Understanding Mechanical Behavior of HAWTB Composite Structure

Modeling, understanding and enhancing mechanical response of HAWTB
composite structure through the nonlinear FE analysis of a proposed

sub-model
Omar Rajada,∗, Hamid Mounira , Abdellatif El Marjania

a
EMISys Research Team, Engineering 3S Research Center, Mohammadia School of Engineers, University
Mohammed V in Rabat, Morocco
Abstract
The high demand of low cost wind energy needs to design large scale HAWTB with reduced
weight which poses great challenge to their durability. Composite materials are employed in many
wind structures such as wind energy conversion systems because of their fairly good mechanical
properties and especially their low densities compared to traditional materials. In fact, external
wind loads can cause damage mechanism and large-deflection bending leading to test the ability
of long composite wind turbine blade.
The paper is a comprehensive research on structural integrity of HAWTB by testing a structural
part section cutted from a composite HAWTB. The 3D complexe geometry part represents the
critical and structural part and it supports the main local failures initiation and progressive. The
present part has been used for several analysis to investigate concerning the coupled stiffness-
1
strength performance, dynamic and buckling response and material failure capacity, using ACP
and Mechanical APDL, at extreme load conditions.
The most advanced results obtained from the nonlinear FE analysis of the composite structural
part are :
High compressive bottom skin regions near root is driven typical damage mechanisms as fiber
and matrix failures.
The shear strain is responsible of the degradation progression of structure composite material
at peak time.
The buckling analysis revealed the high compressive regions in blade structure where the
damage initiation occured.
Enhancing the fiber material and fiber orientation are two parameters could be used to slow
down the first-ply failure occurrence.
The contact pressure between the blade elements during the quasi-static test generates low
of stiffness due to high local stress and causes separation of contact.
The displacement PSD random vibration analysis is performed to determine the local insta-
bility of wind turbine blade.
Delaminations modelization can predict the overall behavior of composite structure.
A reinforcement method has been proposed for the blade structural part by adding locally Car-
bon/Epoxy laminates on the failed zones and the results show good agreements with the expected
values.
Keywords: Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Blade; Nonlinear FEA; Composite materials; Damage
assessment; Local buckling; Vibration analysis; Local Reinforcement.
Highlights
Performing of a Finite Element Model (FEM) of the blade structure sub-model for a me-
chanical test.
Prevention of damage of wind blade and eventual solutions of rigidity and stiffness.
5 The simulation methodology adopted using a accuracy sub-model can be employed to per-
form a reliable and cost-effective computational tools for analyzing mechanical integrity and
damage enhancement in blade structure than expensive experimental testing.
Parametric studies have assessed to analyze the materials of the blade sub component and
preventing about stiffness, strength and mass gain and damage assessment.
∗
Corresponding author at :Engineering 3S Research Center, Mohammadia School of Engineers, University Mo-
hammed V in Rabat, Morocco Tel: +212 658-62-18-24
Email address: rajadomar@gmail.com (Omar Rajad )
Preprint submitted to Composite materials journal May 29, 2021

10 Nomenclature
Nomenclature
C Chord length (mm)
Ex Longitudinal modulus (GPa)
Ey Transversal modulus (GPa)
Ez Transversal modulus (GPa)
Gxy Shear modulus in x-y plane (MPa)
Gyz Shear modulus in y-z plane (MPa)
Gxz Shear modulus in x-z plane (MPa)
R Shear strenght in the y-z plane (MPa)
S Shear strenght in the x-y plane (MPa)
Sxy Shear strength in x-y plane (MPa)
Syz shear strength in y-z plane (MPa)
Sxz Shear strength in x-z plane (MPa)
Abbreviations
ACP ANSYS Composite Pre/post
APDL ANSYS Parametric Design Language
FEM Finite Element Model
FEA Finite Element Analysis
GRP Glass-Reinforced Plastic
FRP Fiber Reinforced Polymer
HAWT Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine
HAWTB Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Blade
WT Wind Turbine
Greek symbol
βT Twist angle (°)
νxy Poisson’s ratio
νyz Poisson’s ratio
νxz Poisson’s ratio
σ Normal stress (MPa)
τ Shear stress (MPa)
Normal strain
γ Distortion strain
3
1. Introduction
Wind energy is one of the most prominent and sustainable renewable resources. In this context,
growing concern over threat from global climate change has sparked increased interest in research
and development of renewable energy technologies.
15 In fact, wind energy can contribute effectively to the diversification of the global energy in the
world because it has the advantage of aerodynamic energy conversion to electricity [1].
Figure 1: Failure mechanisms of the blade experimentaly tested by [2].
Within this context, composite materials structures, according to laminates and sandwich struc-
tures, which are the basic elements of blade construction is playing a key role in this emerging
industry due to their specific mechanical properties that are very serious in terms of lifespan,
20 strength and stiffness [3]. Indeed, due to its good performance that has been demonstrated in
an important research field in the wind environment such as horizontal axis wind turbine blades
where they are subject to dangerous loads especially edge-wise, flap-wise and torsion solicitations
[4], so the behavior and damage mechanisms of such structures need to be strongly investigated
in order to reduce the probability to failure and enhance the ecological security as [5] discuss in
25 their investigations about high stressed and deformed zones leading to the first ply failure, Indeed,
Kam et al investigate experimentally the damage causes of composite materials of the different
scale of blades [6]. However, the major disadvantage of using these materials is the proficiency
of the evolution of its mechanical properties due to the complexity of mechanisms of mechanical
damage which create permanent degradation preventing the performance specifications from the
30 first failure [7, 6].
In fact, the Fig. 1 depicts the plausible failure mechanisms that its may occur in horizontal
axis wind turbine blade composite structure. It can be remarked that damage mechanisms reduce
4
the stiffness of the structure then it doesn’t respect the overall specifications of the blade structure
certification. In order to anticipate the durability of the blade materials, it is necessary to control
35 the progression of the mechanical properties of the material during its severe loading.
Actually, we found in wind industry and literature of HAWTB that glass reinforced polymer
(GFRP) and [8] carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) [9] are the major composite materials in
blade manufacturing. The GFRP composites are relatively inexpensive and offer sufficient strength
and stiffness [10, 11]. In fact, the size of the turbines increases [12]; CFRP harmonizes for the
40 development of wind blades, especially with high length [9]. Carbon fibers normally cost 10 to 20
times more than Glass fibers [10]. Generally, Carbon fibers provide a much higher modulus and a
significant weight reduction [10] for blades which lead to several problems in the wind environment,
expensive manufacturing processes and difficulties in handling due to length constraints. Indeed,
the natural fiber are also can be used in this present application for her good strength and stiffness
45 especially for their lower cost [13].
Figure 2: Dimensionning methodologies applied to the mechanical assessment levels of the wind blade performance.
Regarding the failure study of composite materials, a numerous researchers have used various
failure criteria to detect the localization of damage in composite wind blade [5, 14, 7].
The sandwich structures, are the aim structures composed the wind blades due their good high
strength capacity to shear and buckling stresses, which are consist of two or three laminates and
50 a core structure with very little weight gain. Laminates are separated by the core structure which
are bonded together. The major rule of the core structure is to enhance the flexural stiffness of the
entire sandwich structure. However, using a core material with significantly low density reduces
stiffness and strength characteristics which increase the possibility of the complete failure of the
composite sandwich structure.
55 In fact, the couple strength-stiffness is reinforced the wind blade structure by integrating a
shear web or double shear web which can be placed at 15% and 50% of chord length with sandwich
structures as the reference [5]. Indeed, there are several core materials which can be chosen
5
depending on the application. In wind industries, Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), balsa wood cores
[6] are principally employed. They, in general, exhibit anisotropic material properties which have
60 different stiffness-strength characteristics in different directions. PVC foam is a mixture of air
bubbles and polymer with increase in volume while keeping the weight at minimum. Balsa wood is
composed of natural small pieces of sheets bonded together and it is highly anisotropic [15]. They
can find an area of application because of their very high compression strength in through-thickness
direction which makes them irresistible against static and cyclic loading.
65 The use of wind turbines has increased and several countries are being interesting in their
integration into their strategies of politics to improve the importance of sustainable energies [16],
because wind turbines are considered as one of the important source of renewable and clean energy
[17]. Here, the blades are the main part of the wind turbines, and CFD designers require to
have small mass moment of inertia to ensure a important power conversion [18]. Moreover, the
70 blade structure of the HAWT need to resist to severe environment operating conditions and cyclic
repercussions for at least a lifespan of 20 years [19] approximately. Neverthless, it is common that
many wind blades fail catastrophically during severe wind conditions [20] as the big accident in
the Changhua Coastal Industrial Park located in northwest Taiwan [21]. As a result, during the
turbine’s lifetime, the blades of the wind turbine have to withstand the critical wind loads that
75 may occur [22]. The blade process design is driven by the aerodynamic requirements considering
its geometric shape and structural performance at the level of root. Besides, the blade structure is
designed to converse the aerodynamic loads and to resist to flexural and torsional efforts, Hence,
the blade is constructed with two important regions, the first is the blade structural area, the
second is the blade aerodynamic region as the Fig. 7 illustrates.
80 The majority of wind turbine components are manufactured in reinforced materials, such as
fiberglass and polyester or Epoxy resin. Nowadays, designers are primarily working with fiberglass
composites (GFRP). The increase in rotor size and various other constraints motivate to work with
new materials or to use the current material, but modified. The majority of blades are modeled by
using glass fiber composite; and maybe the carbon fibers is used as a hybrid technology in certain
85 percentages in order to increase the stiffness and reduce failure initiation and propagation process
[23]. Plant fibers, as Hemp fiber, 3are also started to testing their mechnaical performance for the
wind turbine domain because of their significant cost [24].
For the purpose of the wind blade certification, the design requirements incorporates some tests
on different scales as shown in Fig. 2. Test of material specimen (level 1) is normally carried out
90 in order to figure out material properties, as well as full-scale blade tests (level 3) is performed on
typically one or two blades in order to check the blade capability to sustain the severe wind loads.
For certification, the sub-component or sub-model tests such as shear web, trailing edge, leading
edge, spars and double shear web for some blade designs are further used to understand the behavior
of this critical parts of wind blade and their effects on each other. Here, the sub-component could
95 be a important complement to the full-scale blade accreditation.
Modeling failure behavior of composite structures is one of the most challenging issues. To
understand and to predict the structural response of the blade, several structural nonlinearities
must be taken into account in order to predict different failure modes and discussed the failure
causes of composite structures. It is noted that the modes of failure have a interaction between
100 each others. So, the evaluation complexity of physical phenomenon occured in the blade structure
is important. For this kind of structures, some examples of structural nonlinearities that might
affect their structural failure are illustrated in Fig. 3. In general, three categories of structural non-
6
linearities could exist. They include geometric nonlinearity related to large-deflection, the Brazier
effect and buckling phenomenon, contact statement related to the change of boundary conditions at
105 the loading and supporting points during the loading history and material nonlinearities related to
the nonlinear stress-strain relation, the failure of materials, stress-stiffening [25] and spin softening
effects [26] of the overall behavior under incremental loads.
Stress stiffening is a geometrical nonlinearity that needs to be considered for the thin blade
structure that, moreover to bending stiffness, also it has axial stiffness. The deflection calculation of
110 a simple thin composite plate is very complicated in large deflection condition because the stucture
has also to resiste to axial loading. Indeed, the spin softening or centrifugal softening effect is
an alleged and incertain reduction of the natural frequencies of a rotating system with increasing
speed. This stiffness reduction is also need to be considered for eventual numerical calculation in
wind turbine blade displacement analysis.
Figure 3: Lists of structural nonlinearities that might be simulated by composite wind turbine blades.
115 The main of the present quasi-static study is to provide a relevant ways for blade certification
and accreditation. In this context, proposed blade sub-models were performed to understand and
predict the composite material behavior in different blade zones especially trailing and leading edge
and comprehend the materials effect on the mechanical behavior of the overall blade response at
different level and type of loading. In fact, the blade is the most important part of wind turbine,
120 so, the blade materials need to be strongly enhanced in term of stiffness-robustness. In fact,
finite element simulation methodologies could be used to predict the structural response of the
blade and test the blade critical zones and material capacities which can offer an accommodation
for designers ensuring high efficiency, important endurance and low weight. In this purpose the
present article proposes a methodology to understand the structural response of a sub-model and
125 examine different phenomenen may occur during high level of wind conditions. The failure capacity
have been assessed for the composite materials chosen in this research, thus, the damage initiation
and progression are investigated and effect of local deformation on stress and damage analysis.
Besides, the random vibration analysis has been performed to carry out the power spectral density
7
of displacement, strain and stress. To consider blade length effect, a good attentions have been paid
130 to the cost analysis for selecting the optimal material for each blade length considering different
factors in term of monitoring, fabrication and maintenance.
2. Wind blade structural design
2.1. Wind blade description
Figure 4: Blade aerodynamic design.
The airfoil profile NACA4418 shown in Fig. 4−(a) has been used to generate the numerical
135 design of the multilayered composite wind turbine blade with a length of 2.5 meters. Additional
technical details helpful to describe the investigated blade provided in Fig. 4-(b)and Fig. 5−(a)
and (b). The aerodynamic characteristics of the airfoil profile NACA4418 are presented in Figs.
??−(a) and (c) in term of Cl /Cd and Cm (torque coefficient) evolutions against the tilt angle of the
blade α. Where Cl is the lift coefficient and Cd is the drag coefficient. The shear web, which is the
140 blade reinforcement part constructed of sandwich structures, is bonded to the spar caps to resist
to shear and flexural stresses and they are bonded together to the skin. The blade skin is made
of laminates with fiber orientations scheme to resist for eventual torsion and shear stresses and
maintain the blade stiffener and sustain the aerodynamic profile to cultivate maximum energy from
the air. In fact, the blade is a simple prototype used for eventual analysis. Indeed, this setup is a
145 simple prototype may estimate the mechanical behavior for largest blade structure which generate
high level of MW, the similitude laws used in this field [27].
8
Figure 5: Blade structural design.
2.2. Blade materials

The first structure is applied to blade skin and incorporated with Balsa core of the sandwich
structures of the shear web. The composite laminates of skin are needed to resist to shear efforts
150 and buckling loads. the second structure is sandwich which is the basic structures of the shear
web.
The considered blade has two types of composite structures, the composite laminates and
sandwich structures. The material properties of the blade are laminates at blade skin and sandwich
materials for the shear web. The wind blade are extremely subjected to severe loading which results
155 a important damage that destroy the blade structure. In fact, within these materials, the HAWTB
are therefore of great importance, and design parameters for such materials need to be strongly
reviewed and enhanced. The material properties applied to the blade structure are shown in
table 1. Indeed, The structural integrity of the blade depends on the combination of composites
used to withstand the loads and the highest quality materials which are required for such wind
160 applications. The wind and aerospace industry is dominated by glass and carbon fiber reinforced
materials and maybe some natural fiber materials because of their mechanical performance and
judicious cost [13, 28]. However, carbon fibers are more robust and lighter and their fatigue
strength is much higher, however, there is very little data to describe their response induces many
additional costs in manufacturing [29]. Therefore, the hybridization of fibers could be used in
165 the purpose of optimization in term of improving the couple stiffness-strength as unidirectional or
woven composite laminates and enhancing the lifespan at severe conditions.
Laminates of composite sandwich structures are made from multi-ply composite laminate and
9
Table 1: Mechanical properties of materials used in the horizontal axis wind turbine blade [6].
Gxy
νxy
Ex Ey = Gyz XT YT XC YC R
Material properties = νyz
(GPa) (GPa) Gxz (M P a) (M P a) (M P a) (M P a) (M P a) (M P a)
νxz
(M P a)
Glass fabric/Epoxy 45 10 0.3 0.4 5000 3546.2 1100 675 35 120 80
Carbon fabric/Epoxy 121 8.6 0.27 0.4 4700 3100 2231 1082 29 100 60
Balsa wood 3700 0.055 0.2 0.02 0.05 0.0083 - - - - -
the most common type is the fibre-reinforced polymer laminates (FRP). Laminates and core parts of
the sandwich structure should be well integrated, so that structural integrity as well as functionality
170 can be maintained over the life-time of the structure.
The sandwich structures of shear web support compressive and buckling loads on sandwich
structures are shared between laminates and core structure depending on their material properties
and thicknesses. Basically, laminates are much stiffer than the core structure in in-plane direction.
It mainly resists shear and compressive loads through the thickness direction.
175 For the basic design of the present wind blade, the composite materials used are the sandwich
structure of shear web with three laminates and thick core as the Fig. 5-(a), for the blade skin,
glass fiber is used within this fiber orientation scheme [−45/45].
2.3. Loading
A variety of loading on the blade structure during normal and severe operations such as the
180 aerodynamic, gravitational, and centrifugal forces. Aerodynamic loads are the major types of forces
leading to large deflection exclusivity under extreme wind conditions [30]. In fact, the aerodynamic
loads generate the lift Fl and drag Fd forces depend on numerous factor especially wind speed. In
this purpose, the BEM theory, the Fl and Fd forces along the blade can be written as [6]:
1 2
Fl = ρ.Vres A.Cl (1)
2
1 2
Fd = ρ.Vres A.Cd (2)
2
185 where Cl and Cd are lift and drag coefficients, respectively, it can be noted that these values can
be determined using any CFD code such as ANSYS Fluent for a given angle of attach basing on
the airfoil shape of the blade.
Indeed, the wind loads are applied as pressure distribution on various blade segments to alleviate
stress concentration effects due to singular pointed loads. This study focuses on the structural
190 failure of top and button skin and shear web section in this mechanical test, great efforts have been
made to avoid undesired premature failure at the specimen’s boundaries by integrating a laminates
reinforced in top and button skin and shear web. As assumptions in this study, the gravity and
aerodynamic loads are extremely applied. In this purpose, the Whiffle tree method is used to
convert the aerodynamic energy to quasi-static loads as presented in [31, 32].
195 2.4. Validation of the physical model before first-ply failure

In this case, the validation of the nonlinear physical model has been performed basing on
mathematical modeling and the accuracy of numerical blade mesh.
10
Figure 6: (a)- Validation curves. (b)- Mounting location of sensor in wind blade [6].
The accuracy of the finite element model was determined by comparing our numerical results
with experimental at incremental forces applied to the blade structure using Whiffle tree technique
200 [32].
Using a sensor positioned in the experimental configuration, the deformations were determined
in the localized position of 260mm from the origin on the upper skin layers of the blade which
undergoes a tensile stress. This position effectively coincides with the most stressed and critical
area in the horizontal axis wind turbine blade. This critical zone in the blade could predict
205 effectively the mechanical behavior for a predimensioning of the damage like first ply failure,
delaminations between layers and other damage modes. This experimental setup veritably predicts
the mechanical response of blade against the possible failure location statically using Whiffle tree
technique. Indeed, this setup is a simple prototype may estimate the mechanical behavior for
largest blade structure which generate high level of MW, the similitude laws used for this purpose.
210 Fig. 6−(a) depicts the strain-load curves of numerical results obtained with our developed non-
linear model with large deflection and experimental results previously described. The comparison
shows a good agreement. The strain-load curves were found to exhibit same tendency of the non-
linear behavior, and similar behavior was observed for the experimental and numerical results. The
curves initially progress as a linear behavior at a low loads before it follow the nonlinear behavior.
215 The accuracy of the present model depend on mesh performance that it has been performed on a
control mesh dependency consider the number and quality of elements.
3. Method
In this section, the global methods applied for the blade structure have been presented for
eventual optimization and enhancement of overall blade structure. In order to inderstand and to
220 predict the physical phenomenon on the structure in high extreme load conditions, a slender blade
sub-model has been subjected for incremental flap-wise loading. Then, the nonlinear FE structural
response has been analyzed using technical methods. In fact, a nonlinear FE analysis has been
11
used in the case of assessing a real physical responses of the blade. A mathematical models have
presented to approach the global physical phenomenon using FE analysis in the most advanced
225 features ANSYS based on the mesh dependancy test.
3.1. Work methodology regarding the proposed sub-model

The present sub-section presents the philosophy and reasoning of the paper and motivations
to enhance the wind turbine blade mechanical performance. The Fig. 7 presents the a preview of
the methodology proposed in this paper to test and understand mechanically the blade composite
230 materials in order to localize the failure initiation zones, failure progression, local buckling and
dynamic response. In fact, the loading typology applied to the blade structure are eventually
important and diversified as edge-wise, centrifugal, torsional, thermal loading and other ones. the
paper has a idea to test, develop and certify the ability and reliability of the blade structure to
widstand the flap-wise by using a blade sub-component which is a structural part of the blade
235 cutting the leading and trailing edges.
In fact, the suggested model represents the high stressed part of the blade because it is designed
to support internal constrains generated. The structural part is composed with shear web built
based on a sandwich structures, two spar caps, top and bottom blade skin cutted. Hence, the
comprehension of the structural behavior is really important because we can give more informations
240 for blade designers and gain in term of reliability and durability of the structure under bending
loads. So, numerical investigations will be carried out. A several failure criteria could be used
to determine the first ply failure and the continuum damage model is employed in this paper to
approach the material stiffness reduction. Instand of that, eigenvalues of buckling have been carried
out to detect the high compressive zones in bending.
Figure 7: Reinforcement philosophy and reasoning [6, 33, 34, 35].
245 A several fiber materials, instead of blade fiber material, have been used ; Carbon, Glass and
Kevlar49. Indeed, this materials are the most used in manufacturing of the blade depending on the
blade length, cost and other considerations. The fiber material hybridization technology is being
used in case of optimization studies.
12
3.2. Mesh independency test
250 The mesh sensitivity analysis was performed to determine the optimal number of elements [36]
that provide a accuracy and robustness of computational results of the physical sub-model. In
fact, a principal meshes have been generated preliminary and each mesh is described by the total
number of its elements namely 6000, 8500, 10000 and 12000. Additional attention has been given
to the hybrid mesh employed involving quadrilateral shell elements with 4 integration points, and
255 triangular shell elements with 3 integration points, has been used to mesh the wind blade as shown
in Fig. 8-(b).
Figure 8: (a): Mesh independency test based on displacement parameter and (b): mesh body of the structure.
As shown in Fig.8−(b), the sub-model’s top and bottom skins were dominated by structured
quadrilateral elements, while the surfaces close to the trailing edge and loading zone were meshed
by a hybrid elements to adapt the curvilinear topology of the blade surfaces with refinement to
260 enhance the solution convergence, consequently improving the average quality of the generated
mesh. The mesh with 10800 elements and 11500 nodes has an average quality of 0.95. The
minimum size of the elements is 8.5 mm and their maximum size is 35 mm. A growth rate of 1.1
has been used to ensure the element transitions. It is noted that, the damage has been defined
as criterion to carry out the mesh sensitivity analysis. Indeed, the deflection, stress and eventual
265 failure criteria results were useful to set the optimal number of elements that lead to convergence.
As presented in Fig. 8 the number of elements that ensure the accuracy of the physical model
has been estimated because the different values measured are very close to those achieved by a
mesh with a total number of elements equal to 10500.
13
4. Mathematical modeling for physical phenomena
270 In this section, a numerous studies are performed in the case of mechanical response of wind
blade. The Fig. 9 depicts the flowchart algorithm of several evaluations and the following sections
present the necessary mathematical modeling for the resolution of the different evaluations detailed
in the Fig. 9.
Figure 9: The flowchart algorithm of several evaluations for wind turbine blade performance.
4.1. Equilibrium equations

275 The stress tensor inside the computational domain satisfies the equilibrium equations (Equation.
3) [37]. It has been expressed according to the steady state assumption.
 ∂σ ∂τyx ∂τzx
 ∂x + ∂y + ∂z = 0
x

∂τxy ∂σy ∂τzy
∂x + ∂y + ∂z = 0 (3)
 ∂τxz
 ∂τyz ∂σz
∂x + ∂y + ∂z = 0
σ and τ are the components of the stress tensor, where σ is the normal stress, and τ is the
shear stress on the multilayered composite blade.
4.2. Kinematic equations

280 The strain vector is related to the displacements as expressed in Equation. 4 [38]:
 ∂uj
∂u ∂ui ∂uk ∂uk
 x = ∂x , ij = ∂xi + ∂xj + ∂xi . ∂xj

∂v
y = ∂y , γyz = ∂v ∂w
∂z + ∂y
(4)
z = ∂w , γzx = ∂u ∂w

∂z + ∂x

∂z
and γ are the components of the strain tensor, where is the normal strain, and γ is the
distortion strain on the multilayered composite blade.
14
4.3. Compatibility equations
The compatibility equations are expressed as shown in Equation. 5 [39]:
∂ 2 x ∂ 2 y ∂ 2 γxy ∂ ∂γyz ∂γzx ∂γxy ∂ 2 z

∂y 2
+ ∂x2
= ∂x∂y , ∂z ( ∂x + ∂y − ∂z ) = 2 ∂x∂y
∂ 2 y ∂ 2 z ∂ 2 γyz ∂ ∂γyz ∂γzx ∂γxy ∂ 2 x
{ ∂z 2
+ ∂y 2
= ∂y∂z , ∂x (− ∂x + ∂y − ∂z ) = 2 ∂y∂z
. (5)
∂ 2 z ∂ 2 x ∂ 2 γzx ∂ ∂γyz ∂γzx ∂γxy ∂ 2 y
∂x2
+ ∂z 2
= ∂z∂x , ∂y (− ∂x + ∂y − ∂z ) = 2 ∂x∂z
285 4.4. Constitutive equations for the nonlinear behavior

The mechanical behavior of each lamina can be considered as orthotropic in the stress plane. In
this numerical study, the elastic behavior and the nonlinear behavior occurring inside the lamina
are considered. Hooke’s law expressed in Equation. 6 defines the relations between strain and
stress for an orthotropic k-lamina of the composite turbine [40]:
 k

1 −νyx
0
  σxk 
 k    
 x   Exkk Ex  0 
2
kx =  −νkxy 1 · σ k
+ S k
· τ k
· 0 (6)
 
0
Eyk   ky  6666 xy

 k   Ex  k
γxy 0 0 1 τxy τxy
Gk xy
290 The mechanical nonlinear shear of the multilayered composite blade can be defined as shown
in Equation. 7 [41]:
k
τxy
k k 3
γxy = k
+ S6666 · τxy (7)
Gxy
It should be noted that the S6666 component is a function of the shear strain. The incremental
Hooke’s law for our nonlinear orthotropic lamina can be expressed as presented in Equations. 8
and 9 [42]:

Φ σ̄ = Q̄1 · Φ ¯ (8)

Φ τ¯t = Q̄2 · Φ γ̄t (9)
295 where
: T T T T
Φ σ̄ = Φ σx , σy , τxy , Φ τ¯t = Φ τxz , τyz , Φ ¯ = Φ x , y , γxy , Φ γ¯t = Φ γxz , γyz
Exk νxy Eyk

 
1−νxy νyx 1−νxy νyx 0
 ν Ek Eyk

 yx y 0
Q̄1 = (10)

 1−νxy νyx 1−νxy νyx 
1
0 0
 
1 k 3
+S6666
Gk
xy

Gxz 0
Q̄2 = (11)
0 Gyz
15
4.5. Damaged material response
In this part, we discuss the model of progressive damage adopted in the simulations by explain-
300 ing the equation of the different modes of failure. Composite damage takes place in two phases: the
initiation of damage and the evolution of the damage. We adopt here the model proposed by [43]
in order to calculate the degradation of the coefficients of the stiffness matrix. In this model, the
constitutive relations that give the relationship between the effective stress (σ) and the nominal
stress (σ) for the damaged composite laminates can be defined as: σ̄ = d.σ where d is the damage
305 operator. Thus stress with presence of the damages is given as:
σ¯i,j = Ci,j (d).i,j (12)

and  
(1 − df ) 0 0
d= 0 (1 − dm ) 0  (13)
0 0 (1 − ds )
where C represents the damaged orthotropic stiffness matrix. This matrix takes the following form:
 
(1 − df )E1 (1 − df )(1 − dm )ν21 E1 0
1 
C= (1 − df )(1 − dm )ν12 E2 (1 − dm )E2 0  (14)
D
0 0 D(1 − ds )G12
Where :
D = 1 − (1 − df )(1 − dm )ν12 ν21 (15)
E1 , E2 , and G12 are undamaged material modulus, and ν12 , ν21 are undamaged material
310 Poisson’s ratios. The damage variables df and dm can have values for tension and compression,
it’s denoted by subscriptions t and c. Indeed, we assume that the damage variable corresponding
to shear, ds , is not independent and can be expressed as a function of the remaining variables.
df = 1 − (1 − df t )(1 − df c ) (16)
dm = 1 − (1 − dmt )(1 − dmc ) (17)
ds = 1 − (1 − df t )(1 − df c )(1 − dmt )(1 − dmc ) (18)
315 4.5.1. Damage assessment

Based on the continuum damage mechanics, the composite materials failure for both fiber and
matrix that can be taken into account within a lamina. Indeed, in many damage investigations, the
intralaminar damage mechanism is modeled and taken place in this assessments. To simulate the
evolution of the damage, modeling must take into account the various forms of damage occurring at
320 quasi static load tests. However, it is not necessary that the numerical model take account all the
physical phenomena observed if their presence does not affect in a relevant way the current turbine
behavior. The effect of flap-wise and edge-wise on the blade structure in the presence of this type
of damage and which can lead rapidly to the degradation of the material due to aging effect. For
that, the Hashin [44] and other several criteria [6] could be used to determine the first-ply failure
325 occurrence in composite blade. The microscopic defects of both fiber and the matrix and other
failure as delaminations progress in function of incremental loads in static and dynamic regimes.
16
4.5.2. Damage initiation criteria
Damage modeling in laminate composites can be studied by a stress or strain-based failure
criteria approach or following damage mechanics concepts. Hashin’s, Tsai Wu, Tsai hill criterion
330 and others have each other proposed four failure criteria for composites namely: fiber damage
in tension and compression and matrix tensile and compressive failure. These criteria have been
effectively applied to estimate the initiation of damage in UD composites cited by Jiefei Gu and
Puhui Chen [45]. In the present study, these criteria were proposed for both fibers and matrix,
and listed in Table 3. In fact, Hashin’s criteria give accurate results and its are very popular
335 in mechanical assessment of composite materials operating due to their simplicity. The main
disadvantage of these criteria is that they combine fundamentally different failure modes of the UD
layer together. In addition, these interactive criteria are unable to directly determine the initial
failure mode, which is necessary for progressive failure analysis of composite structures.
Recently, a numerous failure criterion have been proposed to study the composite materials
340 failure initiation. the first ply failure localization prediction is the object of this studies, this
criteria can be written as :
The 2D Hashin criterion for UD lamina can be expressed as presented [45].
Fiber failure Eq. 19
F1 σ1 + F11 σ12 + F66 τ12

2
=1 (19)
Matrix failure Eq. 20
F2 σ2 + F22 σ22 + F66 τ12

2
=1 (20)
345 It should be noted that for a balanced composite lamina with same material properties in
both fiber directions, the use of Eq. 19 is sufficient to predict the failure of a composite
lamina. In addition, the 3D Hashin failure criterion for a UD lamina is expressed according
to [45].
Fiber failure in tension Eq. 21 (σ1 > 0)
2 + σ2
σ1 2 σ12 13
( ) + =1 (21)
XT S2
350 or σ1 = XT
Fiber failure in compression Eq. 22 (σ1 < 0)
−σ1 = XC (22)
Matrix cracking Eq. 23 (σ2 + σ3 > 0)
2 + σ2
σ2 + σ3 2 σ12 − σ2 σ3 σ12 13
( ) + + =1 (23)
YT R2 S2
17
Matrix crushing Eq. 24 (σ2 + σ3 < 0)
YC 2 σ2 + σ3 2 −σ σ
σ2 + σ3 2 σ23 2 + σ2
σ12
2 3 13
[( ) − 1]( )+( ) + + =1 (24)
2R YC 2R R2 S2
The use of Eqs. 21 and 22 is enable to anticipate the first-ply failure criterion, since a
355 symmetrical composite lamina with same material properties in both fiber directions has
been used. The most critical of the failure modes is selected:
f = max(ff , fm , fd ) (25)
4.5.3. Damage evolution criteria

The damage progressive phenomena is an irreversible process, the reduction in stiffness material
properties is controlled by damage variables corresponding damage modes. Once a failure initiation
360 criterion is satistied in the composite materials, the material’s stiffness continues to degrade with
increasing the load [4]. In fact, the damage evolution model needs to be defined. Based on the
relationship between the effective stress and displacement, damage evolution can be constituted.
Therefore, damage variables for each mode in the fibers and matrices are expressed in the form of
the displacement: di = f (δequ) where, (δeq0 ) and (δeqf ) are the equivalent displacements at the
365 initiation point of damage and at the completely propagated damage state, respectively, in Eq.
[43] dm = 0 corresponds to point A andd = 1 corresponds to point C in Fig.3. The saturation type
evolution of damage variable with d respect to equivalent displacement δ eq is illustrated in Fig.
10. Indeed, the used stratified composite material behavior has generally a small plastic region
which can be not considered in this modeling investigations.
f 0 )
δeq (δeq − δeq
d= f
(26)
δeq (δeq 0 )
− δeq
Figure 10: Stress versus displacement diagram for a linearly siftening material.
370 The evolution law of the damage variable in the post-damage initiation phase is based on the
fracture energy dissipated during the damage process, Gc . [46].
18
4.6. Vibration assessment
The wind turbine blades are influenced by severe environnement conditions. The blades are
subjected to cyclic wind loads in three directions with different amplitude and frequency. Therefore,
375 the vibration is very random and difficult to characterize and correlate their temporal evolution. In
this case, the instantaneous vibration amplitudes are not highly anticipated because the periodic
evolutions are not shown in this context. The complex nature of random vibrations is demonstrated
with fourier analysis of the random time–history, revealing that the random motion can be repre-
sented as a series of many overlapping sine waves, with each curve cycling at its own frequency and
380 amplitude. With these multiple frequencies occurring at the same time, the structural resonances
of different components can be excited simultaneously, thus increasing the potential damage of
random vibrations.
To describe the effect of material failure for random vibration, the power spectral density
(PSD) is a important factor to show the intensity of vibration in different natural frequencies of a
385 structure for rigidity parameter (u, σ, , γ̄, and others), the parameter is detailed in the reference
[47]. Furthermore, the factor indicator is often used in such engineering applications as [48] to
predict the enduranelife under cyclic loading.
4.7. Buckling analysis

The generated out-of-plane deformations of composite materials of the blade structure is one
390 of the most critical issues that seem promising to test on it using FEA. In fact, the local buckling
modes can severely debond the contact in blade skin [49] because the generated material forces
and moments. It is noted that the phenomena needs to be strongly investigated and it depend
on the overall growth of local buckling. A nonlinear buckling analysis is carried out in this eval-
uations using buckling tool of ANSYS Mechanical APDL [50]. Solving the motion equation for
395 undamped composite materials, the eigenvalue of nonlinear buckling can be found for every shape
of the global structure. The nonlinear buckling analysis is a theoritical buckling analysis based on
large-deflection theory of FE and eventually the geometrical, material nonlinearities and contact
statement are taken into account in this assessments.
5. Results and discussion

400 As stipulated by the standards IEC 61400–1 [51] and Germanischer-Lloyd (GL321) [52], the
blade should be capable to fulfill the design requirements such as the overall blade deflection limit
i.e. the minimum distance between the blade tip and turbine tower, material stress and strain limits
and critical buckling loads. These requirements are investigated against the worst-case scenario
of gust loads in structural nonlinear analysis as well as nonlinear eigenvalue analysis. Nonlinear
405 structural analysis identified failure mode such as local out-of-plane deformations caused skin-
spar debonding. Results of total displacements, stress and strain analysis, nonlinear buckling and
random vibration analysis are presented.
In this section, the virtual model results based on FE simulations by analyzing the response
of the structural part subjected to incremental quasi-static loads. The physical model has been
410 validated against the experimental results, in the elastic region, of [6] as the Fig. 10 depicts. The
loading area of the blade sub-model is presented (see Fig. 11− (a)) and the different contact
between structural part elements are presented in the Fig. 11-(b). In fact, the quasi-static loading
are applied only to the rib of the structure which is responsible of stiffness and strength in the
flap-wise direction and also to avoid the undesirable local damage of the part skin.
19
Figure 11: (a):FE meshed model with applied boundary conditions,(b):Contacts description of the blade sub-model.
415 5.1. The principal material characteristics effect

In the worst case of environment conditions, the stiffness of wind turbine blade depend essen-
tially on the total deflection to be within safe limits. The wind turbine blade overall deflection
is shown on Fig. 12 for several fiber materials and orientations. In fact, the flap-wise loading
are the most critical load for wind turbine, because it induced by important aerodynamic bending
420 moments, comparing to edge-wise loading caused by torsional and gravity [5]. The nonlinear wind
blade has been subjected to extreme wind loads. Besides, parametric studies have been performed
for the blade skin composite material, in elastic domain, considering material and orientation of
the fiber. It is clearely remarqued that the Carbon and S-glass present minimum flexural displace-
ment in flap-wise direction. Consequently, the deformation of the structural in the worst area can
425 be enhanced by using several composite material configurations as the fiber orientation where the
fiber directions could be prepared in direction of compressive forces generated in buckling area. In
addition of that, the thickness of laminates reduce regionally Z-displacement of the buckled area,
and consequently shear stresses decrease, because thickned laminates improve the area moment
of inertia and the section area adding the drop-off layers to remove stress concentration. The hy-
430 bridization of fiber materials, as unidirectionnal, bi-axial and tri-axial configurations or woven, in
the specific zone of proposed model could be a major factor to decrease locally the internal efforts
effects in composite materials and similar results of composite applications are shown in [53].
20
Figure 12: Displacement behavior of several orientation and material of the fiber for the blade skin.
5.2. Nonlinear buckling analysis

For further investigations of local deformation of blade skin, a nonlinear eigenvalue buckling
435 analysis under ACP and APDL is carried out. The Fig. 13 presents the first three critical buckling
response of the structural part under ultimate loads. It is clear that the cavities showed on the
bottom skin are localized in the compressive region. The amplitudes of buckling are depending
on the load multiplier factor and the number of cavities created, for the first load factor, the
maximum Z-displacement does not exceed 29mm with the missing of localized dimples. In fact,
440 the amplitudes of this cavities are extremely exaggerated because the laminates borders are free
and not fixed or simply supported. However, the following results showed important dimples as
the Fig. 13, showing lower stiffness of stratified shell of the skin. It is clearely observed that the
Z-displacement at dimple localization is lower at the third load factor compared to the second load
factor because the number of dimples created at the second stage are important. A nonlinear large
445 deflection analysis has been used in this investigations to predict higher critical loads compared to
linear buckling analysis where a disagreement were found between two approaches as [54]. This
nonlinear large-deflection buckling corroborated by damage compressive results as the Fig. 20. In
fact, the local buckling has an impact on this damage initiation and progressive. Consequently,
by understanding this physical phenomena process, alternative solutions for stiffness and strength
450 improvement in this material localization is proposed in the following points :
21
Figure 13: Buckling response of structural blade model at the first ply failure under critical loads.
Adding layers (include drop-off leyers) locally with changing the fiber materials by changing
the bending moment of inertia, (Hybridization of fibers could be an alternative solution in
the context of cost optimization).
Changing the fiber orientation or using woven architectural structure of the stratified com-
455 posite skin shell.
Using significant fiber volume and using a curvilinear fiber section in the direction of com-
pressive generated [55, 56].
Changing the composite structure of full bottom skin shell by sandwich structure [57].
22
Figure 14: Buckling response of shear web under critical loads.
Concerning the shear web of the structure, it is remarked that the local deformation are im-
460 portant near the crtitical area of the structure. The dimples are localized near the bottom skin
side with a lower distance compared to top skin laminates as the illustrated in Fig. 14. The
fictitious center of compression forces is approximately localized with bottom skin laminates by
17.385 mm. Indeed, as it is shown on the plot contours, the local buckling present maximum value
of Y-displacement is limited to 0.12104 mm and minimum value is limited to 0.10268 mm, the de-
465 formations are scaled for better visualization. The compressive forces generated, due to flap-wise
bending loading, are responsible of shear-web buckling reponse. The nonlinear buckling is initiated
at bottom skin side. In fact, the local deformation generated generate high rotational of material
section of the web which generate high contact failure. The Fig. 16 illustrates the plot contours of
contact tool factor Gap which describe the detachment of material contacts and Frictional stress
470 which describe the relative displacements with friction between two components.
Figure 15: Consequences of buckling response on adhesive layers instability, ref : [58].
23
5.3. Shear strain and stress analysis
Contour plots of shear strain of the blade skin shell at ultimate load are illustrated in Fig. 17.
The maximum shear strain of 5.318E-3 mm/mm taken place on the suction side of the shell at
top lamina which is subjected locally to tension during flap-wise bending and a maximum shear
475 strain of -1.2375E-2 at the bottom lamina in initial damage area, the lamina is also subjected to
compression sollicitation as depicted the buckled area in the figure. The high stress contact region
of the shell and spar is located between the shear webs near the root approximately 18% of the
radius. The high compressive stress initiates local buckling which subsequently causes local shear
stresses and generates high contact pressure between spar caps and shear web. Consequently, this
480 damage regions need to be strongly enhanced and reinforced for different consideration points as
fiber orientation, fiber material, adding thickened laminates with fiber volume ratio and others.
Similar shear stress distribution along the blade span was also observed by [5]. In addition, It is
important to remark that spar caps are fabricated to contribute in descreasing the total and local
deformations with UD Balsa wood lamina, the results indicate that the high shear strains localized
485 in this stiffened elements with shear and compression stresses of 129 MPa near the critical region
as the Fig. 17.
Figure 16: Contact properties of the structural part.
Concerning the shear-web sandwich structures, the Fig. 19 depicts the plot contours of in-plane
shear stress of the left and right lamina of blade reinforcing rib. It is remarked that the constraints
are intensified in some critical parts.
24
Figure 17: Shear strain of damaged zone at ultimate load.
Figure 18: Shear strain versus load factor.
25
Figure 19: Shear stress analysis of the shear web laminates.
490 5.4. Damage evaluation

In this section, the damage evaluation has been performed for the slender structure in order to
understand damage initiation and propagation and to predict the main factors that contribute to
material stiffness reduction and material capacity to withstand internal loads. In fact, the mechan-
ical designers of overall blade structure need to strongly understand different physical phenomenon
495 to predict the mechanical response of the blade structure.
Figure 20: Damage initiation and progression of quasi-static loading test.
The SS blade is mainly subjected to compression which is mostly critical compared to the PS.
When an extreme load is applied to the shaped cavity structure composed of the blade spar cap,
26
laminates skin and the shear web, the different load responses of the SS result in high contact
pressure that generates high material detachment near the damage regions, as the Fig. 16-(b),
500 which can be interpreted by the fact that the contact imperfection occured can cause adhesive
layers failure as adhesive and cohesive failures which also need to be investigated in term of fracture
assessment as performed in [59].
Figure 21: The global prediction of the FE response of the structural part under flap-wise loading.
Besides, the local buckling of the blade skin is developped due to compression efforts, the
Fig. 17 depicts the overall shear strain contours of the buckled zones where the contact failure
505 is crucial. Excessive shear strain after ply-failure as the Fig. 18 causes micro crack propagation
through material of spar cap and skin laminates. The contact pressure generated due to high local
deformation especially the buckling deformation. The high local deformation generated caused by
internal compression loads at the damaged region are responsible effectively for high stress at the
trailing edge because the cavities generated have affected bonded regions of the trailing edge due
510 to residual rotational forces generated in this regions as the Fig. 15. Consequently, the buckled
area need to be robustly enhanced. Similar results has been carried out the influence of buckled
zones on the stability of other components and the couple stiffness-strength of regions. Therefore,
alternative solutions is proposed for composite blade designers for structure reinforcement, instead
of the proposed ones in nonlinear buckling analysis section, especially taking into account the
515 material nonlinearities and manufacturing problems. It is important to satisfy design requirement
of composite structure by revealing the material architecure performing a tri-axial fiber, or woven
structural design of composite material or hybrid the composite material by adding two type
of fiber. Finally, the sudden collapse of the blade structure results degradation of mechanical
performance during fonctionnal service and may cause human and nature security problems. In
520 fact, to comprehend and control the global failure progression of the proposed structure, the Fig.
20 illustrated the FE results of maximum failure criteria of the structure at extreme wind loads. It
27
is clear that the first-ply failure occured in the SS of the model which is corroborated with different
obtained results of buckling eigenvalue, contact tools and stress analysis. It is well known that the
post-failure of such a structure need to be studied and assessed to understand her material capacity.
525 Indeed, the designers and maintenance operations controlers were used artificial damage detectors
in the blade during their services in order to predict the damage progressive and remedy against the
possible collapse of the blades in severe condition that it might affect the environnement security.
For this reason, the damage progressive is assessed in paper to monitor the health reduction of the
blade. Actually, the stiffness reduction is increased as the damage progressive results depicts in
530 the Fig. 20 the matched results with the stress versus displacement diagram incorporated in the
figure for flexural test to see the variation of damage status in function of applied loads. similar
results were obtained for composite materials stiffness reduction in different applications such as
wind, marine and other ones [60, 61, 62, 63].
The predicted normalized applied load versus normalized displacement curves of the sub-model
535 under flapwise loading are illustrated for materials conmprehension of the whole behavior as shown
in Fig. 21. The linear behavior of the structure can be explained by the fact that the sub-model
is sollicitated under low loads that it allows low rotation and deflection. The nonlinear behavior
is shown in the structure and the FE are taken into account the different geometric nonlinearities
as large rotation and deflection, stress stiffening and brazier effect (see the Fig. 10). The first
540 ply failure represents the first crack of material which the equivalent stress is not obligatory the
maximum strength of the used material. After this point of initiate damage, natural frequencies of
material are increasing because overall material cohesion and equilibrium are not satified. In fact,
the failure in composite materials occured in both fiber and matrix where the matrix-dominant
failure is develops before the fiber-dominant failure. The failure modes of the matrix are crushing
545 under compression load in bottom skin and cracking under tension in top skin, however, the fiber
cracks also under compression in the first critical regions. In addition, other failures modes are
also occured as delaminations which will be assessed in vibration analysis section, moreover, the
contact failure between connected components of the structure is evaluating using contact tool in
APDL.
28
550 5.5. Modal analysis
Figure 22: Mode shapes of the proposed model.
The Fig. 22 presents the first six modeshapes of the present structure, In fact, modal analysis
is the study of the dynamic properties of structural part in frequency domain. The structure is
fixed in root reinforced using plywood for undesirable damages. The structure is excited using
quasi-static loading in the flap-wise direction.
555 Examples would include measuring the vibration of a car’s body when it is attached to a shaker,
or the noise pattern in a room when excited by a loudspeaker.
The Fig. 23 depicts pre-stressed vibration analysis of the bottom spar cap and skin of the blade
sub-structure at extreme loading for different delamination pourcentage. Using nonlinear FEA,
modal analysis calculates resonance frequencies which can be generally defined as stiffness/mass
560 ratio. In fact, the delaminations have been modeled using two Teflon laminates with 0, 25 mm
between skin laminates near high stressed zone. The Teflon is characterised by low mechanical
properties and small density which effectively can not reduce or improve stiffness or mass of any
structure. Therefore, it clearely shows decreasing of natural frequencies for the first several modes.
It can be remarked that created delaminations decrease the overall stiffness of the laminates without
565 changing structure density. The variation of natural frequencies is crucial for important modeshapes
which is normal because the degree of deformation is higher than the first modeshapes. The
delamination is important factor to destruction of composite laminates of structure especially
when the structure is pre-stressed, at high level modeshapes, which is our case of study of wind
blade materials.
29
Figure 23: Delamination effect on the stiffness reduction of a stratified bottom blade skin of sub-model with and
without modeled delaminations under high loading conditions.
570 5.6. Vibration analysis

In the engineering applications as wind turbine design, both fatigue life prediction and strength
evaluation are problems of the main concerns. Before evaluating the strength and predicting the
fatigue life of a structure, the most dangerous location of stress/strain in the structure should be
found first using stress or buckling analysis. Since the distribution of stress/strain is often not
575 in correspondence with that of displacement, the most dangerous location of stress/strain cannot
be predicted directly from the mode shapes, but it can be predicted by the PSD distribution of
stress/strain.
Figure 24: PSD vibration of the top and bottom skin of the structural part.
Generally, the 1st order resonance contains enormous energy. Accordingly, the energy distri-
bution of the first order resonance can provide good reference resources for the dangerous location
30
580 prediction.
Fig. 24 presents the variation of PSD displacement results of a remote point attached to bottom
and top skin of the pre-stressed structural part of the blade for a frequency range. It shows that
PSD displacement of the bottom skin laminates remote point are very important compared to the
top skin laminates, especially, for low natural frequencies. It shows the comparison between two
585 PSD values for each resonant frequencie shapes that they were illustrated in Fig. 22. It can be
conclude that bottom skin laminates and spar caps are the main components in failure due to
cyclic excitations.
The following section is considering the local reinforcement of the blade structure incorporated
in the critical zones of the blade under flap-wise loading. The Carbon/Epoxy lamina is used in this
590 enhancement strategy for giving blade stiffness and resistance capabilities. The material properties
of Carbon/Epoxy are detailed in the Tab. ??.
The Carbon fiber/Epoxy are usually used in Wind blades for specific diameter of rotor due to
her high mechanical capacities and also it has a high price compared to Glass fiber and others. For
this reason the Glass fiber wind blade used in this investigations are reinforced locally.
595 The previous understanding and predicting investigations of structural part of the blade under
flap-wise loading are being discussed in this section through the reinforcement results.
5.7. Reinforcing blade structure sub-model instructions and discussions

In the context of certification after blade fabrication, the proposed blade structure sub-model
has been subjected to local reinforcement instructions, as the Fig. 25 presents, for the purpose
600 of decreasing stress intensities and to avoid composite materials failure in the case of improving
performance ratio of the blade. The local reinforcement of the structure is important at a specific
zones. Hence, it applied for the structural health of the blade with taking into account improving
security coefficient especially in critical regions of the blade quantified by the Hashin failure criterion
model and dissipated energy performance indicators.
Figure 25: Reinforcing plies added locally to the structure at the failed zones of the blade.
605 The performance of the investigated structure is assessed using the Hashin failure criterion
(Eq. 25). It is defined as maximum value of matrix, fiber and delamination failure of composite
materials. It reveals the localization of the first failure ply in a composite structure.
31
The dissipated energy per volume is also taked as indicator of stiffness reduction of composite
materials. it is detailed at damage evolution subsection of mathematical modeling quantified by
610 the damage progressive (Eq. 26).
The Fig. 26 presents the evolution of the Hashin failure criterion and dissipated energy under
a quasi-static flap-wise loading for different configurations. The effect of plies-reinforcement added
at the failed regions that they have been detected in the damage assessment of damage evolution
of the structure. Besides, the effect of number of layers are also illustrated.
615 In fact, good attention is paid to the failure criterion during the quasi-static test and especially
at ultimate load. Besides, the plot contours of different cases are also shown at extreme loading,
with the mention of maximum value of the present indicator, at the right of the graph. The
dissipated energy per volume is assessed for the no reinforced structure to evaluate the stiffness
reduction after exceeding the high resistance of the materials.
620 Regarding the no plies reinforcement incorporated configuration, it shows enormous value of
4.6 of Hashin failure criterion and release energy per volume are extremely important as the Fig.
26 depicts. Besides, the local reinforcement at the failed regions is performed and the reinforce-
ment of 2 plies with 30 reveals good results related to the basic because the criterion does not
exceed the value of 1 which is important but not secure. The reinforcement of 40, 50 and
625 70 demonstrates good difference compared to the first reinforcement configuration with 16.58%,
30.84%, 37.88% respectively and a percentage of 87.07% compared to the basic composite design
without reinforcement. It can be conclude that the strategy of reinforcing the damaged and failed
regions is totally judicious and covering the maximum of pre-failed regions is also important.
Furthermore, the dissipated energy per volume are also showed in the graph with 0 values for
630 the reinforced configurations and it shows vast value for the basic design. It can be explained
by the fact that damage is progressive and it started at the time correspond of 85% of applied
loading. The maximum value is of 0.14387 mJ/m3 at the end of test which is extremely higher due
to reduction of stiffness of composite laminates. However, the reinforced blade part are presented
without release energy during the mechanical test (see the Fig. 26). The Hashin failure criterion
635 has been increased for the last reinforcement configuration, compared to the 2 plies of 70mm
configuration, because of thickened laminates added locally improve the stress concentration due
to drop-off layers generated.
It can be accurate to notify that the present model used in this investigations evaluate the
behavior and the response of the chargeable and constrained structure in the blade construction.
32
Figure 26: The performance indicators evolution for several configurations of reinforced blade sub-model.
640 6. Concluding remarks with future direction
Good attentions have been paid to different physical phenomenen response that can be oc-
cured and predicted of a proposed blade sub structure under flap-wise loading and alternative
reinforcement solutions have been conducted. The main conclusions are listed :
The local stiffness reduction due to buckling sollicitation are the major causes of material
645 damage.
Employing a continuum damage-mechanics in a stress/strain state, the FE modeling tech-

niques with mesh independacy test presented in this study show good competencies to predict
buckling deformation, strain distributions and the post-collapse response that lead to several
failure modes and failure characteristics in the structural part section.
650 To the well-known local buckling-driven effects, the contact between surfaces of sandwich
shear-web and bottom spar cap affects the structure resistance and consequently degrades
the ultimate strength, or the peak load, of the bottom spar cap.
The local deformation induces crucial damage near the root area and through the adhesive
layers between spar cap and shear web and also the rotational forces generated affect the
655 stability of adhesive joints at the trailing edge.
The shear stress analysis of damaged area depicts that material stiffness reduction contributes
to material crack due to shear stress.
33
Circular reinforcements based on Carbon fiber are applied at the failed regions show good
predictions.
660 The future perspectives are also listed :

It is crucial to include contact properties of web and spar caps in the numerical modeling to
pick up the potential surface contact.
More parametric studies in terms of materials, under combining loads instead of edge-wise
bending and torsional loads, are necessary to enhancing stiffness-strength and endurancelife
665 using the numerical method presented in this study.
Investigate how local delaminations behave under dynamic load conditions.
7. Acknowledgment
The authors are grateful for the funding support provided by EMISys Research Team, Engi-
neering 3S Research Center, Mohammadia School of Engineers, University Mohammed V in Rabat,
670 Morocco.
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Understanding Mechanical Behavior of HAWTB Composite Structure

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Modeling, understanding and enhancing mechanical response of HAWTB

composite structure through the nonlinear FE analysis of a proposed

Omar Rajada,∗, Hamid Mounira , Abdellatif El Marjania

 Delaminations modelization can predict the overall behavior of composite structure.

Preprint submitted to Composite materials journal May 29, 2021

Figure 1: Failure mechanisms of the blade experimentaly tested by [2].

2. Wind blade structural design

2.1. Wind blade description

Figure 4: Blade aerodynamic design.

2.2. Blade materials

195 2.4. Validation of the physical model before first-ply failure

3.1. Work methodology regarding the proposed sub-model

Figure 7: Reinforcement philosophy and reasoning [6, 33, 34, 35].

4.1. Equilibrium equations

4.2. Kinematic equations

∂ 2 x ∂ 2 y ∂ 2 γxy ∂ ∂γyz ∂γzx ∂γxy ∂ 2 z

285 4.4. Constitutive equations for the nonlinear behavior

Exk νxy Eyk

σ¯i,j = Ci,j (d).i,j (12)

dm = 1 − (1 − dmt )(1 − dmc ) (17)

ds = 1 − (1 − df t )(1 − df c )(1 − dmt )(1 − dmc ) (18)

315 4.5.1. Damage assessment

 Fiber failure Eq. 19

F1 σ1 + F11 σ12 + F66 τ12

 Matrix failure Eq. 20

F2 σ2 + F22 σ22 + F66 τ12

 Fiber failure in tension Eq. 21 (σ1 > 0)

 Fiber failure in compression Eq. 22 (σ1 < 0)

 Matrix cracking Eq. 23 (σ2 + σ3 > 0)

4.5.3. Damage evolution criteria

4.7. Buckling analysis

5. Results and discussion

415 5.1. The principal material characteristics effect

5.2. Nonlinear buckling analysis

Figure 16: Contact properties of the structural part.

Figure 18: Shear strain versus load factor.

490 5.4. Damage evaluation

Figure 20: Damage initiation and progression of quasi-static loading test.

Figure 22: Mode shapes of the proposed model.

570 5.6. Vibration analysis

5.7. Reinforcing blade structure sub-model instructions and discussions

640 6. Concluding remarks with future direction

 Employing a continuum damage-mechanics in a stress/strain state, the FE modeling tech-

660 The future perspectives are also listed :

You might also like

Delaminations modelization can predict the overall behavior of composite structure.

∂ 2 x ∂ 2 y ∂ 2 γxy ∂ ∂γyz ∂γzx ∂γxy ∂ 2 z

σ¯i,j = Ci,j (d).i,j (12)

Fiber failure Eq. 19

Matrix failure Eq. 20

Fiber failure in tension Eq. 21 (σ1 > 0)

Fiber failure in compression Eq. 22 (σ1 < 0)

Matrix cracking Eq. 23 (σ2 + σ3 > 0)

Employing a continuum damage-mechanics in a stress/strain state, the FE modeling tech-