To maintain a balanced, equitable, and healthy society, every seven years Israeli

farmers and other agriculture industry workers observe the Shmita. The Shmita
represents the end of a shared calendar cycle according to the bible and is a
time when debts are forgiven, and the land is allowed to rest from the constant
farming endured during the year. This year is known as the Sabbath year as it
occurs every seven years, aligning with Shabbat that occurs every seven days.
This cycle of allowing the fields to rest was mandated in the Torah and is still
practiced by modern Israelis. In the book of Exodus the Israelis are commanded
by God to “Plant your land and gather its produce for six years. But on the
seventh let it lie fallow and it will rest.”

Jewish law prohibits farming, tilling soil, planting seeds, plowing, harvesting,

and pruning during the Shmita year, but things like watering, fertilizing, and
pulling weeds are allowed. This allows farmers to observe the Shmita but not
suffer from their crops dying out. In addition to prohibiting working the land,
the Shmita also prohibits the sale or purchase of Israeli farmed produce.

The Shmita is obviously harmful to Israeli farmers who make their living from
selling their produce, so in modern years loopholes have been adopted to the
Shmita law that eases the strain on modern farm workers. In the past, Israeli
landowners and farmers would sell their land temporarily to Arab residents
who would take care of all the farm work while the Jews observing the Shmita
could not. This solution was first used in the Shmita year of 1888-1889 and was
later adopted by the Chief Rabbinate of Israel as a permanent fixture of the
Shmita year. The process of selling land to Arabs temporarily like this is known
as Heter  Mechira (translation: sale permit). Certain products cannot be grown
like this, for example Kosher wine must be produced by Jewish individuals, so
wineries and grape fields cannot be temporarily sold to Arabs for farming.

During the Shmita years, produce may be sold and consumed by Israelis if it
comes from one of 5 sources:

 Produce grown the previous year

 Produce grown on land owned by non-Jewish (Arab) farmers in Israel
 Produce grown outside of Israel
 Produce acquired through the process of Otsar Beit Din
 Produce grown hydroponically or in green houses

To get around these restrictions, the Rabbinic Councils of Israel have devised
the Otsar Beit Din system. The system involves the Rabbis paying Arab farmers
to pick, harvest, transport, and distribute the fruits and vegetables, but only
paying them for the labor and not the physical fruit itself.
In Jewish law the produce harvested during the Shmita year has certain
requirements and rules for its use:

 The product can only be consumed or used for personal enjoyment

 It cannot be bought, sold, or thrown out
 The item must be used in its “best” possible manner to get the fullest
amount of use out of it
 The item can only be stored if it is still found naturally in the wild. For
example, if corn season has ended and all the wild corn is dead, the
remaining corn must be disposed of properly.

The food grown during the Shmita cannot be thrown out or sold, so when an
item has outlived its natural life according to the rules of the Shmita, it must be
disposed of and made ownerless through a process called biur. The process of
biur involves taking the produce to a public place and standing on a sidewalk or
street with at least three witnesses. The individual must announce their
produce and wait for one of their witnesses to attempt to claim the items. After
ample time is given for the witnesses to make their claims, the items presented
become ownerless and may be taken by any member of the community.

The Shmita years since the establishment of the modern state of Israel have
been :1951-52, 1958-59, 1965-66, 1972-73, 1979-80, 1986-87, 1993-94, 2000-01,
2007-08, 2014-15. In modern Israel, the Shmita is practiced by mainly Orthodox
Jews now, and the government is not interested in enforcing the observance of
the Shmita. In modern times the debt forgiveness aspect of the Shmita is
relatively forgotten, but courts will still honor the annulment of debt if both
parties agree. Non-religious Israeli Jews seldom participate in the Shmita, and it
serves as more of a symbolic tradition than a practical one in modern day.

On the 13th of Adar, the Fast of Esther is observed in memory of the Fast

observed by Mordechai and Esther and all Israel. On that very day, the enemies
of the Jews had planned to subjugate and destroy them. 'The opposite,
however, occurred and the Jews ruled over their enemies. The practice of
fasting was observed by the people of Israel whenever they were faced by war.
Thus Moshe Rabenu also fasted when he came to wage war against Amalek.
The aim of the fast was to affirm that a man does not prevail by physical or
military strength, but only by lifting his eyes heavenward in prayer so that
Divine Mercy might give him the strength to prevail in battle. This then was the
purpose of the fast observed by Israel at the time of Haman, when they
gathered to defend themselves against those who sought to destroy them. And
in memory of that Fast, a yearly Fast was fixed for generations on the same day.
We are to recall thereby that God accepts each person's prayer and penitence in
the hour of his trouble.
The acceptance of this Fast of the 13th of Adar on the, part of Israel for later
generations, is alluded to in the Scroll of Esther: “And as they accepted upon
themselves and upon their children, the matters of their fastings and their cry ”
(Esther 9).

The Fast is called by the name of Esther because it was she who first requested
the observance of a fast, of Mordechai: 'Go and gather all the Jews who are
found in Shushan and fast over me, and do not eat and do not drink three days,
night and day; and I and my maidens will also fast thus. (ibid. 4).

The fast which we observe is nevertheless not observed for a three-day period,
as was the case with the original Fast, nor is it observed on the same date.
Originally the Fast was observed by Esther and the entire people of Israel on the
14th, 15th and 16th of Nisan, immediately after Mordechai was informed of
Haman's decree and of the letter of annihilation which Haman wrote on the
13th of Nisan. Our Fast however, is observed on the 13th of Adar, in memory of
the Fast observed by Israel on the day of their mobilization for war against the
enemies. The Fast is nevertheless called by the name of Esther since it was she
who first proposed its observance.

Others hold the view, that even our Fast is also primarily a memorial to the
original three-day Fast observed by the Jews when the decree was announced.
But since the Fast could not be permanently fixed for later years in its proper
time (because fasting is not permitted during Nisan), the Sages therefore fixed
it for the 13th of Adar - which was also a Fast day for the Jews, who then
gathered to wage war against their enemies. And although the Fast of Esther is
therefore a memorial to the original three days of fasting, the Rabbis were
nevertheless lenient in fixing it for only one day.

In deference to this view, there are some who fast an additional three days; on
Monday, Thursday and Monday after Purim. Others voluntarily fast the night as
well as the day on the 13th of Adar, since the original three-day Fast was
observed night and day.

Since the Fast of Esther is not one of the four Fast days which are specifically
mentioned in the Prophetic Writings, it is observed with greater leniency than
the other Fast days. Pregnant women, nursing mothers, as well as others of
generally weak health, (who would suffer by fasting) do not fast therein. The
additional penitential prayers, and the Torah Reading, which are prescribed for
the other Fast days are also required for the Fast of Esther.

If the 13th of Adar falls on Shabbat, the Fast is observed the preceding
Thursday which is the eleventh of Adar. Be. cause of Purim, the Fast is not
postponed to the following day, nor is it observed Erev Shabat: Since it is no
longer observed in any event in its proper time, it was not fixed for Erev Shabat,
in deference to the honor of Shabbat. (A Fast whose prescribed date can fall on
Erev Shabat such as the 10th of Tevet, is neither postponed nor observed
earlier, but it is observed on its fixed day).Tachanun is not said during minchah
of the Fast of Esther.

On the 13th of Adar during minchah, it is customary to give three halves of the
coin which is the basis of the local currency. The money is given to the poor to
do with it as they wish. This contribution is made in memory of the half-shekel
given by Israel when the Beit Hamikdash still stood; and whose forthcoming
collection was announced on Rosh Chodesh Adar.

This memorial act is performed before the Reading of the Megilah, because all
Israel gathers for the Megilah Reading in the synagogues. It is proper to give
the half-shekel before minchah, since 'the diligent perform mitzvot earlier.'
Those who live in 'open-cities' give the half-shekel before the Megilah Reading
on the night of the 14th, whereas the inhabitants of Yerushalayim give the half-
shekel before their Reading of the Megilah — the night of the 15th.

In a place which has no coin that is designated a 'half' coin, it is customary for
the gabaim to bring three halves of silver coins which are issued elsewhere, and
to give these coins in exchange, to anyone who makes his contribution in the
coins available to him. After performing performing the mitzvah, he returns the
three 'halves' to the gabaim, so that others might also be able to observe the
custom properly.

Those who seek to observe mitzvot with hidur (enhancement) give the half-
shekel for each of the members of the household including minors, and in the
case of an expectant mother, for the unborn child as well. Once a father has
begun to give a half-shekel for a minor child, he is required to continue to do so
each year.

The reason for the giving of three 'halves' is that the term trumah (contribution)
is mentioned three times in the portion of Ki-Tisa, in the account of the mitzvah
of the halfshekel. The established practice is to consieder the giving of the half-
shekel as not freeing one from the mitzvah of giving charity to the poor, which
is specifically prescribed for Purim.

The 13th of Adar is also mentioned in the Talmud as the day on which

vengeance was executed (during the time of the Hasmoneans) against a tyrant
who oppressed the land of Yehudah cruelly and arrogantly blasphemed the city
of God. The name of the tyrant was Nikanor and he fell by the hand of Yehudah,
the son of Matityahu, on the 13th of Adar, which was hence celebrated as a
festive day.

A few years ago, I was in a synagogue, and I overheard one man ask another,
"When is Channukah this year?" The other man smiled slyly and replied, "Same
as always: the 25th of Kislev." This humorous comment makes an important
point: the date of Jewish holidays does not change from year to year. Holidays
are celebrated on the same day of the Jewish calendar every year, but the
Jewish year is not the same length as a solar year on the Gregorian calendar
used by most of the western world, so the date shifts on the Gregorian
calendar.

 Background and History

 Numbering of Jewish Years
 Months of the Jewish Year

Background and History

The Jewish calendar is primarily lunar, with each month beginning on the new
moon, when the first sliver of moon becomes visible after the dark of the moon.
In ancient times, the new months used to be determined by observation. When
people observed the new moon, they would notify the Sanhedrin. When the
Sanhedrin heard testimony from two independent, reliable eyewitnesses that
the new moon occurred on a certain date, they would declare the rosh chodesh
(first of the month) and send out messengers to tell people when the month
began.

The problem with strictly lunar calendars is that there are approximately 12.4
lunar months in every solar year, so a 12-month lunar calendar loses about 11
days every year and a 13-month lunar gains about 19 days every year. The
months on such a calendar "drift" relative to the solar year. On a 12 month
calendar, the month of Nissan, which is supposed to occur in the Spring, occurs
11 days earlier each year, eventually occurring in the Winter, the Fall, the
Summer, and then the Spring again. To compensate for this drift, an extra
month was occasionally added: a second month of Adar. The month of Nissan
would occur 11 days earlier for two or three years, and then would jump
forward 29 or 30 days, balancing out the drift.

In the fourth century, Hillel II established a fixed calendar based on

mathematical and astronomical calculations. This calendar, still in use,
standardized the length of months and the addition of months over the course
of a 19 year cycle, so that the lunar calendar realigns with the solar years. Adar
II is added in the 3rd, 6th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 17th and 19th years of the cycle. The
new year that began Monday, September 25, 1995 (Jewish calendar year 5756)
was the 18th year of the cycle. Jewish year 5758 (beginning October 2, 1997) will
be the first year of the next cycle.

In addition, Yom Kippur should not fall adjacent to a Sabbath, because this

would cause difficulties in coordinating the fast with the Sabbath,
and Hoshanah Rabba should not fall on Saturday because it would interfere
with the holiday's observances. A day is added to the month of Heshvan or
subtracted from the month of Kislev of the previous year to prevent these
things from happening.

Numbering of Jewish Years

The year number on the Jewish calendar represents the number of years since
creation, as calculated by adding up the ages of people in the Bible back to the
time of creation. However, it is important to note that this date is not
necessarily supposed to represent a scientific fact. For example, many Orthodox
Jews will readily acknowledge that the seven "days" of creation are not
necessarily 24-hour days (indeed, a 24-hour day would be meaningless until the
creation of the sun on the fourth "day").

Jews do not generally use the words "A.D." and "B.C." to refer to the years on
the Gregorian calendar. "A.D." means "the year of our L-rd," and we do not
believe Jesus is the L-rd. Instead, we use the abbreviations C.E. (Common or
Christian Era) and B.C.E. (Before the Common Era).

Months of the Jewish Year

The "first month" of the Jewish calendar is the month of Nissan, in the spring,
when Passover occurs. However, the Jewish New Year is in Tishri, the seventh
month, and that is when the year number is increased. This concept of different
starting points for a year is not as strange as it might seem at first glance. The
American "new year" starts in January, but the new "school year" starts in
September, and many businesses have "fiscal years" that start at various times
of the year. Similarly, the Jewish calendar has different starting points for
different purposes.

The Jewish calendar has the following months:

 Length Gregorian Equivalent
Month

Nissan 30 days March-April

Iyar 29 days April-May

Sivan 30 days May-June

Tammuz 29 days June-July

Av 30 days July-August

Elul 29 days August-September

Tishri 30 days September-October

Heshvan 29 or 30 days October-November

Kislev 30 or 29 days November-December

Tevet 29 days December-January

Shevat 30 days January-February

Adar 29 or 30 days February-March

Adar II 29 days March-April

In leap years, Adar has 30 days. In non-leap years, Adar has 29 days.

The length of Heshvan and Kislev are determined by complex calculations

involving the time of day of the full moon of the following year's Tishri and the
day of the week that Tishri would occur in the following year. I won't pretend to
understand the mathematics involved, and I don't particularly recommend
trying to figure it out. There are plenty of easily accessible computer programs
that will calculate the Jewish calendar for more than a millennium to come.

Note that the number of days between Nissan and Tishri is always the same.
Because of this, the time from the first major festival (Passover in Nissan) to the
last major festival (Sukkot in Tishri) is always the same.
What Do Jews Believe?
Level: Basic

 Judaism does not have a formal mandatory beliefs

 The most accepted summary of Jewish beliefs is Rambam's 13 principles of faith
 Even these basic principles have been debated
 Judaism focuses on the relationships between the Creator, mankind, and the land
This is a far more difficult question than you might expect. Judaism has no
dogma, no formal set of beliefs that one must hold to be a Jew. In
Judaism, actions are far more important than beliefs, although there is
certainly a place for belief within Judaism.

13 Principles of Faith
The closest that anyone has ever come to creating a widely-accepted list of Jewish beliefs
is Rambam's thirteen principles of faith. These principles, which Rambam thought were the
minimum requirements of Jewish belief, are:

1. G-d exists
2. G-d is one and unique
3. G-d is incorporeal
4. G-d is eternal
5. Prayer is to be directed to G-d alone and to no other
6. The words of the prophets are true
7. Moses' prophecies are true, and Moses was the greatest of the prophets
8. The Written Torah (first 5 books of the Bible) and Oral Torah (teachings now
contained in the Talmud and other writings) were given to Moses
9. There will be no other Torah
10. G-d knows the thoughts and deeds of men
11. G-d will reward the good and punish the wicked
12. The Messiah will come
13. The dead will be resurrected

Judaism focuses on relationships: the relationship between G-d and mankind, between G-d
and the Jewish people, between the Jewish people and the land of Israel, and between
human beings. Our scriptures tell the story of the development of these relationships, from
the time of creation, through the creation of the relationship between G-d and Abraham, to
the creation of the relationship between G-d and the Jewish people, and forward. The
scriptures also specify the mutual obligations created by these relationships, although
various movements of Judaism disagree about the nature of these obligations. Some say
they are absolute, unchanging laws from G-d (Orthodox); some say they are laws from G-d
that change and evolve over time (Conservative); some say that they are guidelines that you
can choose whether or not to follow (Reform, Reconstructionist). For more on these
distinctions, see Movements of Judaism.
Purim

Level: Basic

 Significance: Remembers the defeat of a plot to exterminate the Jews

 Observances: Public reading of the book of Esther while "blotting out" the villain's
name
 Length: 1 day
 Customs: Costume parties; drinking; eating fruit-filled triangular cookies

Contents

Book of Esther

Customs

Modern Echoes

Hamentaschen Recipe

List of Dates

In the twelfth month, which is the month of Adar, on its thirteenth day ... on the day that the enemies of
the Jews were expected to prevail over them, it was turned about: the Jews prevailed over their
adversaries.  (Esther 9:1)

And they gained relief on the fourteenth, making it a day of feasting and gladness.  (Esther 9:17)

[Mordecai instructed them] to observe them as days of feasting and gladness, and sending delicacies
to one another, and gifts to the poor.  (Esther 9:22)

Purim is one of the most joyous and fun holidays on the Jewish calendar. It
commemorates a time when the Jewish people living in Persia were saved from
extermination.

The Book of Esther

The story of Purim is told in the Biblical book of Esther. The heroes of the story are Esther, a
beautiful young Jewish woman living in Persia, and her cousin Mordecai, who raised her as if
she were his daughter. Esther was taken to the house of Ahasuerus, King of Persia, to become
part of his harem. King Ahasuerus loved Esther more than his other women and made Esther
queen, but the king did not know that Esther was a Jew, because Mordecai told her not to
reveal her identity.

The villain of the story is Haman, an arrogant, egotistical advisor to the king. Haman hated
Mordecai because Mordecai refused to bow down to Haman, so Haman plotted to destroy
the Jewish people. In a speech that is all too familiar to Jews, Haman told the king, "There is
a certain people scattered abroad and dispersed among the peoples in all the provinces of
your realm. Their laws are different from those of every other people's, and they do not
observe the king's laws; therefore it is not befitting the king to tolerate them." Esther 3:8. The
king gave the fate of the Jewish people to Haman, to do as he pleased to them. Haman
planned to exterminate all of the Jews.

Mordecai persuaded Esther to speak to the king on behalf of the Jewish people. This was a
dangerous thing for Esther to do, because anyone who came into the king's presence without
being summoned could be put to death, and she had not been summoned. Esther fasted for
three days to prepare herself, then went into the king. He welcomed her. Later, she told him
of Haman's plot against her people. The Jewish people were saved, and Haman and his ten
sons were hanged on the gallows that had been prepared for Mordecai.

The book of Esther is unusual in that it is the only book of the Bible that does not contain the
name of G-d. In fact, it includes virtually no reference to G-d. Mordecai makes a vague
reference to the fact that the Jews will be saved by someone else, if not by Esther, but that is
the closest the book comes to mentioning G-d. Thus, one important message that can be
gained from the story is that G-d often works in ways that are not apparent, in ways that
appear to be chance, coincidence or ordinary good luck.

Purim Customs and Observances

Purim is celebrated on the 14th day of Adar, which is usually in March. The 13th of Adar is
the day that Haman chose for the extermination of the Jews, and the day that the Jews battled
their enemies for their lives. On the day afterwards, the 14th, they celebrated their survival. In
the walled city of Shushan, deliverance from the massacre was not complete until the 15th of
the month, so in cities that were walled in the time of Joshua (such as Jerusalem) or are
believed to have been walled at that time (such as Jaffa and Tiberias), Purim is observed for
two days, the 14th and the 15th. The 15th is referred to as Shushan Purim. When the 15th
falls on a Saturday, as it did in 2021, Shushan Purim is only partially observed on the 15th
(because some of Purim's observances would violate Shabbat), and observance is extended to
the 16th, a three-day Purim! Note that this is never a problem for the 14th because, due to
the calculation of the Hebrew calendar, the 14th can never fall on Shabbat.

In leap years, when there are two months of Adar, Purim is celebrated in the second month of
Adar, so it is always one month before Passover. The 14th day of the first Adar in a leap year
is celebrated as a minor holiday called Purim Katan, which means "little Purim." There are no
specific observances for Purim Katan; however, a person should celebrate the holiday and
should not mourn or fast. Some communities also observe a "Purim Katan" on the
anniversary of any day when their community was saved from a catastrophe, destruction, evil
or oppression.
The word "Purim" means "lots" and refers to the lottery that Haman used to choose the date
for the massacre.

The Purim holiday is preceded by a minor fast, the Fast of Esther, which commemorates
Esther's three days of fasting in preparation for her meeting with the king.

A traditional grager. Click to hear it

The primary commandment related to Purim is to hear the reading of the book of Esther. The
book of Esther is commonly known as the Megillah, which means scroll. Although there are
five books of Jewish scripture that can be referred to as a megillah (Esther, Ruth,
Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, and Lamentations), this is the one people usually mean when
they speak of The Megillah. It is customary to boo, hiss, stamp feet and rattle gragers
(noisemakers) whenever the name of Haman is mentioned in the service. The purpose of this
custom is to "blot out the name of Haman."

We are also commanded to eat, drink and be merry. According to the Talmud, a person is
required to drink until he cannot tell the difference between "cursed be Haman" and "blessed
be Mordecai," though opinions differ as to exactly how drunk that is. A person certainly
should not become so drunk that he might violate other commandments or get seriously ill. In
addition, recovering alcoholics or others who might suffer serious harm from alcohol are
exempt from this obligation.

Gluten-Free Hamentaschen
In addition, we are commanded to send out gifts of food or drink, and to make gifts to
charity. The sending of gifts of food and drink is referred to as shalach manos (lit. sending
out portions). Among Ashkenazic Jews, a common treat at this time of year is hamentaschen
(lit. Haman's pockets). These triangular fruit-filled cookies are supposed to represent Haman's
three-cornered hat. My recipe is included below.

It is customary to hold carnival-like celebrations on Purim, to perform plays and parodies,

and to hold beauty contests. I have heard that the usual prohibitions against cross-dressing are
lifted during this holiday, but I am not certain about that. Americans sometimes refer to
Purim as the Jewish Mardi Gras.

Purim is not subject to the sabbath-like restrictions on work that some other holidays are;
however, some sources indicate that we should not go about our ordinary business on Purim
out of respect for the holiday.

Modern Echoes of Purim

The Pesach (Passover) seder reminds us that in every generation, there are those who rise up
to destroy us, but G-d saves us from their hand. In the time of the Book of Esther, Haman was
the one who tried to destroy us. In modern times, there have been two significant figures who
have threatened the Jewish people, and there are echoes of Purim in their stories.

Many have noted the echoes of Purim in the Nuremberg war crime trials. In the Book of
Esther, Haman's ten sons were hanged (Esther 9:13); in 1946, ten of Hitler's top associates
were put to death by hanging for their war crimes (including the crime of murdering 6 million
Jews). An 11th associate of Hitler, Hermann Göring, committed suicide the night before the
execution, a parallel to the suicide of Haman's daughter recorded in the Talmud (Megillah
16a). There are rumors that Göring was a transvestite, making that an even more accurate
parallel. One of the men seems to have been aware of the parallel: on the way to the gallows,
Julius Streicher shouted "Purim Fest 1946!" See: Purim Fest 1946: The tale of Julius
Streicher. It is also interesting that, in the traditional text of the Megillah (Book of Esther), in
the list of the names of Haman's sons, the letters Tav in the first name, Shin in the seventh
name and Zayin in the tenth name are written in smaller letters than the rest. The Nuremberg
hanghings occurred in the Jewish year 5707, which would be written on a Jewish tombstone
as Tav-Shin-Zayin (707; the the thousands digit is routinely skipped on tombstones because
there are no numerals for thousands in Hebrew numbering). They were not hanged on Purim,
though -- they were hanged on Hoshanah Rabbah.

Another echo of Purim is found in the Soviet Union a few years later. In early 1953, Stalin
was planning to deport most of the Jews in the Soviet Union to Siberia, but just before his
plans came to fruition, he suffered a stroke and died a few days later. He suffered that stroke
on the night of March 1, 1953: the night after Purim (note: Jewish days end at sunset; you
will see March 1 on the calendar as Purim). The plan to deport Jews was not carried out.

A story is told in Chabad (Lubavitcher Chasidic Judaism) of that 1953 Purim: the

Lubavitcher Rebbe led a Purim gathering and was asked to give a blessing for the Jews of the
Soviet Union, who were known to be in great danger. The Rebbe instead told a cryptic story
about a man who was voting in the Soviet Union and heard people cheering for the candidate,
"Hoorah! Hoorah!" The man did not want to cheer, but was afraid to not cheer, so he said
"hoorah," but in his heart, he meant it in Hebrew: hu ra, which means, "he is evil"! The crowd
at the Rebbe's 1953 gathering began chanting "hu ra!" regarding Stalin, and that night, Stalin
suffered the stroke that lead to his death a few days later.

Recipe for Hamentaschen

This is a sugar cookie-style recipe, which is a common homemade style. In stores or at
synagogues, you will often see a bigger, more yeasty style, but I don't have a recipe for that.

I recently made some changes to the recipe that make it easier to measure (2/3 cup butter?
really?), easier to roll and less prone to pop open in the oven (but still just as tasty!). The new
recipe makes almost twice as much batter (40-50 hamentaschen using a 3-1/4 inch cutting
tool), but I used to double the original recipe anyway. Below is the ingredient list for this new
recipe, alongside the original recipe for anyone who has used it before and wants to stick with
it.

I use a mixer to make the batter these days. I used to mix it by hand, but I was a lot younger
then. You may need to adjust the flour amount slightly if you mix by hand.

New     Original

New Ingredient List

 3/4 cup butter or margarine

 3/4 cup sugar
 2 eggs
 2 tbsp. orange juice (the smooth kind, not the pulpy)
 2 cups white flour
 1-1/2 cups wheat flour (DO NOT substitute white flour! The wheat flour is necessary
to achieve the right texture!)
 2 tsp. baking powder
 1 tsp. cinnamon
 1 tsp. dried orange peel (2 tsp. if fresh)
 Various preserves, fruit butters and/or pie fillings.

Instructions

Blend butter and sugar thoroughly. Add the egg and blend thoroughly. Add OJ and blend
thoroughly. Add flour, 1/2 cup at a time, alternating white and wheat, blending thoroughly
between each. Add the baking powder, cinnamon and orange peel before the last half cup of
flour. Refrigerate batter for an hour or two (preferably overnight for the original recipe). Roll
as thin as you like. I roll it between two sheets of parchment paper dusted with flouer for best
results. Cut out 3 or 4 inch circles. I use a 3-1/4 inch diameter drinking glass as a cutting tool.
Set aside the excess dough for the next batch and flip the circles before filling to make it
easier to fold when the time comes.
 Put a dollop of filling in the middle of each circle.
Fold up the sides to make a triangle, folding the last corner under the starting point, so that
each side has corner that folds over and a corner that folds under (see picture). Folding in this
"pinwheel" style will reduce the likelihood that the last side will fall open while cooking,
spilling out the filling. It also tends to make a better triangle shape.

Bake at 350 degrees for about 15-20 minutes, until golden brown but before the filling boils
over!

Traditional fillings are poppy seed and prune, but apricot is my favorite. Apple butter, orange
marmalade, pineapple preserves, and cherry pie filling all work quite well. I usually use
grocery store brand fruit preserves, and of course the traditional Simon Fischer brand prune
lekvar. I have also made some with Nutella (chocolate-hazelnut spread); I find it a bit dry that
way, but some people like it. The Nutella was less dry when I mixed it with marshmallow
fluff, and a recent mix of Nutella and cherry preserves got rave reviews at the office.

The number of cookies this recipe makes depends on the size of your cutting tool and the
thickness you roll. I am currently using a 3-1/4 inch cutting tool and roll to a medium
thickness, and I get 40-50- cookies out of the new recipe (more like 25-30 with the original).

Wheat-Free, Gluten-Free Variation

If you are on a wheat-free diet for wheat allergies or a gluten-free diet for celiac-sprue,
substitute 3 cups of buckwheat flour and 1/2 cup of milled flax seed for the white and wheat
flour (for the original recipe: 2 cups of buckwheat and 1/2 cup of flax). I have had a lot of
success with Arrowhead Mills Buckwheat Flour in recent years. It's kosher certified and
clearly marked as gluten-free. Reduce the baking powder to 1 tsp. The resulting
hamentaschen will have an unusual pumpernickel color, but they taste great! I have family
and friends with celiac, so I make a batch of this substitution every year, and get great
reviews.

Make sure the buckwheat flour you use is wheat-free/gluten-free! Sometimes buckwheat
flour is mixed with white or wheat flour. The Hodgson Mill buckwheat and flax linked above
are gluten-free and have reliable kosher certification.

List of Dates
Purim will occur on the following days of the secular calendar:

 Jewish Year 5782: sunset March 16, 2022 - nightfall March 17, 2022
 Jewish Year 5783: sunset March 6, 2023 - nightfall March 7, 2023
 Jewish Year 5784: sunset March 23, 2024 - nightfall March 24, 2024
 Jewish Year 5785: sunset March 13, 2025 - nightfall March 14, 2025
 Jewish Year 5786: sunset March 2, 2026 - nightfall March 3, 2026

 Dates of Upcoming Jewish/Israeli Holidays and Festivals

 (2021 - 2024 / 5782 - 5784)

 Table of Contents|Chol HaMoed|Fasting in Judaism

  

2021 - 2022 - 2023 -

  2022 2023 2024
(5782) (5783) (5784)

Septembe September September

Rosh HaShanah r 6-8, 25-27, 15-17,
2021 2022 2023

Septembe September September

Fast of Gedalia
r 9, 2021 28, 2022 18, 2023

Septembe September
October 4-
Yom Kippur r 15-16, 24-25,
5, 2022
2021 2023

Septembe September
October 9-
Sukkot r 20-27, 29-October
16 2022
2021 6, 2023

Septembe October
October 6-
Shemini Atzeret r 27-28, 16-17,
7, 2023
2021 2022

Septembe October
October 7-
Simkhat Torah r 28-29, 17-18,
8, 2023
2021 2022

Yitzhak Rabin October November October

Memorial Day 18, 2021 6, 2022 27, 2023

Novembe November November

Sigd r 3-4, 22-23, 12-13,
2021 2022 2023
 Novembe
December
r 28- December
Chanukah 18-26,
Decembe 7-15, 2023
2022
r 6, 2021

January January 
February 5
Tu B’Shevat 16-17, 24-25,
-6, 2023
2022 2024

March
March 6- March 23-
Purim 16-17,
8, 2023 24, 2024
2022

Pesach (Passove April 15- April 5- April 22-

r) 23, 2022 13, 2023 30, 2024

April 27- April 17- May 5-6,

Yom HaShoah
28, 2022 18, 2023 2024

May 3-4, April 24- May 11-

Yom HaZikaron
2022 25, 2023 12, 2024

Yom Ha- May 4-5, April 25- May 13-

Atzmaut 2022 26, 2023 14, 2024

May 18- May 8-9, May 25-

Lag B’Omer
19, 2022 2023 26, 2024

Yom May 28- May 18- June 4-5,

Yerushalayim 29, 2022 19, 2023 2024

June 4-6, May 25- June 11-

Shavu’ot
2022 26, 2023 12, 2024

August July 26- August 12-

Tisha B’Av
6-7, 2022 27, 2023 13, 2024

 It is not specifically a Jewish or Israeli holiday but it should be

noted that Holocaust Remembrance Day is on January 27 each
year.


 Sources: ReformJudaism.org;
Chabad.org;
Jewish Holidays.
  Mi Sheberach in English Translation
 May the One who blessed our ancestors —
 Patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob,
 Matriarchs Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah —
 bless and heal the one who is ill:
 ________________ son/daughter of ________________ .
 May the Holy Blessed One
 overflow with compassion upon him/her,
 to restore him/her,
 to heal him/her,
 to strengthen him/her,
 to enliven him/her.
 The One will send him/her, speedily,
 a complete healing —
 healing of the soul and healing of the body —
 along with all the ill,
 among the people of Israel and all humankind,
 soon,
 speedily,
 without delay,
 and let us all say:  Amen!

Jewish Holidays: Fasting & Fast Days

In Judaism, fasting is the biblical or rabbinic precept or custom of
refraining from eating and drinking.

- In the Bible
- Second Temple Period
- Fasting Laws & Customs
- Purpose & Conception of Fasting
- Classification of Fasts
- Private Fasts

In the Bible

Although the origins of the ritual of fasting are obscure, several

current theories claim that it originated as (1) a spiritual preparation
for partaking of a sacred meal (W.R. Smith); (2) a method for inducing a
state of susceptibility to visions (E.B. Tylor); and (3) a means of
providing new vitality during periods of human or natural infertility
(T.H. Gaster). Scriptural citations have been adduced to support all
these theories, but fasting in the Bible clearly emerged in response to
more spiritual needs. The Hebrew root for fasting, ẓwm (‫)צום‬, can be
used both as a verb and a noun, e.g., "David fasted a fast" (II Sam.
12:16), a meaning verified in the next verse: "he ate no food." A
synonymous idiom ʿinnah  nefesh (lit. "afflict the body") includes fasting
as part of a general regimen of abstinence, a broader meaning
confirmed by the following:

(a) laws annulling women's vows and oaths that contain the phrase "all
self-denying oaths to afflict her body" (Num. 30:14, cf. verses 3, 7, 10–
13), referring to all forms of abstinence, not just fasting; (b) Daniel,
who expressly "afflicts himself" (Dan. 10:12) not only by abstaining
from choice food, meat, and wine (in biblical terminology, he is not
actually fasting) but also from anointing himself (10:3); and (c) the
example of King David, who, in addition to fasting, sleeps on the
ground, does not change his clothes, and refrains from anointing and
washing (II Sam. 12:16–20, though the term ʿinnah nefesh is absent). In
biblical poetry ẓwm and ʿinnah nefesh are parallel but not synonymous.
Indeed, one verse (Isa. 58:5) indicates that it is rather the
root ẓwm which has taken on the broader sense of ʿinnah nefesh: "…
that a man should bow his head like a bulrush and make his bed on
sackcloth and ashes, is this what you call a fast…?" Thus, the rabbis
declare that ʿinnah nefesh, enjoined for the Day of Atonement (Lev.
16:29, 31; 23:27–32), consists not only of fasting but of other forms of
self-denial such as abstention from "washing, anointing, wearing
shoes, and cohabitation" (Yoma 8:1; cf. Targ. Jon., Lev. 16:29).

Fasting is attested in the oldest strata of biblical literature and there

can be no doubt that spontaneous fasting was widespread from
earliest times both among individuals and groups. In the ritual
practiced in the First Temple, fasting was clearly a permanent feature
(Isa. 1:13, lxx; Jer. 36:9, "before the Lord"; cf. Joel 1:14; 2:15–17). The
death of a national leader (e.g., King Saul) could initiate a day-long fast
(II Sam. 1:12), or, alternatively, the fast might be observed for seven
days (I Sam. 31:13). The authority to proclaim a public fast was vested
in the elders of the local community, who, however, could be
pressured by the royal palace to proclaim a fast (e.g., for Naboth's
undoing, I Kings 21:8–12).

The purposes of fasting are various. Its most widely attested function,
for the community as well as the individual, is to avert or terminate a
calamity by eliciting God's compassion. For example, God mitigates
Ahab's punishment because he fasted and humbled himself (I Kings
21:27–29). King David fasted in the hope that "the Lord will be gracious
to me and the boy will live. But now that he is dead why should I fast?"
(II Sam. 12:22–23). Many other passages also indicate the use of fasting
as a means of winning divine forgiveness (e.g., Ps. 35:13;
69:11; Ezra 10:6), implying that fasting is basically an act of penance, a
ritual expression of remorse, submission, and supplication.

Fasting was practiced as a preparation for communing with the spirits

of the dead or with the Deity, as when Saul fasted the day before the
appearance of Samuel's apparition (I Sam. 28:20). To be vouchsafed
a theophany, Moses fasted for as long as 40 days (Ex. 34:28 [twice,
according to Deut. 9:9, 18]; Elijah, I Kings 19:8). On the two occasions
when Daniel's prayers were answered by means of a vision (Dan.
9:20ff.; 10:7ff.), his preparatory rituals included fasting (Dan. 9:3; 10:3).
That death occasioned a fast is implied by the couriers' surprise when
King David refused to fast after the death of the infant son born to him
by Bath-Sheba (II Sam. 12:21).

When a calamity, human or natural, threatened or struck a whole

community, a public fast was proclaimed. Thus, Israel observed fasts in
its wars against Benjamin (Judg. 20:26), the Philistines ( I Sam. 7:6;
14:24), and its Transjordanian enemies (II Chron. 20:3); similarly fasts
were observed in the hope of averting annihilation by the Babylonians
(Jer. 36:3, 9; see below) and by the Persians (Esth. 4:3, 16). The purpose
of fasts during wartime was to seek God's direct intervention
(e.g., I Sam. 7:9ff.) or advice as transmitted through an oracle (e.g.,
Judg. 20:26–28). Fasting served as a means of supplicating God to end
a famine caused by a plague of locusts (Joel 1:14; 2:12, 15), and to
alleviate the oppression of foreign rule (Neh. 9:1). As a preventive or
intercessory measure, fasting was used to avert the threat of divine
punishment, exemplified by the fast declared for Naboth's alleged
cursing of God (I Kings 21:9) and after Jonah's prophecy of Nineveh's
doom (3:5).

The biblical evidence thus far cited indicates that fasting, both
individual and collective, was a spontaneous reaction to exigencies. In
the pre-exilic period there is no record of specific fast days in the
annual calendar (except the Day of Atonement), although some Bible
critics even conjecture that this, too, was originally an emergency rite
and was fixed on the tenth of Tishri only at the end of the First Temple.
There is a record of a fast day in Jeremiah's time (Jer. 36:3ff.), but this
too originated as an emergency rite ("a fast day was proclaimed," verse
9) and was not repeated. That portion of Deutero-Isaiah which
describes a fast (Isa. 58:3ff.) became the haftarah reading for the Day
of Atonement morning service, but the text can hardly be speaking of
an observance of the Day of Atonement (cf. v. 4).

Fixed fast days are first mentioned by the post-Exilic prophet Zechariah

who proclaims the word of the Lord thus: "The fast of the fourth
month, the fast of the fifth, the fast of the seventh and the fast of the
tenth…" (Zech. 8:19; cf. 7:3, 5). Jewish tradition has it that these fasts
commemorate the critical events which culminated in the destruction
of the Temple: the tenth of Tevet (the tenth month), the beginning of
the siege of Jerusalem; the 17th of Tammuz (the fourth month), the
breaching of the walls; the ninth of Av (the fifth month), when the
Temple was destroyed; and the third of Tishri (the seventh month),
when Gedaliah, the Babylonian-appointed governor of Judah, was
assassinated. Some scholars maintain that these fast days are much
older, marking the beginning of a Lenten period which preceded the
seasonal festivals, and to which only later tradition affixed the events
of the national catastrophe. It is argued that the historical basis for the
four fast days coinciding with the events ascribed to them is weaking
the light of present knowledge. Jeremiah dates the destruction of the
First Temple to the tenth of Av (52:12ff.), whereas II Kings claims the
seventh (25:8ff.); there is, however, no biblical witness for the ninth. It
is surprising that a permanent fast day was proclaimed for the murder
of Gedaliah, who was a Babylonian puppet and not a member of the
House of David. Lastly, there is no scriptural authority for the 17 th of
Tammuz as the date for the breaching of the walls of Jerusalem.
Nevertheless, the claim of the Book of Zechariah (e.g., 7:5) that the
four fasts were instituted upon the destruction of the state cannot be
discounted. If, as it is now suggested, the fast recorded in Jeremiah
was prompted by the sacking of Ashkelon (November/December
604 B.C.E.) and by the similar fate which threatened Jerusalem, it is then
conceivable that four different fast days sprang up simultaneously as a
reaction to the trauma of destruction and exile. Moreover, would
Zechariah have been asked whether the fasts should be abolished if
the historical reality of the Second Temple had not rendered them
meaningless? Indeed, the people consulted the prophet Zechariah
about abolishing the fasts only when the Second Temple was
approaching completion (Zech. 7:1; cf. Ezra 6:15), a time which
coincided with the end of the 70 years of exile predicted by Jeremiah
(Zech. 7:5; cf. Jer. 25:12). There is no need to look for other reasons to
account for the proclamation of the fasts than the destruction of
Jerusalem and the Temple.

Thus, fasting, a spontaneous phenomenon in the days of the First

Temple, may have entered the calendar as a regular and recurring
event only after the exile. Finally, fasting as a discipline, a routine for
the pious, is attested only in post-biblical times in the Apocrypha,
Pseudepigrapha, and Qumran literature.

Second Temple Period

During the Second Temple period, daily or biweekly fastings were

practiced for reasons of asceticism, especially among women (Judith
8:6; Luke 2:37; TJ, Ḥag 2:2, 77d), but also among men (Luke 18:12; Mark
2:18), or in preparation for an apocalyptic revelation (Dan. 10:3, 12;
ii Bar. 12:5; 20:5–21:1; 43:3; iv Ezra 5:13–20; 6:35; Sanh. 65b; TJ, Kil. 9:4,
32b). The Jewish literature of the Second Temple period also advocates
fasting as a way of atonement for sins committed either
unintentionally (Ps. of Sol. 3:9) or even deliberately (Test. Patr., Sim.
3:4), or to prevent them (ibid., Joseph 3:4; 4:8; 10:1–2). These reasons
for fasting were strengthened by the destruction of the Second Temple
and even more by the repression of the Bar Kokhba revolt and the
subsequent religious persecutions.
Fasting Laws & Customs

The laws of fasting detailed in talmudic literature and by halakhic

authorities (Maim. Yad, Ta'aniyyot, 4; Tur and Sh. Ar., OḤ, 579) have
basically not changed from the biblical period. Founded on very
ancient popular and spontaneous customs, they were, in the main, like
the reasons for fasting, not peculiar to the Jewish people, but current
in the whole of the ancient Near East. The description of a public fast
held by the Phoenicians of Carthage, at the end of the second century
b.c.e. (Tertullian, De jejuniis 16), is almost identical to descriptions of
fasts in the Bible, in Second Temple literature, and in rabbinic sources.

The fast was accompanied by prayer (during the First Temple

period sacrifices were offered) and confession of sins (Judg.
20:26; I Sam. 7:6; Ezra 10:1). From the Second Temple period onward,
the public fast was also accompanied by the reading of the Torah (Neh.
9:3). On solemn fasts (Ta'an. 4:1; Tosef. Ta'an. 4:1), four prayers
– Shaḥarit, Ḥaẓot ("noon"), Minḥah, and Ne'ilat She'arim – were recited as
well as Ma'ariv. The Amidah of the fast day consisted of 24
benedictions – "the eighteen of every day, to which another six were
added" (Ta'an. 2:2–4; Ḥemdah  Genuzah (1863), nos. 160–1; Tur, OḤ, 579)
– and the liturgy was elaborated with special passages of supplication
(Anenu – "Answer us!," Ta'an. 14a), seliḥot, and prayers for mercy. The
central part of the service was the sounding of the shofar (Joel 2:1) or
the ḥaẓoẓerot ("trumpets"; I Macc. 3:54), trumpets (as main
instruments) accompanied by horns (RH 3:4; Tosef. to RH 3:3). The
blowing of shofarot and trumpets was performed in a different manner
in the Temple and on the Temple Mount from the other localities
(RH 27a; Ta'an. 16b); the exact procedure, however, is not known.
(According to one opinion, there was no blowing outside the Temple
area at all; see Ta'an. 2:4–5.) During the Middle Ages, in some Jewish
communities, shofarot were sounded, in others, trumpets (see Beit
Yosef to Tur, OḤ, 579).

Prayers were generally held in the open (II Chron. 20:5; Judith 4:11) and
all the people humiliated themselves publicly by tearing their clothes,
wearing sackcloth (I Kings 21:27; Joel 2:13; Ps. 35:13; Judith 4:10, 8:5),
and putting ashes or earth on their heads (Isa. 58:5; Neh. 9:1; Joseph
and Asenath, 10). The cemetery was also visited. (For the various ways
in which these customs were understood see TJ, Ta'an. 2:1, 65a; Ta'an.
16a.) The humiliation was applied even to the most holy objects; at
times also the priests (Joel 1:13; Judith 4:14–15), the king (Jonah 3:6), or
the nasi (Ta'an. 2:1) wore sackcloth and ashes. There were those who
covered even the altar with sackcloth (Judith 4:12), and the ark,
containing the Torah scrolls, was taken into the street and covered
with ashes (Ta'an. 2:1). During the mass assembly (Joel 2:16; Judith
4:11), one of the elders would rebuke the people and the affairs of the
community were investigated in order to determine who was the
cause of the evil (I Kings 21:9–13; Ta'an. 2:1; Ta'an. 12b).

In many places young children and animals were obliged to fast – a

practice which prevailed not only among other nations (Jonah 3:5, 7; TJ,
Ta'an. 2:1, 65b) but even in Israel (Judith 4:9–11; Pseudo-Philo's Liber
Antiquitatum Biblicarum 30:4–5; concerning the participation of the
young children cf. II Chron. 20:13; Joel 2:16). The sages, however,
exempted young children (and animals), the sick, those obliged to
preserve their strength, and, in most cases, pregnant and nursing
women (Tosef. to Ta'an. 2:12; 3:2).

There is some similarity, especially in the case of the solemn fasts,

between the customs of fasting and those of mourning . On ordinary
fast days only food and drink were prohibited, while on the important
ones washing (for pleasure), anointing, the wearing of shoes (for
pleasure), and cohabitation were also forbidden. People also refrained
from work on these days (some, who were stricter, considered work to
be absolutely prohibited (TJ, Ta'an. 1:6, 64c)) and shops were closed
(Ta'an. 1:5–6). It was also customary for some to sleep on the ground
(II Sam. 12:16).

Ordinary fast days lasted for the duration of the daylight hours; the
important fasts were a full 24 hours. Fasts were held either for one day
or sometimes for a series of three or seven days; occasionally even
daily for a continued period. (Ta'an. 1:5–6; cf. also e.g., Judith 4:13). In
exceptional cases, fasts were also held on the Sabbath and the
festivals, but it was usually forbidden to fast on those days; some
authorities also forbade fasting on the eve of the Sabbath, of festivals,
and of the New Moon. In order not to mar the celebration of joyful
events in Jewish history, Hananiah b. Hezekiah b. Garon (first
century C.E.) compiled the Megillat Ta'anit ("Scroll of Fasting") which lists
35 commemorative dates on which a public fast could not be
proclaimed. In time, however, the Megillat Ta'anit was abrogated. It
was customary to hold public fast days on Mondays and Thursdays
(Tosef. to Ta'an. 2:4); individuals, however, especially after the
destruction of the Temple, took upon themselves to fast every Monday
and Thursday (Ta'an. 12a). The halakhah is that in such cases the
individual, in contrast to the community, has to commit himself to fast
during the afternoon of the preceding day (ibid.). It was also possible
to fast for a specific number of hours (Ta'an. 11b–12a). On some
occasions, the fast was not a total one, but people refrained only from
meat, wine, anointment with oil, and other pleasures (Cowley, Aramaic,
no. 30; Dan. 10:3; Test. Patr., Reu. 1:10; Judah 15:4; iv Ezra 9:24; as well
as generally in talmudic literature and in that of the Middle Ages).

The Purpose and Conception of Fasting

In the ancient Near East, prayer and fasting were advocated as a

means to have one's requests fulfilled by the gods (Ahikar, Armenian
version, 2:49, from where, it appears, the idea was derived in Tobit,
short version, 2:8; cf. also Test. Patr., Ben. 1:4). The Bible emphasizes
that the fast is not an end in itself but only a means through which
man can humble his heart and repent for his sins; his repentance must
manifest itself in his deeds (Joel 2:13; Jonah 3:8). The idea is especially
stressed in Isaiah (58:3ff.) where the contrast is made between a fast
which is not accompanied by any real repentance, and which is
therefore unacceptable to God, and the true fast which leads to God's
merciful forgiveness: "Is not this the fast that I have chosen? To loose
the fetters of wickedness, To undo the bands of the yoke, and to let the
oppressed go free… Is it not to deal thy bread to the hungry, and that
thou bring the poor that are cast out to thy house? When thou seest
the naked, that thou cover him… Then shalt thou call, and the Lord will
answer."

The Second Temple period literature also stressed that a fast without
sincere repentance is valueless and senseless (Test. Patr., Ash. 2:8; 4:3;
cf. ibid., Joseph 3:5 – in addition to the fast, Joseph gave his food to the
poor and the sick). In the Second Temple period fasting was also seen
as an "ascetic exercise" which serves to purify man and bring him
closer to God. This appears to have been the original significance of
the fasts of the members of the ma'amadot (Ta'an. 4:2–3 (supplement);
cf. Theophrastus on the Jews who fasted during the offering of the
sacrifices, and Philo on the Day of Atonement). This conception of
fasting closely resembles the concept of complete abstinence and
asceticism whose purpose is to induce ecstasy and apocalyptic visions
and is found not only in the apocalyptic literature of the Second
Temple period (the Qumran sect seems to have held a "fast" day of
which little is known), but also among certain circles of talmudic rabbis,
especially after the destruction of the Temple. This "philosophy" led to
an exaggerated propagation of fasting which, in turn, aroused a sharp
counteraction in general rabbinic literature; the rabbis condemned
ascetic women, especially widows and "fasting maids" ( TJ, Sot. 3:4, 19a).
R. Yose even went further and declared: "The individual has no right to
afflict himself by fasting, lest he become a burden on the community
which will then have to provide for him" (Tosef. Ta'an. 2:12); as
did Samuel, according to whose opinion "Whoever fasts is called a
sinner" (Ta'an. 11a).

The study of the Torah is of greater importance than fasting and

therefore "a scholar has no right to fast because, in doing so, he
decreases the work of heaven" (Ta'an. 11a–b). This led to a trend in
the halakhah which sought to limit even public fasts and their severity,
emphasizing however at the same time the original significance of
fasting – good deeds and repentance. It found expression
in Saadiah Gaon 's opinion (Ketav ha-Tokhehah ve-ha-Hazharah – "Letter
of Reproach and Warning") that rather than keep a voluntary (or
vowed) fast, it is preferable for a person to desist from committing a
sin. Fasting was widely practiced by the mystics and the kabbalists,
especially by Ḥasidei Ashkenaz , but the latter-day Hasidim were
opposed to the idea.

In modern times, except for the Day of Atonement and the Ninth
of Av , which are the two major fast days, other statutory fasts seem to
lack general appeal. Orthodox authorities have, therefore, tried to
reinvest some fast days with more relevant meaning (e.g., declaring
the Tenth of Tevet as a fast day to commemorate those who perished
during the Nazi persecutions and whose yahrzeit is unknown) but to
no great avail. The extension of Jewish sovereignty over the entire city
of Jerusalem (1967) has increased the tendency to abolish the fast days
of the Third of Tishri (Fast of Gedaliah), the Tenth of Tevet, and the
17th of Tammuz (but not the Ninth of Av ). Reform Judaism recognizes
only one mandatory fast – the Day of Atonement. Its general attitude
toward other fast days (public or private) is negative, based upon
Isaiah 58:3–8.

Classification of Fasts

Fast days fall into three main categories: (1) fasts decreed in the Bible
or instituted to commemorate biblical events; (2) fasts decreed by the
rabbis; (3) private fasts.

(1) FASTS DECREED OR MENTIONED IN THE BIBLE. The Day of Atonement

(Yom Kippur) on which it is commanded "Ye shall afflict your souls" so
that the individual may be cleansed from sins (Lev. 16:29–31; 23:27–32;
Num. 29:7ff.); this is the only fast ordained in the Pentateuch.

The Ninth of Av (Tishah be-Av), a day of mourning for the destruction of

the First and Second Temples (see Jer. 52:12–13 where, however, the
date is given as the Tenth), and other calamitous occasions.

The 17th of Tammuz, in commemoration of the breaching of the walls

of Jerusalem in the First Temple period (Jer. 39:2 where the date is the
9th) and Titus breaching the walls of Jerusalem, and of other calamities
which befell the Jewish people (Ta'an. 4:6, Ta'an. 28b, also Sh. Ar., OḤ,
549:2).

The Tenth of Tevet, in memory of the siege of Jerusalem

by Nebuchadnezzar , king of Babylon (II Kings 25:1–2, Jer. 52:4ff.; Ezek.
24:1–2).

The Third of Tishri, called Ẓom Gedalyah (the Fast of Gedaliah), in

memory of the slaying of Gedaliah and his associates (Jer. 41:1–
2; II Kings 25:25).
The Fast of Esther (Ta'anit Ester) on the 13th of Adar, the day
before Purim (Esth. 4:16).

Besides the Day of Atonement, which is a pentateuchal fast, the other

four fast days were also already observed in the period of the Second
Temple. Zechariah prophesied that they would be transformed into
days of joy and gladness (Zech. 8:19).

On the Day of Atonement and on the Ninth of Av, fasting is observed

by total abstention from food and drink from sunset until nightfall of
the following day; on the other fast days, the fast lasts only from
before dawn until nightfall of the same day. All fasts may be broken if
danger to health is involved. Pregnant and nursing women are, under
certain circumstances, exempt from observance (Sh. Ar., OḤ, 50:1
(Isserles) and 554:5).

If one of the above occurs on a Sabbath, the fasting is delayed until

Sunday (Meg. 1:3 and Meg. 5a); only in the case of the Day of
Atonement is the fast observed even on Sabbath. In the case of the
Fast of Esther, observance is on the preceding Thursday (Sh. Ar., OḤ,
686:2).

(2) FASTS DECREED BY THE RABBIS. It has become customary for the

especially pious to fast from morning until evening on the following
days:

During the Ten Days of Penitence (i.e., between Rosh Ha-Shanah and

the Day of Atonement) and as many days as possible during the month
of Elul (Sh. Ar., OḤ, 581:2).

The first Monday and Thursday, and the following Monday

after Passover and Sukkot (Tur and Sh. Ar., OḤ, 492). This fast was
interpreted as an atonement for possible sins committed while in a
state of drunkenness and gluttony during the holidays (see Tos. to Kid.
81a S.V. Sekava).

ShOVaVIM TaT (initial letters of eight consecutive

weekly Pentateuch portions starting with Shemot which are eight
Thursdays of the winter months of an intercalated year).
During the Three Weeks of Mourning between the 17th of Tammuz and
the Ninth of Av (Tur. and Sh. Ar., OḤ, 551:16). This fast was motivated
by a profound grief for the destruction of Jerusalem.

The Seventh of Adar, traditional date of the death of Moses observed

in many communities by the members of the ḥevra kaddisha ("burial
society") who fasted prior to their annual banquet held on the evening
of that same day.

Yom Kippur Katan ("Minor Yom Kippur"), the last day of each month,
on which many communities fasted and recited a special liturgy.

The eve of Passover, firstborn males' fast. This fast is a symbol of the
sanctification of the Jewish firstborn who were saved during the tenth
plague in Egypt (Ex. 13:1ff.). It is also kept in order to stimulate the
appetite for the maẓẓah ("unleavened bread") at the festive meal (Sof.
21:3).

Days commemorating disastrous events in Jewish history (full list in Tur

and Sh. Ar., OḤ, 580:2).

Private Fasts

In addition to the fixed days listed above, fasts are held on the
following private occasions:

The anniversary ( yahrzeit ) of a parent's death or of that of a teacher

(Ned. 12a).

The groom and the bride fast on their wedding day until the ceremony
(Isserles to Sh. Ar., EH, 61:1), unless it is Rosh Ḥodesh (Isserles to Sh.
Ar., OḤ, 573:1).

To avert the evil consequences of nightmares (Ta'anit Ḥalom). In

talmudic times, it was believed that bad dreams could have pernicious
effects (Shab. 11a). This fast was regarded as of such urgency that the
rabbis permitted it even on the Sabbath, but advocated fasting on a
weekday as well as a repentance for having dishonoured the Sabbath
joy through fasting (Ta'an. 12b; Ber. 31b). In later centuries, however,
the obligatory nature of this fast was mitigated by halakhic authorities
(see Sh. Ar., OḤ, 288, 5).

If a Torah scroll is dropped, it is customary for those present to fast a

day.

In the mishnaic period, the members of the Sanhedrin fasted on the

day on which they sentenced a person to death (Sanh. 63a).

Sources:Encyclopaedia Judaica. © 2008 The Gale Group; All Rights

Reserved.

A. Buechler, Types of Jewish-Palestinian  Piety (1922), 128–264;

idem, Studies in Sin and Atonement (1928), 441–56; M.S. Freiberger, Das
Fasten im alten Israel (1927); G.F. Moore, Judaism (1927), index; M.
Grintz, Sefer  Yehudit (1957), index S.V. Ḥom; Allon, Meḥkarim, 2 (1958),
120–7; E. Samuel, in: Turei Yeshurun, 16 (1970), 17–22. In the Bible: W.R.
Smith, Lectures on the Religion of the Semites, ed. by S.A. Cook (19273),
434, 673; J.A. Montgomery, in: jbl, 51 (1932), 183–213; T.H.
Gaster, Festivals of the Jewish Year (1955), 190–211; Kaufmann, Y.,
Toledot, 4 (1956), 266–8; A. Malamat, in: IEJ 6 (1956), 251ff.; E.B. Tylor,
in: EB, S.V. Fast. Post-biblical Period: Urbach, in: Sefer Yovel… Y.
Baer (1960), 48–68; Lowy, in: JJS, 9 (1958), 19–38; Elbogen, Gottesdienst,
index S.V. Fasttage.

Jewish Holidays: Fasting &

Fast Days
Category » Holidays & Festivals

 Reference

Jewish Holidays: An Introduction

Observing Jewish Holidays

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Jewish Holidays:Table of Contents|Introduction|Upcoming Dates

In Judaism, fasting is the biblical or rabbinic precept or custom of

refraining from eating and drinking.

- In the Bible
- Second Temple Period
- Fasting Laws & Customs
- Purpose & Conception of Fasting
- Classification of Fasts
- Private Fasts

In the Bible

Although the origins of the ritual of fasting are obscure, several

current theories claim that it originated as (1) a spiritual preparation
for partaking of a sacred meal (W.R. Smith); (2) a method for inducing a
state of susceptibility to visions (E.B. Tylor); and (3) a means of
providing new vitality during periods of human or natural infertility
(T.H. Gaster). Scriptural citations have been adduced to support all
these theories, but fasting in the Bible clearly emerged in response to
more spiritual needs. The Hebrew root for fasting, ẓwm (‫)צום‬, can be
used both as a verb and a noun, e.g., "David fasted a fast" (II Sam.
12:16), a meaning verified in the next verse: "he ate no food." A
synonymous idiom ʿinnah  nefesh (lit. "afflict the body") includes fasting
as part of a general regimen of abstinence, a broader meaning
confirmed by the following:

(a) laws annulling women's vows and oaths that contain the phrase "all
self-denying oaths to afflict her body" (Num. 30:14, cf. verses 3, 7, 10–
13), referring to all forms of abstinence, not just fasting; (b) Daniel,
who expressly "afflicts himself" (Dan. 10:12) not only by abstaining
from choice food, meat, and wine (in biblical terminology, he is not
actually fasting) but also from anointing himself (10:3); and (c) the
example of King David, who, in addition to fasting, sleeps on the
ground, does not change his clothes, and refrains from anointing and
washing (II Sam. 12:16–20, though the term ʿinnah nefesh is absent). In
biblical poetry ẓwm and ʿinnah nefesh are parallel but not synonymous.
Indeed, one verse (Isa. 58:5) indicates that it is rather the
root ẓwm which has taken on the broader sense of ʿinnah nefesh: "…
that a man should bow his head like a bulrush and make his bed on
sackcloth and ashes, is this what you call a fast…?" Thus, the rabbis
declare that ʿinnah nefesh, enjoined for the Day of Atonement (Lev.
16:29, 31; 23:27–32), consists not only of fasting but of other forms of
self-denial such as abstention from "washing, anointing, wearing
shoes, and cohabitation" (Yoma 8:1; cf. Targ. Jon., Lev. 16:29).

Fasting is attested in the oldest strata of biblical literature and there

can be no doubt that spontaneous fasting was widespread from
earliest times both among individuals and groups. In the ritual
practiced in the First Temple, fasting was clearly a permanent feature
(Isa. 1:13, lxx; Jer. 36:9, "before the Lord"; cf. Joel 1:14; 2:15–17). The
death of a national leader (e.g., King Saul) could initiate a day-long fast
(II Sam. 1:12), or, alternatively, the fast might be observed for seven
days (I Sam. 31:13). The authority to proclaim a public fast was vested
in the elders of the local community, who, however, could be
pressured by the royal palace to proclaim a fast (e.g., for Naboth's
undoing, I Kings 21:8–12).

The purposes of fasting are various. Its most widely attested function,
for the community as well as the individual, is to avert or terminate a
calamity by eliciting God's compassion. For example, God mitigates
Ahab's punishment because he fasted and humbled himself (I Kings
21:27–29). King David fasted in the hope that "the Lord will be gracious
to me and the boy will live. But now that he is dead why should I fast?"
(II Sam. 12:22–23). Many other passages also indicate the use of fasting
as a means of winning divine forgiveness (e.g., Ps. 35:13;
69:11; Ezra 10:6), implying that fasting is basically an act of penance, a
ritual expression of remorse, submission, and supplication.

Fasting was practiced as a preparation for communing with the spirits

of the dead or with the Deity, as when Saul fasted the day before the
appearance of Samuel's apparition (I Sam. 28:20). To be vouchsafed
a theophany, Moses fasted for as long as 40 days (Ex. 34:28 [twice,
according to Deut. 9:9, 18]; Elijah, I Kings 19:8). On the two occasions
when Daniel's prayers were answered by means of a vision (Dan.
9:20ff.; 10:7ff.), his preparatory rituals included fasting (Dan. 9:3; 10:3).
That death occasioned a fast is implied by the couriers' surprise when
King David refused to fast after the death of the infant son born to him
by Bath-Sheba (II Sam. 12:21).

When a calamity, human or natural, threatened or struck a whole

community, a public fast was proclaimed. Thus, Israel observed fasts in
its wars against Benjamin (Judg. 20:26), the Philistines ( I Sam. 7:6;
14:24), and its Transjordanian enemies (II Chron. 20:3); similarly fasts
were observed in the hope of averting annihilation by the Babylonians
(Jer. 36:3, 9; see below) and by the Persians (Esth. 4:3, 16). The purpose
of fasts during wartime was to seek God's direct intervention
(e.g., I Sam. 7:9ff.) or advice as transmitted through an oracle (e.g.,
Judg. 20:26–28). Fasting served as a means of supplicating God to end
a famine caused by a plague of locusts (Joel 1:14; 2:12, 15), and to
alleviate the oppression of foreign rule (Neh. 9:1). As a preventive or
intercessory measure, fasting was used to avert the threat of divine
punishment, exemplified by the fast declared for Naboth's alleged
cursing of God (I Kings 21:9) and after Jonah's prophecy of Nineveh's
doom (3:5).

The biblical evidence thus far cited indicates that fasting, both
individual and collective, was a spontaneous reaction to exigencies. In
the pre-exilic period there is no record of specific fast days in the
annual calendar (except the Day of Atonement), although some Bible
critics even conjecture that this, too, was originally an emergency rite
and was fixed on the tenth of Tishri only at the end of the First Temple.
There is a record of a fast day in Jeremiah's time (Jer. 36:3ff.), but this
too originated as an emergency rite ("a fast day was proclaimed," verse
9) and was not repeated. That portion of Deutero-Isaiah which
describes a fast (Isa. 58:3ff.) became the haftarah reading for the Day
of Atonement morning service, but the text can hardly be speaking of
an observance of the Day of Atonement (cf. v. 4).

Fixed fast days are first mentioned by the post-Exilic prophet Zechariah

who proclaims the word of the Lord thus: "The fast of the fourth
month, the fast of the fifth, the fast of the seventh and the fast of the
tenth…" (Zech. 8:19; cf. 7:3, 5). Jewish tradition has it that these fasts
commemorate the critical events which culminated in the destruction
of the Temple: the tenth of Tevet (the tenth month), the beginning of
the siege of Jerusalem; the 17th of Tammuz (the fourth month), the
breaching of the walls; the ninth of Av (the fifth month), when the
Temple was destroyed; and the third of Tishri (the seventh month),
when Gedaliah, the Babylonian-appointed governor of Judah, was
assassinated. Some scholars maintain that these fast days are much
older, marking the beginning of a Lenten period which preceded the
seasonal festivals, and to which only later tradition affixed the events
of the national catastrophe. It is argued that the historical basis for the
four fast days coinciding with the events ascribed to them is weakin
the light of present knowledge. Jeremiah dates the destruction of the
First Temple to the tenth of Av (52:12ff.), whereas II Kings claims the
seventh (25:8ff.); there is, however, no biblical witness for the ninth. It
is surprising that a permanent fast day was proclaimed for the murder
of Gedaliah, who was a Babylonian puppet and not a member of the
House of David. Lastly, there is no scriptural authority for the 17 th of
Tammuz as the date for the breaching of the walls of Jerusalem.

Nevertheless, the claim of the Book of Zechariah (e.g., 7:5) that the
four fasts were instituted upon the destruction of the state cannot be
discounted. If, as it is now suggested, the fast recorded in Jeremiah
was prompted by the sacking of Ashkelon (November/December
604 B.C.E.) and by the similar fate which threatened Jerusalem, it is then
conceivable that four different fast days sprang up simultaneously as a
reaction to the trauma of destruction and exile. Moreover, would
Zechariah have been asked whether the fasts should be abolished if
the historical reality of the Second Temple had not rendered them
meaningless? Indeed, the people consulted the prophet Zechariah
about abolishing the fasts only when the Second Temple was
approaching completion (Zech. 7:1; cf. Ezra 6:15), a time which
coincided with the end of the 70 years of exile predicted by Jeremiah
(Zech. 7:5; cf. Jer. 25:12). There is no need to look for other reasons to
account for the proclamation of the fasts than the destruction of
Jerusalem and the Temple.

Thus, fasting, a spontaneous phenomenon in the days of the First

Temple, may have entered the calendar as a regular and recurring
event only after the exile. Finally, fasting as a discipline, a routine for
the pious, is attested only in post-biblical times in the Apocrypha,
Pseudepigrapha, and Qumran literature.

Second Temple Period

During the Second Temple period, daily or biweekly fastings were

practiced for reasons of asceticism , especially among women (Judith
8:6; Luke 2:37; TJ, Ḥag 2:2, 77d), but also among men (Luke 18:12; Mark
2:18), or in preparation for an apocalyptic revelation (Dan. 10:3, 12;
ii Bar. 12:5; 20:5–21:1; 43:3; iv Ezra 5:13–20; 6:35; Sanh. 65b; TJ, Kil. 9:4,
32b). The Jewish literature of the Second Temple period also advocates
fasting as a way of atonement for sins committed either
unintentionally (Ps. of Sol. 3:9) or even deliberately (Test. Patr., Sim.
3:4), or to prevent them (ibid., Joseph 3:4; 4:8; 10:1–2). These reasons
for fasting were strengthened by the destruction of the Second Temple
and even more by the repression of the Bar Kokhba revolt and the
subsequent religious persecutions.

Fasting Laws & Customs

The laws of fasting detailed in talmudic literature and by halakhic

authorities (Maim. Yad, Ta'aniyyot, 4; Tur and Sh. Ar., OḤ, 579) have
basically not changed from the biblical period. Founded on very
ancient popular and spontaneous customs, they were, in the main, like
the reasons for fasting, not peculiar to the Jewish people, but current
in the whole of the ancient Near East. The description of a public fast
held by the Phoenicians of Carthage, at the end of the second century
b.c.e. (Tertullian, De jejuniis 16), is almost identical to descriptions of
fasts in the Bible, in Second Temple literature, and in rabbinic sources.

The fast was accompanied by prayer (during the First Temple

period sacrifices were offered) and confession of sins (Judg.
20:26; I Sam. 7:6; Ezra 10:1). From the Second Temple period onward,
the public fast was also accompanied by the reading of the Torah (Neh.
9:3). On solemn fasts (Ta'an. 4:1; Tosef. Ta'an. 4:1), four prayers
– Shaḥarit, Ḥaẓot ("noon"), Minḥah, and Ne'ilat She'arim – were recited as
well as Ma'ariv. The Amidah of the fast day consisted of 24
benedictions – "the eighteen of every day, to which another six were
added" (Ta'an. 2:2–4; Ḥemdah  Genuzah (1863), nos. 160–1; Tur, OḤ, 579)
– and the liturgy was elaborated with special passages of supplication
(Anenu – "Answer us!," Ta'an. 14a), seliḥot, and prayers for mercy. The
central part of the service was the sounding of the shofar (Joel 2:1) or
the ḥaẓoẓerot ("trumpets"; I Macc. 3:54), trumpets (as main
instruments) accompanied by horns (RH 3:4; Tosef. to RH 3:3). The
blowing of shofarot and trumpets was performed in a different manner
in the Temple and on the Temple Mount from the other localities
(RH 27a; Ta'an. 16b); the exact procedure, however, is not known.
(According to one opinion, there was no blowing outside the Temple
area at all; see Ta'an. 2:4–5.) During the Middle Ages, in some Jewish
communities, shofarot were sounded, in others, trumpets (see Beit
Yosef to Tur, OḤ, 579).

Prayers were generally held in the open (II Chron. 20:5; Judith 4:11) and
all the people humiliated themselves publicly by tearing their clothes,
wearing sackcloth (I Kings 21:27; Joel 2:13; Ps. 35:13; Judith 4:10, 8:5),
and putting ashes or earth on their heads (Isa. 58:5; Neh. 9:1; Joseph
and Asenath, 10). The cemetery was also visited. (For the various ways
in which these customs were understood see TJ, Ta'an. 2:1, 65a; Ta'an.
16a.) The humiliation was applied even to the most holy objects; at
times also the priests (Joel 1:13; Judith 4:14–15), the king (Jonah 3:6), or
the nasi (Ta'an. 2:1) wore sackcloth and ashes. There were those who
covered even the altar with sackcloth (Judith 4:12), and the ark,
containing the Torah scrolls, was taken into the street and covered
with ashes (Ta'an. 2:1). During the mass assembly (Joel 2:16; Judith
4:11), one of the elders would rebuke the people and the affairs of the
community were investigated in order to determine who was the
cause of the evil (I Kings 21:9–13; Ta'an. 2:1; Ta'an. 12b).

In many places young children and animals were obliged to fast – a

practice which prevailed not only among other nations (Jonah 3:5, 7; TJ,
Ta'an. 2:1, 65b) but even in Israel (Judith 4:9–11; Pseudo-Philo's Liber
Antiquitatum Biblicarum 30:4–5; concerning the participation of the
young children cf. II Chron. 20:13; Joel 2:16). The sages, however,
exempted young children (and animals), the sick, those obliged to
preserve their strength, and, in most cases, pregnant and nursing
women (Tosef. to Ta'an. 2:12; 3:2).

There is some similarity, especially in the case of the solemn fasts,

between the customs of fasting and those of mourning . On ordinary
fast days only food and drink were prohibited, while on the important
ones washing (for pleasure), anointing, the wearing of shoes (for
pleasure), and cohabitation were also forbidden. People also refrained
from work on these days (some, who were stricter, considered work to
be absolutely prohibited (TJ, Ta'an. 1:6, 64c)) and shops were closed
(Ta'an. 1:5–6). It was also customary for some to sleep on the ground
(II Sam. 12:16).

Ordinary fast days lasted for the duration of the daylight hours; the
important fasts were a full 24 hours. Fasts were held either for one day
or sometimes for a series of three or seven days; occasionally even
daily for a continued period. (Ta'an. 1:5–6; cf. also e.g., Judith 4:13). In
exceptional cases, fasts were also held on the Sabbath and the
festivals, but it was usually forbidden to fast on those days; some
authorities also forbade fasting on the eve of the Sabbath, of festivals,
and of the New Moon. In order not to mar the celebration of joyful
events in Jewish history, Hananiah b. Hezekiah b. Garon (first
century C.E.) compiled the Megillat Ta'anit ("Scroll of Fasting") which lists
35 commemorative dates on which a public fast could not be
proclaimed. In time, however, the Megillat Ta'anit was abrogated. It
was customary to hold public fast days on Mondays and Thursdays
(Tosef. to Ta'an. 2:4); individuals, however, especially after the
destruction of the Temple, took upon themselves to fast every Monday
and Thursday (Ta'an. 12a). The halakhah is that in such cases the
individual, in contrast to the community, has to commit himself to fast
during the afternoon of the preceding day (ibid.). It was also possible
to fast for a specific number of hours (Ta'an. 11b–12a). On some
occasions, the fast was not a total one, but people refrained only from
meat, wine, anointment with oil, and other pleasures (Cowley, Aramaic,
no. 30; Dan. 10:3; Test. Patr., Reu. 1:10; Judah 15:4; iv Ezra 9:24; as well
as generally in talmudic literature and in that of the Middle Ages).

The Purpose and Conception of Fasting

In the ancient Near East, prayer and fasting were advocated as a

means to have one's requests fulfilled by the gods (Ahikar, Armenian
version, 2:49, from where, it appears, the idea was derived in Tobit,
short version, 2:8; cf. also Test. Patr., Ben. 1:4). The Bible emphasizes
that the fast is not an end in itself but only a means through which
man can humble his heart and repent for his sins; his repentance must
manifest itself in his deeds (Joel 2:13; Jonah 3:8). The idea is especially
stressed in Isaiah (58:3ff.) where the contrast is made between a fast
which is not accompanied by any real repentance, and which is
therefore unacceptable to God, and the true fast which leads to God's
merciful forgiveness: "Is not this the fast that I have chosen? To loose
the fetters of wickedness, To undo the bands of the yoke, and to let the
oppressed go free… Is it not to deal thy bread to the hungry, and that
thou bring the poor that are cast out to thy house? When thou seest
the naked, that thou cover him… Then shalt thou call, and the Lord will
answer."

The Second Temple period literature also stressed that a fast without
sincere repentance is valueless and senseless (Test. Patr., Ash. 2:8; 4:3;
cf. ibid., Joseph 3:5 – in addition to the fast, Joseph gave his food to the
poor and the sick). In the Second Temple period fasting was also seen
as an "ascetic exercise" which serves to purify man and bring him
closer to God. This appears to have been the original significance of
the fasts of the members of the ma'amadot (Ta'an. 4:2–3 (supplement);
cf. Theophrastus on the Jews who fasted during the offering of the
sacrifices, and Philo on the Day of Atonement). This conception of
fasting closely resembles the concept of complete abstinence and
asceticism whose purpose is to induce ecstasy and apocalyptic visions
and is found not only in the apocalyptic literature of the Second
Temple period (the Qumran sect seems to have held a "fast" day of
which little is known), but also among certain circles of talmudic rabbis,
especially after the destruction of the Temple. This "philosophy" led to
an exaggerated propagation of fasting which, in turn, aroused a sharp
counteraction in general rabbinic literature; the rabbis condemned
ascetic women, especially widows and "fasting maids" ( TJ, Sot. 3:4, 19a).
R. Yose even went further and declared: "The individual has no right to
afflict himself by fasting, lest he become a burden on the community
which will then have to provide for him" (Tosef. Ta'an. 2:12); as
did Samuel , according to whose opinion "Whoever fasts is called a
sinner" (Ta'an. 11a).

The study of the Torah is of greater importance than fasting and

therefore "a scholar has no right to fast because, in doing so, he
decreases the work of heaven" (Ta'an. 11a–b). This led to a trend in
the halakhah which sought to limit even public fasts and their severity,
emphasizing however at the same time the original significance of
fasting – good deeds and repentance. It found expression
in Saadiah Gaon 's opinion (Ketav ha-Tokhehah ve-ha-Hazharah – "Letter
of Reproach and Warning") that rather than keep a voluntary (or
vowed) fast, it is preferable for a person to desist from committing a
sin. Fasting was widely practiced by the mystics and the kabbalists,
especially by Ḥasidei Ashkenaz , but the latter-day Hasidim were
opposed to the idea.

In modern times, except for the Day of Atonement and the Ninth
of Av , which are the two major fast days, other statutory fasts seem to
lack general appeal. Orthodox authorities have, therefore, tried to
reinvest some fast days with more relevant meaning (e.g., declaring
the Tenth of Tevet as a fast day to commemorate those who perished
during the Nazi persecutions and whose yahrzeit is unknown) but to
no great avail. The extension of Jewish sovereignty over the entire city
of Jerusalem (1967) has increased the tendency to abolish the fast days
of the Third of Tishri (Fast of Gedaliah), the Tenth of Tevet, and the
17th of Tammuz (but not the Ninth of Av ). Reform Judaism recognizes
only one mandatory fast – the Day of Atonement. Its general attitude
toward other fast days (public or private) is negative, based upon
Isaiah 58:3–8.

Classification of Fasts

Fast days fall into three main categories: (1) fasts decreed in the Bible
or instituted to commemorate biblical events; (2) fasts decreed by the
rabbis; (3) private fasts.

(1) FASTS DECREED OR MENTIONED IN THE BIBLE. The Day of Atonement

(Yom Kippur) on which it is commanded "Ye shall afflict your souls" so
that the individual may be cleansed from sins (Lev. 16:29–31; 23:27–32;
Num. 29:7ff.); this is the only fast ordained in the Pentateuch.

The Ninth of Av (Tishah be-Av), a day of mourning for the destruction of

the First and Second Temples (see Jer. 52:12–13 where, however, the
date is given as the Tenth), and other calamitous occasions.

The 17th of Tammuz, in commemoration of the breaching of the walls

of Jerusalem in the First Temple period (Jer. 39:2 where the date is the
9th) and Titus breaching the walls of Jerusalem, and of other calamities
which befell the Jewish people (Ta'an. 4:6, Ta'an. 28b, also Sh. Ar., OḤ,
549:2).

The Tenth of Tevet, in memory of the siege of Jerusalem

by Nebuchadnezzar , king of Babylon (II Kings 25:1–2, Jer. 52:4ff.; Ezek.
24:1–2).

The Third of Tishri, called Ẓom Gedalyah (the Fast of Gedaliah), in

memory of the slaying of Gedaliah and his associates (Jer. 41:1–
2; II Kings 25:25).

The Fast of Esther (Ta'anit Ester) on the 13th of Adar, the day

before Purim (Esth. 4:16).

Besides the Day of Atonement, which is a pentateuchal fast, the other

four fast days were also already observed in the period of the Second
Temple. Zechariah prophesied that they would be transformed into
days of joy and gladness (Zech. 8:19).

On the Day of Atonement and on the Ninth of Av, fasting is observed

by total abstention from food and drink from sunset until nightfall of
the following day; on the other fast days, the fast lasts only from
before dawn until nightfall of the same day. All fasts may be broken if
danger to health is involved. Pregnant and nursing women are, under
certain circumstances, exempt from observance (Sh. Ar., OḤ, 50:1
(Isserles) and 554:5).

If one of the above occurs on a Sabbath, the fasting is delayed until

Sunday (Meg. 1:3 and Meg. 5a); only in the case of the Day of
Atonement is the fast observed even on Sabbath. In the case of the
Fast of Esther, observance is on the preceding Thursday (Sh. Ar., OḤ,
686:2).

(2) FASTS DECREED BY THE RABBIS. It has become customary for the

especially pious to fast from morning until evening on the following
days:

During the Ten Days of Penitence (i.e., between Rosh Ha-Shanah and

the Day of Atonement) and as many days as possible during the month
of Elul (Sh. Ar., OḤ, 581:2).

The first Monday and Thursday, and the following Monday

after Passover and Sukkot (Tur and Sh. Ar., OḤ, 492). This fast was
interpreted as an atonement for possible sins committed while in a
state of drunkenness and gluttony during the holidays (see Tos. to Kid.
81a S.V. Sekava).

ShOVaVIM TaT (initial letters of eight consecutive

weekly Pentateuch portions starting with Shemot which are eight
Thursdays of the winter months of an intercalated year).

During the Three Weeks of Mourning between the 17th of Tammuz and

the Ninth of Av (Tur. and Sh. Ar., OḤ, 551:16). This fast was motivated
by a profound grief for the destruction of Jerusalem.
The Seventh of Adar , traditional date of the death of Moses observed
in many communities by the members of the ḥevra kaddisha ("burial
society") who fasted prior to their annual banquet held on the evening
of that same day.

Yom Kippur Katan ("Minor Yom Kippur"), the last day of each month,
on which many communities fasted and recited a special liturgy.

The eve of Passover, firstborn males' fast. This fast is a symbol of the
sanctification of the Jewish firstborn who were saved during the tenth
plague in Egypt (Ex. 13:1ff.). It is also kept in order to stimulate the
appetite for the maẓẓah ("unleavened bread") at the festive meal (Sof.
21:3).

Days commemorating disastrous events in Jewish history (full list in Tur

and Sh. Ar., OḤ, 580:2).

Private Fasts

In addition to the fixed days listed above, fasts are held on the
following private occasions:

The anniversary ( yahrzeit ) of a parent's death or of that of a teacher

(Ned. 12a).

The groom and the bride fast on their wedding day until the ceremony
(Isserles to Sh. Ar., EH, 61:1), unless it is Rosh Ḥodesh (Isserles to Sh.
Ar., OḤ, 573:1).

To avert the evil consequences of nightmares (Ta'anit Ḥalom). In

talmudic times, it was believed that bad dreams could have pernicious
effects (Shab. 11a). This fast was regarded as of such urgency that the
rabbis permitted it even on the Sabbath, but advocated fasting on a
weekday as well as a repentance for having dishonored the Sabbath
joy through fasting (Ta'an. 12b; Ber. 31b). In later centuries, however,
the obligatory nature of this fast was mitigated by halakhic authorities
(see Sh. Ar., OḤ, 288, 5).

If a Torah scroll is dropped, it is customary for those present to fast a

day.
In the mishnaic period, the members of the Sanhedrin fasted on the
day on which they sentenced a person to death (Sanh. 63a).

Sources:Encyclopaedia Judaica. © 2008 The Gale Group; All Rights

Reserved.

A. Buechler, Types of Jewish-Palestinian  Piety (1922), 128–264;

idem, Studies in Sin and Atonement (1928), 441–56; M.S. Freiberger, Das
Fasten im alten Israel (1927); G.F. Moore, Judaism (1927), index; M.
Grintz, Sefer  Yehudit (1957), index S.V. Ḥom; Allon, Meḥkarim, 2 (1958),
120–7; E. Samuel, in: Turei Yeshurun, 16 (1970), 17–22. In the Bible: W.R.
Smith, Lectures on the Religion of the Semites, ed. by S.A. Cook (19273),
434, 673; J.A. Montgomery, in: jbl, 51 (1932), 183–213; T.H.
Gaster, Festivals of the Jewish Year (1955), 190–211; Kaufmann, Y.,
Toledot, 4 (1956), 266–8; A. Malamat, in: IEJ 6 (1956), 251ff.; E.B. Tylor,
in: EB, S.V. Fast. Post-biblical Period: Urbach, in: Sefer Yovel… Y.
Baer (1960), 48–68; Lowy, in: JJS, 9 (1958), 19–38; Elbogen, Gottesdienst,
index S.V. Fasttage.