1.

(20 points):

Describe the Theory of Planned Behavior and its components in the context of consumer

behavior.

2. (20 points):

Describe the following learning mechanisms in the context of consumer behavior. Clarify with

examples:

a) Classical conditioning: Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that elicits a response is
paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own. Over time, this
second stimulus causes a similar response because we associate it with the first stimulus. The Izod
Lacoste polo shirt, with its distinctive crocodile crest, is a good example of this effect. When the
once-exclusive crocodile started to appear on baby clothes and many other items, it lost its cachet.
Other contenders, such as the Ralph Lauren polo player, successfully challenged it as a symbol of
casual elegance. Now that Izod is being more careful about where its logo appears, the brand is
starting to regain its “cool” in some circles.

b) Instrumental (operant) conditioning: occurs when we learn to perform behaviors that produce
positive outcomes and avoid those that yield negative outcomes. Principles of instrumental
conditioning are at work when a marketer rewards or punishes a consumer for a purchase decision.
Businesspeople shape behavior when they gradually reinforce the appropriate actions consumers
take. A car dealer might encourage a reluctant buyer to simply sit in a floor model, then suggest a
test drive, and then try to close the deal. Marketers have many ways to reinforce consumers’
behaviors, ranging from a simple “thank you” after a purchase to substantial rebates and follow-up
phone calls. For example, a life insurance company obtained a much higher rate of policy renewal
among a group of new customers who received a thank-you letter after each payment, compared to
a control group that did not receive any reinforcement.28 Frequency marketing is a popular
technique that rewards regular purchasers with prizes that get better as they spend more. The airline
industry pioneered this instrumental learning strategy when it introduced “frequent flyer” programs
in the early 1980s to reward loyal customers. The practice has spread to many other businesses as
well, ranging from grocery stores to casinos.

3. (20 points):

Advertising commonly shows gender stereotypes to promote products and brands.

a) What is gender stereotyping in advertising? (4 points)

ANS: Gender stereotyping is the practice of ascribing to an individual woman or man specific
attributes, characteristics, or roles by reason only of her or his membership in the social group of
women or men.
b) What are potential benefits, what are potential threats for advertisers when they make use of

gender stereotypes in advertising? (10 points)

c) How does gender stereotyping in advertising affect society

1. (20 points): Learning and Consumer Behavior

a) Explain how consumers learn about products by observing others’ behavior. (5 points)

b) What is learning by reward and punishment? Describe the learning mechanism behind

this concept. Clarify your explanations using examples from consumer behavior (9 points)

c) What is recall measurement, what is recognition measurement? Clarify with examples

(6 points)

2. (25 points): Motivation and Attitudes

a) What is motivation? (5 points)

ANS: Motivation refers to the processes that lead people to behave as they do. It occurs when a need is
aroused that the consumer wishes to satisfy. The need creates a state of tension that drives the
consumer to attempt to reduce or eliminate it. This need may be utilitarian (i.e., a desire to achieve
some functional or practical benefit, as when a person loads up on green vegetables for nutritional
reasons) or it may be hedonic (this is an experiential need, involving emotional responses or fantasies
as when a person feels “righteous” by eating kale).

b) Explain the three types of motivational conflicts described in the course and the

Solomon book. Clarify your arguments with examples from consumer behavior. (15

points)

ANS:

Approach–Approach conflict: A person has an approach–approach conflict when he or she must

choose between two desirable alternatives. A student might be torn between going home for the
holidays and going on a skiing trip with friends. Or, he or she might have to choose between two CDs

to download (assuming that he or she is going to pay for one of them!). The theory of cognitive

dissonance is based on the premise that people have a need for order and consistency in their lives

and that a state of dissonance (tension) exists when beliefs or behaviors conflict with one another.

We resolve the conflict that arises when we choose between two alternatives through a process of

cognitive dissonance reduction, where we look for a way to reduce this inconsistency (or

dissonance) and thus eliminate unpleasant tension.

Approach-Avoidance conflict: Many of the products and services we desire have negative

consequences attached to them as well as positive ones. We may feel guilty or ostentatious when

we buy a luxury product such as a fur coat or we might feel like gluttons when we crave a tempting

package of Twinkies. An approach–avoidance conflict occurs when we desire a goal but wish to avoid

it at the same time. Some solutions to these conflicts include the proliferation of fake furs, which

eliminate guilt about harming animals to make a fashion statement, and the success of diet

programs like Weight Watchers that promise good food without the calories. Many marketers try to

help consumers overcome guilt by convincing them that they deserve these luxuries. As the model

for L’Oréal cosmetics exclaims, “Because I’m worth it!”

Avoidance-Avoidance conflict: Sometimes we find ourselves caught “between a rock and a hard

place.” We may face a choice with two undesirable alternatives: for instance, the option of either

spending more money on an old car or buying a new one. Don’t you hate when that happens?

Marketers frequently address an avoidance–avoidance conflict with messages that stress the

unforeseen benefits of choosing one option (e.g., when they emphasize special credit plans to ease

the pain of car payments)

c) What is meant when we refer to “multi-attribute models of attitudes?” (5 points)

ANS: Attitude models specify the different elements that might work together to influence people‘s
evaluations of attitude object. We use attitude models to identify specific components and combine
them to predict a consumer‘s overall attitude toward a product or brand. Multi-attribute attitudes
models assume that consumers‘ attitude toward an object depends on the beliefs they have about
several of its attributes à identify these specific beliefs and combine them to derive a measure of the
consumers‘ overall attitude
4. (15 points): Pictures versus words in advertising

Comment on the following statement: “In advertising, a picture is worth a thousand words”. Do

you agree? Why? Why not?

REFLECTION 1.

Imagine you are the marketing consultant for the package design of a new brand of premium
chocolate. • What recommendations would you make regarding sight and scent?

ANS: The label (package), the weight of the product, and the brand name of the product are
combined to communicate the image of the product. (1) the colors that will augment the desired
premium image, (2) the smell that is associated with candy, (3) the sound of the candy wrapper in
your hand, (4) the symbolism that may be used to position the product in the consumer’s mind.

Some studies suggest that as we age, our sensory detection abilities decline. What are the
implications of this phenomenon for marketers who target elderly consumers?

ANS: Start by identifying the particular senses and the ways in which they decline, as the consumer
gets older. Brainstorm to develop a list of the ways that a message may not be received or
interpreted correctly. Students might be encouraged to develop a matrix, placing the senses down
the left-hand side and forms of communication across the top. The matrix then should be filled in
with descriptions of how communications may fail and how these failures could be avoided. For
example, print advertisements aimed at an older audience could use larger type; radio and television
ads could decrease the pace of information presented and slightly increase the volume to allow older
recipients to more fully process the information; and retail stores and restaurants could increase
lighting

Age influences our responsiveness to color. As we get older, our eyes mature and our vision takes on
a yellow cast. Colors look duller to older people, so they prefer white and other bright tones. This
helps to explain why mature consumers are much more likely to choose a white car; Lexus, which
sells heavily in this market, makes 60 percent of its vehicles in white. The trend toward brighter and
more complex colors also reflects the increasingly multicultural makeup of the United States. For
example, Hispanics tend to prefer brighter colors as a reflection of the intense lighting conditions in
Latin America; strong colors retain their character in strong sunlight. That’s why Procter & Gamble
uses brighter colors in makeup it sells in Latin countries.