03: MICROBIAL GROWTH MICRONUTRIENTS
Typically play a role as cofactors for enzymes
Increase in the number of cells in a Population not in
size or shape.
Cell growth depends on:
• Energy transformation
• Synthesis of small molecules (building blocks of
macromolecules)
• Provision of various cofactors and coenzymes for
enzymatic reaction
• Synthesis of macromolecules, which are assembled
into new structures (cell wall, cytoplasmic membrane,
flagella, ribosomes, enzymes complexes, etc.)
NUTRITION
Deals with the nutrients required for growth as part of
microbial physiology.
MACRONUTRIENTS
Nutrients that are required in large amounts
Carbon Sources
• Heterotrophic bacteria: assimilate organic
compounds and use them to make new cell
material.
• Autotrophic bacteria: build their cellular
structures from carbon dioxide with energy
obtained from light or inorganic chemicals.
Nitrogen Sources
• The bulk of nitrogen available in nature is in
inorganic form as ammonia (NH3), nitrate
(NO3-), or nitrogen gas (N2).
• Nitrogen in organic compounds (e.g. amino
acids) may also be available to
microorganisms, which will be catabolized as
energy source.
Phosphorus: Key element in nucleic acids and
phospholipids and is typically supplied to a cell as
phosphate (PO42-)
Sulfur: Present in the amino acids and also in several
vitamins; it can be supplied to cells as sulfide (HS-) and
sulfate (SO42-)
Potassium: Required for the activity of several
enzymes.
Magnesium: Stabilize ribosome, membranes, and
nucleic acids and is also required for the activity of
many enzymes
Calcium: Not required by all cells but can play a role in
helping to stabilize microbial cell walls and in the heat
stability of endospores.
BINARY FISSION
- A process where a bacterial cell divides to two new
cells. The time required to form two cells is called the
generation time.
- Growth rate is the change in the number of cells or
cell mass per unit time.
POPULATION GROWTH
- There is an increase in number of cells in a population.
- Exponential growth is a pattern of population
increase, where the number of cells doubles during a
constant time interval
PHASES OF BACTERIAL GROWTH
The phases are reflections of the events in a population
of cells, not in individual cells.
LAG PHASE
• Physiological adaptation to the culture
conditions.
• No immediate increase in cell numbers or mass
• Cells synthesize cellular components such as
enzymes
• Also, occuring: synthesis of protoplasm
Why is there a Lag Phase?
• Depletion of nutrients (e.g., ATP, cofactors,
ribosomes, etc)
• Different medium
• Injured microbes
EXPONENTIAL PHASE
This happens when each cell divides to form new cells,
each of which also divides to form two or more cells,
and so on.
• Cells are typically in their healthiest state and
hence are most desirable for studies of their
enzymes or other cellular components
• Microorganisms are actively growing and are
dividing at maximal rate
• Growth rate is constant
• The bacterial population is uniform in terms of
chemical, metabolic and physiological
activities.
Exponential cell division. Each cell division results in a
doubling of the cell number. At low cell numbers the
increase is not very large; however, after a few
generations, cell numbers increase explosively.
Growth parameters - taken from the exponential
phase (population is assumed to be physiologically
active and uniform.
Specific Growth Rate (u)
• u = dX / dt
• where X = biomass and t = time
Number of Generations (n)
• Nt = N0 x 2n
• where N0 = initial population number.
• Nt =population at time t
• n = number of generations at time t
Solving for n, the number of generations (where all
logarithms are to the base 10)
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁𝑡 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁𝑂 + 𝑛. 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁𝑡 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁𝑂
𝑛=
𝑙𝑜𝑔 2
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁𝑡 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁𝑂
𝑛=
0.301
STATIONARY PHASE
Exponential growth ceases and the population reaches
the stationary phase, thus it limits the growth of the
population.
• No net increase or decrease in cell number,
thus the growth rate of the population is zero
• Cells undergo cryptic growth
Three situations that limit the growth of the
population:
• an essential nutrient of the culture medium is
used up
• a waste product of the organism accumulates
in the medium and inhibits growth
• Change in physical conditions (e.g. pH)
DEATH PHASE
The population of cells eventually die after stationary
phase
• The number of viable cells declined
• In some cases death is accompanied by actual
cell lysis
• Death rate is greater than the growth rate
❖ nutrient depletion
❖ further accumulation of wastes and toxins
CONTINUOUS CULTURE: THE CHEMOSTAT
Both growth rate and cell density of the culture can be
controlled independently and simultaneously, which
are governed respectively by two factors:
▪ Dilution rate: rate at which fresh medium is
pumped in and spent medium is removed.
▪ Concentration of a limiting nutrient: carbon or
nitrogen source, present in the sterile medium
entering the chemostat vessel.
04: EARTH ENVIRONMENTS
SOIL
- the weathered end product of the action of climate
and living organisms on soil parent material with a
particular topography over time.
- The major difference between a surface soil and the
subsurface is that in the subsurface, the parent
material has generally not been weathered by climate.
SOIL FORMING FACTORS
- Parent Material - The rock and mineral base
from which soil is formed through weathering.
- Climate - Precipitation and temperature are
particularly important in weathering of parent
material.
- Organisms - Plants, animals, and microbes add
organic matter and aid in decomposition and
nutrient cycling that are part of the weathering
process.
- Topography - In particular the site slope angle
and length.
- Time - Essential for the soil weathering
process; soils generally form more rapidly in
warm environments than in cold ones.
SOIL COMPONENTS
1. Size Fractionation of Soil Constituents - Soil
mineral particles are typically separated into
three particle-size fractions: sand (0.05–2.0
mm), silt (2–50 μm), and clay (<2 μm).
2. Pore Space - The pore space both contains and
controls most of the functions of soil.
SOIL PROFILES

Gradient of oxygen concentrations in a

typical soil aggregate.
Adapted from Sextone et al. (1985)

MICROBIAL KEY FUNCTIONS IN THE PLANT-SOIL

SYSTEMS

Soil Profiling Illustration

- Overview of the functional roles that the soil

microbiome may contribute directly or indirectly to
pasture resilience to abiotic and biotic stresses.

Paths of dissolution and uptake of minerals in the soil.

- Low microbial diversity and low SOM quality soils

associated with plant disease-prone (conducive) soil
state (left) while more diverse and higher quality
organic matter soils associated with disease
Soil Atmosphere suppression (right).
 05: AEROMICROBIOLOGY

➢ Airborne transmission of environmentally

relevant microorganisms and biological
materials
➢ Most airborne bacteria originate from natural
sources such as the soil, lakes, oceans, animals,
and humans. Many ‘unnatural’ origins are also
known, such as sewage treatment, animal
rendering, fermentation processes, and
agricultural activities which disturb the soil.

Atmospheric Ecological Niche

Patterns of microbial diversity and abundance in the

atmosphere

Characteristics of Bacteria, Actinomycetes, and Fungi

Dominant Culturable Soil Bacteria

Examples of Important Autotrophic Soil Bacteria

LIMITING FACTORS IN THE AIR

1. A lack of adequate nutrients
2. Frequent deficit of water (desiccation)
3. Solar radiation
Examples of Important Heterotrophic Soil Bacteria
MICROBIAL FORMS
✓ Bacterial resting forms
 ✓ Bacterial vegetative forms which produce
carotenoid dyes or special protective layers
✓ Spores of Fungi
✓ Viruses with envelopes
FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH OF MICROORGANISM
IN AIR
▪ Resistance of microorganisms
▪ Meteorological conditions
▪ Air pollution
▪ Duration of time in air
BIOLOGICAL AEROSOLS
Colloidal System
• Dust phase (e.g. bacterial dust) or
• Droplet phase (e.g. formed as the result of
water-vapor condensation or during sneezing).
Size
- The average size of bioaerosols ranges from
about 0.02 μm to 100 μm.
• Fine particles (less than 1μm) and
• Coarse particles (more than 1μm)
Human Hazard Source
• Infectious diseases (viral, bacterial, fungal and
protozoan)
• Allergic diseases
• Poisoning (exotoxins, endotoxins, mycotoxins)
Diagrammatic representation of the relative sizes of
bioaerosols.
• Nuclei mode < 0.1μm
• Accumulation mode 0.1 – 2 μm
• Coarse mode larger particles
Factors affecting atmospheric microbial transport
and macroecological outcomes.
AERO-MICROBIOLOGICAL PATHWAY
1. Launching
o The process whereby particles become
suspended within the earth’s atmosphere.
o Airborne particles can be launched from either
point linear or area source.
2. Transport
o The process by which kinetic energy provided
by the movement of air is transferred to
airborne particles, which resultant movement
from one point to another.
❖ Sub-microscale transport: involves short
periods of time under 10 minutes as well
as relatively short distance under 100m
❖ Microscale transport: ranges from 10
minutes to 1 hour and from 100 m to 1 km
❖ Mesoscale transport: refers to transport in
terms of days and distance up to 100 km.
❖ Macroscale transport: the time and
distance are extended even further.
3. Deposition
o Air borne bioaerosols will eventually leave the
turbulence of the suspending gas and will
ultimately be deposited on a surface by one or
a combination of interrelated mechanisms:
❖ Gravity settling
❖ Downward molecular diffusion
❖ Surface impaction
❖ Rain and electrostatic
❖ Deposition
INFECTIOUS AIRBORNE DISEASES
➢ Bioaerosols may carry microbes that penetrate
organs via the respiratory system. After settling,
microbes from the air may find their way onto the
skin or, carried by hands, get into the digestive
system (from there, carried by blood, to other
systems, e.g. the nervous system).
➢ The mucous membrane of the respiratory system
is a specific type of a 'gateway' for most airborne
pathogenic microorganisms.
➢ Susceptibility to infections is increased by dust
andgaseous air-pollution
Viral Diseases
▪ Influenza (orthomyxoviruses) influenza,
measles, bronchitis, mumps and pneumonia
among newborns (paramyxoviruses)
▪ German measles (similar to paramyxoviruses)
▪ Colds (rhinoviruses and coronaviruses)
▪ Cowpox and true pox (pox type viruses)
▪ Chickenpox (cold sore group of viruses)
▪ Foot-and-mouth disease (picorna type viruses)
▪ Meningitis, pleurodynia (enteroviruses)
▪ Sore throat, pneumonia (adenoviruses)
Bacterial Diseases
▪ Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis)
▪ Pneumonia (Staphylococcus, Pneumococci,
Streptococcus pneumoniae, less frequently
chromatobars of Klebsiella pneumoniae)
▪ Angina, scarlet fever, laryngitis (Streptococcus)
▪ Inflammation of upper and lower respiratory
system and meningitis (Haemophilus
influenzae)
▪ Whooping cough (chromatobars of Bordetella
▪ pertussis),
▪ Diphtheria (Corynebacterium diphtheriae)
▪ Legionnaires disease (chromatobars of
Legionella genus, among others
L.pneumophila)
▪ Nocardiosis (oxygen actinomycetes of
Nocardia genus).

EXAMPLES OF AIRBORNE PLANT PATHOGENS

EXAMPLES OF AIRBORNE ANIMAL PATHOGENS