STS Reviewer
the core economic, social, and cultural rights. It
Chapter 7: ETHICAL AND SOCIAL DIMENSIONS
OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
This chapter contains three (3) topics:
7.1 Ethical Dimension of Science and
Technology
7.2 Social Dimension of Science and Technology
7.3 Robotics
Human’s Right to Science and Technology
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)
An important document in the history of human
rights. It was adopted and proclaimed by the
United Nations General Assembly in Paris on 10
December 1948. Motivated by the events
during the World War II. The UDHR lays out the
fundamental human rights.
Universal Declaration contains a preamble and
30 articles. The preamble states that the
“recognition of the inherent dignity and of the
equal and inalienable rights of all members of
the human family is the foundation of freedom,
justice, and peace in the world” (UN General
Assembly,1948). The first five articles outline
the basic individual rights:
Article 1 – Right to equality
Article 2 – Freedom from discrimination
Article 3 – Right to life, liberty, and personal
security
Article 4 – Freedom from slavery or servitude
Article 5 – Freedom from torture and
degrading treatment
Science and technology are vital parts of human
life.
Article 27 of the UDHR states that “everyone
has the right to participate in the cultural life of
the community and to share in scientific
advancement and its benefits.”
The right to science and culture, which is one of
is also recognized in Article 15 of the
International Covenant on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) Covenant, a treaty
adopted by the UN General Assembly on 16
December 1966. The scientists as well as the
policymakers.
7.1 Ethical Dimension of Science and
Technology
In 1945, towards the end of World War II, the
members of the Nazi party of Germany were
tried for war crimes. The trials became
Nuremberg trial; one such trial prosecuted
physicians involved in unethical human
experimentation.
No human subject should be forced to
participate in experiments that will yield harm
or injury.
Nuremberg Code is a landmark document in
clinical research ethics.
One such example is the Declaration of Helsinki
which was first publish by the World Medical
Association (WMA) in 1975.
Clinical research ethics is just one of
applications of applied ethic, branch of ethics or
moral philosophy.
Applied ethics examines specific issues such as
abortion, animal rights, and environmental
concerns, among others.
7.1.1 Ethical Decision-making in Science
In order to make ethical decisions, scientists
follow a framework. Technique that attempts to
consider the issues, option, and arguments.
Essential elements in making a decision as
follows (Harris, 2006).
 Identifying stakeholders
 Review arguments for each option
 Making a rational choice from the
available options, backed with the
strongest set of moral reasons or
principles.
  Identifying possible options or course of
action
Moral principles provide distinctive guidance in
making ethical decision. In medical ethics, the
standard approach involves four principles:
autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, and
justice.
Other principles include equality, duty,
obligation, responsibility, and various kinds of
rights. Self-interest, efficiency, and economy
Ethical Matrix develop by Ben Mepham in the
1990’s.
Aims to assists non-philosophers in appreciating
the value of ethical insights to arrive at ethical
judgments. The ethical matrix has been further
developed and is now being used in evaluating
other technologies.
Well-being refers to the maximization of good,
autonomy refers to freedom, and fairness refers
to respect for justice and the law.
Table 7.1 Example of ethical matrix
(Evaluation of ethical use of growth hormones
in cattle)
7.1.2. Code of Ethics of Scientists and
Engineers
Codes of Ethics (Purposes)
 Establish standards of conduct in cases
not dictated by common sense
 Formulate rules to govern a practice or
discipline
 Provide a framework for resolving
conflicts
 Manage the expectation of the public in
a practice or discipline
Codes of ethics, they are authoritative
reminders of the rules and duties that scientists
and engineers must abide to. Other professions
have their respective codes of ethics: for
example:
The Hippocratic Oath is an old code used by
medical practitioners.
National Academy of Science and Technology
(NAST) published the Ethical Principles and
Guidelines for Filipino Scientist in 2009.
NAST ethical code aims to guide Filipino
scientists to achieve a high level of professional
and ethical behavior.
Preamble: Scientific research as a public trust –
Since the general public does not have the
means of verifying the results of the work of
scientists, the burden of making sure that their
work is correct lies on the scientists themselves.
General Principles:
 Ethical scientific practices
 Ethical use of science in Philippine
society
 Conflict of interest
 Intellectual honesty
 Weighing the benefits
 Commitment to professional
development as scientists
 Development of students and other
stakeholders
 Advocacy for scientific approaches
NSPE Code of Ethics for Engineers by the
National Society of Professional Engineers
(NSPE) of the United States of America.
Code of Ethics for the Chemistry Practitioners
of the Philippines, it is stated that chemistry
professionals have an obligation to the society
(Professional Regulatory Board of Chemistry,
2016)
7.2. Social Dimension of Science and
Technology: The Device Paradigm
Technology- the techniques and processes used
to achieve a certain purpose: it can also refer to
the knowledge of such techniques and
processes. Being considered as object,
knowledge, and activity.
In 1984, Albert Borgmann offered a new way
of thinking about technology.
Three essential types of approaches to
technology:
Substantive view- considers technology as a
force of its own, capable of shaping society
without the intervention of other forces.
Instrumentalist view- considers technology as a
mere instrument to achieve social values that
are independent of technology themselves.
Pluralist view- considers the dynamic
interactions between technology and social
values as a complex web.
The promise of technology is to “bring the
forces of nature and culture under control, to
liberate us from misery and toil, and to enrich
our lives” (Borgmann, 1984).
Device paradigm things are distinguished from
devices.
Technology is inseparable from its social
context; it is a thing. When people interact with
things, in addition to the purpose of the given
technology, there is personal and social
engagement.
According to Borgmann, devices become readily
available because they operate in an
instantaneous, ubiquitous, safe, and easy way
(Borgmann, 1984).
Device paradigm also applies to modern
technology.
A television can serve to gather family and
friends together, encouraging healthy social
interactions. The television can also help us
connect to our culture and be aware of the
events and issues in our society (Kubey &
Csikszent Mihalyi, 1990).
All in all, technology can help us achieve the
good life. However, if we simply consume
technology as mere devices, we may not be
able to fully realize our goal of freedom and
happiness (Strong, 2014).
7.3. Robotics: An Example of Contemporary
Issue in Science and Technology
In Ray Kurzweil’s work The Singularity Is Near:
When Humans Transcend Human Biology,
Kurzweil identifies technologies capable of
driving the society to singularity – the point
wherein the intelligence of machines converge
with that of humans (Kurzweil,2005).
There are three such technologies:
 Genetics
 Nanotechnology
 Robotics or GNR
7.3.1. Background on Robotics
Robotics- refers to the use and development of
robots – programmable machines that are
capable of motion and interaction with their
surroundings (Sparrow, 2005)
Artificial intelligence- a field of study that seeks
to develop intelligent computational systems
(Sulins, 2005).
Karel Capek’s play Rossum’s Universal Robots
depicted the creation of machines that serve as
humanoid slaves. Czech word robota which
means forced labor. (Tucker, 2014).
The International Federation of Robotics
classifies robots as either service robots or
industrial robots (International Federation of
Robotics, 2019).
Service robots find domestic and field
applications as opposed to industrial robots
that are strictly used in industrial settings. 
The first programmable robot to be employed
in a factory was the Unimate, developed by
George Devol in 1954 (Moravec, 2019). The
Unimate was developed further by Unimation,
Inc. founded in 1956 by Joseph Engelberger,
who will later on be called the “father of
robotics” (Bauer, 2018).
7.3.2. Roboethics and Ethical Issues in
Advanced Robotics
Existence of such robots and their imminent
integration to the society gave rise to a new
field of ethics called roboethics (Operto, 2014).
The term roboethics was coined by the robot
scientist Gianmarco Veruggio.
Three Laws of Robotics (Asimov, 1950):
 A robot may not injure a human being
or, through inaction, allow a human
being to come to harm.
 A robot must obey orders given it by
human beings except where such
orders would conflict with the First Law.
 A robot must protect its own existence
as long as such protection does not
conflict with the First or Second Law
Asimov would later add the Zeroth Law of
Robotics which states that a robot should not
bring harm to humanity, through action or
inaction (Asimov, 1985).
Roboethics also aims to develop scientific,
cultural, and technical tools that will encourage
the benificial use of robotics for the society and
prevent its misuse againts humanity (Veruggio
& Operto, 2009).
Gaps in ethical issues in robotics mostly exist in
instances where robots interact with human
lives.
Telesurgery - Wherein in the surgeon and the
patient are separated by long distances.
Robotic liability matrix assigns weights to the
liabilities that are to be shouldered by the
involved parties. Since liability is shared, no
single party is indicted, leading to fairer
judgment of the case.
Another roboethical issue, social robots –
robots capable of interacting with humans in a
human-like fashion (Tucker, 2014). Ex:
ASIMO (Advanced step in Innovative Mobility)
by Honda – bipedal robot that is being
developed to be capable of integrating to
domestic environments such as in home and
offices (Honda Motors Co., 2019).
Sophia by Hanson Robotics – a human-like
robot that is being developed as an AI-equipped
service and entertainment robot (Hanson
Robotics, 2019).
Sophia is particularly controversial. During the
2017 Future Investment Summit in Saudi
Arabia, Sophia was granted a Saudi Arabian
Citizenship, the first robot to be given such
(Maza, 2017).
Chapter 8: INFORMATION AGE
This chapter contains two (2) topics:
1. Background & history of information
age
2. Issues and concerns in information age
Who first conceived the theory of information
age?
James R. Messenger in 1982 (Father of
Information Age)
 An American Telephone and
Telegraph employee
 Published a book entitled “The
Death of the American Telephone &
Telegraph Company
Typical Names:
1. Digital Age
2. Computer Age
3. New Media Age
Benefits of Information Age:
 For information transfer
 For communication
 For entertainment
 For business
 For better living
How did the information age start?
In the course of history, there have been
periods of sharp acceleration or revolutions in
the amount of information that people had
access to. We call them information
revolutions.
First Information Revolution
Print-based Era- marked by the development of
the printing press invented by Johannes
Gutenberg around 1436.
Printing press
 accelerated the rediscovery & sharing
of knowledge
 an invention that forever changed the
world
Second Information Revolution
Pre-digital Era- began in the mid-nineteenth
century through the introduction of telegraph
telephone, radio and computer.
First Telegraph (1845 by Samuel Morse)
 sent by tapping out the code for each
letter in the form of long (dashes) and
short signals (dots) – morse code
 converted into electrical impulses and
sent over telegraph wires
First Radio "Wireless Telegraph" (1894 by
Guglielmo Marconi)
First Telephone (1876 by Alexander Graham
Bell)
 built upon the success and technology
of the telegraph
 first to enable transmission of more
than one message along the same wire
at one time
Mobile Phone- a portable telephone that can
make and receive calls over a radio
frequency link while the user is moving within a
telephone service area.
First Commercial Mobile Phone- Motorola
DynaTAC 8000X
 first released in 1983
 sold at 4000 USD
 first phone call made in April 3, 1973,
Martin Cooper, a senior engineer at
Motorola
 10 hours to charge
 30 mins talk-time
 weighs 1.1 Kg
 measures 228.6 x 127 x 44.4 mm
 stores up to 30 phone numbers
 six hours standby time
First Commercial Smart Phone
 first smartphone prototype: Angler
developed by Frank Canova in 1992 at
IBM
 refined version marketed in 1994 by
BellSouth under the name Simon
Personal Communicator
What is a computer?
The word “computer” was first used in 1613 in
the book Young Man’s Gleanings by Richard
Braithwaite and originally described a human
who performed calculations or computations.
This definition remained the same until the end
of the 19th century, when the industrial
revolution gave rise to machines whose primary
purpose was calculating.
When was the first computer invented?
Some historians agree that it was in 1822, when
Charles Babbage (father of computer) invented
the first  mechanical computer  that eventually
led to more complex electronic designs.
First Computers
 Z1- first functional computer by Konrad
Zuse in 1936
  Z4- first commercial digital computer by
Konrad Zuse (credited to be the
inventor of the modern computer) in
1942
 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator
& Computer)- first fully functional
digital computer Invented by John
Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert in 1946
1. occupied more than 1,000 ft2
2. weighed 30 tons
3. used about 18,000
vacuumtubes
 UNIVAC (Universal Automatic
Computer) - first computer with a
program stored in memory by John
Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert in 1951
1. could perform 1 K calc/sec
2. weighed 16,000 lbs
3. used 5,000 vacuum tubes
 Olivetti Programma 101- first desktop
computer by Pier Giorgio Perotto
in 1964. A computer much smaller than
those used at the time, and compact
enough to be “a personal object of
someone sitting on his chair at a
desktop”.
1. No screen or mouse
2. used a small paper tape printer
as a visualization device
 Altair 8800- first personal computer by
Edward Roberts in 1975. Revolutionized
the computing world by allowing
common people to have their own
personal computer.
1. No screen or mouse
2. Instructions were relayed to it
by punched tape transcripts
 Osborne 1- first laptop or portable
computer by Adam Osborne in 1981.
First widely accepted portable
computer that included a monitor, disk
drives and other components.
1. 5” display
2. with 64KB memory
3. With floppy drive & keyboard
Third Information Revolution
Digital Era- known as the age of the internet 
- Started when internet and world web
wide were introduced
Internet
The precursor to the Internet was first
developed by the US Department of Defense in
1969 known as ARPANET (Advanced Research
Projects Agency Network), the network that
ultimately evolved into what we now as the
internet.
World Wide Web
- first launched in August 23, 1991
- started in 1990 when Tim Berners-Lee
(scientist at the European Organization
for Nuclear Research) developed the
HyperText Markup Language (HTML)
How does the internet differ from the web?
The internet is a global  network of networks
while the Web is a collection of information
which is accessed via the internet.
To illustrate, the internet is an infrastructure
while the Web is service on top of that
infrastructure.
The internet can also be viewed as a big
bookstore while the Web is the collection of
books on that store.
How extensive is our use of the internet?
In the 2019 survey of “We Are Social” reported
that in the Philippines, the time spent online
daily increased from 9.48 hours in 2018 to 10.03
hours in 2019.
Statistics shows that nearly 60 percent of the
world’s population is already online.
For four straight years (2016-2019), the
Philippines topped the worldwide social media
users.
What are some of the issues that we face in
this digital era?
Health Concerns
 Accidents- research done by the
American Psychological Association
shows that the brain has difficulty
processing two tasks simultaneously.
It can switch between the tasks but will
perform each more slowly.
In the United States, about 1,600,000
deaths in road crashes are caused by
people using mobile phones while
driving texting while driving is 6x more
likely to cause an accident than driving
drunk.
In the Philippines, mobile phone use is
the ranked as the 12th most common
cause of traffic crashes from 2001 to
2006 alone, road crashes caused by the
use of mobile phones increased five
times or 500 percent, the highest rate
of increase among traffic accident
causes.
To minimize accidents caused by
distracted driving, the Philippines
enacted, President Rodrigo Duterte
signed into law in 2016 Republic Act
No. 10913 Anti-Distracted Driving Act
of 2016.
 Physical Problems
 Depression- studies show that increase
in social-media use and television
viewing are linked to symptoms of
depression among teens.
Boers et al. (2019) analyzed survey data
of more than 3,800 Canadian teens to
identify how young people use of digital
media may affect their mental well-
being. The researchers found when
participants increased their social-
media use or their television
consumption in a given year, they also
had higher levels of depressive
symptoms.
Lin et al. (2016) found a positive
association between social media use
and depression. It indicates that
frequent use of social media may be
associated with declines in subjective
well-being, life satisfaction, and real-
life community.
Elison et al. (2007) reported that social
media users may experience decreased
depression, due to perceived social
support, and life satisfaction.
The US National Center for
Biotechnology Information links heavy
social media use to depression
(Dollarhide, 2019).
 Eye problems- symptoms include
headaches, blurred vision, neck pain,
fatigue, eye strain, dry eyes, irritated
eyes, double vision, dizziness, and
difficulty refocusing the eyes
“Computer Vision Syndrome”,
also referred to as Digital Eye Strain,
describes a group of eye and vision-
related problems that result from
prolonged computer, tablet, or
cellphone use.
 Hearing problems- noise-induced
hearing loss is irreversible.
 Brain cancer- Inskip et al. (2010)
examined temporal trends in brain
cancer incidence rates using data
collected by the surveillance,
epidemiology, and end results program.
Found out that the incidence data do
not provide support to the view that
cellular phone use causes brain cancer.
Hardell et al. (2010) investigated the
use of mobile or cordless phones and
the risk for malignant brain tumors in a
group of deceased cases confirmed the
 results of an association between
mobile phone use and malignant brain
tumors.
What are some of the issues and concerns that
we face in this digital era?
 Social Media- collective term for
websites and applications which focus
on communication and sharing of
information, ideas, personal messages,
etc.
First introduced in 1997 with the
launching of Six Degrees, a smaller
version of Facebook, allowed users to
create a profile and connect with
friends and AOL Instant Messenger
allowed users to talk in real time.
Since then, a host of different platforms
have become available
for news sources, chat rooms, spurring
creativity, sharing personal information,
dating, etc.
Most Popular Social Media
In 2012, Facebook became the 1st
social media platform to surpass 1
billion users.
As of April 2020, it is the most popular
social media platform worldwide with
2.5 billion monthly active users.
Social Networking Site- online platform
for building social networks or social
relationships with other people who
share similar personal or career
interests, activities, backgrounds or
real-life connections. (Linkedin,
Facebook, Twitter)
Social Engineering
Image Sharing & Messaging Site- online
platform for publishing or transferring
digital photos online; includes
uploading, hosting, managing and
sharing of photos (publicly or privately).
(IG, Messenger, Snapchat)
Video Sharing Site- online platform for
uploading, sharing videos or live
streaming their own videos to the
internet; can be for the general public
to watch, or particular users on a
shared network. (DailyMotion, Youtube,
Vimeo)
Social Blogging Site- online platform for
uploading, sharing videos or live
streaming their own videos to the
internet; can be for the general public
to watch, or particular users on a
shared network. (Medium, Wordpress)
Social Community & Discussion Site-
online discussion forum that provides
platform for different online
communities where users can
anonymously share content and discuss
various subjects. (Google, Reddit,
Quora)
 Health Concerns
 Cybercrime
Crime that uses computer to advance
other illegal activities:
1. cyberstalking
2. identity theft
3. spamming- unsolicited bulk
messages sent to multiple
recipients who did not ask for
them
Crime that targets computer networks
or devices:
1. viruses attack
2. malware attack
3. denial-of-service (DoS) attacks
 manipulation of people into divulging
confidential or sensitive information
 most done over email but regularly
carried out over the phone
What spam does?
- Distribute advertisement:
a. commercial spam
b. religious spam
c. political spam
- Distribute malware or virus
- Phishing and Hacking
A phish, which is ultimately a hack,
occurs when a user is baited with an
email, phone call, or, perhaps, a text
message and tricked into “voluntarily”
responding with information.
Physhing is masquerading as a
trustworthy source in an attempt to bait
a user to surrender sensitive
information such as a username,
password, credit card number, etc.
Vishing/smishing is phishing done via
voice calls or text messaging to trick
users in giving personal information.
Hacking is using exploits to gain access
to something you do not normally have
access to.
President Benigno Aquino signed into
law in 2012 Republic Act No. 10175,
Cybercrime Prevention Act of the
Philippines.
RA 10175 intends to penalize acts like
cybersex, child pornography, identity
theft and unsolicited electronic
communication in the country.
Data privacy (information privacy) is
the necessity to preserve and protect
any personal information, collected by
any organization, from being accessed
by a third party. Any personal data that
could be sensitive or can be used
maliciously by someone is included
when considering data privacy.
President Benigno Aquino signed into
law in 2012 Republic Act No. 10173,
Data Privacy Act of 2012. It intends to
protect the personal information of its
citizens from being disclosed without its
consent.
The National Privacy Commission (NPC)
is an independent body created under
the RA which is mandated to administer
& implement its provisions and
monitor/ensure compliance of the
country with international standards set
for data protection.
All personal information must be:
 collected for reasons that are specified,
legitimate, and reasonable
 kept accurate and relevant, used only
for the stated purposes
 discarded in a way that does not make
it visible and accessible to unauthorized
third parties
The National Privacy Commission has
defined data privacy as the right of an
individual not to disclose his
information and to live free from
surveillance.
Data Privacy Breaches
From mid-March to late May
2020, the National Privacy
Commission (NPC) had been
investigating 22 complaints of privacy
breaches involving COVID-19 patients.
Some of the data breaches were
allegedly committed by health workers.
In one instance, a hospital staff took a
photo of the death certificate of a
suspected COVID-19 patient and posted
it in their department group chat. One
of the members sent that photo to her
own family group chat, from which her
father forwarded it to another group
 chat. The photo of the death certificate
ended up in several group chats.
Fake News (junk news/pseudo-news)
are written with the intent to mislead in
order to damage an entity or person or
gain financially or politically, often using
sensationalist, dishonest or fabricated
headlines to increase readership.
 Misinformation- false information
disseminated without harmful intent
 Disinformation- created and shared by
people with harmful intent
 Mal-information- sharing of ‘genuine’
information with the intent to cause
harm
Effect of Fake News
(1) The illusory effect: the fact that if a lie is
repeated enough times, you’ll begin to
believe it’s true. This may lead to
unexpected consequences.
(2) The impact on the public relations
profession: It would be unfair to those
journalists who hold to a higher standard of
reporting while others can publish
completely false information.  
(3) The impact on consumers’ views of
news media: With so much false
information, consumers will become
skeptical which will erode the trust they
should have in the mass media.
Other Issues & Concerns
Digital divide is a term that refers to the
gap between demographics and regions
that have access to modern information and
communications technology, and those that
don't or have restricted access.
Information overload (cognitive overload)
is a situation in which too much information
is given at one time which can cause the
inability to think clearly.
Technophobia which merely means “a fear
of technology,” including the use of
computers and similar electronic devices, is
one of the most common anxieties
produced by the information age. 
Technology strategists have compared
information overload to physical obesity, as
“infobesity”. Just as our eyes are
sometimes larger than our stomachs, our
interest can be significantly greater than
our brain capacity.
Continued…
4. hacking
5. phishing
Crime that targets computer networks
or devices:
1. viruses attack
2. malware attack
3. denial-of-service (DoS) attacks
 Data Privacy
 Fake News
Chapter 9: Biodiversity and the Healthy Society
Amazon Rainforest
The world’s largest rainforest.
 It covers portion of Brazil’s, Colombia’s,
Peru’s, and other South American
Countries’ territories. 
 It houses at least 10% of the world’s
known biodiversity.
Coral Triangle
 A roughly triangle area of tropical
marine waters that houses reef-building
corals.
 Global center of marine biodiversity. 
 Marine region that spans the part of the
marine waters of the Philippines,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New
Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and
Timor-Leste, with at least 798 reef-
building corals.
  76% of the world’s coral species are
found in the Coral Triangle, the highest
coral diversity in the world.  ecological complexes of which they are part;
 The Coral Triangle also has the most
coral reef fish diversity than anywhere
in the world. 
 8% of these fishes are endemic or
locally restricted species.  from single-celled to the largest multi-celled
Topic Overview:
Biodiversity defined
Types of biodiversity
Importance of biodiversity
Threats to biodiversity
Interrelatedness of society, environment, and
health
Biodiversity in the Philippines
What is Biodiversity?
Biodiversity is a portmanteau
of biological and diversity biological or
bio means life, and diversity means variety.
This term was coined by Walter Rosen in 1985.
Biodiversity encompasses the variety of all life
on earth.
It is the outcome of over 3 billion years of
evolutionary history.
It is continuously shaped by natural processes
and greatly influenced by human activities.
Biodiversity plays a major role in the dynamics
of the relationship between biotics and the
abiotics; thus, plays a major role in
the ecosystem.
Biodiversity forms the web of life on which we
greatly depend.
There is no universally agreed upon definition
of biodiversity. However, the 1992 Convention
on Biological Diversity has defined it as: “the
variability among living organisms from all 
sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine, 
and other aquatic ecosystems and the
this includes diversity within species, between
species, and of ecosystems.”
Biodiversity encompasses all kinds of life forms,
organisms.
It includes the variety of organisms in an
ecosystem. 
Variety is commonly measured by counting all
species in an area. This is called species
richness. 
Species count is not the sole measure of
biodiversity and is weighed differently for each
species. 
Another way of weighing species biodiversity is
to recognize unique biodiversity in
environments that contain few species but
unusual ones.
Biodiversity plays a major role in the dynamics
of the relationship between biotics and abiotics.
Organisms are abundant in habitats that
contain the food and other requirements they
need in order to live. 
They have different metabolic characteristics,
growth, and reproduction patterns; and that
biodiversity is essential to human survival.
Different ecosystems respond differently to
changes in biodiversity. 
However, understanding biodiversity within the
concept of ecosystems is important in order to
predict the sustainability of life in a certain area.
Ecosystems respond differently in changes to
biodiversity; some lose their functions while
others are highly resilient.
Understanding biodiversity within the concept
of ecosystems is important in order to predict
the sustainability of life in a certain area.
One way of predicting the sustainability of an
area within the concept of biodiversity is
through indicator species. (Crown-of-thorns
Starfish, Golden Snails)
Crown-of-Thorns Starfish
 Has a potential to alter coral
ecosystems significantly.
 Important indicator species when it
comes to the assessment of coral reefs
because it is a significant coral predator.
 An outbreak of COTS negatively affects
the health of a coral reef ecosystem.
Golden Snails
 The number of golden snails in a rice
field is a useful determinant of the
production in rice harvest. 
 The eggs of golden snails are considered
pests for rice plant. 
Thus, a high number of golden snails help in the
prediction of a low turnout in rice harvest.
Other important terms:
Biotic – all living organisms within an ecosystem
Abiotic– all of the non-living things in an
ecosystem
Ecosystem– encompasses the biotic and abiotic 
component in an environment, as well as their 
relationships and interactions.
Relative abundance– refers to the relative
proportions of different species in an
ecosystem.
Different Types of Biodiversity
Types of Biodiversity:
1. Genetic diversity
2. Species diversity
3. Community or ecosystem
diversity
4. Functional diversity
Variety in biodiversity identifies how much
resources and species an ecosystem has, not
just in terms of raw species count, but also as
an indicator of genetic and resource diversity.
A more diverse ecosystem will, therefore, have
more resources to meet and overcome events
such as drought, famine, and extinction of some
species. 
There are several components of biodiversity,
each indicating the genetic, species, and
resource diversity in a region.
The types of biodiversity are: genetic diversity,
species diversity, community or ecosystem
diversity, and functional diversity.
Genetic Diversity
Refers to the variation in the genes of a species
of individuals as well as how they are closely
related to the members of a species in an
environment.
It describes how closely related the member of
one species are in a given ecosystem. No two
individuals belonging to the same species are
exactly similar.
Genes are part of the DNA which dictate traits
or characteristics of an organism. 
 This seemingly small variation in the
traits has great influence on the
adaptive potential of the species. 
 It enables a species to adapt to
changing environments (and may even
lead to microevolution) and increases
the possibility of preservation and
perpetuation of a new population.
 Species with low genetic diversity may
pose a threat to organisms in the same
species if they have the same
 undesirable traits, such as those that
make them vulnerable to diseases and
change in environment.
Species Diversity
Refers to the variability of different species
represented in a community.
In each ecosystem, there are different species
that interact with one another. This level of
biodiversity involves species richness, or the
number of species in a given region, and their
abundance relative in that area. 
Some ecosystems may have many more species
than another. In some ecosystems, one species
has grown so large that it dominates the natural
community. A large number of species can help
an ecosystem recover from ecological threats,
even if same species go extinct.
The number of species in a region varies widely
depending upon the varied environmental
conditions. For example, it is usually observed
that civilizations residing beside water bodies
show more species diversity than one compared
to areas away from water bodies.
Community Diversity
Refers to the variety of ecosystems in a
given region.
A region may either have several ecosystems or
just one. A region with several ecosystems may
be able to provide more resources to help
native species survive, especially when one
ecosystem is threatened by drought or disease. 
An ecosystem houses a population of a wide
range of species that interacts with one another
thereby creating a biological community.  health, and livelihood sustainability
The interaction and survival of this community
is greatly affected by abiotic factors such as
temperature, air, pH levels, water, and light.
For example, a mountain area that has lakes,
forests, and grasslands would have higher
biodiversity.
Functional Diversity
Refers to the range of things an organism does
in communities and ecosystems.
It relates to the manner by which species
behave, obtain food and use the natural
resources in an ecosystem. 
In general, it is presumed that an ecosystem
with high species diversity is more functionally
diverse because there are more species with
different traits.
Understanding an ecosystem’s functional
diversity can be useful to ecologists trying to
conserve or restore it from the damages
it suffered because knowing the behaviors and
roles of species can point to gaps in a food cycle
or ecological niches. 
Importance of Biodiversity
At the most fundamental level, biodiversity is
important to human beings because it is the
source of our food, shelter, medicine,
and clothes. 
It is where we derive raw materials for various
activities that sustain us, such as in commercial
and industrial activities.
Biodiversity is of central importance to and
largely determines health, culture, food
security, and environmental conditions. 
It is the life support system of all living beings. 
Biodiversity supports food security, dietary
Biodiversity is the source of our food. 
The food that human beings and wildlife
consume originate from natural ecosystems.
Wide range of animals and plants species form a
basis of our nutrition, which in turn can
promote our health, protect us against diseases
due to lack of vitamin deficiencies. 
Loss of agricultural biodiversity can therefore
threaten health, livelihood sustainability and
security of food and nutrition.
Biodiversity provides important resources for
medical research (traditional and modern
medicine)
Medicines are largely sourced from ecosystem,
herbs, plants, and minerals are the product of
ecosystems and are used by humans to produce
medicines. 
People around the world had been
acknowledged by modern research.
The Department of Health of the Philippines has
endorsed 10 medicinal plants to be used as
herbal medicines.   pharmaceutical practice today.
LAGUNDI (Vitex negundo)- for the relief
of cough and asthma
SAMBONG (Blumea balsamifera)- diuretic that
helps in the excretion of urine stones. Can be
used as an edema.
ACAPULCO (Cassia alata)- used to treat
ringworms and fungal infections.
NIYUG-NIYOGAN (Quisqualis indica L.)- for
effective elimination of intestinal
worm, particularly the Ascaris and Trichina.
TSAANG GUBAT (Ehretia microphylla Lam.)- for
treating intestinal motility. Can be used
as mouthwash since it contains fluoride.
AMPALAYA (Momordica charantia)- for
treatment of diabetes mellitus for non
insulin dependent patient
YERBA BUENA (Clinopodium douglasii)- used as
analgesic for relieving body aches and pain.
BAWANG (Allium sativum)- reduces cholesterol
in blood, hence controls blood pressure.
ULISIMANG BATO (Peperomia pellucida)-
effective in fighting arthritis and gout.
BAYABAS (Psidium guajava)- used as an
antiseptic to disinfect wounds. Can be used
as mouthwash to treat tooth decay and gum
infection.
Biodiversity plays a role in the regulation and
control of infectious diseases
Biodiversity loss and ecosystem change can
increase the spread of infectious diseases in
plants, animals, and the human beings such as
SARS, ebola, etc.
Even with advances in synthetic chemistry,
which provides many biologically active
molecules, pharmaceuticals  derived
from  nature  remain  an important  part  of
All organisms have developed compounds to
protect themselves against infectious diseases
and to interact with individuals of their own
species or other species. 
These molecules, coming from all organisms
(bacteria, fungus, animals, plants) in terrestrial,
marine and extreme ecosystems, represent an
amazing diversity that has been tested in the
field for millions of years by involving millions of
individuals. 
However, only a very small subset of plants and
marine organisms has been investigated for
novel bioactive compounds. 
Furthermore, it is estimated that less than 1% of
bacterial species and only 5%  of fungal species
are known.  Those which have not yet been
identified could be sources of novel molecules.
Observations of natural medicine practices used
by indigenous people have led to the discovery
of many drugs. 
The most well-known and widely used There must be healthy ecosystems to provide
pharmaceuticals are quinine, used as a model material buffers against natural disasters such
to synthesize anti-malarial drugs (chloroquine as flood drought, and landslides. 
and mefloquine), and artemisinin, identified as
People who have been displaced by disasters
a potent anti-malarial drug by Chinese
are more susceptible to illness and dependent
scientists.
on ecosystem services for food, shelter and
Animals are also a source of inspiration for medicine.
drugs against infectious diseases.  
Threat to Biodiversity
For instance, compounds
Habitat Destruction or Habitat Loss
of the sponge Cryptotethya crypta inspired the
elaboration of antiviral medication such as AZT It is one of the biggest threats to biodiversity. In
used in the treatment of HIV/AIDS.  fact, it is the number one reason species
go extinct.
Observing great apes medicate themselves
through the plants they eat also could help to Anthropogenic activities like urbanization,
reveal new active compounds. construction, logging, reclamation,
industrialization, and activities that result
Biodiversity is essential for climate change
to unnatural increase in the concentration of
adaptation 
environmental compounds destroy habitats –
Biodiversity plays an important role in consequently causing the loss of biodiversity.
regulating the climate, thus making a key
Overpopulation
contribution to climate change mitigation
and adaptation.  The 2019 United Nations Report on Global
Biodiversity Decline reports that humans are
At the same time, climate change affects
speeding extinction and altering the natural
biodiversity in multiple ways through complex
world at an unprecedented pace. 
interactions among and between species and
their habitats.  It is estimated that three-quarters of all land
environments and two-thirds of all marine
Therefore, it is impossible to address
environments have been severely altered by
biodiversity loss without addressing climate
human activities over the past five decades,
change, but it is equally impossible to
leading to unprecedented rates of change. 
tackle climate change without addressing
biodiversity loss. As a result, 1 million species are now
threatened with extinction.
Biodiversity has social, cultural, and spiritual
importance with communities As human population increases, the demand for
human needs and wants also increases. 
Sustainable management of biodiversity can
help to provide essential resources for Human overpopulation poses a threat to
promoting health and rebuilding livelihoods in biodiversity if it is coupled with unsustainable
post-crisis situation. pattern of consumption and poor government
policies as regard food security and
The rural communities and the poor are
conservation.
dependent upon ecosystem for their livelihood
security.
However, biodiversity loss cannot be blamed
solely on individual consumption practices.
Industrialization, urbanization,
and unsustainable practices of big corporations
and Carbon Majors (100 companies responsible
for the 71% of the world’s global emissions)
contributes more to the decline of biodiversity.
It means harvesting species from the wild at
rates faster than natural populations can
recover. 
Overfishing and overhunting are both types of
overexploitation. 
It is estimated that about a third of the world’s
endangered vertebrates are threatened by
overexploitation.
Gathering and exploitation of huge amounts of
flora and fauna do not only prevent their
proliferation, but also threaten biological
diversity. 
The unsustainable exploitation of natural
resources is often attributed to the changing
patterns of human consumption. 
Two examples:
Overhunting- defined as the relentless chase of
wild animals for the purpose killing or catching
them for food or game.
Overfishing- removal of species of fish from a
body of water, at a rate that species cannot be
replenished in time, resulting either becoming
depleted or underpopulated in that given area.
Gathering prohibited and endangered species is
punishable by law.
Overhunting, overfishing or over-collecting of
species can quickly lead to its decline. 
Changing consumption patterns of human is
often cited the key reason for this
unsustainability of natural resources.
INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES
Alterations and sudden changes in ecosystem
contribute to species and habitat loss. 
Introduction of invasive alien species
accidentally or deliberately, that is not endemic
in that habitat or not in the
normal distributional range could threaten
other organisms especially if the species
introduced have the same ecological niche as
those naturally existing in that ecosystem. 
Invasive alien species are the second largest
threat to biodiversity after habitat loss.
Alien or introduced species include any species
that are introduced into new habitats by human
intervention. These are usually invasive or
aggressive. 
As competitors, predators, pathogens, and
parasites, alien species have invaded almost
every type of native ecosystem. 
It could result not only in decline of endemic
species, but also in extinction. 
The invasive alien species could also take over
the habitat by rapid proliferation if it does not
have any natural predator in the receiving area.
Global Climate Change
Climate change, specifically global warming, is
causing huge changes to biodiversity. 
The increase in global temperature could be
detrimental to some species. 
Animals and plants that live on mountaintops
and are adapted to cold temperatures may soon
find themselves out of habitat. 
As temperatures warm, species that currently
live in more extreme climates will adapt or die
out. 
For the marine life, the increased temperatures
and lower pH due to carbon dioxide absorption
in the ocean could be disadvantageous.
Climate change and variability cause
biodiversity loss and may even result to the
extinction of species and population if they
are not provided with enough time to adapt to
the changing climactic conditions.
Ecosystem have come and gone and species
routinely go extinct. Rapid man-made change
speeds up the process without
affording ecosystems and species the time to
adapt.
Example: rising ocean temperature and
diminishing Arctic sea ice affects marine
biodiversity and can ship vegetation zones,
having global implications.
Both climate variability and climate change
cause biodiversity loss.
Species and population may not
be existing permanently if they are not provided
with enough time to adapt to changing
climactic conditions.
Interrelatedness of Society, Environment and
Health
Living organisms are dependent on their
environment in terms of living and
reproduction.
Access to a sufficiently varied nutritious food is
a key factor to human survival.
Biodiversity is vital to a human being’s nutrition
because it is the primary determinant of food
production.
Nutrition, biodiversity, and health are all
interrelated and intersectional. A healthy
environment means a robust and well-
preserved biodiversity.
An ecosystem with healthy and diverse species
consequently results to a healthy diet of the
population, with the need for adequate levels of
nutrient intake having been met.
Food production is just one of the important
services the ecosystem provides.
Unsustainable and intensified food production
through use of pesticides, introduction of alien
crop varieties, overfishing, dynamite fishing,
game-hunting affect natural patterns
of organisms and impact nutritional status and
human health.
The needs of living organisms such as air, water,
food, and habitat are provided by their
environment.
Humans have evolved because access to these
basic needs have been greatly improved.
Because the environment is vital to and sustains
human life, it can also cause the opposite:
biodiversity loss that causes lack
of basic necessities significantly tips the scale of
human life viability towards mortality.
Destruction of ecosystems and environmental
hazards increases the risks of diseases like
cancer, heart disease, respiratory ailments, and
many others.
The relationship among human health, the
environment, and biodiversity loss is substantial
and complex.
With the significant biodiversity loss, we are
now experiencing, human health, biological
biodiversity, and the environment is greatly
compromised.
Climate change poses a serious threat to human
health and subsistence.
For example, access to food is limited because
farming systems are significantly disrupted and
nutrients found in food are also reduced.
Biodiversity increases resilience and is key to
adapting in new environmental conditions.
The complex relationship between health and
environment raises many ethical and social
dilemmas because it forces people to choose
between competing values.
Climate change brought about by
anthropological activities causes significant
negative effect on human health and the
environment.
One of the steps to significantly slow down the
worsening of climate change depends on the
change in practices and operations of
corporations, as research found that it is only
a hundred corporations (called Carbon Majors)
who are responsible for seventy-one percent of
global emissions.
In environmental legislations (creation of law)
and formulations of policies, social justice and
human rights issues comes into play as well.
Legislators (law-makers) and policy-makers shall
always give the utmost importance to the rights
and condition of the most vulnerable.
Communities in the most vulnerable sectors are
exposed to greater environmental risks.
Biodiversity loss can be prevented through:
 Proper legislation
 Implementation of fair, reasonable, and
human rights-based laws and policies
 Appropriate research with adequate
government support
 Education and awareness raising
 Sustainable use of biodiversity,
especially by big corporations and
military-industrial complexes
Community-based programs shall be
encouraged, as well as people involvement.
However, change in consumption practices shall
not be limited only in individual level.
Corporations with the most significant carbon
footprints and those most responsible in the
generation of carbon emissions shall change
their practices, with their corporate
social responsibility always in mind.
Biodiversity in the Philippines
Article II of the 1987 Philippine
Constitution (our current Constitution and the
fundamental law of the land) provides that:
Section 15. The State shall protect and promote
the right to health of the people and instill
health consciousness among them.
Section 16. The State shall protect and advance
the right of the people to a balanced and
healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and
harmony of nature.
THE CASE OF OPOSA VS. FACTORAN (1993)
 Right to a balanced and healthful
ecology
 Intergenerational responsibility
The petitioners (the one who filed the case)
here were all minors, represented by their
parents.
They filed a case against the Secretary of DENR
because he issued Timber License Agreements
(TLA) to various corporations to cut the
aggregate area of 3.89 million hectares for
commercial logging purposes. 
Petitioners alleged that they are entitled to the
full benefit, use and enjoyment of the natural
resource treasure that is the country's virgin
tropical forests. 
They alleged that they have a clear and
constitutional right to a balanced and healthful
ecology and are entitled to protection by the
State (the government) in its capacity
as parens patriae (parent of the nation). 
Most importantly, they claimed that they were
representing their generation as well as
generations yet unborn and that the act of the
Secretary of DENR in allowing TLA holders to cut
and deforest the remaining forests constitutes a
misappropriation and impairment of the natural
resources property he holds in trust for the
benefit of the minor petitioners and succeeding
generations.
The petitioners prayed that judgement be
rendered ordering that the TLAs shall be
cancelled and no new ones be issued.
The Supreme Court ruled that the petitioners
have a right to a balanced and healthful ecology
under the Constitution, and the DENR has a
clear duty to protect and advance the said
right because it is the primary government
agency responsible for governing and
supervising the exploration,
utilization, development and conservation of
the country's natural resources, as provided by
law.  
The Supreme Court also ruled that the
petitioners have the right to file the case, for
themselves, for others of their generation
and for the succeeding generations.
Their personality to sue on behalf of the
succeeding generations can only be based on
the concept
of intergenerational responsibility insofar as the
right to a balanced and healthful ecology is
concerned. 
The Court further elicited that every generation
has a responsibility to the next to preserve that
rhythm and harmony for the full enjoyment of a
balanced and healthful ecology.
Because of the case, the Philippine government
had inventoried the remnant old growth forests
and restricted logging in those areas.
The case is recognized in its contribution in the
development of international environmental
law.
Biodiversity in the Philippines:
 The country is a biodiversity hotspot
and hosts more than 52,177 described
species.
 According to the DENR-Biodiversity
Management Bureau, the Philippines
contains two-thirds of the Earth’s
biodiversity  and 70 percent of the
world’s plants and animal species due 
to its geographical isolation, diverse
habitats, and high rates of endemism.
 As of 2019, there is a total of 1, 437
terrestrial mammals, 
    birds, reptiles, and amphibians that are listed
as threatened.
 984 species of wild flora in the
Philippines are also threatened for
possible extinction.
The alarming rate of destruction of the
important  resources caused a large
number of endangered and threatened
species.
 The introduction of a number of alien
species also exposed the Philippines’
rich biodiversity to a lot of threats.
Chapter 10: Modern Biotechnology
This chapter contains two (2) lessons:
10.1     Genetic Engineering
10.2 Gene & Cell Therapy
10.1. Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering is one of the many tools of
biotechnology to produce novel or improved
organisms through direct gene modification. 
10.2. Gene and Cell Therapy
Gene therapy is the modification of an
organism’s gene.
V.S
Cell therapy, unlike gene therapy, transfers live
and intact cells to the patient. The cells may
come from a donor (allogeneic cells) or from
the patient, himself (autologous cell)
(American Society of Gene & Cell Therapy,
n.d.). 
10.2.3. Stem Cells
Stem cells are at the forefront of both gene
therapy and cell therapy. Its ability to self-
renew and to mature into specialized cells of
each tissue provide the patient with a
therapeutic technique that potentially lasts
for a lifetime.  
10.2.5. Ethical Issues
 
Chapter 11: Nanotechnology
Topics:
Background
Microscopy
Carbon nanomaterials
Applications, issues and concern
Nanotechnology in the Philippines
Nanotechnology against COVID-19
Background
Origin: Nanos (Greek)- dwarf
Nanoscience- study
of phenomena and manipulation of material
at the nanoscale
Nanotechnology
 Understanding and control of matter at
the atomic and molecular levels in the
range of approximately 1-100 nm.
 Technology that involves the imaging,
measuring, modeling, and manipulating
matter at this length and scale.
“There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom” by
Richard Feynman- speech that introduced
the idea of manipulating very small particles.
US National Nanotechnology Initiative
 first official Federal gov’t effort in
nanotechnology
established by President Clinton
 funded for the first in 2000
According to StatNano (2019), in 2018,
China leads the nanotechnology research with
39% share, followed only by US with 15%.
Microscopy
Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)- Gerd Binning,
Calvin Quate and Christoph Gerber (IBM)
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)- Ernst
Ruska, Max Knoll
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)- Ernst
Ruska, Max Knoll
Carbon Materials
Carbon Based:
 fullerene
 carbon nanotube
 graphene
Inorganic Based:
  Ag nanoparticle found beneficial for their use in drug
 gold nanoparticle delivery (Oberdorster, 2004)
 titanium dioxide 3. Can travel to brain, bind to lipids,
and cause production of oxidative
Organic Based:
stress compounds when fished exposed
 dendrimer to 1 ppm concentration (Oberdorster,
 polymer nanoparticle 2004)

Composite Based: Zinc Oxide Nanoparticle

 hybrid nanofiber  application
 metal-organic framework   electronics
 gas sensors
Applications, Issues and Concerns  sunscreens
Environmental Effects (Zhang et. al., 2019)   cosmetics
 food packaging
 Lower recovery and recycling rates   paint
 Lack of trained engineers and workers
causing further concerns. Environmental Concern
 Environmental implications of other life 1. toxic to algae and water fleas (Luo,
cycle stages not clear 2007)
 Dissemination of toxic,
persistent nanosubstances originating Aluminum Nanoparticle
environmental harm.
Application:
 High-energy requirements for
synthesizing nanoparticles causing high-  cosmetics
energy demand.  sunscreens
 scratch- resistant coatings
Experimental Evidence of the Effect
of Nanomaterials to the Environment Environmental Concern

C60 Fullerenes 1. high levels of exposure

caused growth delay in
Application:
corn, cucumber, soybean, carrot
 cosmetics and cabbage crops (Yang and Watts,
 medicines 2005)
 batteries
Silver Nanoparticle
 electronics
Application:
Environmental Concern
 antimicrobial coatings
1. behavioral and physiological changes in
 sensors
water fleas associated with increased
 optical probes
risk of predation and reproductive
 catalysts
decline (Lovern et. al., 2007)
2. oxidative damage in largemouth Environmental Concern
bass with same mechanism of action
 1. severe deformities of exposed fish
and larvae showed
cardiac abnormalities, yolk sac
edema, and eye/head abnormalities
(Liu, 2016)
abnormalities and no eyes (Cheng, et.
al., 2007)
3. increase the problem
of antibiotic resistant superbugs (Friends
of the Earth, 2011)

Titanium Dioxide Nanoform Titanium Dioxide

Application: Application:

 sunscreens  whitener
 self-cleaning glass  brightener
 remediation
Environmental Concern
 small micro form in foods and cosmetics
1. damage DNA
Environmental Concern
2. disrupt function of the cells
1. can cause considerably high 3. interfere with defense activities of
percentage of death in water fleas immune cells
(Daphnea magna) which are used 4. provoke inflammation (Trouiller et. al.,
by regulators as an 2009)
ecological indicator species
Zinc Oxide
(Lovern and Klaper, 2006)
2. UV-illuminated TiO2 proven to be Application:
toxic to algae and water fleas
(Hunde-Rinke and simon, 2006)  surface coating

Silver Nanoparticles Environmental Concern

Application: 1. toxic when ingested

 used as additive in baby bottles,
food containers, packaging,
cutting boards, salad bowls, cutlery, ice
trays, filtration devices
and collapsible coolers;  Application:
 in agriculture, used
in poultry production
 agricultural
and aquacultural disinfectants
Environmental Concern
1. can enter bloodstream and reach all
organs of the body, including brain,
heart, liver, kidney, spleen and bone
marrow (Friends of the Earth, 2011)
2. placental transfer and fetal uptake cause
zebrafish embryos to develop with head
2. found to cause lesions in liver, heart,
stomach and pancreas(Wang et.
al., 2006)
Nanohydroxyapatite
 food stabilizer
Environmental Concern
1. potentially toxic
2. can be absorbed and enter cells
3. cited as inhalation hazard in MSDS
(Merz NA Inc., 2015)
Carbon Based Nanomaterials
 can be harmful as asbestos if inhaled
in sufficient quantities, can
 cause mesothelioma (Maynard, et.
al., 2006)
 can cross the blood-brain barrier
and alter cell functions (Jirasak et.
al., 2008)
Nanotechnology in the Philippines
 Nanostructured solar devices
 Nanocomposite materials
 Nanoparticle TiO2 in commercial paints
 Nanostructured solar devices
 Nanotechnology Road Map of DOST in
2008 (Dayrit, 2010)
1. nanostructured solar energy devices
2. nanosensor technology to food,
agriculture and the environment
3. environmental remediation and
water
4. nanocomposite materials using
local minerals and biological
resources
 Nanocomposite materials
DOST-ITDI (Ronda, 2013)
 biodegradable, environment friendly
food packaging material
 protects food and extends shelf-life
 organoclay (nanoclay) from local
bentonite with thermoplastic
starch made from cornstarch  Natural Causes
Chapter 12: Climate Change and Global
Warming
This chapter contains three topics:
12.1 Definition of Climate Change and Global
Warming
12.2 Natural Causes of Climate Change and its
Impact to The Environment
Global warming is the term used to
describe the gradual increase in the
average temperature of the earth’s
atmosphere. average temperature of
the earth’s atmosphere. 
The increased amount of the energy (heat)
striking the earth from the sun is being trapped
in the atmosphere and is not radiated out
into space. 
Climate change is any significant long-term
change in the expected pattern of average
weather of a region over a period. Average
weather patterns include average temperature,
rainfall, wind conditions, and numerous
other climatic conditions.
Causes of Climate Change
1. Natural causes
2. Anthropogenic  or man-made causes 
Volcanic Eruptions- discharge carbon dioxide.
They may also emit aerosols, such as volcanic
ash or dust, and sulfur dioxide. The aerosols
increase the reflection of radiation from the Sun
back into space, cooling the Earth's
lower atmosphere or troposphere.
Ocean Currents- the ocean does not just
store solar radiation. It also helps to distribute
heat around the globe. When water molecules
are heated, they exchange freely with the air in
a process called evaporation. 
Ocean water is constantly evaporating,
increasing the temperature and humidity of the
surrounding air to form rain and storms that are
then carried by winds.
Variation of Solar Radiation
The change in solar radiation is related to the
number of sunspots. Sunspots are darker areas
on the sun’s surface. The sun emits
slightly more radiation during active periods of
sunspots. Because the sunspots are suppressing
heat, the heat flows to surrounding areas
causing these regions to be brighter than
normal, radiating more heat.  
Earth’s Orbital Changes
The Earth has natural warming and cooling
periods caused by Milankovitch cycles
or variations in the tilt and/or orbit of the Earth
around the sun.
Eccentricity
 Earth's orbit is currently
elliptical, which means that the
distance between the Earth and
the Sun varies over the course
of a year.  The axis moves at
the rate of a little more than a
half-degree each century. As
the eccentricity increases, the
shape of the orbit becomes
more like an oval.
Higher eccentricity increases
the difference between
temperatures when Earth
is closest to and farthest from
the sun. When the Earth is
closer to the sun our climate is
warmer.
Obliquity
 The earth makes one full orbit
around the sun each year. The
tilt of Earth's axis is
currently 23.5°
from perpendicular to the plane
of orbit. Over time, this
angle changes between
22.1° and 24.5°. 
 For one half of the year when it
is summer, the northern
hemisphere tilts towards the
sun. In the other half when it is
winter, the earth is tilted
away from the sun. If there was
no tilt, we would not have
experienced seasons. 
Changes in the tilt of the earth
can affect the severity of the
seasons - more tilt means
warmer summers and colder
winters; less tilt means cooler
summers and milder winters.
Precession- the orientation of Earth's
axis of rotation. It is like the wobble of a
spinning top. Over time, it causes the
seasons to occur at different locations
in Earth's elliptical orbit.
As the cycle progresses, Earth will be
closest to the sun during summer and
farthest from the sun in winter in
the Northern Hemisphere—
the opposite of what occurs today. This
will cause the seasons to be more
extreme (warmer summers and colder
winters) in the Northern
Hemisphere, while Southern
Hemisphere seasons will be less
extreme (cooler summers and
warmer winters) than they are now. 
Anthropogenic or Man-Made Causes
of Climate Change
Greenhouse Gases
 Water vapor
 Carbon Dioxide
 Methane
 Nitrous Oxide
 Hydrofluorocarbons
Water Vapor
This is water in gas form. It forms clouds and
rains back on Earth. This can cause a cooling
effect, but also blocks heat from escaping the
atmosphere, so it gets warmer and makes more
water to evaporate.
Carbon Dioxide
This is made up of carbon and oxygen. CO2 is
all around us naturally. CO2 enters the
atmosphere through burning fossil fuels (coal,
natural gas, and oil), or solid wastes. 
Methane
Methane, made of carbon and hydrogen, is a
normal gas released from wetlands, growing
rice, raising cattle, using natural gas and
mining coal.  of the ozone layer.
Nitrous Oxide
Nitrous oxide is not only a greenhouse gas, but
also an ozone destroyer. Once that N2O
molecule gets into the upper atmosphere, it can
stay there for more than 100 years before it is
destroyed naturally. It is released from bacteria
in soil. Modern agricultural practices like tilling
and soil cultivation, livestock waste
management, and the use of nitrogen-
rich fertilizers contribute significantly to nitrous
oxide emissions.
Hydrofluorocarbons
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are a group
of industrial chemicals primarily used
in refrigeration, air conditioning, foam
blowing, aerosols, fire protection and solvents.  4.
Though HFCs currently represent around 1% of
total greenhouse gases, their impact on
global warming can be hundreds to thousands
of times greater than that of carbon dioxide per
unit of mass.
Deforestation
When trees are cut down and burned or
allowed to rot, their stored carbon is released
into the air as carbon dioxide. This is how
deforestation and forest degradation contribute
to global warming.
Deforestation has been an issue for
decades, leading to massive loss of species
and biodiversity.
Coal Mining
Coal mining is the process of extracting coal
from the ground. It requires a large expanse of
territory.
High levels of methane is released during the
mining process, contributing to the destruction
Coal mining and preparation generates millions
of gallons of highly toxic semi-solid waste. 
When a mining operation moves in, it
invades and destroys sizable ranges of
wilderness area, displacing the native fauna and
removing habitat and food sources. 
Burning of Fossil Fuels
Burning fossil fuels releases carbon that leads to
the increased concentrations of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere.
Pollutants released from fossil fuels:
1. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2
2. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
3. Nitrogen Oxide (NOx)
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
5. Methane
Industrial Processes
Greenhouse gas emissions from
industry primarily come from burning fossil
fuels for energy, as well as greenhouse gas
emissions from certain chemical reactions
necessary to produce goods from raw materials.

Pollutants released from agriculture:

1. Nitrous oxide
2. Nitrous oxide
3. Methane