP wave spring with the metal helical The paper also compares
the
spring. experiment results of the GFRP wave spring with the metal helical spring.

2. Structure Design and Fabrication of GFRP Wave Springs

2. Structure Design and Fabrication of GFRP Wave Springs
2.1. Material
2.1. Material
E-glass fiber is a kind of safe composite material when subjected to low stress and
E-glass fiberworking
low strain is a kind of safe composite
conditions material
[25]. In this paper, when
E-glasssubjected to low
fiber prepreg stress and
(UD715, supplied
low strain
by Jiangsu Jiu Ding New Material, China.) is selected to prepare the wave supplied
working conditions [25]. In this paper, E-glass fiber prepreg (UD715, spring, whose
by Jiangsu
matrixJiu
is Ding Newepoxy
YPH-629 Material,
resin China.) is selected to
and reinforcement prepare
is EC600 the wave glass
continuous spring, whose
fiber yarn. The
matrixproperties
is YPH-629 epoxy resin
of E-glass and reinforcement
fiber prepreg are shown in is Table
EC6001.continuous glass fiber yarn.
The properties of E-glass fiber prepreg are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Mechanical properties of the E-glass fiber prepreg [26].
Table 1. Mechanical properties of the E-glass fiber prepreg [26].
Engineering Constants Values Engineering Constants Values
Engineering Constants Values Engineering Constants Values
E1(GPa)E1 (GPa) 30 30 Xt(MPa)Xt (MPa) 850 850
E2(GPa)E2 (GPa) 8 8 Yt(MPa)Yt (MPa) 35 35
E3(GPa)E3 (GPa) 8 8 Zt(MPa)Zt (MPa) 35 35
ν12(GPa)ν12 (GPa) 0.3 0.3 Xc(MPa)Xc (MPa) 500 500
ν13(GPa)ν13 (GPa) 0.3 0.3 Yc(MPa)Yc (MPa) 120 120
ν23(GPa)ν23 (GPa) 0.4 0.4 Zc(MPa)Zc (MPa) 120 120
G12 (GPa)
G12(GPa) 4.5 4.5 S12 (MPa)
S12(MPa) 104 104
G13 (GPa)
G13(GPa) 4.5 4.5 S13 (MPa)
S13(MPa) 104 104
G23 (GPa)
G23(GPa) 3.8 3.8 S23 (MPa)
S23(MPa) 70 70

2.2. Structural DesignDesign

2.2. Structural of GFRP Wave Wave
of GFRP Springs
Springs
This paper focuses
This paper on the
focuses effect
on the of the
effect number
of the number ofofperiods
periodsononthe
the stiffness and frequency
stiffness and fre-
quency response characteristics of GFRP wave springs. Therefore, GFRP wave
response characteristics of GFRP wave springs. Therefore, GFRP wave springs with periods springs
with periods
T = 2, T T= =2.5,
2, TT==2.5,
3, TT==3.5
3, Tand
= 3.5
T and T = designed.
= 4 are 4 are designed.
FigureFigure 1 shows
1 shows the structure
the structure diagram of
diagram of composite
composite wave springs,
wave springs, wherewhere
L = 154 L mm
= 154ismm is the spring
the wave wave spring free height,
free height, A = 64Amm is
= 64 mm
the is the wave
wave springspring amplitude,
amplitude, H = 4H mm= 4ismmtheiswave
the wave
spring spring thickness
thickness and W and W mm
= 34 = 34 is the
mm iswave
the wave
spring spring width.
width.

(a) (b)

Figure 1. Structural diagram of GFRP wave springs. (a) The five different specimens, (b) Schematic
diagram of the structure of the specimen.
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 17
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 17

Materials 2022, 15, 9045 4 of 16

Figure 1. Structural diagram of GFRP wave springs. (a) The five different specimens, (b) Schematic
Figure
diagram1. of
Structural diagram
the structure of GFRP
of the wave springs. (a) The five different specimens, (b) Schematic
specimen.
diagram of the structure of the specimen.
2.3.
2.3. Fabrication
Fabrication of
of GFRP
GFRP Wave
Wave Springs
Springs
2.3. Fabrication
The of GFRP Wave Springs
The GFRP
GFRP wave
wave springs
springs are
are fabricated
fabricated using the autoclave molding process [27,28].
Unlike
UnlikeThe
theGFRP
the wave springs
fabrication
fabrication process
processare fabricated
of composite
of composite using
helical the autoclave
springs,
helical molding
the fabrication
springs, the process
process
fabrication [27,28].
of GFRP
process of
Unlike
wave the fabrication
GFRPsprings
wave springs areprocess
are simple and theof
simple composite
molds
and the are helical
reusable.
molds springs, thefabrication
The fabrication
are reusable. The fabrication process
processprocess
of ofof
the GFRP the
GFRP
wave wave
wave springs
GFRPsprings are
aresimple
are as follows
springs and (Figure
(Figure
as follows theThe
2): molds are reusable.
prepreg
2): The The
fabric isfabric
prepreg fabrication
cut to isthe process
cutrequired
to the size of the
using
required a
size
GFRP wave
computer springs
numerical are as follows
control cutting(Figure 2):
machine, The prepreg
and the fabric
prepreg is
is cut
laid
using a computer numerical control cutting machine, and the prepreg is laid onto the to the
onto required
the mold size
layer
using
by a computer
layer.
mold layer numerical control cutting machine, and the prepreg is laid onto the
by layer.
mold layer by layer.

Figure 2. Preparation
Figure Preparation process
process of
of GFRP
GFRPwave
wavesprings.
springs.
Figure 2.
2. Preparation process of GFRP wave springs.

The mold
The
The surface
mold surfacesurfaceisis covered
iscovered
coveredwithwith
with release
release
release cloth
cloth
cloth and
and andrelease
release
release grease
greasegrease
forforsubsequent
subsequent
for subsequent re-re-
lease of specimens. Next, the mold is placed on the autoclave support platform and a aa
lease
release ofof specimens.
specimens. Next,
Next, the
the mold
mold is
is placed
placed on
on the
the autoclave
autoclave support platform and
breathable felt
breathable
breathable feltand
felt andvacuum
and vacuumbag
vacuum bagare
bag arelaid
are laidon
laid onthe
on themold,
the mold,and
mold, andthe
and thevacuum
the vacuumbag
vacuum bag
bag is
isis connected
connected
connected to
toto
the
the support
support platform
platform using
using sealant
sealant for
for sealing.
sealing. Next,
Next, push
push
the support platform using sealant for sealing. Next, push the support platform into thethe
the support
support platform
platform into
into the
the
autoclave
autoclave for
autoclave for high-temperature
for high-temperature
high-temperatureand and high-pressure
andhigh-pressure
high-pressurecuring curing molding.
curingmolding.
molding.
The
The design thickness of the specimen is 4 mm, the thickness ofof
The design
design thickness
thickness of
of the
the specimen
specimen is
is 4
4 mm,
mm, the
the thickness
thickness the
ofthe single
thesingle
singlelayerlayer
layerofofof
glass
glass fiber prepreg is 0.15
0.15 mm
mm and
and the
the number
number ofof layers
layers
glass fiber prepreg is 0.15 mm and the number of layers for each specimen is 30 layers for
for each
each specimen
specimen is is
30 30 lay-
layers
ers
with
with with
full full
zerozero
full zero degree degree
degree for for laying.
forlaying.
laying. Twovalid
Two Twospecimens
valid valid
specimensspecimens
aremade
are arefor
made made
for each
each for each program
program
program (Figure
(Figure
(Figure
3). The
3). 3). The
The dimensions
dimensionsof dimensions
ofthe of
thespecimensthe
specimensarespecimens are
areasasfollows: as
follows:free follows:
freeheight free height
heightL L= =152.30
152.30mm, L
mm,= amplitude
152.30
amplitudemm,
amplitude
AA == 64.14
64.14 mm, A =thickness
mm, 64.14 mm,
thickness HHthickness
==4.20
4.20mmmmH = 4.20
and
and mm
width
width WWand width
= =33.10
33.10 mm.
mm. W = 33.10
There
There isis
themm.
the There
error
error is the
between
between
error
the between
design and the design
actual and
size, actual
which is size,
caused which
by is
the caused
machining
the design and actual size, which is caused by the machining tolerances of the mold andby the machining
tolerances of tolerances
the mold andof
the mold
fabrication and fabrication
error. During error.
the During
high-pressure the high-pressure
molding step molding
in
fabrication error. During the high-pressure molding step in the preparation process, the the step in
preparation the preparation
process, the
process,
resin willthe
resin will flow
flow resin will
along
along theflow
the along
width
width the width
direction
direction direction
during
during during the
thepreparation
the preparation ofofpreparation
thespecimen,
the specimen, ofresulting
the speci-
resulting
men, resulting
in excessive
in excessivelocal in excessive
localresin
resincontent local resin
contentatatthethetwocontent
twoend at the
endregions two
regionsofofthe end regions
thespecimen. of
specimen.Afterthe specimen.
After thethe After
specimen
specimen
the specimen
preparation was
preparation preparation
was completed, was
completed, the completed,
thespecimen
specimenwas the specimen
wassecondary was secondary
secondaryprocessed,
processed,and processed,
andthe and
theresin-en-
resin-en-the
resin-enriched
riched area
riched area at area
at the
theendat
endof the end
ofthe of
thespecimenthe specimen
specimenwas waspolished.was
polished. polished.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b) (c)
(c) (d)
(d) (e)(e)

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Schematic
Schematicdiagram
diagramof
diagram ofthe
of theGFRP
the GFRP
GFRPwave
wave
wavespring specimens,
spring
spring (a)(a)
specimens,
specimens, T T= T=
(a) 2,=
(b)
2, 2,
(b)T(b)
T= 2.5,
=(c)
=T2.5, T (c)
2.5,
(c) =T 3, (d)
=T3,=(d)
3,
T
(d)= 3.5,
T =T3.5, (e)
= 3.5, T =
(e) (e) 4.
T = T4.= 4.
erials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 17

Materials 2022, 15, 9045 5 of 16

3. Theoretical Calculation of GFRP Wave Spring

3. Theoreticalof
The development Calculation of GFRP Wave
the load-displacement Spring of the GFRP wave spring begins
response
The development
with the analysis of wave springof the load-displacement
from response
isotropic materials. Theof force
the GFRP waveof
analysis spring
GFRP begins
withisthe
wave spring analysis
shown of wave4.spring from isotropic materials. The force analysis of GFRP wave
in Figure
spring is shown in Figure 4.

(a) (b)
Figure 4. Force analysis of GFRP wave spring. (a) Schematic diagrams of composite wave spring,
Figure 4. Force analysis of GFRP wave spring. (a)Schematic diagrams of composite wave spring, (b)
(b) Force analysis of single-period composite wave spring.
Force analysis of single-period composite wave spring.
Considering that the composite wave spring is a symmetrical structure and its internal
Considering that the composite
force is symmetrical under the wave springload,
applied is a the
symmetrical
wave spring structure
can beand its inter-
divided into two
nal force is symmetrical
parts: under the applied
the end deformation load,
area X1 and thethe waveperiodic
middle spring can be divided
structure into two
deformation area X2 .
parts: the Analyzing
end deformation
X1 and Xarea
2 , X
the and
vertical
1 the middle
displacement periodic
at structure
point A can be deformation
calculated. area X
Multiplying2. the

Analyzingresult
X1 and X2, corresponding
by the the vertical displacement at point A can
period, the displacement be calculated.
of the entire springMultiplying
can be obtained.
According
the result by the to the unit
corresponding load method
period, [29,30], in order
the displacement to entire
of the obtain spring
the displacement
can be ob-in the
tained. vertical direction at point A, a unit force in the same direction as load P must be applied at
point A,
According toasthe
shown
unit in
loadthemethod
Figure 4,[29,30],
in which inthe internal
order force the
to obtain equation of the wave
displacement in spring
the is
as follows
vertical direction at point A, a unit force in the same direction as load P must be applied
The bending moment from A to B is as follows:
at point A, as shown in the Figure 4, in which the internal force equation of the wave
spring is as follows M AB ( x ) = − Px, x ∈ (0, h2 ) (1)
The bending moment from A to B is as follows:
where, M AB is the bending moment of AB segment under the applied load, P is the applied
load, and h2 is the length of AB (x) =−Px, x ∈(0, h2 )
MABsegment. (1)
The bending moment from B to C is as follows:

where, MAB is the bending moment MBCof(θAB

) =segment
− P(h2 +under
R1 sin(the
θ ))applied
, θ ∈ (0, θload,
C) P is the applied (2)
load, and h2 is the length of AB segment.
where MBC is the bending moment of BC segment, and θ C is the radian of BC segment.
The bending moment from B to C is as follows:
The bending moment from C to D is as follows:

x )BC=(θ−
MCD (M sin((θθ)),))(
) =P−(hP(h+2 +RR1sin θ∈ − θC ) x ), x ∈ (0, LCD )
1 (0,
1 (2) (3)
2 1 C
LCD

where MBC
where Mbending
is the CD is the bending
momentmoment
of BC segment, and θand
of CD segment, L theisradian
C is CD
the length of the
of BC CD segment.
segment.
The bending moment from D to E is as follows:
The bending moment from C to D is as follows:
x
MDE ( x ) = P(h1 + R2 sin(1θ E )) , x ∈ (0, L DE ) (4)
M CD ( x) = −P(h2 + R1 sin(θC ))(1 − ∈ (0, LCD )
x), Lx DE (3)
LCD
Materials 2022, 15, 9045 6 of 16

where MDE is the bending moment of DE segment, and LDE is the length of the DE segment.
The bending moment from E to F is as follows:
π
MEF (θ ) = P(h1 + R2 sin(θ )), θ ∈ (θ E , ) (5)
2
where MEF is the bending moment of EF segment.
The bending moment from F to G is as follows:
π
MFG (θ ) = P(h1 + R2 sin(θ )), θ ∈ ( , θG ) (6)
2
where MFG is the bending moment of FG segment, and θ G is the radian of EG segment.
The bending moment from G to H is as follows:
x
MGH ( x ) = P(h1 + R2 sin(θG )) , x ∈ (0, LGH ) (7)
LGH

where MGH is the bending moment of GH segment, and LGH is the length of the GH segment.
The bending moment from H to I is as fllows:

1
M H I ( x ) = − P(h2 + R1 sin(θ I ))(1 − x ), x ∈ (0, L H I ) (8)
LH I

where M H I is the bending moment of HI segment, and LHI is the length of the HI segment.
The bending moment from I to J is as follows:

M I J (θ ) = − P(h2 + R1 sin(θ )), θ ∈ (θ I , θ J ) (9)

where M I J is the bending moment of IJ segment, and θ J is the radian of IJ segment.

The bending moment from J to K is as follows:

1
M JK ( x ) = − P(h2 + R1 sin(θ J ))(1 − x ), x ∈ (0, L JK ) (10)
L JK

where M JK is the bending moment of JK segment, and LJK is the length of the JK segment.
The bending moment from K to M is as follows:
x
MKM ( x ) = P(h1 + R2 sin(θ M )) , x ∈ (0, LKM ) (11)
LKM

where MKM is the bending moment of KM segment, and LKM is the length of the KM segment.
The bending moment from M to N is as follows:
π
M MN (θ ) = P(h1 + R2 sin(θ )), θ ∈ (θ M , ) (12)
2
where M MN is the bending moment of MN segment.
The bending moment M AF and M FN of the wave spring under unit load could be
obtained while P = 1.
According to Mohr’s theorem [31,32], the displacement of end A in the vertical direc-
tion is as follows:
2 ( T − 1)
Z Z
∆A = M AF M AF dx + MFN M FN dx (13)
EI EI
AF FN
Materials 2022, 15, 9045 7 of 16

where E is Young’s modulus, I is moment of inertia. When a composite material is used, the
isotropic assumptions are no longer valid. In a composite material, the laminate bending
moduli and Poisson ratio are as follows:
2 )
12( D11 D22 − D12
Ex = (14)
t3 D22
2 )
12( D11 D22 − D12
Ey = (15)
t3 D11
12( D66 )
Gxy = (16)
t3
D
νxy = 11 (17)
D22
where D11 , D12 , D22 and D66 are coefficients from the bending stiffness matrix found from
the classical lamination plate theory. In the orthotropic laminates, the elastic modulus, E,
depends on the angle, θ [33] by the following relationship:
" # −1
m ( θ )2   n ( θ )2   m ( θ )2 n ( θ )2
E(θ ) = m(θ )2 − n(θ )2 v xy + n(θ )2 − m(θ )2 vyx + (18)
Ex Ey Gxy

where m(θ) is cos θ and n(θ) is sin θ.

The formula for calculating the stiffness of the GFRP wave spring is as follows [34]:

P
K= (19)
∆A

4. Experimental and FEA

4.1. FEA of GFRP Wave Springs
In the finite element (FE) analysis, the simulation results are highly dependent on the
mesh size. In this paper, the mesh sensitivity analysis of the FE model with a period of 2
are carried out. With other settings unchanged, the FE models with mesh sizes of 1 mm,
2 mm, 3 mm, 4 mm and 5 mm are analyzed and the results are shown Table 2 and Figure 5.

Table 2. Stiffness simulation results for different mesh sizes.

Mesh Size/mm 1 2 3 4 5
Stiffness simulation N/mm 35.47 36.49 37.30 37.38 36.67
%error simulation / 2.88% 5.16% 5.38% 3.38%

The difference between the simulation results with different mesh sizes does not
exceed 5.5%, so the effect of the mesh size on the simulation stiffness is not significant.
Generally, the smaller the mesh size, the closer the simulation results are to the actual
situation, but considering the simulation time, the mesh size cannot be reduced indefinitely.
Therefore, the mesh size of 1 mm is used to simulate the GFRP wave springs.
Based on the structure shown in Figure 1, the corresponding 3D model of the GFRP
wave springs are created by the 3D modeling software and imported into the finite element
simulation software. The mesh type of the GFRP wave spring is a hexahedral mesh SC8R
with an overall mesh size of 1 mm, which is divided into a total of 72,840 meshes. The
material parameters used in the simulations are shown in Table 1. During the static analysis,
the calculations are performed using the static general analysis step (Static, General). The
boundary constraint is to fix one end of the wave spring and to couple the other end face to
the reference point. Then, a linear displacement with time is applied at the reference point.
Finally, the displacement and reaction force in the vertical direction at the reference point
(RP-1) are output to obtain the load-displacement curve. The setup is shown in Figure 6.
 Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17

Materials 2022, 15, 9045 Mesh Size/mm 1 2 3 4 5 8 of 16

Stiffness simulation N/mm 35.47 36.49 37.30 37.38 36.67
%error simulation / 2.88% 5.16% 5.38% 3.38%

Figure 5. Stiffness simulation results for different mesh sizes.

Based on the structure shown in Figure 1, the corresponding 3D model of the GFRP
wave springs are created by the 3D modeling software and imported into the finite ele-
ment simulation software. The mesh type of the GFRP wave spring is a hexahedral mesh
SC8R with an overall mesh size of 1 mm, which is divided into a total of 72,840 meshes.
The material parameters used in the simulations are shown in Table 1. During the static
analysis, the calculations are performed using the static general analysis step (Static, Gen-
eral). The boundary constraint is to fix one end of the wave spring and to couple the other
end face to the reference point. Then, a linear displacement with time is applied at the
reference point. Finally, the displacement and reaction force in the vertical direction at the
Figure
Figure 5.
reference point (RP-1) 5. Stiffness
are outputsimulation
Stiffness to obtainresults
simulation for
fordifferent
the load-displacement
results mesh
different sizes.
mesh curve. The setup is
sizes.
shown in Figure 6.
Based on the structure shown in Figure 1, the corresponding 3D model of the GFRP
mesh size=1 mm
wave springs are created by the 3D modeling software and imported into the finite ele-
ment simulation software. The mesh type of the GFRP wave spring is a hexahedral mesh
SC8R with an overall mesh size of 1 mm, which is divided into a total of 72,840 meshes.
The material parameters used in the simulations are shown in Table 1. During the static
analysis, the calculations are performed using the static general analysis step (Static, Gen-
eral). The boundary constraint is to fix one end of the wave spring and to couple the other
end face to the reference point. Then, a linear displacement with time is applied at the
reference point. Finally, the displacement and reaction force in the vertical direction at the
reference point (RP-1) are output to obtain the load-displacement curve. The setup is
shown(a) in Figure 6. (b)
Figure 6. SchematicFigure
diagram of finite element
6. Schematic simulation
diagram ofmesh analysis
finitesize=1 mmmodel
element setting,
simulation (a) Finite
analysis element
model setting, (a) Finite element
model of wave spring, (b) of
model Simulation boundary
wave spring, condition boundary
(b) Simulation settings. condition settings.

4.2.
4.2. The Experiment of The Experiment of Stiffness
Stiffness
This paper uses electronic
This paperuniversal testing machine
uses electronic to testing
universal experiment the stiffness
machine per-
to experiment the stiffness per-
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
formance of GFRP wave springs
formance and wave
of GFRP metal springs
helical spring, and helical
and metal the installation is shown
spring, and in
the installation9isofshown
17
in
Figure 7. Figure 7.

(a) (b)
Figure 6. Schematic diagram of finite element simulation analysis model setting, (a) Finite element
model of wave spring, (b) Simulation boundary condition settings.

4.2. The Experiment of Stiffness

This paper uses electronic universal testing machine to experiment the stiffness per-
formance of GFRP wave springs and metal helical spring, and the installation is shown in
Figure
Figure
Figure
7.
7. Compression performance
7. Compression experiment
performance bench.bench.
experiment

The The
experiment method
experiment is compression
method experiment,
is compression in which
experiment, the indenter
in which movesmoves
the indenter
down at a rate
down at aof 5 mm/min
rate and theand
of 5 mm/min sampling frequency
the sampling is 100 Hz.isThe
frequency 100experiment ends
Hz. The experiment
when the when
ends loadedthe displacement reaches 10 mm,
loaded displacement the 10
reaches load-displacement data of the experi-
mm, the load-displacement data of the
mentexperiment
is exported,isand the weight
exported, andofthe
theweight
composite wave
of the springs and
composite wavemetal coil springs
springs is coil
and metal
measured.
springs is measured.
Comparing
Comparing the results of GFRP
the results wavewave
of GFRP spring with awith
spring period of 4 (with
a period 8 peaks
of 4 (with and and
8 peaks
valleys) withwith
valleys) a metal helical
a metal spring
helical with with
spring a period of 8. The
a period of 8.free
Theheight, mid-diameter
free height, and and
mid-diameter
wirewire
diameter of the
diameter ofmetal helical
the metal spring
helical are the
spring aresame as theasGFRP
the same wavewave
the GFRP spring.spring.

4.3. The Experiment of Frequency Response Characteristics

The experiments are conducted using the hammering method [35,36] to excite the
GFRP wave springs and metal spiral spring, and the acceleration response signal is meas-
ured by an accelerometer. Fast Fourier transform (FFT) of the signal is performed to obtain
 measured.
Comparing the results of GFRP wave spring with a period of 4 (with 8 peaks and
valleys) with a metal helical spring with a period of 8. The free height, mid-diameter and
wire diameter of the metal helical spring are the same as the GFRP wave spring.
Materials 2022, 15, 9045 9 of 16

4.3. The Experiment of Frequency Response Characteristics

The
4.3. The experiments
Experiment are conducted
of Frequency using the hammering method [35,36] to excite the
Response Characteristics
GFRP wave springs and metal spiral spring, and the acceleration response signal is meas
The experiments are conducted using the hammering method [35,36] to excite the
ured by
GFRP an accelerometer.
wave springs and metalFast Fourier
spiral transform
spring, (FFT) of theresponse
and the acceleration signal issignal
performed
is mea-to obtain
the frequency domain signal and analyze the vibration characteristics of the GFRP wave
sured by an accelerometer. Fast Fourier transform (FFT) of the signal is performed to obtain
springs.
the The domain
frequency specific signal
parameters of thethe
and analyze equipment used for the experiment
vibration characteristics are shown in
of the GFRP wave
Table 3. The specific parameters of the equipment used for the experiment are shown
springs.
in Table 3.
Table 3. Model and Parameters of Experiment Equipment.
Table 3. Model and Parameters of Experiment Equipment.
Equipment Model Parameters
Equipment
Piezoelectric accelerometer Model4507Bx Parameters
9.688 mV/(m/s2)
Force hammer
Piezoelectric (Force Sensor)
accelerometer 8206-002
4507Bx 9.688 mV/(m/s2.272 )mV/N
ForceData acquisition
hammer (Forcesystem
Sensor) 3660-C-LAN-XI
8206-002 2.27 mV/N -
DataAnalyzing software
acquisition system BK Connect
3660-C-LAN-XI - -
Analyzing software BK Connect -
The block diagram of the frequency response characteristics experiment process is
shownTheinblock diagram
Figure 8. In of thefree
the frequency response
state, the force characteristics
hammer 8206-002 experiment
is usedprocess is
to generate the
shown in Figure 8. In the free state, the force hammer 8206-002 is used to generate the
excitation signal for the specimen. Two B&K 4507Bx acceleration sensors acquire the inpu
excitation signal for the specimen. Two B&K 4507Bx acceleration sensors acquire the input
andoutput
and outputacceleration
acceleration response
response signals
signals of GFRPofwave
GFRP wave
spring andspring and input
input them into thethem
B&K into the
B&Kacquisition
data data acquisition
system.system. The computer
The computer software
software B&K B&K
connect connectdata
completes completes data acqui
acquisition
sition and
and analysis.analysis.

Figure 8. Frequency response characteristic experiment process block diagram.

Figure 8. Frequency response characteristic experiment process block diagram.
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17
The experiment stand is set up as shown in Figure 9.
The experiment stand is set up as shown in Figure 9.

Figure9.9.Hammer
Figure Hammer experiment
experiment bench
bench installation
installation diagram.
diagram.

The
Thespecimen
specimen is is
lifted onon
lifted thethe
metal stand,
metal andand
stand, the the
force hammer
force hammer is used to excite
is used one one
to excite
end
endofofthe
thespecimen,
specimen,andand two acceleration
two sensors
acceleration are are
sensors installed at each
installed end of
at each endtheofspecimen
the specimen
to
tocollect
collectthe
theinput
inputandandoutput
outputacceleration
accelerationsignals.
signals.Then
Thenthe
thesignals
signalscollected
collectedbybythe
the ac-
accelerometers are transferred to the data processing system through
celerometers are transferred to the data processing system through the data the data acquisition
acquisition
system. The data processing system is used to read and save the data.
system. The data processing system is used to read and save the data.

5. Results and Discussion

5.1. The Result of Stiffness
5.1.1. FEA and Experimental Results on the Stiffness of the GFRP Springs
 end of the specimen, and two acceleration sensors are installed at each end of the sp
to collect the input and output acceleration signals. Then the signals collected by
celerometers are transferred to the data processing system through the data acq
system. The data processing system is used to read and save the data.
Materials 2022, 15, 9045 10 of 16

5. Results and Discussion

5.1. The Result
5. Results of Stiffness
and Discussion
5.1. TheFEA
5.1.1. Result
andof Stiffness
Experimental Results on the Stiffness of the GFRP Springs
5.1.1. FEA and Experimental Results on the Stiffness of the GFRP Springs
The load-displacement curves obtained by simulation are compared with the
The load-displacement curves obtained by simulation are compared with the curves
that obtained
that obtained from
from experiment,
experiment, as shown
as shown in Figurein
10Figure 104.and Table 4.
and Table

10.Load-displacement
Figure 10.
Figure curve curve
Load-displacement of simulation and experiment.
of simulation and experiment.

Table4.4.Summary
Table of the
Summary ofStiffness results on
the Stiffness GFRPon
results wave springs.
GFRP wave springs.
Type of Springs T=2 T = 2.5 T=3 T = 3.5 T=4
Type of Springs T=2 T = 2.5 T=3 T = 3.5 T
Stiffness experiment-A N/mm 35.25 31.33 27.60 25.97 21.41
Stiffness Stiffness experiment-A
experiment-B N/mm N/mm
34.43 30.85 35.25 29.6631.33 27.1127.60 19.7725.97 21
Stiffness
Average value experiment-B
N/mm N/mm
34.84 31.09 34.43 28.6330.85 26.4529.66 20.5927.11 19
Stiffness simulation N/mm 35.47 28.21 26.88 22.39 19.57
Average value N/mm 34.84 31.09 28.63 26.45 20
%error simulation 1.80% 9.26% 6.11% 15.35% 4.95%
Stiffness simulation N/mm 35.47 28.21 26.88 22.39 19
From the results,
%erroritsimulation
can be seen that the maximum error between
1.80% 9.26%the simulated
6.11% stiffness
15.35% 4.
and the experimental stiffness is 15.35%. And the trend of the simulation stiffness and
the experiment stiffness is consistent, and the stiffness decreases with the increase in the
From the results, it can be seen that the maximum error between the simulat
period number.
nessFrom
and Equation
the experimental stiffness
(13), it can be concludedis 15.35%. And the trend
that the displacement of theofGFRP
the simulation
wave s
spring increases with the increase in the number of periods for the same load. This causes
the stiffness of the GFRP wave spring to decrease as the number of periods increases. From
the experimental results, it can be seen that the trend of stiffness variation of the GFRP
wave spring is consistent with the theoretical trend.

5.1.2. Comparison of Stiffness Results of GFRP Wave Spring and Metal Helical Spring
The experiment results for the GFRP wave spring and the metal helical spring are
shown in Figure 11.
The stiffness of the GFRP wave spring is 20.59 N/mm and the stiffness of the metal
helical spring is 10.82 N/mm. The weight of the GFRP wave spring and the metal helical
spring are 157.82 g and 215.65 g.
From the experiment results, it can be seen that the stiffness of the GFRP wave spring
is increased by 90.30% and the weight is reduced by 26.82%.
 and the experiment stiffness is consistent, and the stiffness decreases with the increase in
the period number.
From Equation (13), it can be concluded that the displacement of the GFRP wave
Materials 2022, 15, 9045 11 of 16
spring increases with the increase in the number of periods for the same load. This causes
the stiffness of the GFRP wave spring to decrease as the number of periods increases. From
the experimental results, it can be seen that the trend of stiffness variation of the GFRP
5.2. Results of Frequency Response Characteristics
wave spring is consistent with the theoretical trend.
5.2.1. Results of Frequency Response Characteristics of GFRP Wave Springs

5.1.2.After completingofthe
Comparison frequency
Stiffness response
Results of experiment,
GFRP Wave theSpring
time domain signalHelical
and Metal measuredSpring
by the acceleration sensor was read in the B&K connect software to obtain the vibration
The curve
response experiment results
of the GFRP for springs.
wave the GFRP Thewave
inputspring and the
and output metal
signals arehelical
shown spring
in are
shown12.
Figure in Figure 11.

Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17

Figure11.
Figure 11.Experiment
Experiment results
results of GFRP
of GFRP wave
wave spring
spring and metal
and metal helicalhelical
spring. spring.

The stiffness of the GFRP wave spring is 20.59 N/mm and the stiffness of the meta
helical spring is 10.82 N/mm. The weight of the GFRP wave spring and the metal helica
spring are 157.82 g and 215.65 g.
From the experiment results, it can be seen that the stiffness of the GFRP wave spring
is increased by 90.30% and the weight is reduced by 26.82%.

5.2. Results of Frequency Response Characteristics

5.2.1. Results of Frequency Response Characteristics of GFRP Wave Springs
After completing the frequency response experiment, the time domain signal meas-
ured by the acceleration sensor was read in the B&K connect software to obtain the vibra
tion response curve of the GFRP wave springs. The input and output signals are shown
in Figure 12. (a) (b)
Figure
Figure12.
12.The
Theresponse
responsecurves
curvesof
ofGFRP
GFRPwave
wavesprings,
springs,(a)
(a)time
timedomain
domaininput
inputsignal,
signal,(b)
(b)time
timedomain
domain
output signal.
output signal.

Thefast
The fastFourier
Fouriertransform
transformofofthe
thecollected
collecteddata
dataisisdirectly
directlyperformed
performedininthe
thesoftware
software
B&Kconnect
B&K connectto toobtain
obtainthe
thefrequency
frequencyresponse
response curves
curvesof ofthe
theGFRP
GFRPwave
wavesprings.
springs.InInorder
order
to show more intuitively the vibration isolation effect of GFRP wave springs,
to show more intuitively the vibration isolation effect of GFRP wave springs, the FRF the FRFis
is used
used to characterize
to characterize the vibration
the vibration isolation
isolation effect.
effect. The[37]
The FRF FRFcan
[37]
becan be obtained
obtained from
from Equa-
Equation
tion (20). (20).
a2
FRF = 20 log (20)
aa21
FRF = 20log (20)
where a2 is the acceleration value at the output, andaa11 is the acceleration value at the input.
The frequency response and FRF curves of the GFRP wave springs for different periods
Where a2 isinthe
are shown acceleration
Figure value5.at the output, and a1 is the acceleration value at the
13 and Table
input.
The frequency response and FRF curves of the GFRP wave springs for different peri-
ods are shown in Figure 13 and Table 5.
 a2
FRF = 20log (20)
a1

Where a2 is the acceleration value at the output, and a1 is the acceleration value at the
input.
Materials 2022, 15, 9045 12 of 16
The frequency response and FRF curves of the GFRP wave springs for different peri-
ods are shown in Figure 13 and Table 5.

Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 17

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)
Figure 13. Frequency domain signals of GFRP wave springs and its FRF curve, (a) T = 2, (b) T == 2.5,
2.5,
(c)
(c) T
T == 3,
3, (d)
(d) T
T == 3.5,
3.5, (e)
(e) TT ==2,2,(f)
(f)the
theFRF
FRFcurve
curveof
ofGFRP
GFRPwave
wavespring
springwith
withdifferent
different period.
period.

It can be seen from Figure 12 that the vibration isolation range of the GFRP wave
spring with a period of 2 is 580–2016 Hz. When the excitation frequency is 1360 Hz, the
maximum vibration attenuation amplitude reaches 37.39 dB.
For the GFRP wave spring with a period of 2.5, there are three vibration isolation
intervals: 512–2064 Hz, 2336–2576 Hz and 2752–3264 Hz. When the excitation frequency is
752 Hz, the maximum vibration attenuation amplitude is 51.96 dB.
For the GFRP wave spring with a period of 3, there are three vibration isolation
intervals: 560–2192 Hz, 2352–3024 Hz and 3072–3632 Hz. When the excitation frequency is
880 Hz, the vibration attenuation amplitude reaches the maximum 59.85 dB.
Materials 2022, 15, 9045 13 of 16

Table 5. Vibration isolation interval of GFRP wave spring with different periods.

Periods Vibration Attenuation Interval/Hz Min of FRF/dB

T=2 496–2048 −37.39
512–2064 −51.88
T = 2.5 2336–2576 −16.32
2752–3264 −5.7
560–2192 −59.85
T=3 2352–3024 −54.15
3072–3632 −13.97
576–2240 −59.88
T = 3.5
2256–3792 −61.26
576–1920 −57.24
T=4
2256–3681 −69.16

For the GFRP wave spring with a period of 3.5, there are two vibration isolation
intervals: 576–2240 Hz and 2256–3792 Hz. When the excitation frequency is 928 Hz, the
maximum vibration attenuation amplitude reaches 61.26 dB.
For the GFRP wave spring with a period of 4, there are two vibration isolation intervals:
576–1920 Hz and 2256–3681 Hz. When the excitation frequency is 2864 Hz, the maximum
vibration attenuation amplitude reaches 69.17 dB.
From the results, it can be concluded that wave springs with different periods have
different vibration isolation effects at different excitation frequencies, and the vibration
isolation effect becomes more obvious as the number of periods increases. When the
excitation frequency is less than 580 Hz, the vibration isolation effect of the GFRP wave
spring is poor. When the excitation frequency is 580–1920 Hz, the vibration attenuation
is especially obvious, and the vibration attenuation increases gradually with the increase
in the number of periods, and finally stabilizes at about 59.87 dB. When the excitation
frequency is 2000–4000 Hz, with the increase in the number of periods, the vibration
isolation interval of the wave springs changes from narrow to wide and less, and the
vibration attenuation amplitude increases to 69.17 dB.

5.2.2. Comparison of Frequency Response Characteristics Results of GFRP Wave Spring

and Metal Coil Spring
The experiment results for the GFRP wave spring and the metal helical spring are
shown in Figure 14. The vibration isolation range of the GFRP wave spring is 576–1920 Hz
and 2256–3681 Hz with a maximum vibration attenuation of 69.17 dB, and the vibration
Materials 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 17
isolation range of the metal helical spring is 412.5–975 Hz with a maximum vibration
attenuation of 13.92 dB.

Figure 14.
Figure 14. The results
resultsofoffrequency
frequencyresponse
response characteristics
characteristics of GFRP
of GFRP wave
wave spring
spring and metal
and metal helicalhelical
spring.
spring.

From the experiment results, it can be seen that the vibration isolation interval and
vibration attenuation of the GFRP wave spring are higher than those of the metal helical
spring. This is due to the fact that the composite material has better damping properties
Materials 2022, 15, 9045 14 of 16

From the experiment results, it can be seen that the vibration isolation interval and
vibration attenuation of the GFRP wave spring are higher than those of the metal helical
spring. This is due to the fact that the composite material has better damping properties
and energy storage capacity [38,39].

6. Conclusions
In this paper, GFRP wave springs with different periods are designed. The stiffness of
the GFRP wave springs with different periods and their frequency response characteristics
are studied by experiments and simulations. The main conclusions are as follows:
1. GFRP wave springs which are prepared by using the autoclave are designed.
2. The trend of the simulation and experiment results are consistent, and the stiffness of
the GFRP wave spring gradually decreased as the period increased, and the maximum
error between the simulation and experiment stiffness is 15.35%, and the minimum
error is 1.8%.
3. As the period of the GFRP wave springs increases, the vibration isolation interval and
vibration attenuation become larger, with a maximum attenuation of 69.17 dB.
4. The stiffness of the GFRP wave spring is increased by 90.30% and the weight is
reduced by 26.82% compared to the metal helical spring. The vibration isolation
interval and vibration attenuation of the GFRP wave spring are higher than the metal
helical spring.
At present, this paper only investigates the effect of the number of periods on the
GFRP wave spring stiffness and frequency response characteristics. The conclusions can be
extended and applied to the design of wave springs of various fiber reinforced composite
materials, and also provide a basis for subsequent research. In the future work, the factors
besides period will be investigated on the stiffness and frequency response characteristics,
such as size, ply angle, preparation technique and the materials. In addition, the load-
bearing capacity of GFRP wave spring and its influencing factors will also be studied.

Author Contributions: X.W. and K.F.; methodology, X.W.; software, X.X.; validation, X.W., J.Z. and
K.F.; formal analysis, K.F.; investigation, X.X.; resources, J.Z.; data curation, X.X.; writing—original
draft preparation, X.W. and K.F.; writing—review and editing, X.W. and K.F.; visualization, J.Z.;
supervision, X.X.; project administration, Y.D.; funding acquisition, Y.D. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was funded by [National Natural Science Foundation of China] grant number
[51975435] and funded by [Hainan Special PhD Scientific Research Foundation of Sanya Yazhou Bay
Science and Technology City] grant number [HSPHDSRF-2022-03-031].
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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