Nano Energy 92 (2022) 106703

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Nano Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/nanoen

Review

Recent progress of magnetic field application in lithium-based batteries

Kang Shen a, 1, Xijun Xu b, 1, Yiping Tang a, *
a
College of Material Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology Hangzhou 310014, PR China
b
Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Energy Storage Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology,
Guangzhou 510641, PR China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Lithium-based batteries including lithium-ion, lithium-sulfur, and lithium-oxygen batteries are currently some of
Li-ion battery the most competitive electrochemical energy storage technologies owing to their outstanding electrochemical
Li-S battery performance. The charge/discharge mechanism of these battery systems is based on an electrochemical redox
Li-O2 battery
reaction. Recently, numerous studies have reported that the use of a magnetic field as a non-contact energy
Magnetic field
transfer method can effectively improve the electrochemical performance of lithium-based batteries relying on
Mechanism
the effects of magnetic force, magnetization, magnetohydrodynamic and spin effects. In this review, the authors
comprehensively summarize the latest advances in the application of magnetic fields in lithium-based batteries.
And the relative mechanism, present research status, problems and future developmental directions are dis­
cussed. This review will provide timely access for researchers to the recent works regarding on magnetic field on
lithium-based batteries.

1. Introduction
Depletion of traditional fossil fuels such as petroleum, coal, and
natural gas, together with the deterioration of the ecological environ­
ment, has resulted in increased demand for clean energy. [1] The
development of advanced energy storage technologies for the reason­
able storage and use of limited energy supplies is urgently desired and
will help mitigate some of the challenges currently facing human soci­
ety.[2] Chemical energy storage is the most convenient and important
method of energy storage. Currently, despite various types of energy
storage technologies that have emerged, electrochemical energy storage
with high energy conversion efficiencies, such as the use of batteries and
supercapacitors, has attracted the interest of both academia and in­
dustry. [3] Lithium-based batteries, ideal chemical energy storage de­
vices with high energy density and output voltage, are recognized to be
the best for energy storage today by the international community and
are widely used in mobile phones, electric vehicles, and other equip­
ment. Lithium-based batteries can be divided into the subcategories of
lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries and
lithium-oxygen (Li-O2) batteries.
At present, LIBs are not only widely used in portable electronics and
vehicles, but also possess unique advantages for power storage. [4,5] In
the pursuit of high-energy-density batteries, Li-S and Li-O2 batteries are
widely sought after for commercialization (Fig. 1a). Nowadays, LIBs
have received extensive attention from industry, government funding
agencies and researchers. LIBs, as an energy storage system, rely on the
insertion/extraction of Li+ in the cathode and anodes, respectively.[6,7]
Despite the above advantages, currently commercialized anodes
(graphite, Li4Ti5O12,) and cathodes (LiCoO2, Li(NixCoyMnz)O2,
LiMn2O4, and LiFePO4) possess a theoretical capacity below 400 mAh
g− 1 and 250 mAh g− 1, respectively, which limits the broader adoption of
LIBs (Fig. 1b).[8–10] The use of organic electrolytes and the inevitable
growth of lithium dendrites in the anode cause safety issues in the LIBs.
[9,10] To completely solve the safety problem, research has focused on
constructing solid electrolytes to suppress the growth of Li dendrites and
replace the flammable electrolyte.[11,12] For LIBs, the electrode ma­
terials, to a great extent, determine the performance of the battery.
Among this battery system, a considerable portion of the electrode
material consists of a magnetic metallic element. Magnetics play a
crucial role in material preparation, battery recycling, safety moni­
toring, and metal recovery for LIBs.
Nevertheless, an energy density of 350 Wh/kg is difficult to achieve
with LIBs, which can’t satisfy the minimum requirements of electric
vehicles. [12–14] Due to using naturally abundant sulfur as a cathode

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tangyiping@zjut.edu.cn (Y. Tang).
1
These authors contributed equally to this work.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2021.106703
Received 19 August 2021; Received in revised form 2 November 2021; Accepted 3 November 2021
Available online 9 November 2021
2211-2855/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
K. Shen et al.
material, Li-S batteries exhibit high theoretical energy density
(2600 Wh/kg), and are some of the most promising battery systems for
next-generation energy storage devices. [15–17] The schematic anat­
omy of a Li-S battery is shown in Fig. 1c. Differing from LIBs, Li-S bat­
teries utilize multiple electron transfer electrochemistry: S8 + 16Li+ +
16e− → 8Li2S. However, the large-scale commercialization of this sys­
tem is hampered by the safety problem deriving from the formation of Li
dendrites and the “shuttle effect” created from soluble Li2Sn (n ≥ 4)
(Fig. 1d).[18,19] Recently, several magnetic materials have been com­
bined with the porous matrix as host materials for use in S cathodes by
utilizing its paramagnetic physical adsorption function to inhibit the
production of small S-containing molecules.
To break through the capacity limitations of LIBs, Li-S and Li-O2
batteries have emerged as promising alternatives. [20] Li-O2 batteries
consist of an open structure, the cathode oxygen obtained from the
surrounding atmosphere reduces the weight, thereby increasing the in­
tegral energy density. [21] During discharge, oxygen partakes in an
oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) on the surface of the cathode to pro­
duce Li2O2 with the overall reaction formula 2Li + O2 → Li2O2. Li2O2
undergoes an oxygen evolution reaction (OER) at a sufficiently high
charging voltage during charging and the total reaction formula is Li2O2
→ 2Li + O2. [22] Fig. 2 shows the catalytic reaction mechanism of the
CoO/C-based and M-FeCo-N-C-X catalysts in the Li-O2 battery.[21,22]
Li-O2 batteries still suffer from many problems, such as Li dendrite
formation, high positive overpotential, and poor cycle efficiency.
[23–25].
It is well known that besides the original properties of the magnetic
force and magnetization, the magnetic field, as a non-contact energy
transfer method, also interacts with the electric field. [26] In a magnetic
field, the charged particles will receive a Lorentz force, which is
generated by the interaction between the magnetic field and the electric
field, and then accelerate the electrochemical reaction and adjust their
Fig. 1. a) Volumetric energy density versus specific energy for different battery systems. c) Schematic diagram of lithium-sulfur soft pack battery. d) The schematic
diagram illustrates the challenges associated with lithium-sulfur batteries.
(a) (reproduced from ref. 7 with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH, copyright 2021) b) Present and future electrode materials for Li-ion batteries. (b) (c/d
reproduced from ref. 18 with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH, copyright 2021). (c) 10 with permission from Elsevier, copyright 2013). (d) (reproduced from ref.
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Nano Energy 92 (2022) 106703
original direction of motion. [27] Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is
a method that uses a magnetic field to excite atomic nuclei to obtain
element-specific signals, and it is widely used for in-situ and ex-situ
material characterization of lithium-based batteries. At present, the
emergence of using a magnetic field to induce electron spin changes is
becoming a novel solution to enhance electrochemical performance.
In recent years, many researchers have gradually paid attention to
the role of magnetic fields in lithium-based batteries, and have made
many exciting and significant advances. Based on previous work, we
summarized the main mechanism and some positive effects of magnetic
fields on lithium-based batteries (Fig. 3). Magnetic fields exhibit
different types of benefits on LIBs, Li-S, and Li-O2 batteries. The core
properties consist of five mechanisms of the magnetic field: magnetic
force, magnetization effect, magnetohydrodynamic effect, spin effect,
and NMR effect. These mechanisms help LIBs improve the rate of
diffusion of Li+, provide electrode materials with a higher crystal
arrangement, and allow for the recovery of magnetic elements in waste
batteries. In terms of Li-S batteries, the magnetic field significantly in­
hibits the shuttle effect of small sulfur-containing molecules, suppresses
the growth of Li dendrites and enhances the capture of polysulfides. It
can also help solve the problems associated with slow kinetics, electrode
polarization, negative lithium dendrites, and poor catalytic performance
of positive catalysts in Li-O2 batteries.
In this review, the authors focus on the recent advancements in
mechanistic insights, research progress, potential applications and
prospects for using a magnetic field in lithium-based batteries, including
LIBs, Li-S, and Li-O2.
2. Magnetic field mechanisms
Magnetism, a physical phenomenon that was discovered as early as
the third century BC, is closely related to our industrial development and
K. Shen et al.
Fig. 2. a) Preparation of carbon-dotted defective CoO with oxygen vacancies. b) Schematic of the CoO/C-based air cathode. c) Synergetic mechanism of dotted C and
O vacancies in CoO/C on ORR and OER. d) Illustration of the overall fabrication process for M-FeCo-N-C-X catalysts.
(a) (a-c reproduced from ref. 21 with permission from American Chemical Society, copyright 2016. (b) D reproduced from ref. 22 with permission from Elsevier,
copyright 2019.).
daily life. In the nineteenth century, Oersted first discovered the gal­
vanomagnetic effect, and Faraday then discovered the phenomenon of
electromagnetic induction, which is the foundation of electromagne­
tism. From the twentieth century to date, the theory of the metal elec­
tron, molecular magnetic field, atomic magnetic moment, electron spin,
magnetic domain, and other theories have been continuously developed.
On this basis, a relatively complete theoretical understanding of
magnetism has been formed. [28].
The origin of magnetic phenomena arises from the movement of
electric charges. Atoms are the basic units of all macroscopic matter,
composed of a nucleus and extranuclear electrons. All atoms have a
magnetic moment because of their electron motion. Therefore, magne­
tism is an inherent attribute of all materials and can be further classified
into diamagnetism, paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, and antiferro­
magnetic according to their magnetic properties. [29].
The applications of a magnetic field in lithium batteries can be traced
back nearly two decades. Based on the above magnetic theories and
considering the influence of the magnetic field in the battery environ­
ment, in combination with recent reports, the effect of the magnetic field
can be attributed to five major mechanisms: magnetic force, magneti­
zation, magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) effect, spin effect, and nuclear
magnetic resonance.
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Nano Energy 92 (2022) 106703
2.1. Magnetic force
There are tiny magnetic domains inside all materials. Under the ac­
tion of a magnetic field, the magnetic domains will uniformly move the
magnetic poles in one direction. When the magnetic field is removed, the
magnetic domains of some magnetic substances cannot return to their
original directions. Those that exhibit magnetism are permanent magnet
materials. If the magnetism disappears with the disappearance of the
magnetic field, it is a soft magnetic material. All magnetic materials
satisfy the principle of repulsion between aligned magnetic fields and
attraction between opposing magnetic fields. [30,31] Numerous
research groups have applied this simple physical phenomenon to
lithium-based batteries, which could avoid the differentiation and fail­
ure of active materials, the shuttle effect of polysulfides, and promote
the recovery of magnetic materials. [32–34].
2.2. Magnetization effect
Magnetization refers to a phenomenon in which the magnetic mo­
ments of material are aligned under a magnetic field, thereby exhibiting
a certain degree of magnetism. The process of magnetization is that
materials without inherent magnetic properties gain magnetism from
the application of a magnetic field. The crystal orientation can be
adjusted by this method to obtain an oriented crystal arrangement,
K. Shen et al. Nano Energy 92 (2022) 106703

is induced by the electromagnetic interaction. [37] Specifically, the

charged species in the electrolyte are subjected to a Lorentz force that is
perpendicular to the electric and magnetic fields, and the Lorentz force
changes the moving direction of charged species, causing them to spiral
and inducing convection in the electrolyte, which can effectively pro­
mote the mass transfer and uniform distribution of lithium ions. [37,38]
For example, in the electrochemical deposition process, the Lorentz
force rotates the charged lithium ions and causes the electrolyte to
agitate, thereby accelerating mass transfer and realizing a better elec­
trode reaction. This also improves the electrocrystallization process,
thereby improving the morphology and structure of the deposited Li
metal layer.[38] The Lorentz force can be obtained by the formula FL
= j × B (j is the local current density and B is the external magnetic field
strength). When B and j are parallel, the Lorentz force is zero, and when
B and j are orthogonal, the Lorentz force is the largest. At the edge of the
electrode, the direction of j will twist and cut off the lines of the mag­
netic force to the extent that the MHD effect will form eddy currents
around the edge. Furthermore, the protrusions on the electrode surface
cause the local current distribution to be uneven, resulting in secondary
micro-MHD eddy currents (Fig. 4b).[37] Currently, the micro-MHD ef­
fect is applied to improve the concentration of the polarization of
lithium ions and inhibit the growth of dendrites. [40,41].

Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of the application of magnetic fields in lithium-
based batteries (including LIBs, Li-S batteries, Li-O2 batteries) and the five
main mechanisms involved.
thereby promoting lithium storage. [35,36] As shown in Fig. 4a, the
superparamagnetic zinc ferrite was magnetized and exhibited a certain
arrangement under a magnetic field, the orientation facilitated the
transportation of lithium ions.
2.3. Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) effect
The MHD effect occurs when an electrochemical process is con­
ducted under a magnetic field, the convection of an electrolytic solution
2.4. Spin effect
Recent studies have found that magnetic fields greatly affect spin-
dependent electrochemistry (Fig. 4c). The MoS2 catalyst lowers the
energy barrier of the electronic transitions under a magnetic field and
improves the catalytic efficiency. The spin rules under magnetic field
conditions appear in electrochemical reactions, mainly involving the
spin-related free radical pair mechanism and other mechanisms.[42,43]
The formation and participation of spin-related radical pairs play an
important role in electrochemistry. Under the induction of a magnetic
field, the spin arrangement changes from a disordered to an ordered
state, leading to a variation in surface energy. The change in surface
energy can influence the adsorption of the reactants, thereby affecting
the catalytic activity of catalysts and the reaction activity of reactants.

Fig. 4. a) Abridged general view of magnetic field magnetization. Zinc ferrite nanoparticles are magnetized into an orderly arrangement in a magnetic field. Li+ is
subjected to the Lorentz force in a magnetic field to produce the MHD effect. The MoS2 catalyst lowers the electron spin energy barrier under a magnetic field and
improves the catalytic efficiency.
(a) (reproduced from ref. 34 with permission from Elsevier, copyright 2018) b) Schematic diagram of MHD effect. (b) (reproduced from ref. 39 with permission from
Elsevier, copyright 2014) c) Diagrammatic sketch of the spin effect. (c) (reproduced from ref. 44 with permission from American Chemical Society, copyright 2020)
d) NMR model diagram (reproduced from ref. 48 with permission from MDPI, copyright 2021).

4
K. Shen et al.
The unfilled spin-down state and the filled spin-up state can induce a
magnetic moment in the system. It can be concluded from previous
literature that spin-aligned materials have a higher spin density on
atoms than that of non-spin-aligned materials. This means that ferro­
magnetic materials are sensitive to a magnetic field and obtain addi­
tional energy MH (M: Magnetic field strength, H: magnetic moment)
under the vertical magnetic field. [44,45] This will facilitate the appli­
cation of magnetic materials in catalysis and Li-O2 batteries.
2.5. NMR effect
The nuclear spin undergoes energy level transitions, providing a
magnetic field and the required energy. This energy is usually provided
by radiofrequency fields. When the frequency of the radiofrequency
field is the same as the frequency of the nucleus spin, its energy can be
absorbed by the nucleus, thereby assisting the energy-level transition.
[46] Therefore, in a given magnetic field, a specific nucleus only absorbs
energy at a specific frequency, thus forming a nuclear magnetic reso­
nance signal. The typical components of an NMR instrument are shown
in Fig. 4d. Based on this resonance signal, the purity, conductivity, phase
change, etc. of lithium-based battery materials can be analyzed. [47,48].
3. Applications in lithium-based batteries
3.1. Lithium-ion battery
LIBs have become the most popular lithium-based battery system
because of their advantages of high energy density, high voltage per­
formance, low self-discharge, no memory effect, superior cycle perfor­
mance and good rate performance.[49–51] It is well-known that
electricity and magnetism are closely related. An increasing number of
studies have confirmed that the reasonable use of a magnetic field can
have a positive impact on preparing electrode materials, promoting
cycle performance, helping monitor battery health, and aiding the
recycling of LIBs.[52–55] In this section, according to the role of the
magnetic field as a non-contact energy transfer method in LIBs, the
author summarizes recent advances area with regards to five mecha­
nistic aspects: material preparation, improving cycle performance,
safety monitoring, LIB recycling, and other applications. It is hoped that
these viewpoints will provide a reference for the better use of a magnetic
field to improve the performance of LIBs.
3.1.1. Material synthesis
In LIBs, the electrochemical performance depends on the following
key components: anode, cathode, electrolyte and separator. Among
them, the electrode materials should have good electronic and ionic
conductivity to facilitate the reversible insertion and extraction of Li+
over thousands of cycles. [56,57] In this regard, the cathode and anode
materials require a suitable lattice structure, crystallinity and structural
stability to meet the requirements of the rocking chair battery model.
[58] As for the electrolyte, the requirements are mainly focused on high
ionic conductivity. Numerous studies have been proven that the mag­
netic field can induce the formation of ferromagnetic and paramagnetic
materials with special crystal structures.[59–61] Generally, when the
magnetic field participates in the synthetic process of materials, the
nucleation and growth process will change and cause anisotropy; this
ultimately affects the change in the crystal lattice. This is due to a
decrease in surface energy, the directional growth along the easy axis,
and the enhancement of dipoles.[62] In addition, it is remarkable that
the magnetic field-induced method is similar to a template-free strategy.
With the help of the magnetic field, the preparation of electrode mate­
rials and electrolytes for Li+ insertion/extraction can be conducted
smoothly by applying a magnetic field.
Traditional cathodes of LiFePO4, LiCoO2, LiNi0.5Mn0.3Co0.2O2,
LiMn2O4, and so on, contain a magnetic element. Thus, during the
preparation of cathode materials, the magnetic field will undoubtedly
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Nano Energy 92 (2022) 106703
affect the nucleation and growth of crystals to such an extent as to affect
the final morphology, and finally affect the rate and cycling perfor­
mance. Both Zhou [60] and Kim et al. [63] designed experiments to
prove that, at the preparation stage, the magnetic field affects the crystal
growth and orientation of LiFePO4 to such an extent that the magnetic
susceptibility of the b-axis is the largest (Fig. 5a). The Li+ diffusion of
LiFePO4 is highly dependent on its one-dimensional diffusion channels.
LiFePO4 with b-axis oriented alignment leads to a higher Li+ diffusion
coefficient compared with no magnetic orientation; this increases the
Li+ deintercalation rate, discharge capacity and reduces the electrode
polarization. Moreover, Sander [52] and Li et al. [61] prepared LiCoO2
materials with an anisotropic, low-bending porous structure in the
desired direction. Fig. 5b, a schematic diagram and an electron micro­
graph of the preparation process for the vertical channel exhibit that
magnetically induced directional holes lead to faster charge transfer
kinetics and increase the area of the electrode more than 3 times at the
actual charge/discharge rates (> 12 mAh/cm2 compared to traditional
electrodes < 4 mAh/cm2). Besides LiFePO4 and LiCoO2, the magnetic
field also plays a fruitful role in the preparation of ternary material
electrodes. LiNi0.5Mn0.3Co0.2O2 is paramagnetic. Kim et al. obtained a
crystal-arranged LiNi0.5Mn0.3Co0.2O2 electrode by adjusting magnetic
flux density and field direction.[64,65] As shown in Fig. 6, the transport
procedure for Li+ in LiNixMnyCo1-(x+y)O2 essentially occurs on the (001)
plane. After being arranged by a magnetic field, the (001) plane of
LiNixMnyCo1-(x+y)O2 is perpendicular to the surface of the current col­
lector, resulting in a high capacity and superior rate performance. In
summary, the researchers used the extrinsic paramagnetic properties of
LiFePO4, LiCoO2, LiNi0.5Mn0.3Co0.2O2 to obtain materials with the
desired crystal orientation in a magnetic field, and thus achieve the
acceleration of Li+ conduction and improve electrochemical
performance.
As is well-known, the conventional commercial graphite anode is
limited by its theoretical capacity so that some high capacity alloy-type
anodes and transition metal oxides have been discovered for LIBs.[66,
67] Among these anodes, the magnetic field also plays a vital role in the
preparation stage. Recently, Zhang et al. used a magnetic field to adjust
the arranged orientation of the graphite sheet and attained a highly
ordered arranged graphite anode [68]. As shown in Fig. 7, these graphite
sheets are aligned and provide an avenue for the transportation of Li+,
thus leading to superior Li+ storage performance. Furthermore, the
quantitative relationship between the specific capacity at 2 C and the
orientation angle is revealed, and the orientation angle increases by 1◦ ,
with a specific capacity increase of 0.58 mAh g− 1. [68] Sung et al. [69]
successfully suppressed the agglomeration of graphite particles by using
a magnetizing force and obtained an environmentally friendly anode
material for LIBs.
The magnetic field also plays a positive role in the preparation of
transition metal oxide anode materials. Zhong et al. synthesized nano-
MnO2 using a hydrothermal method under the action of a pulsed mag­
netic field and explored the effect that an increase in the intensity of the
magnetic field had on the process: the specific surface area and battery
capacity are significantly increased.[70] Wei et al. [71] synthesized
porous MnO via a magnetic field-assisted hydrothermal method and
revealed that the morphology of the MnO crystal structure was changed
under the magnetic field and displayed better performance than that
without a magnetic field. Magnetic Fe3O4 with high theoretical capacity
(925 mAh g− 1), natural abundance and environmentally benign fea­
tures, have been widely studied by scientific groups. For example,
Zhang, Wang, and Lou et al. introduced a magnetic field for the synthesis
of Fe3O4/C anodes. They discovered that the magnetic field not only
improves the crystalline structure of Fe3O4 but also significantly en­
hances the lithium storage performance.[72–74] As shown in Fig. 7e,
this method also improves the interfacial contact between the anode and
current collector, increases the packing density, and promotes the ki­
netics of Li+/electrons. Rahman et al. developed a pulsed magnetic
field-assisted hydrothermal method to prepare Co3O4 anodes, and these
K. Shen et al. Nano Energy 92 (2022) 106703

Fig. 5. a) Orderly arrangement of LiFePO4 cathode in a magnetic field. Schematic diagram of the arrangement LiCoO2 of magnetic micro rods b) and magnetized
nylon rods c), and their SEM pictures.
(a) (reproduced from ref. 60 with permission from Elsevier, copyright 2019). (b) (reproduced from ref. 52 with permission from Spring, copyright 2016).

Fig. 6. The LiNi0.5Mn0.3Co0.2O2(NMC) slurry is coated on the current collector through the doctor blade process to prepare the original NMC electrode (p-NMC) or
the electrode treated with an external magnetic field (mf-NMC).
(reproduced from ref. 64 with permission from ECS, copyright 2021).

materials achieved superior electrochemical performance and exhibit a positive effect in a magnetic field. Hu’s group obtained MoS2 ultrathin
smoother and denser surface compared with the preparation of anodes nanosheets under a magnetic field of 8 T and exhibited higher cycle
in the absence of a magnetic field.[75] In addition, sulfides also show a stability, better rate performance, and lower electrochemical impedance

6
K. Shen et al. Nano Energy 92 (2022) 106703

Fig. 7. The transmission path of the Lithium ions in a) reference and b) aligned graphite electrode. c) Rate performance test. d) The function of the angle between the
graphite flake and the current collector, and the change in its specific charge at 2 C.
(a) (reproduced from ref. 68 with permission from American Chemical Society, copyright 2019) e) Schematic diagram of Fe3O4/rGO anode synthesized by a magnetic
field assisted process. (b) (reproduced from ref. 73 with permission from Royal Society of Chemistry, copyright 2016).

compared to no high magnetic field.[76].
Majewski et al. [77] used a magnetic field to control the orientation
sequence of lithium-doped layered polyoxyethylene (PEO) micro­
domains in large-scale liquid crystal diblock copolymers. The magnetic
field induces a magnetically oriented columnar structure providing
stronger conductivity than a randomly oriented layered domain (2D
sheet). As displayed in Fig. 8, Majewski et al. [78] also studied the
relationship between the ion conductivity of the electrolyte membrane
and the magnetic field strength. They discovered that the film aligned at
the highest magnetic field strength (6 T), and the conductivity was an
order of magnitude greater compared with the non-aligned case. The
best way to improve the performance of the electrolyte is to increase the
ionic conductivity; the magnetic field possesses the unique advantages
of controlling the orientation of the magnetization.
Based on the above research, a magnetic field as a non-contact en­
ergy transfer method has positive benefits for the preparation of high
performance LIBs. It has two main functions: First, the magnetic field
can induce nucleation and the growth of crystals, improving the stability
of the structure. This special method can improve electronic and ionic
conductivity. Secondly, the direction of the channels can be induced by
the magnetic field to facilitate the transportation of Li+. These two as­
pects benefit the electrochemical performance of LIBs, which also pro­
vides a new approach for the preparation of advanced materials.
3.1.2. Charging and discharging
The application of a magnetic field to improve the electrochemical
performance of LIBs during the charge/discharge procedure is also a
prominent area of research. Researchers have discovered that the MHD
effect and Lorentz force generated by the magnetic field can significantly
increase the capacity of LIBs and cycle life. Cheng et al. used the mag­
netic material γ-Fe2O3 to synthesize LiFePO4 electrodes and studied the
influence of the Lorentz force on the electrochemical performance of the
LIBs. The studies suggest that the magnetic force can accelerate the
movement of electrons, and the LiFePO4 electrode containing 15 wt%

Fig. 8. Evolution of two-dimensional SAXS patterns as a function of the applied magnetic field strength.
(reproduced from ref. 78 with permission from American Chemical Society, copyright 2010).

7
K. Shen et al.
γ-Fe2O3 possessed a superior specific capacity of 69.8 mAh g− 1 at 10 C.
[79] Ganguly et al. proposed a magnetic field-assisted method to obtain
magnetic α-Fe2O3 nanoparticles and modified them with expired
drug-derived n-doped carbon.[80] The use of this material for an anode
for LIBs possesses a cycle life of over 1000.[80] This strategy utilizes the
convection of the magnetohydrodynamic effect to improve the Li+
diffusion rate between the cathode and anode. Our team successfully
prepared a ferromagnetic three-dimensional ordered macroporous
TiO2/CoPt/A-Fe2O3 (3DOMTCF) composite with the help of ferromag­
netic CoPt nanoparticles to adsorb the paramagnetic Fe2O3 nanoparticle.
[33] After magnetization, the reversible capacity of this 3DOMTCF is
improved, and its cycle life is extended. These results could be attributed
to the reusable magnetic field and its unique structure to avoid the
pulverization of Fe2O3 (Fig. 9).
In addition, Tang et al. [53] constructed a "current-driven model"
consisting of a dynamic Li+ exchange solid-liquid interface, magnetic
field, and work done on the system to reveal the diffusion process of Li+
in metal oxides. The "current drive model" realized by the magnetic field
allows for centimeter-level control and controllable two-dimensional
movement. As depicted in Fig. 10, the process of Li+ redistribution in
the metal oxide is revealed. Moreover, Mahon et al. constructed a 1-D
and 2-D model on the influence of the magnetic field of LIBs.[81] It
indicated that, under different magnetic field strengths, the charge/di­
scharge curves, the internal charge and mass concentration of the LIBs
will be significantly affected. With the use of miniaturized batteries, the
magnetic field allows for the more uniform penetration of batteries, thus
leading to fast charging LIBs. Simulation and experimental results show
that the magnetic field has a significant effect on the discharge/charge
process for LIBs.
The distribution of Li+ is determined by the internal structure of the
electrode material but is changed by the intervention of a magnetic field.
The above work demonstrates that the application of a magnetic field
can manipulate the diffusion of Li+, and thus control the transport in the
Fig. 9. a) Voltage profiles of magnetized 3DOMTCF at 50 mA g− 1; b) 3DOMTCF nanocomposite anodes and cycling performances at 200 mA g− 1; c) The internal
magnetic field model of α-Fe2O3 in the lithiation/delithiation process.
(reproduced from ref.33 with permission from Royal Society of Chemistry, copyright 2017).
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Nano Energy 92 (2022) 106703
electrolyte, solid-liquid interface and electrode materials. With the help
of the MHD effect, the capacity and cycle performance of the LIB can be
greatly improved. This will also provide new insights for other battery
systems.
3.1.3. Status detection
A magnetic field not only affects the preparation stage and cycle
procedure for LIBs but also plays a role in purity detection, health
monitoring, temperature detection, and aging detection of the materials.
[82] The temperature, stress and impurities of the material will affect its
magnetic properties. The status of the spontaneous magnetization can
reveal the impurity content in the sample and thus determine the purity
of the sample. Julien et al. [83] studied the magnetic properties for
lithium intercalated compounds (LiNi1− yCoyO2, LiMn2O4, LiMn2yCoyO4,
LiFePO4, etc.), and their research revealed that the magnetic field could
be used to determine the purity of the electrode material for the
rechargeable LIB.
In addition, the magnetic field can also be applied to reveal the
current distribution and charge state inside the battery. Bason’s work
found that the results from the magnetic field detected are in good
agreement with simulated fields and there is sufficient resolution for
detection.[84] Jerschow and his colleagues [54] utilized nuclear mag­
netic resonance technology to non-destructively identify the charge
state and defects present in rechargeable LIBs. Because the magnetic
susceptibility χ value is related to the material, the researchers explored
the evolution of the magnetic field distribution in each cycle. They found
that the change in the magnetic field matched the charge level, thereby
revealing the charge state of the battery.
In addition to checking the status of LIBs, magnetic resonance im­
aging can also be used to assess the quality of the batteries. As is well
known, the temperature is an important indicator that reflects the safety
state of the battery. The non-invasive temperature measurement of LIBs
in electric vehicles can be performed by adding magnetic nanoparticles
K. Shen et al. Nano Energy 92 (2022) 106703

Fig. 10. a) Graphic representation of the controllable two-dimension movement of lithium ions in metal oxides. b) Schematic diagram of the whole process of lithium
ion movement, including P0, P1, P2 and P3, which correspond to the original state, Z movement state, R-L movement state and 20 min self-diffusion state of WO3 film
respectively. c) Optical photos of WO3 film in different industries. d) Schematic diagram of "current drive model". The WO3 film moves in the Z direction, and the
directionality of the two-dimensional movement of lithium ions in the WO3 film during the first two cycles is consistent with the model. e) Optical photo taken at the
beginning of the cycle. Scale bar, 1 cm. The black arrow indicates the current direction. f) Explain the directionality with the "current drive model".
(Reproduced from ref. 53 with permission from Springer Nature, Copyright 2019).

to the electrode materials. Liu et al. [85] established an AC magnetic
field excitation and measurement system and Zou et al. [86] designed an
improved magnetic nanoparticles thermometer based on the first har­
monic for the determination of the internal temperature of the battery.
The test implied that the magnetic field can be used to accurately
measure the internal temperature of the battery. Recently, a magnetic
field imaging system was also used as a non-destructive visualization for
the short-circuit status of LIBs, as shown in Fig. 11.[82] Suzuki et al. [87]
studied the leakage of the magnetic field distribution of LIBs during
operation. Based on the results, the current reconstruction process was
used to evaluate the spatial distribution of the current density corre­
sponding to the reaction rate of the active material and the Li+ diffusion
rate in the electrolyte. They also visually measured the internal deteri­
oration of the LIBs through a magnetic field imaging system. The
implementation of the above technologies relies on a change in electrical
conductivity.
In addition, the aging state of the battery can also be monitored with
the help of a magnetic field. Aging can be defined as the deterioration of
battery performance originating from irreversible physical and chemical
changes (such as an increase in internal resistance, electrolyte decom­
position, electrode cracking, and solid electrolyte interfacial phase (SEI)
modification/growth).[88] Singh’s group[89] designed a magnetic field
to detect the state of the SEI layer and established a corresponding LIB
aging model. It was proved that the magnetic field response (MFR) is
inversely proportional to the growth of SEI. The MFR was also applied to
study the different states of charge (SoC) in the electrode SEI layer.
In summary, the magnetic field can non-destructively monitor the
status of batteries such as the current distribution, health, changes in
temperature, material purity, conductivity, phase changes and so on.
This unique technology provides an avenue for the rapid and reliable
assessment of the state of a battery during its entire life cycle.
3.1.4. Material recycling
Recently, as the output and consumption of LIBs are increasing year
on year, the green recycling and utilization of waste batteries are
becoming more and more urgent. LIBs contain large amounts of valuable
metals such as Co, Ni, Mn, Li, Cu, and Al. Co, Ni and Mn are magnetic
and can be recycled by magnetic separation. The recycling and reuse of
related elements has been proposed.[33,54,90,91].
As shown in Fig. 12, Li’s group used an anaerobic roasting and wet
magnetic separation technology to recover Co, Li2CO3, and graphite in-
situ from the complex electrode.[92] Huang et al. [93] applied an ul­
trasonic dispersion-water flow-magnetic separation technology to
collect micro-magnetic particles from mixed agglomerates; the recovery
rate of Co particles reached a maximum value of 99.63% ± 0.62%, with
a purity of 93.15% ± 0.56%. Qiu et al. proposed a fluid magnetic sep­
aration method to separate trace amounts of Co from waste electrode
materials, the recovery rate is approximately 98.26%.[55] In addition,
Aboelazm et al. designed a different approach to apply a magnetic field
to recover waste LIBs. Electrodeposited Co3O4could be used as the
electrode for a supercapacitor. The results show that the electro­
deposited Co3O4 nanostructure possesses high cycle stability and the
corresponding capacitance retention rate reaches 96% after 5000
charges/discharge cycles. [34].
3.1.5. Others
In addition, magnetic fields have also been used in phase switching
caused by the deintercalation of Li+ in the electrode to prepare the
required magnetic materials. Zhang et al. rationally controlled the
magnetization of LIBs through discharging/charging cycles to design
nanomaterials from the perspective of magnetization and electric field
coupling. By controlling the lithiation/delithiation of the nano α-Fe2O3
anode, the reversible manipulation of magnetism can be increased by 3
orders of magnitude. [92] Yamada et al. studied magnetite Fe3O4
nanoparticles in LIBs and discovered that Fe3O4 reduces 1.4 electrons in
a voltage range of 2.9 ~ 1.3 V while still maintaining the original in­
verse spinel structure. [93] Wei et al. [94] constructed a solid-state
thin-film battery consisting of LiCoO2/LISICON/Fe3O4. This battery

9
K. Shen et al.
Fig. 11. a) Flow chart of magnetic field imaging method. It can be used as a SoH evaluation method in an electric vehicle battery management system. b) Flow chart
of the magnetic field imaging process. c) Experimental results: Magnetic field images captured from the top of the battery under different conditions during 10 A
charging.
(reproduced from ref. 82 with permission from Wiley, copyright 2021).
demonstrated that the deintercalation of Li+ provided a reversible and
non-volatile method for controlling the saturation of the magnetization
of the Fe3O4 film. The above studies imply that it is a very novel method
to reversibly control the magnetic properties by inserting/extracting Li+
from magnetic materials. It also offers a new strategy for the preparation
of other magnetic materials with adjustable magnetic properties. Li et al.
[95] used an in-situ magnetometer to prove extra capacity in transition
metal oxide LIBs. During the low-voltage discharge process, the reduced
metal Fe0 in the Fe3O4/Li battery can participate continuously in the
electrode reactions, which leads to a significant decrease in electrode
magnetization. The application of a real-time in-situ magnetic moni­
toring method provides an important method for revealing the mecha­
nism of LIBs.
A magnetic field, as a non-contact energy transfer method, has
10
Nano Energy 92 (2022) 106703
significant effects on the preparation of electrode materials, battery
cycling, battery safety monitoring, recovery of magnetic elements, and
use in reversible and adjustable magnetic materials. The intervening
magnetic field can change the magnetic structure of the material, con­
structing a crystal more beneficial for Li+ deintercalation/intercalation
or a crystal plane that facilitates the electrochemical reaction. The
essential target of the magnetic field assisted strategy is the promotion of
the diffusion rate of Li+. During cycling, the magnetic field can signifi­
cantly improve the capacity and cycle performance of the LIBs. The
magnetic field can also monitor the health of the battery non-
destructively. Finally, the magnetic field can be used in the recycling
of waste batteries. Hence, the magnetic field should be the complete
guardian for the whole life-cycle of LIBs, and it also provides further
information for the development of other battery systems.
K. Shen et al.
Fig. 12. a) Schematic diagram of magnetic material recovery by a magnetic field.
(a) (reproduced from ref. 90 with permission from Elsevier, copyright 2016) b) Flow chart of magnetic material separation. (b) (reproduced from ref. 91 with
permission from Elsevier, copyright 2021).
3.2. Li-S battery
In pursuit of high energy density materials to meet the requirement
of vehicles for long endurance mileage, Li-S batteries are promising
candidates for use in vehicles requiring high mileage due to their ultra-
high theoretical energy density (2567 W/kg), low toxicity and low sul­
fur cost.[96] Li-S batteries release energy through a conversion reaction
between Li2S and S. On the S cathode, there is a two-step discharge
process. At a voltage plateau of ≈ 2.3 V, the S8 ring is reduced to a
long-chain polysulfide compound (Li2Sn, 4 ≤ n ≤ 8). At ≈ 2.1 V, these
soluble polysulfides dissolve in the electrolyte and then precipitate as
solid Li2S2/Li2S.[17,97] The lithium anode produces lithium dendrites
during a cycle. Li dendrites can penetrate the diaphragm and cause a
short circuit, which increases the risk of a thermal runaway of the bat­
tery.[98] Based on the MHD effect, a magnetic field is also helpful in
inhibiting the growth of lithium dendrites and will be discussed in
Section 3.4. The main problems associated with the S cathode include
the following three points: i) the dissolution and migration of soluble
Li2Sn ( n ≥ 4) in the electrolyte lead to the irreversible loss of S re­
sources; ii) the electrical insulation properties of S/Li2S lead to the low
conversion efficiency and sluggish redox reaction kinetics at the cath­
ode; iii) The Li+ insertion process results in a large volume change,
which results in active material crushing and separation from the cur­
rent collector.[99,100] The magnetic field also plays a role in promoting
the S cathode cycle of the Li-S batteries due to its unique physical
magnetic force, magnetic fluid effect, and magnetically oriented
machining.
11
Nano Energy 92 (2022) 106703
The magnetic force of polysulfides induced by the presence of
magnetic particles, and the magnetic fluid effect, are the main methods
that can be used to solve the above shortcomings. Gao et al. introduced
the ferromagnet Fe/Fe3C with a graphene shell onto flexible activated
cotton spun (ACT) fibers as a host matrix for a sulfur cathode.[101] The
magnetic field establishes a favorable diffusion gradient to the ACT
cathode via a Lorentz force, thereby changing the diffusion path and
alleviating the shuttle effect of the polysulfides. The spontaneous
magnetization of the magnetic Fe/Fe3C nanoparticles prevents the
dissolution of polysulfides. As shown in Fig. 13, the special-made liquid
cell also proves that the capturing of the polysulfide process caused by
the spontaneous intrinsic magnetic field originates from the Fe/Fe3C
nanoparticles. Huang and Zhu et al. [102] reported a ferromagnetic
one-dimensional porous Fe3O4 @C (1D-Fe3O4 @C) electrode as the
sulfur host and a magnetic mesoporous Fe3O4 prepared with the help of
a Lorentz force and physical adsorption method. The binding effect of
the sulfide successfully captures and activates the soluble polysulfide in
the Li-S battery. In addition, Li et al. used a two-phase magnetic solution
containing lithium polysulfide and magnetic nanoparticles as the cath­
ode (Fig. 13d, e).[103] The polysulfide phase exhibits the characteristics
of a ferrofluid in the presence of superparamagnetic nanoparticles. By
utilizing this feature from the magnetic field, the use of polysulfides
could be maximized and the shuttle effect of the polysulfides is sup­
pressed, thus improving the energy density and Coulomb efficiency. At
the same time, Ma et al. [104] designed and prepared low-curved
superparamagnetic Co3O4 decorative kapok carbonized hollow carbon
microfibers to improve the sluggish dynamics of the S cathode. The
K. Shen et al.
Fig. 13. Digital images of the a) ACT/S and b) ACT@Fe/Fe3C/S electrodes during the first discharge cycle in the liquid cell at 0.1 mA cm− 2; c) After introducing Fe/
Fe3C NPs, polysulfide magnetic capture mechanism. e) Electrochemical performance test.
(a) (reproduced from ref. 101 with permission from Wiley, copyright 2018) d) Highly concentrated magnetic sulfide. (b) (reproduced from ref. 103 with permission
from American Chemical Society, copyright 2015).
orientation of the material in the magnetic field provides a method to
improve the Li+ transportation dynamics in thick electrodes. Compared
with traditional electrodes, these low-bend electrodes display better
electrochemical performance.[104] This method is like the construction
of magnetic orientated electrodes and electrolytes in LIBs.
In short, the magnetic field generated by the magnetic nanoparticles
possesses the ability to magnetically adsorb polysulfides, inhibit the
shuttle effect and suppress the dissolution of polysulfides. Whether or
not the strength and direction of the magnetic field influence the
external magnetic field on the Li-S battery, the internal magnetic field
and the conversion reaction of Li and S are yet to be reported in the
literature.
3.3. Li-O2 battery
As one of the most promising battery systems, Li-O2 batteries can
provide a very high theoretical energy density of approximately
11,700 Wh/kg.[105] The charge/discharge mechanism of a Li-O2 bat­
tery is based on the reversible formation of lithium oxide. During
discharge, an oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) occurs on the surface of
the cathode to produce Li2O2 with the overall reaction formula of 2Li
+ O2 → Li2O2. During charging, Li2O2 undergoes an oxygen evolution
reaction (OER) at a sufficiently high charging voltage, with a total re­
action formula of Li2O2 → 2Li + O2.[106–108] During the charging/­
discharging process, the reaction platform will greatly deviate from the
theoretical thermodynamic voltage due to the insolubility and insulating
properties of Li2O2 and the instability of the three-phase interface con­
sisting of the electrolyte and electrodes.[109] Based on the advantages
provided by a magnetic field, our team developed a ferromagnetic
nanocatalyst for Li-O2 batteries. The results showed that the MHD de­
creases the concentration of polarization significantly and inhibits the
formation of the side product Li2CO3; this greatly reduces the over­
potential and improves the cycle stability and rate performance.
Interestingly, researchers characterized the anode products of Li-O2
batteries and found that both lithium peroxide (Li2O2) and lithium su­
peroxide (LiO2) exhibit a paramagnetic effect. Lu et al. analyzed the
magnetic properties of the Li2O2 discharge products, which are formed
12
Nano Energy 92 (2022) 106703
in the ether-based electrolyte.[110] The magnetic measurement was
performed on a superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID)
and the results proved that the discharge product, lithium peroxide,
possesses magnetic properties. Comparison of the electron paramagnetic
resonance (EPR) spectrum of LiO2 indicated that the spin of LiO2 is
caused by the O2- structure. SQUID and EPR measurements demon­
strated that commercial Li2O2 also has a magnetic moment. However,
Li2O2 is different from LiO2 in its structure and has fewer spin numbers.
As displayed in Fig. 14a-e, DFT calculations explained the observed
magnetism and proved that superoxide-type surface oxygen groups and
unpaired electrons exist on the surface of some stoichiometric Li2O2
crystals and nanoparticles. The spin number predicted is consistent with
the magnetically measured results of the discharged Li2O2 products and
industrial products. In addition, Lu et al. [111] proposed that crystalline
LiO2 can be stabilized in Li-O2 batteries by using a suitable
graphene-based cathode. DFT calculation proved that the LiO2 crystal
has a magnetic moment and exhibits ferromagnetic properties (Fig. 14 f,
g). The above-mentioned research also provides opportunities to
investigate Li-O2 battery catalysts using the magnetic properties of their
products.
3.4. Li-Metal anode
In the new generation of lithium-based batteries, Li-S and Li-O2
batteries both widely used metal lithium on the negative electrode. Li
metal is a promising anode material for high energy density because of
its ultra-high theoretical specific capacity and ultra-low electrochemical
potential.[112] However, the main problem is the formation of Li den­
drites, which not only accelerates unnecessary side reactions between
the electrolyte and metal Li but also penetrates the diaphragm causing a
short circuit of the battery; this shortens the battery life and causes
safety hazards.[113,114] Current research focuses on the internal
modification of the battery, such as the three-dimensional current col­
lectors[115,116], electrolyte modification[117], artificial SEI[118] and
so on, to inhibit the growth of lithium dendrites; the application of an
external magnetic field has obvious effects.[40,119–121].
It is well-known that using the magnetic field for the
K. Shen et al. Nano Energy 92 (2022) 106703

Fig. 14. The DFT results are a) the optimized structure of (Li2O2) in the high-spin state, b) the optimized lowest energy (100) Li2O2 surface structure, c) the
optimized lowest energy (110) of the Li2O2 surface structure, d) The density of polarized electron states on the (100) surface (metal-like), and e) (110) the density of
spin-polarized electron states on the surface (insulating). g) DFT electronic band structure (left) and density of states (DOS) diagram (right) of the fermimagnetic bulk
crystal LiO2 close to the Fermi level (Ef) based on spin polarization calculations.
(a) (Copy from ref. 110, copyright 2013 with permission from Wiley) f) DFT calculations of the potential barrier for desorption of O2 molecules from the surface of
amorphous LiO2 in a vacuum. (b) (With permission from Springer Nature, from ref. 111 reprinted, all rights reserved 2016).

electrodeposition of Cu, Co, Ni, Ni-Mo and other metals can significantly
refine the microstructure and direction of metal dendrites. [38,
122–124] The deposition/stripping process of the Li metal anode is
consistent with the electrodeposition of these metals, and the growth of
lithium dendrites is caused by the uneven concentration of lithium ions
on the electrode surface, thus the MHD effect of the magnetic field can
help resolve this issue. Based on the above consideration, the author’s
team first proposed a strategy to inhibit the growth of dendrites via the
magnetic fluid effect – a schematic diagram is displayed in Fig. 15. The
results show that Li+ is subjected to the Lorentz force under the action of
a magnetic field promoting it to move spirally and produce a magnetic
fluid effect. This strategy reduces the Li+ concentration gradient and
concentration polarization, thus inhibiting the growth of dendrites to
provide a uniform and dense Li layer. [40] Chen et al. also confirmed
that the diffusion coefficient of Li+ is related to the magnetic field
strength, and it can improve the diffusion of Li+.[122] Furthermore, the
addition of the magnetic field greatly improves the cycle life and
Coulomb efficiency of both half- and full-cells. Wang et al. established
the relationship between current density and magnetic flux intensity by
monitoring the morphology and electrochemical performance of the
deposited Li; this was verified by mathematical modeling and COMSOL
Multiphysics simulations. [41] In addition, Yu et al. proposed a
competitive relationship to understand the magnetic effect on the Li
anode. Three effects were observed: (i) uneven current distribution on
the electrode, (ii) enhanced mass transfer, (iii) redistribution of Li+
around the Li dendrites. The first effect promotes the growth of den­
drites, while the latter two effects help prevent their growth. [123].
It is worth noting that the above investigations all applied the
magnetic field in a parallel direction with the electric field. Some
research groups have also applied a perpendicular magnetic field.
Huang and Cao et al. systematically reported the behavior of the Li+
electrode under the action of a magnetic field perpendicular or parallel
to an electric field. [124,125] It was observed that the Li deposited in the
initial nucleation stage is needle-shaped and is densely deposited
without dendritic structures in the latter stages of growth. Compared
with the vertical magnetic field, a parallel magnetic field is more
conducive to the uniform and dense growth of Li. In addition, Dong
et al., [126] using a vertical magnetic field, were also able to suppress

13
K. Shen et al.
Fig. 15. a) Schematic diagram of lithium deposition principle in the presence or absence of magnetic field. b) In-situ micrographs of lithium deposition on the copper
current collector, upper and lower are without or with magnetic field respectively. c) CE curve with or without magnetic field under 1 mA cm− 2 and 1 mAh cm− 2 and
SEM image respectively.
(reproduced from ref. 40 with permission from Wiley, copyright 2019).
dendrite formation, and these results were confirmed by in-situ obser­
vations with an optical microscope.
Moreover, Han et al. [127] prepared a solid polymer electrolyte with
high ion conductivity for all-solid-state lithium batteries by mixing PEO
with magnetically oriented and functionalized sepiolite (KFSEP) nano­
wires. Oriented nanowires with high stability have the function of
inhibiting Li dendrite formation and provide a fast-moving channel for
Li+ diffusion. This method is similar to the above-motioned lithium-ion
membrane which is prepared by magnetic orientation. In addition, Han
et al. [128] verified the effectiveness of magnetic fields to enhance Li+
diffusion and suppress SEI damage by applying a parallel magnetic field
outside the SEI layer.
In summary, a magnetic field mainly hinders Li dendrite formation
by the MHD effect. Researchers have dentally studied the relationship
between the magnetic field direction, size, and the competitive rela­
tionship between magnetic effects and the morphology and performance
of the Li anode. Furthermore, with the help of an in-situ optical micro­
scope, COMSOL theoretical calculations, SEM, etc., the mechanism for
the suppression of Li dendrite formation by a magnetic field has been
revealed.
4. Problems and prospects
The positive effects of the magnetic field in lithium-based batteries
are obvious; it increases the Li+ diffusion rate, reduces the concentration
of polarization, and inhibits lithium dendrite formation. This informa­
tion is summarized in Table 1. For the currently popular Li-S and Li-O2
batteries, the magnetic field significantly improves electrochemical
performance. For Li-S batteries, it can inhibit the production of small
molecules of sulfur and the shuttle effect. For Li-O2 batteries, the spin
state of the catalyst can be changed by applying a magnetic field,
thereby improving the efficiency of electron hopping and promoting
catalytic activity.
However, the current application of magnetic fields in lithium-based
batteries still faces many challenges. The main problems consist of: (i)
There are few systematic studies concerning the response mechanism of
the magnetic field. Specifically, the mechanism of the magnetic field
leading to improvement of the electrochemical performance has not
been fully revealed. The internal relationship between the magnetic
field and current, and magnetic field strength and direction have not
14
Nano Energy 92 (2022) 106703
been thoroughly explored. Since different materials have different co­
ercive forces and magnetic responses, their interconnections and dif­
ferences are complex and have not yet been fully explored. (ii) There is
still debate surrounding the effects of the magnetic field in lithium-based
batteries. Though many reports have revealed the positive influence of
the magnetic field, there are also negative effects such as uneven current
distribution leading to lithium dendrite growth. [123] It is recom­
mended to use COMSOL calculation simulations [40,129],
First-principles calculations[130], in-situ TEM, [131–133] ultrasonic
scanning[134] and scanning transmission X-ray microscopy[135] as
methods to detect the internal state of the battery to explain changes in
internal reactions. (iii) The construction of a micro-magnetic field is a
commonly used method for application of a magnetic field, and the
construction of a magnetic field is bound to complicate the experimental
procedure and greatly increase the cost of the experiment. Reasonably
applying a magnetic field is also a problem that needs to be addressed.
(iv) For an external magnetic field, the magnetic field generating device
will increase the volume and weight of the whole battery system.
Balancing relationship between the electrochemical performance and
increased weight or volume is an important issue. (v) According to
current reports, the ability of a stronger magnetic field to optimize
battery performance is generally better than that of a smaller magnetic
field. Therefore, the magnetic field strength that a human body can
safely withstand will also be an important research direction. In sum­
mary, the application of magnetic fields in lithium-based batteries has
only just gained traction. Based on its ability to optimize batteries, its
shortcomings require in-depth and comprehensive exploration. Due to
the essential problems of the above-mentioned magnetic field in
lithium-based batteries, the authors believe that the future development
prospects consist of the following: (i) Intensify studies on the mecha­
nism, process, and other related respects of a magnetic field in lithium
batteries. The positive/negative effects of these mechanisms in the
battery life cycle should be studied and evaluated; (ii) Develop new
electrode materials and catalytic materials with low cost, high magnetic
properties, and high stability to improve the capacity and cycle perfor­
mance of lithium-based batteries; (iii) Study the effects of the magnetic
field on the formation of SEI or CEI. During the activation phase of the
battery, a magnetic field may be conducive to the formation of a stable
and dense SEI or CEI layer, due to MHD or other effects. This will pro­
vide a guarantee for high electrochemical performance. (iv) During the
K. Shen et al. Nano Energy 92 (2022) 106703

Table 1
Summary of the magnetic field on the materials and mechanism of lithium-based batteries.
Systems Stage/type materials Principles Main results Ref.

Li-ion Material LiFePO4 2 Improved Li diffusion rate and increase rate performance.
+
60,63
batteries preparation stage
LiCoO2 2 Low bending material, high area capacity. Electrodes with directional pores result in 61
the faster kinetics and enable threefold higher area capacity.
LiNi0.5Mn0.3Co0.2O2 2 Aligned NMC with (00 l) plane perpendicular to current collector enhanced Li+ 65
transporting.
graphite 2 Magnetically oriented graphite improved Li+ diffusion efficiency and rate 68,69
performance. Highly dispersed and highly crystal-aligned graphite materials.
MnO 2 Magnetic field changes the crystal structure of MnO. 71
Fe3O4 2 The magnetic field induces synthesized Fe3O4/C composite microrods enhanced Li+ 72,73,74
storage properties. Self-assembled magnetite hybrid paper, with high crystallinity and
good dispersibility.
Co3O4 2 A more compact and smooth surface composed of Co3O4 microspheres. 75
MoS2 2 Control the synthesis of MoS2 ultrathin nanosheets and enhance the diffusion of 76
paramagnetic ions and induce the oriented growth leading to fewer defects and better
nanocrystallite orientation.
PEO membrane 2 Control the orientation sequence of Li-doped PEO microdomains in liquid crystal 77
diblock copolymers (> 0.3 mm).
Cycling stage LiFePO4 3 Exerted a magnetic force on surrounding charged particles and thus accelerated the 79
movements of electrons and ions.
Metal oxide 2，3 The transport process and the redistribution were delineated through the color change 53
due to Li+ moving in WO3 films.
Magnetic α-Fe2O3 2，3 Enhanced the convection and diffusion of magnetic α-Fe2O3 modified anode and given 80
30% and 50% enhancement after 1st and 100th discharge cycles.
TiO2/CoPt/a-Fe2O3 1,2 A reversible capacity of 540 mAh g− 1 (after the initial 3 cycles), and 84% capacity 33
retention after 250 cycles.
Battery detection LiMn2O4、LiFePO4、 2 Correlated the χm(T) curves and isothermal M(H) plots to complete the analysis of the 83
LiMn2yCoyO4 electronic properties of lithium intercalation compounds.
Pouch cell 2 Non-invasive current density imaging of LIBs. 84
LIBs 2 Measure the temperature of the electric vehicle battery. 85
LIBs 5 Non-destructive visualization of LIB short circuit in magnetic field imaging system. A 87,89
multiphysics mathematical model for observing magnetic field response to detect SEI
layer.
Battery recycling LiCoO2/C 1 In-situ recovery of cobalt, lithium carbonate, and graphite from waste LiCoO2/ 90
graphite lithium batteries.
LiCoO2 1 Recovery of Co particles from waste LIBs. Ultrasonic dispersion-water flow-magnetic 55,91
separation technology to recover magnetic Co from waste LIBs.
Co3O4 1 Electrodeposited cobalt oxide from waste LIBs. 34
Others LiCoO2/LISICON/Fe3O4 2 A reversible and non-volatile method for controlling the saturation magnetization of 94
Fe3O4 film.
Nano α-Fe2O3 2 Control the magnetization of LIBs. 92
Fe3O4 2 Proving the reversible electrochemical reaction of Fe3O4. 93
Li-S Battery test phase Co3O4 2 The orientation of CKFs@Co3O4 improved the mechanics of mass transport in thick 104
batteries electrodes.
Polysulfides 3 Maximize the use of polysulfides, minimize the shuttle effect of polysulfides, and help 103
improve energy density and Coulomb efficiency.
1D-Fe3O4 @C 1,3 Lorentz force and magnetic force have a strong binding effect on polysulfides, thereby 102
reducing the "shuttle effect".
ACT@Fe/ Fe3C/S 1 Magnetic field enhanced capture of polysulfides. 101
Fe3O4 1 Capture and activate soluble polysulfides in Li-S batteries. 32
Li-O2 Reaction product Li2O2 2,4 Lithium peroxide has a magnetic response. 110
batteries
LiO2 2,4 Lithium superoxide has a magnetic response. 111
Li-Metal Dendrite problem Li-Metal anode 3 MHD promotes the mass transfer and uniform distribution of Li+ and inhibits the 40,119
batteries growth of dendrites.
3 Ensure the uniform distribution of Li+ on the entire anode surface and inhibit the 120,126
formation of dendrites.
3 Compared with the vertical magnetic field, the parallel magnetic field is more 121
conducive to the uniform and dense growth of Li.
3 Slow down the growth of lithium dendrites. 120,125
PEO electrolyte 2 Sepiolite nanowires are uniformly dispersed in polymer improving the mechanical 127
properties and suppressing lithium dendrite formation.
SEI 3 Enhance Li+ diffusion and inhibit SEI damage 128

Remarks: 1. magnetic force, 2. magnetization, 3. magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) effects, 4. Spin effect, 5. nuclear magnetic resonance.

later periods of a battery cycle, the battery capacity and power will
decrease significantly. The MHD of the magnetic field can alleviate the
attenuation caused by the concentration in the polarization of the bat­
tery. A magnetic field would facilitate the secondary use of retired
batteries. (v) Fully investigate the advantages of using a magnetic field
in battery material recycling. (vi) Commit to the development of more
efficient new-generation lithium-based batteries. It is necessary to
comprehensively and systematically explore the influence of a magnetic
field on Li-S and Li-O2 batteries, especially the movement and reaction
of sulfur and oxygen under the influence of a magnetic field. vii) The
applications of magnetic fields on other battery systems such as sodium
batteries, potassium batteries, zinc batteries, fuel cells, ammonium
batteries, etc. are also worthy of further investigation.

15
K. Shen et al.
5. Conclusions
This review summarized the application of a magnetic field as a non-
contact energy transfer method for use in LIBs, Li-S batteries, Li-O2
batteries. The majority of research indicates that a magnetic field is
beneficial to the whole system and the electrochemical performance of
lithium-based batteries, being advantageous to the cathode, anode, and
separators. The main mechanisms involved include magnetic force, the
magnetization effect, a magnetohydrodynamic effect, spin effect, and
NMR effect. Given the current research, the shortcomings and future
research directions of the application of a magnetic field to lithium-
based batteries have been proposed. Therefore, there is an urgent need
to establish a more complete system to more comprehensively reveal the
mechanism of action of the magnetic field in lithium batteries. We hope
that this review will serve as an opening rather than a concluding
remark, and we believe that the application of magnetic fields will break
through some of the current bottlenecks in the field of energy storage,
and ultimately achieve lithium-based batteries with excellent electro­
chemical performance.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This study was financially supported by National Natural Science
Foundation of China (U1802254, 51871201), Zhejiang Provincial Nat­
ural Science Foundation of China (LY18E040003), the State Key Labo­
ratory of Advanced Technologies for Comprehensive Utilization of
Platinum Metals (SKL-SPM-202009), Guangdong Basic and Applied
Basic Research Foundation (no. 2021A1515010332) and China Post­
doctoral Science Foundation (no. 2020M672622).
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Kang Shen obtained his B.S. degree from Zhejiang University of
Technology, China in 2017. He is currently a Ph.D. candidate
under the supervision of Prof. Yiping Tang at Zhejiang Uni­
versity of Technology, China. His current research focuses on
Li-Metal batteries and Li-O2 batteries.
Yiping Tang obtained his MS and Ph.D. degrees in Material
Science and Engineering from School of Materials Science and
Engineering, Central South University, China in 2003, and
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao­
tong University, China in 2007, respectively. He is currently a
full professor of Materials Science and Engineering at School of
Materials Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University of
Technology, China. His research interests are in the fields of
metal functional materials, energy storage materials, and ma­
terial surface modification.

Xijun Xu received his Ph.D. degree from South China Univer­

sity of Technology in 2019. Dr. Xu has been focused on
designing nanostructured transition metal compounds as
cathode/anode materials for Li/Na/K-ion batteries. Currently,
his research interest includes nanoarray-based flexible elec­
trodes, metal-organic framework (MOF) derived materials for
high-performance alkali-ion batteries, and MOF-derived
catalysis for electrochemical CO2 reduction.

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