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INTRODUCTION TO
PUBLIC HEALTH
PUBLIC HEALTH – the science and art of
a. preventing disease
b. prolonging life and
c. promoting physical health and efficient
through:
d. organized community efforts and informed
choices of society,
e. private and public communities,
communities and individuals for the
sanitation of the environment
f. control of community infections
g. the education of the individual in principles
of personal hygiene,
h. the organization of medical and nursing
services for the early diagnosis and preventive
treatment of the disease, and
i. the development of social machinery which
will ensure to every in the community a
standard of living adequate for the
maintenance of health. (Winslow, 1920)
DIVISIONS OF PUBLIC HEALTH
 Epidemiology
Is the study (scientific, systematic, and
data-driven) of the distribution
(frequency, pattern) and determinants
(causes, risk factors) of health-related
states and events (not just diseases) in
specified populations (neighborhood,
school, city, state, and country,
global).
 Biostatistics
The science of collecting and analyzing
biological or health data using
statistical methods. Biostatistics may
be used to help learn the possible
causes of cancer or how often a cancer
occurs in a certain group of people.

Health Services/ Health Policy and
Management
Is a multidisciplinary field concerned
with the delivery, quality, and costs of
health care for individuals and
populations.
 Health Administration
Is the practice of managing, leading,
overseeing, and administering the
operation of dynamic, complex health
care entities including hospitals, long-
term care facilities, health care
systems, nursing homes, pharmacies,
and health insurance providers.
 Environmental Health
Is the branch of public health that:
focuses on the relationships between
people and their environment;
promotes human health and well-
being; and fosters healthy and safe
communities.
 Occupational Health
Is an area of work in public health to
promote and maintain highest degree
of physical, mental and social well-
being of workers in all occupations.
 Social and Behavioral Health
Nutrition
CHARACTERISTICS OF PUBLIC HEALTH
 It deals with the PREVENTIVE
ASPECTS of health rather than
curative aspects
 It deals with the POPULATION LEVEL,
rather than individual health issues
3 CORE FUNCTIONS OF PUBLIC HEALTH /
10 ESSENTIAL PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICES
1. ASSESSMENT
a. Monitor health status to identify
community health problems.
b. Diagnose and investigate health problems
and health hazards in the community

2. POLICY DEVELOPMENT
a. Inform, educate and empower people about
health issues.
b. Mobilize community partnership to identify
and solve health problems
c. Develop policies and plans that support
individual and community health efforts
3. ASSURANCE
a. Enforce laws and regulations that protect
health and ensure safety.
b. Link people to needed personal health
services and assure to provision of health care
when otherwise unavailable.
c. Assure a competent public health and
personal healthcare workforce.
d. Evaluate effectiveness, accessibility, and
quality of personal and population-based
health services.
5 STEPS OF PUBLIC HEALTH APPROACH
IN ADDRESSING HEALTH PROBLEMS IN
COMMUNITY
1. Define the health problems
2. Identify the risk factors associated with the
problem.
3. Develop and test community-level
intervention to control or prevent the cause of
the problem
4. Implement interventions to improve the
health of the population
5. Monitor those interventions to assess their
effectiveness
LEVELS OF PREVENTION
1. PRIMARY PREVENTION
- prevents an illness or an injury from
occurring at all, by preventing exposure to
risk factors.
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2. SECONDARY
- seeks to minimize the severity of the illness
or the damage due to an injury-causing event
once the event has occurred.
3. TERTIARY
- seeks to minimize disability by providing
medical care and rehabilitation services.
PUBLIC HEALTH (DEFINITIONS)
Major Concepts of Public Health
1. Health promotion and disease prevention
2. People’s participation towards self-
reliance: active and full involvement with
people in the decision-making process:
assessment, planning, implementation,
monitoring, and evaluation.
Dr. C.E Winslow:
The science and art of preventing disease,
prolonging life, promoting health and
efficiency through organized community
effort:
 for the sanitation of the environment,
control of the communicable diseases,
 the education of individuals in personal
hygiene, the organization of medical and
nursing services for the early diagnosis
and preventive treatment of disease and
 the development of social machinery to
ensure everyone a standard of living
adequate for the maintenance of health, so
organizing these benefits as to enable
every citizen to realize his birthright of
health and longevity (long life).
Hanlon:
It is dedicated to the common attainment of
the highest level of physical, mental, and
social well-being and longevity consistent
with available knowledge and resources at a
given time and place.

 It holds this goal as its contribution to the
most effective total development and life
on the individual and this society.
(Holistic)
Purdom:
It prioritizes the survival of human species,
the prevention of condition which leads to the
destruction of retardation of human function
and potential in early years of life, the
achievement of human potential and
prevention of the loss of productivity of young
adults and those in the middle period of life
and the improvement of the quality of life
especially in later years.
Nightingale:
The act of utilizing the environment of the
patient to assist him in his recovery.
 Any individual is capable of reparative
process.
HEALTH – person’s physical and
psychological capacity to establish and
maintain balance. Successful defense of the
host against forces that disturb body
equilibrium.
ASPECTS OF HEALTH
 PHYSICAL HEALTH – condition that
enables person to maintain a strong and
healthy body.
 MENTAL HEALTH – refers to how a
person feels, thinks of himself, control his
emotion and adjust to the environment.
 SOCIAL HEALTH – refers to how a person
feels, thinks and act towards everybody
around him.
DISEASE – failure of the body’s defense
mechanism to cope with forces tending to
disturb body equilibrium.
DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
 Income and Social Status
 Education
 Physical Environment
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 Employment and Working conditions
 Social Support Networks
 Culture Genetics
 Personal Behavior and Coping Skills
 Health Services
 Gender
STAGES OF DISEASE
1. Pre-Disease Stage
2. Latent Stage (Asymptomatic)
3. Symptomatic Stage
RISK FACTORS FOR DISEASE:
1. Biologic and Behavioral Factors
2. Environmental Factors
3. Immunologic Factors
4. Nutritional Factors
5. Genetic Factors
6. Services, Social Factors and Spiritual
Factors
HISTORY OF PUBLIC HEALTH IN THE
PHILIPPINES
(Based of Socio-Political Periods)
1. Pre-American Occupation (up to 1898)
2. American Military Government (1898 –
1907)
3. Philippine Assembly (1907 – 1916)
4. The Jones Law (1916 – 1936)
5. The Commonwealth (1936 – 1941)
6. Japanese Occupation (1941 – 1945)
7. Post World War II (1945 – 1972)
8. Post EDSA Revolution (1986 to present)
CHANGES IN THE HEALTH SCENARIO
1. Rapid decline in mortality and
morbidity, but health improvements
were slowed down during the late
1970’s to the mid 1980’s due to severe
economic contraction during the
period. Infant mortality declined and
slowed down but recovered modestly
by late 1980’s.

2. Steady progress was made towards
control of infectious diseases through.
Introduction of chemotherapy such as MDT
introduced for leprosy, short course
chemotherapy for TB Praziquantel for
Schistosomiasis Adoption of rehydration for
management of diarrheal diseases
3. The current status of service delivery
infrastructure indicated that preventive
and Promotive health programs had not
sufficiently covered the population. The
proportion of medically attended deaths
showed that 60% did not have reliable access
to medical care.
There were still pockets of rural and urban
areas unserved and underserved.
4. The 1980 PHC strategy focused on the
delivery of maternal and child care
services, control of prevalent diseases,
nutrition and family planning.
MAJOR FACTORS THAT INFLUENCED
THE
PUBLIC HEALTH DEVELOPMENT
1. The role of international organizations:
WHO, UNICEF, United Nations Family
Planning Administration (UNFPA), US-AID,
World Bank, Rockefeller Foundation,
Japanese International Cooperation
Agency (JICA), Australian Agency for
International Development (AUSAID) – they
provide technical assistance that facilitated
technology transfer, provide financial support
for the testing and implementation of
innovative approaches
2. The advances in bio-medical and bio-
engineering research. The introduction of
chemotherapy.
3. The increasing recognition that public
health could not be solely biomedically
oriented but psycho-socially based as well
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4. Increasing scientific approach to
program management
FUTURE CHALLENGES
1.URBANIZATION – it has been forecast that
by the year 2020, the urban population
comprise 65 to 75% of the total population
• The chaotic growth of cities will result in a
multitude of economic and social problems.
• The rise of slums, criminality, disease and
unemployment Overcrowding, inadequate
housing facilities, poor environmental
sanitation.
2.INDUSTRIALIZATION – more women
joining the work force. This may or may not
have adverse effect on the family. Care of
children will be entrusted to caretakers.
• Occupational hazards become a major
concern Air, soil and water pollutions.
3.ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN –
environmental degradation caused by
deforestation, deterioration of seas and rivers
due to industrial waste, indiscriminate
disposal of waste.
• All these lead to ecological imbalance and
pave the way for the emergence of the new
types of microorganisms.
4.THE REVENGE OF THE GERMS – the
discriminate consumption and overuse of
antibiotics have resulted in drug-resistant
bacteria, viruses and parasites.
• Switching from inexpensive penicillin to
other drugs increased treatment costs which
are beyond the reach of the poor.
CURRENT PUBLIC HEALTH
Classical infectious disease rates have
declined while increased rates of so-called
modern diseases (heart disease, cancer and
immune deficiency diseases) are now being
observed in epidemic proportions throughout
the world. Classical public health

organizations and systems are now in a state
of flux because these structures were erected
for classical communicable disease control.
New problem-solving systems are needed in
areas such as health care financing, medical
care for the aged, environmental health
protection and health care planning and
administration.
I. PRE-AMERICAN OCCUPATION
 Public health works began at the old
Franciscan Convent in Intramuros where
Fr. Juan Clemente put up a dispensary in
1577 for treating indigents in Manila.
This
 eventually became the San Juan de Dios
Hospital.
DURING SPANISH TIME:
 Creation of Board of vaccinators to
prevent smallpox
 Creation of board of health
 Construction of carried waterworks
 First medical school in the Philippines-
UST
 School of Midwifery
 Public health laboratory
 Forensic medicine
HOSPITALS BEFORE THE AMERICANS
CAME TO PHILIPPINES:
General hospitals
 San Juan de Dios Hospital
 Chinese General hospital
 Hospicio de san Jose in Cavite
 Casa dela Caridad in Cebu
 Enfermeria de Santa Cruz in Laguna
CONTAGIOUS HOSPITALS
 San Lazaro Hospital
 Hospital de Palestina in Camarines Sur
 Hospital delos Lesprosos in Cebu
 Hospital de Argencina in Manila for
smallpox and cholera
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MILITARY HOSPITAL
 Hospital Militar de Manila
 Hospital Militar de Zamboanga
NAVAL HOSPITAL
 Hospital dela Marie in Cebu
 Hospital de Basilan
OTHER HOSPITAL/ASYLUMS
 Hospicio de San Pascual Baylon in Manila
 Asylum of St. Vincent de Paul in Manila
for poor girls
 Hospital of San Jose for orphaned
children and mentally ill
II. AMERICAN MILITARY GOVERNMENT
 Control of epidemics such as cholera,
smallpox and plague
 Fight against communicable diseases
such as leprosy, diarrhea, malaria, beri-
beri
PROJECTS AND ACTIVITIES:
1. Established a garbage crematory
2. Approved the first sanitary ordinance and
rat control
3. Amoebic dysentery- caused by
contaminated water and unclean vegetables,
and malaria- Anopheles minismus flavirotris
was pointed out as vector.
4. Cholera vaccine was first tried
5. Confirmed that plague in man comes from
infected rat
6. Opened a leper colony in Culion
7. Founded the Manila Medical Society and
Philippine Island Medical Association
8. Opened the UP College of Medicine
9. Established Bureau of Science
III. PHILIPPINE ASSEMBLY
• New waterworks in Manila was
inaugurated to control cholera

• Nursing school at Philippine Normal
School
• Hygiene and Physiology were included in
curriculum of public elementary school
• Anti-TB campaign was started
 Philippine Tuberculosis Society was
organized
• Pasteur prophylaxis treatment against
rabies was offered
• Opening of the Philippine General
Hospital (PGH)
• Use of anti-typhoid vaccine was initiated
 Hypochlorite of lime was first used for
treating the water supply of
 Manila
• Etiology of Amoebic dysentery was made
clear
• Dry vaccine against smallpox was first
used
IV. JONES LAW YEARS
 Retrogression rather than
progression in so far as the health
was concern
-
1. Increase CDR- death rate per 1000
person
2. Increase IMR-infant death per 1000
3. Increase Morbidity- rate of incidence of
disease
 Increased deaths from smallpox,
cholera, typhoid, malaria, beri-beri
(B1 def. Thiamine) and TB
 Re-organization happened (re-
organized the health service and
encouraged effective supervision)
1. Study the cause and prevalence of
typhoid fever
2. The composition, value and vitamin
distribution of many Philippine foods
were studied.
3. Schick test was used to determine the
causes of diphtheria
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4. Campaign against Hookworm was
launched
5. Anti-dysentery vaccine was first tried
6. The roles of seafood in transmission
of cholera and the pollution of fishing
sector to typhoid were studied
7. First training course for sanitary
inspector was given
8. Women and Child labor was passed
9. The mechanism of transmission of
dengue fever through Aedes aegypti was
studied
10. Construction of Novaliches dam
11. Establishment of School of
Hygiene and Public Health
12. National Research Council of the
Philippines was organized
13. BS in Education major in Health
Education was opened in UP
14. Philippine Public Health Association
(PPHA) was organized
V. THE COMMONWEALTH PERIOD
 Process of gaining and maintaining
altitude (because the later years under
Jones Law was successful)
 The epidemiology of life-threatening
diseases was studied diphtheria, yaws,
dengue
 Research in the field of health was
promoted
 UP school of public health was
established to train public health
leaders
 Construction of Quezon institute for PTB
patients
 Research and Control of TB, malaria,
leprosy and yaws
 Development of Maternal and Child
Health (MCH)
 1939, creation of Department of Public
Health and Welfare- Dr. Jose fabella as
the first secretary
 1940, Bureau of Census and Statistics
was created to gather vital statistics
 In spite of development

1. Inequitable distribution of health services
remained a problem
2. 80% of those who died were never given
medical attention
VI. JAPANESE OCCUPATION
 During this time. All public health
activities were practically paralyzed
THE WORLD WAR II
• After 5 years of Japanese occupation,
public
 health tried to pick up the debris and rise
from the ruins
• Survey: Increased incidence of TB, VD,
malaria, leprosy and malnutrition.
• General sanitation has been reduced to
level enough to constitute a national
hazard
• US congress passed an emergency
measure to control diseases: TB, VD,
malaria. Leprosy, malnutrition
• Immunization program
VII. POST WORLD WAR II
The Philippine Independence
1.Completion of a research on
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) saw
dust as larvicide and DDT residual spraying
of houses in the control of malaria.
2. Construction of the National Chest
Center-for control case registry for TB, mass
immunization with BCG
3. Industrial hygiene laboratory
4. Introduction of one-infection method for
gonorrhea with penicillin
5. Creation of central Health laboratory in
the Philippines
6. Creation of Institute of Nutrition under
BRL, then it was transferred to National
Institute of Science and Technology and was
renamed
as Food and Nutrition Research Center, it
was again renamed as FNRI
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 Manila was selected as Headquarters for
the WHO Western pacific Office.
 Strengthening Health and Dental services
in rural areas This is thru RHU program
(per municipalities with 5,000- 10,000
population)
1 Municipal Health Officer (MHO)
1 Public health Nurse (PHN)
1 Midwife
1 Sanitary Inspector
 Reorganization of DOH- creation of several
offices
1. Dental health services
2. Malaria Education services
3. Disease Intelligence Center
4. Food and Drug Administration
5. National Schistosomiasis Control
Commission
6. National Nutrition Program
 Initiation of programs with multilateral
Assistance
1. WHO and UNICEF assisted TB and BCG
programs
2. TB control program as basic service of RHU
3. TB sputum case finding by microscopy
4. Serum and vaccine production in Alabang
5. Expanded MCH and Mental Health
Program
6. Training programs for Midwives
7. Strengthened graduate health programs at
the UP-CPH
 Development of family Planning
Movement
 Launching of programs in cooperation
with private sectors- top provide services
to periphery (indigents, minority groups)
 Rizal Development project
1. Restructuring of the DOH Rural Health
Care Delivery System
2. Each barrio was provided with midwife
3. For, the first time, dengue virus was
isolated
from typical H fever cases

VIII. MARTIAL LAW YEARS
 Creation of National Economic
Development Authority (NEDA)
 Department of health was renamed as
Ministry of Health (MOH)
 Accomplishment during this period:
1. Formulation of National Health Plan
- Implementation of restructure Health
care delivery system (primary, secondary,
tertiary)
- Construction of tertiary hospitals
(Philippine heart center, Lung center,
Kidney center, Lunsod ng kabataan/
PCMC)
2. Adaptation of the Primary Health Care
- Promotive and preventive rather than
curative care
- Philippines was the first country to
implement PHC
3. Launching of Operation Timbang and
Mothercraft
- Nationwide program providing
supplementary food for infants and
preschool
children
4. Birth of integrated Provincial Health Office
(IPHO)
5. Oral rehydration Therapy for the National
Control of Diarrheal Diseases
6. Community based health programs.
7. Progress in Public Health research
- Nutrition council of the Philippines- to
address problems on malnutrition
- RITM- for infectious and tropical diseases
- PCHRD- mandated to lead, direct and
coordinate science and technology
activities in health and nutrition.
IX. EDSA REVOLUTION
• From Ministry of Health, it was renamed
again as Department of Health
• Increase in life expectancy slowed down
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• Morbidity and Mortality rates from
preventable causes stabilized at high
rates
• Declined in infant and child mortality
decelerated
• Increased incidence of malnutrition
• Declined practice of family planning
X. AQUINO ADMINISTRATION
• 1987 constitution – more provision on
health making comprehensive health
care available
• Active participation of private sector and
NGO
• Major activities influencing public health
during this period
1. Milkcode-EO51 required the marketing of
breast milks substitute
2. Universal child and mother immunization
3. International safe and motherhood
initiative was launched to reduced maternal
mortality rate.
4. Act prohibiting discrimination against
women (RA6725)
5. National Epidemic Surveillance System
(NESS)-this was made to track down the
occurrence of 14 diseases with potential
causing outbreaks.
6. National drug policy and Generic Act –
ensure the availability of safe, effective and
affordable quality drugs (RA6675)
7. Local government code-from national
government to governors and
mayors (RA7160)
8. Organ Donation Act of 1991 (RA7170)-
Legalizing donation of all or body parts after
death for specified purpose.
XI. RAMOS ADMINISTRATION
• “Health in the Hands of People” and “Lets
DOH it”- by the Sec. Juan Flavier
• Continue to adopt PHC as a strategy
• Memorable initiative during the
leadership of Flavier:

1.National Immunization Day BCG, DPT,
OPV, MMR
2. Mother and Friendly Hospital Initiative
3. This strategy ensures the survival and
health of children through breast feeding
4. Promotion of Philippine Traditional
medicine- DOH and DOST
5. Hospital as Center of Wellness-
transformed 45 government hospitals from
disease places to centers of wellness
6. Yosi Kadiri –Anti smoking campaign
7. Araw ng Sangkap ponoy-aimed to prevent
vitamin A, iron and iodine deficiency
8. Voluntary Blood Donation Program
9. Kung Sila’y Mahal mo Mag plano - Family
planning program
10. Doctors to the Barrio
• LAWS:
1. RA 7394- Consumer Act of the
Philippines- an act providing penalties for
manufacture, distribution and sales of
adulterated foods, drugs and cosmetics
2. RA 7610- Special protection of Children
against child abuse, exploitation and
discrimination
3. EO 39- which created the Philippines
National AIDS Council as a national policy
and advisory body in the prevention and
control of HIV-AIDS
4. RA 7432- Senior Citizen’s Act- which grant
benefits and special privileges in order to
maximize the contributions of senior citizen
to nation building
5. RA 7719- The National Blood Services Act
of 1994 which was passed to promote
voluntary blood donation
6. RA 8172- An Act of Salt Iodization
Nationwide (ASIN)- providing salt iodization
nationwide approved in 1996 and renamed
FIDEL (Fortified for Iodine Elimination)
REODICAS’ SEVEN STRATEGY PROGRAM
1. Expanded Program on Immunization
(Oplan Alis Disease)- to eliminate polio,
measles and neonatal tetanus
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2. Nutrition- vitamin A, iron and iodine
utilization (Araw ng Sangkap Pinoy)
3. Family Planning
4. Tuberculosis prevention (Target, Stop
TB)
5. Environmental sanitation (TKO)
6. STD-AIDS awareness prevention
7. Healthy Lifestyle program
HEALTH MODELS
• Health-Illness Continuum Models
 Dunn’s High-Level Wellness Grid
 Travis’ Illness-Wellness Continuum
• Agent-Host-Environment Model
• Health Belief Model
• Evolutionary-based Model
• Health Promotion Model
A. Dunn’s High-Level Wellness Grid:
describes a health grid in which a health
axis and an environmental axis intersect.
The grid
demonstrates the interaction of the
environment with the illness-wellness
continuum.
The axis extends from peak wellness to
death, and the environment axis extends
from very favorable to very unfavorable. The
intersection of the two axes forms four
quadrants of health and wellness.
1. High-level wellness in a favorable
environment: Ex is a person who
implements healthy lifestyle behaviors and
has the biopsychosocial, spiritual, and
economic resources to support his lifestyle.

2. Emergent high-level wellness in an
unfavorable environment: Ex is a woman
who has the knowledge to implement
healthy lifestyle practices but does not
implement adequate self-care practices
because of family responsibilities, job
demands, or other factors.
3. Protected poor health in a favorable
environment: Ex is an ill person whose
needs are met by the health care system and
who has access to appropriate medications,
diet, and health care instruction.
4. Poor health in an unfavorable
environment: Ex is a young child who is
starving in a drought-stricken country.
* Requires the individual to maintain a
continuum of balance and purposeful
direction with the environment.
* Involves progress towards a higher level of
functioning, an open-ended and even
expanding challenge to live at the fullest
potential.
B. Travis’ Illness-Wellness Continuum:
Ranges from high level wellness to
premature death. It demonstrates two
arrows pointing in opposite directions and
joined at a neutral point. Movement to the
right of the neutral point indicates
increasing levels of health and well-being for
an individual achieved in three steps:
1. Awareness
2. Education
3. Growth
In contrast, movement to the left of the
neutral point indicates progressively
decreasing levels of health and premature
death.
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* Degree of client wellness that exists at any
point in time ranging from optimal wellness
condition, with availability of energy at its
maximum, to death which represents total
energy depletion.
* A dynamic state that continuously alters
as a person adapts to changes in the
internal and external environment to
maintain a state of physical, emotional,
intellectual, social, developmental and
spiritual well-being (Holistic).
VARIABLES INFLUENCING HEALTH
STATUS,
BELIEFS AND PRACTICES:
1. Internal variables: include those which
are
usually non- modifiable such as:
a. Biologic dimension - genetic makeup, sex,
age, and developmental level all significant
to a person’s health.
b. Psychological dimension - emotional
factors which include mind- body
interactions and self-concept.
c. Cognitive dimension - intellectual factors
which include lifestyle choices and spiritual
and religious beliefs.
2. External variables: the macrosystem
which include:
a. Environment: geographical locations
determine climate, and climate affects
health; environmental hazards.
b. Economics: standards of living reflecting
occupation, income and education is related
to health, morbidity and
mortality.

c. Family and cultural beliefs: the family
passes on life patterns of daily living and
lifestyles to offspring (e.g.
physical/emotional abuse or climate of open
communication). Culture and social
interactions also influence how a person
perceives, experiences, and copes with
health and illness.
d. Social support networks:
political/systems of governance;
religion/church; mass media.
SOCIAL SUPPORT NETWORKS
In Sept. 8, 1978 : UNICEF and WHO held the
First International Conference on Primary
Health Care in Alma Ata, USSR
PHC Goal: Health for All by 2000! (bec of
the high-level wellness model in 1978)
In 1994, modified goal to Health for All by
2000 and Beyond bec original goal was
unattainable.
LOI 949: was signed by Pres Marcos on Oct
19, 1979 making Primary Health Care the
focus of the Department of Health.
Vision: Health for All Filipinos was set by
DOH Sec Juan Flavier.
Goal: Health for All Filipinos and Health in
the Hands of the people by the Year 2020 (the
2nd phrase was suggested by the NGO:
Bukluran Para sa Kalusugan).
Mission: In partnership with the people,
provide equity, access and
quality health care esp. to the marginalized
which brought about the Sentrong Sigla
movement in order to achieve it.
RA 7160: The Local government Code of
1991 which resulted in devolution, which
transferred the power and authority from
the
national to the local government units,
aimed to build their capabilities for self-
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government and develop them fully as self-
reliant communities
2. AGENT-HOST- ENVIRONMENT MODEL
- also called the ecologic model by Leavell
and Clark refers to the interplay of agent
(causative/etiologic factor), host (possessing
intrinsic factors), and the environment
(extrinsic factors)
A. Etiologic Factors:
1. Biological agents: virus, fungi, bacteria,
helminthes, protozoa, ectoparasites
2. Chemical elements :
a. Carcinogens : e.g. those contained in
Pringles, Toblerone
b. GMO : contained in Nesvita
c. Poisons: MSG
d. Allergens
e. Transfats
3. Nutritive elements: excesses and or
deficiencies e.g., marasmus & kwashiorkor
4. Mechanical factors: accidents
5. Physical: as when one is struck (strike) by
lightning
6. Psychological: such as stress
B. Host:
Intrinsic factors include:
1. Exposure
2. Response (reaction)
C. Environment:
Extrinsic factors include:
1. Natural boundaries
2. Biological environment
3. Socio-economic (political boundary)
3. HEALTH BELIEF MODEL
- refers to the relationship between a
person’s
belief and his behavior in health. It
pertains to three components of an
individual’s perception:
1. Susceptibility to an illness
2. Seriousness of an illness
3. Benefits of taking the action
Example: In one HIV infection study
 CPH 1st
LAB Term

* It is an outcome of multi-causal theories of

health and disease. * It is an outcome or by-
product of the interplay of societal factors:

a. Ecological: 1. Biological 2. Physical

b. Economic
c. Political
d. Socio-cultura

4. EVOLUTIONARY-BASED MODEL:
- states that illness and death sometimes
serve an evolutionary function. Elements
considered in the theory are:

1. Life events: developmental variables and

variables associated with changes such as
accidents/relocation.
2. Lifestyle determinants
3. Evolutionary viability within the social
context: reflects the extent to which an
individual function to promote survival and
well-being.
4. Control perceptions: the extent to which
a person can influence circumstances in life.
5. Viability emotions: affective reactions
developed for life events or lifestyle
determinants.
6. Health outcomes: physiological,
behavioral and psychological
status resulting from the interplay of those
elements.

5. HEALTH PROMOTION MODEL :

- directed at increasing client’s wellbeing.
* Goal: enhance level of wellness.
WHO definition (1978): a state of complete
physical, mental, and social well-being, not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity
(sickness).
* Health is a social phenomenon.
 WHY DO WE NEED TO STUDY STATISTICS? HEALTH-RELATED SOCIO-ECONOMIC
• To be able to effectively conduct research. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
• To read and evaluate journal articles. Examples
• To improve critical thinking and analytical skills. Water supply, excrete disposal, school enrollment,
• To act as an informed consumer. food establishment, transports, food intake/habit.
• To know when to hire statistical help.
• To analyze data in different fields. STATISTICS
• To monitor changing patterns. - Refers to both the numbers that describe the health
• To draw conclusion. of populations and the science that helps to interpret
those numbers.
STATISTICS AS A METHOD
• Orderly processes of data collection, USES OF STATISTICS
• Problems of Estimates
• Organization,
• Problems of Comparison
• Presentation and interpretation (tabulation of data,
• Health need Identification
computation of rates and frequency distribution,
• Analysis of Problem and Trends
graphic presentation).
• Epidemiologic Evaluation
• Program Planning
STATISTICS AS A DATA
• Budget Preparation and Justification
• Quantitative data affected to a marked extent by a
• Administrative Decision Making
multiplicity of causes.
• Health Education
• Data are collected to measure:
- # of deaths, birth, specific disease, hosp. admissions.
VARIABLE
- Measurement of a characteristic.
BRANCHES OF STATISTICS
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 2 TYPES OF VARIABLES
− Summarizing and presenting data in a form that QUALITATIVE
will make them easier to analyze and interpret.
− Numerical representation of the categories are
− Ex. Counts, proportions, tables, graphs, summary for labeling/coding and NOT for comparison.
measures. Examples
INTERFERENTIAL STATISTICS Sex, religion, place of residence, disease status.
− Concerned in making estimates, predictions, QUANTITATIVE
generalizations, and conclusions about a target − Values indicate a quantity or amount and can be
population based on information from a sample. expressed numerically.
− Ex. Estimation, hypothesis testing. − Values can be arranged according to magnitude.
Examples
4 CLASSIFICATIONS OF STATISTICS Age, height, weight, blood pressure.
DEMOGRAPHIC
Examples BIOSTATISTICS – LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
Population size, age, sex, geographic distribution, 1. NOMINAL
mortality, morbidity, growth rate. - Classificatory scale where the categories are used
HEALTH STATUS as labels only.
Examples - Ex. Sex, race, blood group, patient ID.
Causes and distribution of mortality and morbidity 2. ORDINAL
as to residence, place of occurrence, age, sex. - Categories which can be ordered or ranked.
- Ex. Likert scale, psychosocial scale.
HEALTH RESOURCES 3. INTERVAL
Examples - same characteristics as ordinal; 0 point is
Number and distribution of health facilities, health arbitrary and does not mean absence of the
manpower, health expenditures. characteristic.
- Ex. Temperature, IQ

PONCE & ANTONIO (BSMLS 1B)

4. RATIO
- Same characteristics as ordinal; a meaningful zero
point exist.
- Ex. Weight, BP, height, doctor visits.
ORGANIZATION OF DATA
• TABULATION
- Arrangement of any data in an orderly sequence,
so they can be presented concisely and compactly
and so that they can be understood easily.
ORGANIZATION OF DATA
• GRAPHING
- Convey a simpler idea of what the statistical table
contains.
- Intended for comparison, to show correlation.
- For the purpose of data presentation.
- Primary tools for presentation and analysis.
- Statistical graph: Series of lines together, bars or
enclosed areas, drawn to represent certain
statistical information under consideration.

TYPES OF TABULATION DATA PARTS OF A GRAPH

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION • LEGEND
- Data are grouped according to some scale of - Needed when one is drawing more than one
classification, where the sum of the entries is equal graph in a graphing space.
to the total. - Clarifies to what particular item each of the graph
CORRELATION DATA refers.
- Compare two or more frequencies. - Placed either at the bottom of the graph or as close
TIME SERIES DATA as possible to the figures being identified.
- Some variable changes over a period of time is the • BODY OF THE GRAPH
one being presented. - Lines, bars or figures drawn within the graphing
space.
PARTS OF A TABLE • TITLE
• TITLE - Indicate clearly and briefly what the figures in the
- Objective of the table. body of the graph stand for, how the data were
• STUBS classified, and where and when obtained.
- Indicate the basis of classification of the rows or - This is placed at the bottom of the graph, preceded
horizontal series of figures. by number for easy reference.
• COLUMN HEADINGS • AXIS
- Indicate the basis of classification of the columns or - A graph has 2 axes, the vertical and the
vertical series of figures. horizontal:
• BODY OF THE TABLE - Each represents separate scales of classification
- Made up of the figures filling the cells or corresponding to the row and column headings of
compartments brought about by the coordinates of the table being graphically presented.
rows and columns. - One of the axes is always quantitative scale while
• MARGINAL TOTALS the others either qualitative or quantitative scales.
- Column totals and row totals.
• FOOTNOTE DIFFERENT TYPES OF GRAPHS
- Indicate the source of information. LINE GRAPHS
- Used to graph time series data depict trends or
changes with time with respect to some other
variables.

PONCE & ANTONIO (BSMLS 1B)


HISTOGRAM
- Used to graph continuous variables. A graphical
representation, similar to a bar chart in structure,
that organizes a group of data points into
user- specified ranges.
POLYGON
- Used to graph continuous variables.
BAR OR STICK GRAPH
- Used to graph qualitative variables and
discontinuous variables of the quantitative variety.
PICTORIAL DIAGRAM
- Usually in the form of rectangles, square or
circles (pies), used to depict the distribution of a
whole with different segments representing
different frequencies.
SCATTER POINT DIAGRAM
- Used to show relationship of simultaneous
measurement.
DEMOGRAPHY
⚫ Is the statistical study of human population
including its characteristics.
⚫ It encompasses the study of the size, structure
and distribution of populations
⚫ spatial and/or temporal changes in response to
birth, migration, aging and death
POPULATION
⚫ the study of the character, number, and
distribution ofliving organisms residing in or
migrating through particular places.
FACTORS IN POPULATION
⚫ Social and Biological Science
⚫ Size of breeding group
Three Principal uses of Population Data
1. The computation of vital and health statistics rates
and ratios.
2. Setting up coverage of activities.
3. Setting up norms for assignment of facilities, staff
and funds.
ESTIMATES OF POPULATION SIZE
⚫ Continous Population Registration
⚫ Consists of registering births, deaths, emigration
and immigration, making necessary additions and
subtractions to the existing population.
SURVEYS
It is the simplest way of estimating the number of
population in a smaller area.
MATHEMATICAL ESTIMATES
1. Arithmetic Increase Method
It is assumed that the population increases at a
constant amount per year
2. Geometric Increase Method
Assume that population increase at a constant rate
per year
DEMOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS
⚫ can be applied to whole societies or to groups
defined by criteria.
⚫ education, nationality, religion and ethnicity.
⚫ demography is considered a field of sociology.
PONCE & ANTONIO (BSMLS 1B)
 FORMAL DEMOGRAPHY
- limits its object of study to the measurement of
populations processes. it comprises "a set of techniques
by which data collected in censuses, surveys and vital
registration systems about age, sex, births, deaths,
migrations and marriages.
SOCIAL DEMOGRAPHY
–population studies analyze the relationships between
economic, social, cultural and biological processes
influencing a population.
POPULATION STUDIES
–encompasses the study of fertility, mortality and
migration.
CENSUS
–is defined as an official and periodic enumeration of
population.
–determining and explaining trends in terms of
population changes and planning programs and
services.
VITAL STATISTICS DATA
- collected continously and summarized on an annual
basis.
2 WAYS OF ASSIGNING PEOPLE WHEN CENSUS ID
BEING TAKEN
⚫ De jure method is done when people are assigned
to the place where they usually live regardless of
where they are at the time of census.
⚫ •De facto method is done when the people are
assigned to the place where they are physically
present at the time of the census regardless of their
usual place of residence.
SAMPLE SURVEY
–obtained data come from a small number of people
proportionate to the total population,
–the results will always be generalized for the whole
population.
REGISTRATION SYSTEMS
–collected by the civil registrar’s office deal with
recording vital events in the community.
VITAL EVENTS
–refer to births, deaths, marriage, divorces and the like.
CENSUSES
⚫ collect information about families or households
⚫ Characteristics as age, sex, marital status,
literacy/education, employment status
⚫ occupation, and geographical location.
⚫ collect data on migration (or place of birth or of
previous residence), language, religion, nationality
(or ethnicity or race), citizenship.
⚫ used as a direct source of information about
fertility and mortality.
2 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
1. DIRECT DATA
-Come from vital statistics registries that track all births
and deaths; changes in legal status (marriage, divorce)
-migration (registration of place of residence)
Registry statistics are the best method for estimating
the number of births and deaths.
2. INDIRECT METHOD
- •required in countries where full data are not
available.
SISTER METHOD TECHNIQUE
–where survey researchers ask women how many of
their sisters have died or had children and at what age.
–Other indirect methods include asking people about
siblings, parents, and children.
KEY MEASURES
•The crude birth rate, the annual number of live births
per 1,000 people.
•The general fertility rate, the annual number of live
births per 1,000 women of childbearing age (often taken
to be from 15 to 49 years old, but sometimes from 15 to
44).
•Age-specific fertility rates, the annual number of live
births per 1,000 women in particular age groups
•The crude death rate, the annual number of deaths
per 1,000 people.
•The infant mortality rate, the annual number of
deaths of children less than 1 year old per 1,000 live
births.
•The expectation of life (or life expectancy), the
number of years which an individual at a given age
could expect to live at present mortality levels.
•The total fertility rate, the number of live
births per woman completing her reproductive life, if
her childbearing at each age reflected current age-­­
specific fertility rates.
The replacement level fertility, the average number of
children a woman must have in order to replace herself
with a daughter in the next generation.
PONCE & ANTONIO (BSMLS 1B)
The gross reproduction rate, the number of daughters
who would be born to a woman completing her
reproductive life at current age-­­ specific fertility rates.
•The net reproduction ratio is the expected number of
daughters, per newborn prospective mother, who may
or may not survive to and through the ages of
childbearing.
•A stable population, one that has had constant crude
birth and death rates for such long time that the
percentage of people in every age class remains
constant, or equivalently, the population pyramid has
an unchanging structure.
•A stationary population, one that is both stable and
unchanging in size.
THREE PROCESS WHERE POPULATIONS CAN CHANGE
1. Fertility
–involves the number of children that women have and
is to be contrasted with fecundity (a woman's
childbearing potential).
2. Mortality
–is the study of the causes, consequences, and
measurement of processes affecting death to members
of the population.
Demographers most commonly study mortality using
the Life Table, a statistical device which provides
information about the mortality conditions (most
notably the life expectancy) in the population
3. Migration
–refers to the movement of persons from an origin
place to a destination place across some pre-defined,
political boundary.
METHOD OF MEASURING POPULATION SIZE
⚫ Natural increase is simply the difference between
the number of births and the number of death
occurring in a population in a specified period of
time. ( Natural Increase= number of births -
number of deaths)
⚫ Rate of Natural increase is the difference between
the Crude Birth Rate and the Crude Death rate
occurring in a population in a specified period of
time. (Rate of Natural Increase= crude birth rate -
crude death rate)
⚫ Absolute increase per year measures the number
of people that are added to the population per
year. This is computed using the following formula:
per year = Pt - Po
t
Where:
Pt= Population size at a late time
Po= Population size at an earlier time
t= number of years between time 0 and the time t
⚫ Relative increase is the actual difference between
the two census counts expressed in percent relative
to the population size made during an earlier
census.
Relative increase= Pt- Po
Po
Where: Pt= population size at a later time Po=
population size at an earlier time
POPULATION COMPOSITION
•The composition of the population is commonly
described in terms of its age and sex.
•Utilizes data who among the population groups merits
attention in terms of health services and programs.
1.Sex composition
To describe the sex composition of the
population, the nurse computes for the sex ratio. The
sex ratio compares the number of males to the number
of females in the population using the formula below:
Sex ratio= number of males x100
number of females
The sex ratio represents the number of males for
every 100 females in the population.
2.Age composition
A. Median age divides the population into two equal
parts.
-If the median age is 19 years old, it means half of the
population belongs to 19 years and above, while the
other half belongs to ages below 19 years old.
B.Dependency ratio compares the number of
economically dependent with the economically
productive group in the population.
-The economically dependent are those who belong
to the 0-­­14 and 65 above age groups.
-economically productive are those within the 15-64
age group.
PONCE & ANTONIO (BSMLS 1B)
 -The dependency ratio represents the number of
economically dependent for every 100 economically
productive.

Age and Sex composition

-­­ described at the same time using a population
pyramid.
-­­ It is a graphical presentation of the age
and sex composition of the population.

Age and Sex composition

-described at the same time using a population pyramid.
-It is a graphical presentation of the age and sex
composition of the population.

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

•can be described in terms of urban- rural distribution,

population density and crowding index.
•The measures help how resources can be justifiably
allocated based on concentration of population in a
certain place.

URBAN- RURAL DISTRIBUTION

simply illustrates the proportion of the people living
in urban compared to rural areas.

CROWDING INDEX
–describe by which a communicable disease will be
transmitted from one host to another susceptible host.
-This is described by dividing the number of persons
in a household with the number of rooms used by the
family for sleeping.

POPULATION DENSITY
–determine how congested a place is and has
implication in terms of the adequacy of basic health
services present in the community.

Population Density= No of People/Land area

PONCE & ANTONIO (BSMLS 1B)


RATES, RATIOS, AND
VITAL STATISTICS
RATIO
• Also called a proportion if the quotient of the
sum of the two numbers. A good example is
number of deaths per population.
RATE
• Ratio involving a time period.
• Count or measurement is observed over a
period and then divided by its base or
population of observation.
INCIDENCE RATE
• measures the frequency of occurrence of the
phenomenon during a given period of time.
Deals only with NEW cases.
PREVALENCE RATE
• Measures the proportion of the population
which exhibits a particular disease at a
particular time.
• This can only be determined following a
survey of the population concerned.
• Deals with total (OLD and NEW) number of
cases.
CONCEPTS OF INCIDENCE AND
PREVALENCE
INCIDENCE
• Also known as attack rate, case,
sickness rate morbidity rate
• It refers to newly discovered cases of a
particular disease
• It answers the question “how frequent
do cases of a particular disease occur
during a given period of time”
• Used when dealing with acute
conditions and accidents
PREVALENCE
• It refers to the newly discovered and
old cases of a particular disease over a
population
• Used when dealing with chronic
conditions and disabilities
• It answers the question “what
CPH 1st
LAB Term
proportion of the group or population is
actually ill with a particular disease at a
point in time.
• Usually determined by means of survey
CRUDE BIRTH RATE (CBR)
• This is a measure of fertility of the
population
• The rate is called crude for the following
reasons
– Only live births are counted
– The denominator is the total population
which includes children, old people and
males
– The rate is expressed in population unit
of 1000 to make the figures meaningful
CRUDES DEATH RATE (CDR)
• This is a measure of the risk of dying
from all causes in a population.
THE CRUDE BIRTH RATE (CBR)
AND CRUDE DEATH RATE (CDR)
– Statistical values that can be utilized to
measure the growth or decline of a population.
– measured by the rate of births or deaths
respectively among a population of 1000.
– determined by taking the total number of
births or deaths in a population and dividing
both values by a number to obtain the rate per
1000.
MATERNAL MORTALITY RATE (MMR)
• Measure the risk of dying due to the process of
pregnancy, childbirth and puerperium.
• It also measures the adequacy of maternal
health services
INFANT MORTALITY RATE (IMR)
• Measures the risk of dying due to infancy
(under 1 year of age)
• DEATHS UNDER 1 YEAR OF AGE/ NUMBER
OF LIVE BIRTHS X 1000
NEONATAL MORTALITY RATE
• Measures the risk of dying in the first four
weeks of life of the infant (newborn)
• The number of children dying under 28 days
of age divided by the number of live births that
year
• (NUMBER OF INFANT DEATH / NUMBER OF
LIFE BIRTH ) X 1000
 CPH 1st
LAB Term

FETAL DEATH RATE • CASE FATALITY RATE

• Measures the risk of dying before birth PERI- = number of Deaths from x 100
NATAL MORTALITY a specified cause
Number of Cases of the
RATE
same disease
• The word means around the period of birth (
a month or more before births and one month
after birth). MORBIDITY RATES
• Measures the loss of life in later pregnancy
and early infancy. • INCIDENCE RATE
= number of new cases of
COMMON VITAL STATISTICS Disease developing from x 100
a period of time
FERTILITY RATES Population at risk of developing
the disease
• CRUDE BIRTH RATE
= number of live births x 1000 • PREVALENCE RATE
Midyear population = number of Old and new
cases of a disease x 100
• GENERAL FERTILITY RATE Population examined
= Number of live births x 1000
Midyear population of
Women (15-44 years
of age)

COMMON VITAL STATISTICS

INDICATOR
MORTALITY RATE

• CRUDE DEATH RATE

= number of deaths x 1000
Midyear population

• SPECIFIC MORTALITY RATE

= number of death in a specified x 1000
group
Midyear population of the
same specified group

• CAUSE-OF-DEATH RATE
= number of deaths from a x 1000
specified cause
Midyear population

• SWAROOP’S INDEX
= Number of deaths among x 100
those 50 years and over
Total Deaths
 CPH 1st
LAB Term
INTRODUCTION TO disease, and when they detect the
sign of epidemic,they ask who,
EPIDEMIOLOGY when and where questions.

EPIDEMIOLOGY • Who is getting the disease

• Study the occurrence and • Where and when the disease is

distribution of diseases as well as occurring
distribution of determinants of • From this information, they can
health state or events in specified often make informed guesses as to
population and the application of why it is occurring.
this study to control health
problems
NOTIFIABLE DISEASE
• Field of science dealing with the
relationship of the various - Surveillance made by the
factors which determine the government before many people
frequencies and distribution of an start dying.
infectious process.
• A disease or a physiological The timely reporting of cases of notifiable
state in human community. disease allows public health authorities to
detect an emerging epidemic at an early
• Study of the behavior of stage.
disease in the community
rather than in individual
ATYPICAL EPIDEMIOLOGIC
patients and includes the study of
INVESTIGATION
reservoirs and sources of human
- Outbreak of hepatitis and Food poisoning
disease.
• Studies the patterns of disease WHAT IS THE GOAL OF EPIDEMIOLOGY?
occurrence in human
The ultimate goal is to use this knowledge
populations and the factors that
influence this pattern. The term
obviously is related to epidemic - Control and prevent the spread of
(derived from the Greek word” disease.
upon the people” meaning leading
the people) JOHN SNOW
- Father of modern epidemiology
- Study about cholera.
C-E. A. Winslow:
The great public health leader of SNOW’S DOT MAP
the early 20th century, called
epidemiology.
“The diagnostic discipline of
Public Health.”

EPIDEMIC
- an increase in the frequency
(incidence) of a disease above the
usual and expected rate, which
is called the endemic rate., thus
epidemiology count cases of a

TWO MAIN AREAS OF
INVESTIGATION
1. Describes the distribution of health
status in terms of age, gender, race,
geography, and time.
2. Patterns of disease distribution in
terms of causal factor
• In epidemiology of any disease or
event, one studies the factor which
contribute to its causation and behavior-
AGENT, HOST, ENVIRONMENT
• Epidemiology concept maintains that
there can be no single cause of disease
Uses of Epidemiology
1. Study the history of the health
population and the rise and fall of
diseases and changes in their character
2. Diagnose the health of the community
and the condition of the people.
3. Study the work of health services with a
view of improving them
4. Estimate the risk of diseases,
accidents, detects and the changes
avoiding them
5. Complete the clinical feature of chronic
disease and describe their natural
history
6. Search for cause of health and disease
THE AGENT FACTORS OF
DISEASE
AGENT
- is any element, substance or force whether
living or non-living thing; the presence or
absence can initiate or perpetuate disease
process.
TYPES OF AGENT
1. This could be living or non-living things,
physical or mechanical in nature such as
extremes of temperature, light electricity.
2. They could be chemicals endogenous
(within the body) or exogenous (poison).
CPH 1st
LAB Term
CHARACTERISTICS OF AGENT OF DISEASE
1. Inherent characteristics
- Physical feature, biological requirement,
chemical composition, resistance.
2. Characteristic in relation to the
environment
- refers to the reservoir and source of infection
and modes of transmission.
Characteristic directly related to man:
a. Infectivity
- Ability to gain access and adapt to the human
host to the extent of finding of finding
lodgement and multiplication
b. Pathogenicity
- Measures the ability of agent when lodged in
the body set up a specific reaction
c. Virulence
- refers to the severity of the reaction produce
and is usually measured in terms of fatality.
d. Antigenicity
- Ability to stimulate the host to produce
antibody
MODES OF TRANSMISSION
1. Direct transmission
- Immediate transfer of infectious agent a
receptive portal of entry
2. Indirect transmission
a. Vehicle borne
- Contaminated inanimate objects or materials
b. Vector-borne
- From other living organism (ex. Insects)
c. Mechanical Vector
d. Biological Vector
3. Airborne
- Dissemination of microbial aerosols to a
suitable portal of entry usually the respiratory
tract
a. Droplet Nuclei
- Usually small residues which result from
evaporation of fluid from droplets emitted by
an infected host
b.Dust

THE HOST FACTOR OF DISEASE
1. Age
2. Sex
3. Race
4. Habits, Customs and religions
5. Exposure to agent
6. Defense mechanism of the host
HUMORAL DEFENSE
- these are cells in our body like plasma cells and
lymphocytes that produce antibodies to
neutralize harmful effects of the infectious agents
and body fluids in our body that possess
substance that have antimicrobial properties.
CELLULAR DEFENSE
- There are cells in our body like macrophages
and neutrophils involve in the process of
phagocytosis
THE ENVIRONMENTAL
FACTORS OF DISEASE
ENVIRONMENT
- sum total of an organism’s external
surrounding conditions and influences that
affect its life and development.
• Physical Environment
• Climate- certain disease have seasonal
distribution
• Geography and location
• Biologic Environment- living environment of
man consist of plants, animals and fellow human
beings.
INCUBATION PERIOD
• Time between exposure to infectious agent up
to the time of appearance of the earliest signs and
symptoms
1. CLINICAL INCUBATION PERIOD
- The time between exposure to a pathogenic
organism and the onset of symptoms of a disease.
2. BIOLOGICAL INCUBATION PERIOD
- The time taken by the parasite to complete its
development in the definite host.
Ex: (from the time of entry of the infective larvae to
the presence of microfilariae) is called the Intrinsic
incubation period (Biological incubation).
CPH 1st
LAB Term
ISOLATION AND QUARANTINE
ISOLATION
- As applied to patient, separation for the
period of communicability, of infected
persons or animals from others in such
places and under such conditions as to
prevent or limit the effect of the direct or
indirect transmission of the infectious agent
from those infected to those who are
susceptible or who may spread the disease
agent.
CATEGORIES OF ISOLATION
1. STRICT ISOLATION
- This category is designed to prevent
transmission of highly contagious or virulent
infectious that may spread by direct contact or
droplet.
2. CONTACT ISOLATION
- For less highly transmissible or serious
infections, for disease or conditions which are
spread primarily by close or direct contact.
3. RESPIRATORY ISOLATION
- To prevent transmission of infectious diseases
over short distance through the air.
4. TUBERCULOSIS ISOLATION (AFB
ISOLATION)
- For patient with pulmonary tuberculosis who
have a positive sputum smear or chest x-rays
which strongly suggest active tuberculosis
CATEGORIES OF ISOLATION
1. ENTERIC PRECAUTIONS
- For infectious transmitted by direct or indirect
contact with feces purulent material or drainage
from an infected body site
2. DRAINAGE/SECRETION PRECAUTIONS
- To prevent infections transmitted by direct or
indirect contact with purulent material or
drainage from an infected body site.
3. BLOOD/BODY FLUID PRECAUTIONS
- To prevent infections that are transmitted by
direct or indirect contact with infected blood or
body fluids.
QUARANTINE
- Restriction of the activities of a well persons or
animals who have been exposed to a case of
communicable diseases during its period of
communicability to prevent disease transmission
during incubation of infection should occur.
 CPH 1st
LAB Term

CATEGORIES OF QUARANTINE
1. ABSOLUTE OR COMPLETE QUARANTINE
- Limitation of movement of those exposed to a
communicable disease for a period of time not
longer than the longest usual incubation period of
that disease.
2. MODIFIED QUARANTINE
- Selective, partial limitation of freedom of
movements of contacts.

PHASES

1. PRE-PATHOGENESIS
- This is the phase before man is involved.
Through the interaction of the agent, the host
and environmental factors, the agent finally
reaches man.
- It maybe said that everyone is in the period
of pre-pathogenesis of many diseases
because agents are present in the
environment where man lives
2. PATHOGENESIS
- This phases includes the successful invasion
and establishment of the agent in the host.

THE PROCESS OF INFECTION

There are six requirements for the
successful invasion of the host by an
infectious agent:
1. Condition in the environment must be
favorable to the agent or the agent must be
able to adapt in the environment
2. Suitable reservoirs must be present
3. A susceptible host must be present
4. Satisfactory portal of entry into the host
5. Accessible portal of exit from the host
6. Appropriate means of dissemination and
transmission to a new host