UNIT 4: MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

1. Sameep Sehgal 21001003121

2. Rahul Tanwar 21001003107
Class- Btech CE-22 Batch 2021-25
3. Raj Khandelwal 21001003108
4. Raj Singh 21001003109
Submitted To-
5. Rajyavardhan. 21001003110
6. Priyanshu Pandey 21001003104 Dr. Parmod Kumar
7. Nitin Kundu. 21001003092 Assistant Prof.
8. Nimish Garg 21001003089 Dept. of Physics
9. Ravish Singla 21001003112
10. Mayank 21001003078
11. Tushar Kumar. 21001003140
12. Nikhil Gattani. 21001003088
13. Nakshatra. 21001003083
 UNIT 4: MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

CONCEPT OF RESISTANCE IN SEMICONDUCTORS

Semiconductors are those materials which have conductivity in between conductors and insulators. But at
absolute zero ,the pure semiconductor behaves like insulator because all the electrons are in bound state at 0 K
and there is no free electron at all. When temperature increases, the electrons gets the energy and breaks the
bond to become free. These free electrons acts as charge carrier when external field is applied. Therefore , the
resistance of semiconductors decreases with increase in temperature. Hence, semiconductors have –ve
Temperature coefficient.

CONCEPT OF RESISTIVITY IN SEMICONDUCTORS

The resistivity of a particular material is measure of how strongly the material opposes the flow of electric
current. The resistivity (ρ) is also called specific resistance and it enables the resistance of different materials
to be compared to one another a t a specific temperature as per their physical properties and independent of
length/cross-section area . It is clearly shows the value of ‘ρ’ ,more is resistance and vice-a-versa.

R = ρ (L/A) or ρ = RA/L

Resistivity is the most important characteristics of a semiconductor and resistivity is measured by four-pint
probe and Van der pauw methods.

FOUR POINT PROBE FOR RESISTIVITY

The four point method consist of collinear four-point array ,out of
which the outer two points carry constant current ‘I’ through the
layer and the two inner points monitor the Voltage ‘V’ as shown
in figure 1.Gernerally the probe spacing is of order of 1mm in
case of this method.

The resistivity for the probes with equidistant spacing ‘s’

between the point and having semi-infinite sample is given by:

ρ = 2πs(V/I) (in Ω-cm)

For finite geometry of samples, a geometrical correction factor ‘F’ which is related to the sample

thickness, the probe spacing and edge effects must be incorporated in above equation, Then

ρ = 2πsF(V/I) (in Ω-cm)

If wafer thickness or semiconductor layer thickness d is smaller then S, then the resistivity can be

given by :

ρ = (π/ln2)d (V/I)

= 4.53d(V/I) (in Ω-cm)

When the semiconductor layer is very-very thin then it is preferable to use a sheet resistance ρs = ρ/d measured
in ohms per square and ρs can be expressed as

ρs = 4.53(V/I) (in Ω-cm)

During measurements of resistivity in thin layer, precaution may be taken by observing the erroneous resistance
due to the carrier injection occurring for high current density at the probe tips or due to probe-pressure
induced/damage under the probe.

VAN DER PAUW MEASUREMENTS for RESISTIVITY

The Van der Pauw method is a technique to accurately measure resistivity, carrier density etc. for an arbitrary
shaped sample without knowing the current pattern. As in the four point probe method this method also has
four probes, out of which two probes carry the current and other two probes are used for sensing the
voltage.

The four point probe method is generally used for regular shaped sample in which four probes are arranged in
a line with equal probe spacing. But when samples are of irregular shape then we use Van der Pauw method
in which probe are located at the corners of sample as shown in fig.(a)

Fig.(a)

It is showed that specific resistivity of arbitrary sample can be measured if the following conditions are met:

(i) The contacts are at the circumference of the sample

(ii) The contacts are negligibly small

(iii) The sample is uniformly thick

(iv) The surface of the sample doesn't contain any isolated holes (i.e. singly connected)
For a flat sample of a conducting material having arbitrary shape having contacts 1, 2, 3 and 4 along the
periphery of sample as shownin above Fig.(a)

The resistivity of the sample as per Van der Pauw method is given by
𝜋𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑐,𝑑𝑏+𝑅𝑐𝑑,𝑏𝑎
ρ= F
ln(2) 2

The currentIabenter in the sample through contact 1 and leaves through contact 2 and Vbd=Vb-Vd, is the voltage
difference between the contact B and D. Rcb, da can also be defined in the same manner. A factor 'F' is
introducedtorepresent the asymmetry of the contact which is a function of the ratio R r=Rac,bd/Rcd, ba. It satisfies
the relation

Rr-1/Rr+1= 𝐹 In(2)/F
)
ln(2)
arc cos h (exp
2

The above equation shows the dependence of F on R, which is shown below in Fig(b)

HALL EFFECT AND HALL MOBILITY

The arrangement of probes for Hall mobility for a flat sample having arbitrary shape is shown in Hall co-
efficient in case of Van der Pauw measurements is given by :

RH= (tΔV24)/2BI13

Where ΔV24 = V24(for +B) – V24 (for – B) with I13 flowing in to terminal 1 and out of terminal 3, where B is the
magnetic field.

The carrier concentration ‘n’ is calculated from Hall coefficient as

n = r / q | RH |
where q = electronic charge , r = Hall scattering factor defined by

r = <τ> / <τ2>

where τ is the mean time between collisions for the carriers. The value of scattering factor in the semiconductor
lies between 1 and 2

The Hall mobility µH is given by

µH = | RH | / ρ = | RH |σ

The Hall mobility and conductivity mobility are related to each other as

µH = rµn, µH = rµp

for extrinsic n-type and p-type semiconductors.

Van der pauw method for measuring Hall co-efficient

The Hall-Van der Pauw measurements can be used

to derive resistivity, the net carrier concentration and carrier mobility. By using these measurement at various
temperatures, one can derive the energy levels and concentration of impurities contributing to the net-carrier
concentration. In semiconductors, both electron and hole contribute to the current and therefore bulk
conductivity σ (where σ = l/ρ) isgiven by

σ = neµE + ρe µh

But for intrinsic semiconductors

σ = σ0 exp(- Eg / 2kbT)

where Eg is energy band gap and can be derived from the slope -Eg / 2kB

For extrinsic semiconductor, when n>>p, the material is n-type and when p>>n, the material is a p-type
semiconductor. To determine the carrier type, in addition to resistivity measurements, a complementary
impurity levels in semiconductors.

Hall effect measurements of semiconductors are employed to determine the density and sign of majority
carriers. In Hall effect measurements, the Magnetic field ‘B’ is applied in a direction (say in z direction)
perpendicular to the direction of current flow (say in x-direction). The charge carrier moving through a
semiconductor are deflected due to a Lorentz force exerted by the applied magnetic field. Due to this
deflection, a potential difference is established across the side of the semiconductor that is transverse to the
magnetic field and the current direction, The Hall voltage Vy and electric field Eyhave the relation
 Vy = Ey (where y is the simple width)

Ey= RH JX BZ

Where JX = current density or JX = IX / yz , RH = Hall co=efficient

The Hall co-efficient is negatve for n-type semiconductor and positive for p-type semiconductor

For n-type semiconductor RH = -(ne)-1

For p-type semiconductor RH = -( ρe)-1

Hence from measured RH, the density of carriers in semiconductor can be determined and the conductivity type
can also be found from field polarity.

If conductivity of a semiconductor is known then Hall mobility can be determined using the relation µH = σ RH .
Hence, it is clear that from combined conductivity (resistivity) and Hall effect measurements. The carrier
density, its type and mobility can be determined. From all these measurements as a function of temperature ,
temperature variation of carrier density and mobility can be determined. The doping range sensitivity of the
method lies between 1014 to 1019 cm-3 . During this method, one should distinguish between Hall mobility µH
and drift mobility µ and the ratio µH over µ vary in the range between 1 and 2 depending on the scattering
mechanism which in turn depends on temperature and doping concentration.

HOT-POINT PROBE MEASUREMENTS

A Hot-point probe method is used for quickly determination of a semiconductor sample type (i.e. whether it is
n-type or p-type). In Hot-Point Probe method, the semiconductor surface is attached with a couple of cold probe
and hot probe. Both these probes are connected with a multimeter/electrometer. The hot probe is connected
with the positive terminal of the meter while the cold probe is connected with the negative terminal of the
meter.
When these probes are applied on n-type semiconductor, then positive voltage reading is obtained in the
meter whereas a negative voltage reading is obtained in case of p-type semiconductor.

In this method, the thermally excited majority free charged carrier are translated with in the semiconductor from
the hot probe to the cold probe. This excitation and translation is due to transfer of heat from hot probe to the
cold probe. This excitation and translation is due to transfer of heat from hot probe and this motion within the
semiconductor is due to diffusion. These translated majority carriers define the electrical potential sign of the
measured current in the multimeter. Therefore, the hot probe surrounding zones becomes charged with minority
carriers and the cold probe remains neutral as clearly shown in above figure.

Capacitor- Voltage Measurement

Capacitor -Voltage profiling or CV profiling is a technique for characterising semiconductor materials and
devices. The applied voltage is varied and the capacitance is measured and plot as a function of voltage .

CV measurements gives accurate information about doping conc. Of majority charge carriers as a function of
distance(depth) from the junction .It can quantitatively describes the free carrier conc. Together with
information about traps. Defects appearing as traps at energies deep within the forbidden gap of a
semiconductor can add or remove free carriers.

The technique uses a p-n junction ,metal -semiconductor junction, Schottky junction and MOSFET to create a
depletion region , a region which is empty of conducting holes and electrons but may contain ionized charges
which are electrically active defects or traps .The depletion region with ionized charges behaves like a capacitor
by varying the voltage applied to the junction .It is possible to vary width of depletion region .This gives the
information about semiconductor’s internal characteristics such as its doping profile and trapped densities.

Thus by plotting 1/C2as a function of the bias voltage V results in a straight line from which the value of Vbi
can be obtained from the intercept on V-axis.

DEEP LEVEL TRANSIENT SPECTROSCOPY (DLTS)

Deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) measurements give information about the deep level impurities or
points defects or electrically active defects (called charge carrier traps) in a semiconductor. It is a technique
with accuracy and detection limit. It is totally non-destructive technique and establishes fundamental defect
parameters and measures their concentration in material. DLTS technique is highly sensitive technique in
comparison to all other techniques used for diagnosis of semiconductors. In silicon, it can detect impurities and
defects at a concentration of one part in 10 12 of the material host atoms. DLTS measurements are performed on
semiconductor devices such as p-n junction or Schottky barrier diodes and Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor
(MOS)/Metal-Insulator-Semiconductor (MIS) capacitor.

DLTS method involves repetitive filling and emptying of traps in the semiconductor depletion region and
simultaneous monitoring of junction capacitance with a fast meter. Due to the release the trapped carriers from
deep level with in depletion region, the process results in capacitance transients. DLTS measurements are bused
on capture and thermal release or carriers as traps (a voltage bias pulse is employed to fill the traps). Following
each excitation pulse, deep levels are in a non-equilibrium state; the thermal emission of captured carriers
restores the thermal equilibrium.

If the levels are located in the space-charge region of p-n junction or schottky barrier, the relaxation process will
result in the measureable current transient or capacitance transient, with the rate of decay depending on the
energy of deep level and on temperature also. Therefore by monitoring the time constant of the transients as a
function of the excitation pulse repetition rate or the rate window, at different temperature, the energy level and
the concentration of deep level can be derived. Here it is important to mention that the capacitance transient
allows diffraction between electron and hole traps from the sign of the signal which is independent of rate
window where in case of current transient the of signal depends on the rate window and is same for electrons
and holes.

Parameter Extraction From Diode I-V Characteristic

The p-n junction current -voltage characteristics have been studied for long time in past. Many models based on
the principle of solid statephysics are developed to study the characteristics and much more. But the extraction
and optimization of semiconductor device parameters are very important for the device modeling and design.
The IC technology, the diode is the most important device. Hence, the physical parameter extracted from the
forward I-V measurement for the diode provide a basis to understand how the processing parameters and the
structure designs influence the electrical characteristics of devices in the circuit, which help the designer to
construct a good model of diode for integrated circuit simulation.

The parameter extraction techniques for diodes are related to Schottky diodes. Norde, first introduced an
auxillary function to extract the parameter for Schottky diode in 1979 and later on Werner proposed the I-V plot
method utilizing the small signal conductance without using traditional method/technique.

In general practice, most of the diode parameters are extracted by plotting its I-V characteristics on the log(I) vs
V graph as shown in figure 12.7 .
In general practice, most of the diode parameters are extracted by plotting its I-V characteristics on the log(I) vs
V graph as shown in figure 12.7 .

The diode parameters which can be extracted using the I-V characteristics plot are IV, Is, Rs and ideality factor
n. To describe the p-n junction diode before the high injection current occurrence, we use normal method and
in p-n junction under forward biasing , the dominant conduction mechanism are the diffusion current and
recombination current, then I-V characteristics is describe by using Schottky equation normal model is

where q =Elementary charge, k =Boltzmann constant, T =Absolute Temp, Ir=Zero biased recombination
current,Is=Reverse biased saturation current, Rs=Series resistance

The Irand Is parameters for p-n junction are given by

where A=Junction Area W=width of depletion reason, D=Diffusion constant, ni=intrinsic carrier concentration
ND=n type doping concentration,NA=p-type doping concentration
Here equation 12.29 is a highly non-linear equation which is not easy to solve by direct analysis. Using indirect
method, a solution can be provide but at this stage it is not necessary.

Now taking the figure 12.7, we see that the plot is divided into three region and to find barrier height, we take

Barrier height

As the potential barrier to thermionic emission that the naturally exist between an intimate meat and
semiconductor contact at zero applied bias. Current transport dominated by thermionic emission is assumed and
the barrier height is extractedby fitting a straight line in region 2 of fig 12.7 . It is seen that the y-axis intercept
of this fit gives the saturation current Is as

Ideality factor

The quality of the junction of a diode is quantified by using its ideality factor n .Againusing the linear fit to
region 2 of fig 12.7, it can be expressed as

Absorption/Transmission

When a light enters or light beam fall on a material , then three processes may occurred namely:

(i) Absorption
(ii) Reflection
(iii) Transmission
Absorption

Absorption is the process in which light beam falling on any material/sample has neither reflect back in the
same medium and nor pass through the sample. The light beam is blocked or attenuated by the sample.

Reflection

When the light rays falling on the sample and it has reflected back from the surface of the sample in the same
medium, then this process is called reflection.

Transmission
 When the light beam falling on the sample, passes through it in opposite side/direction then the process is
called transmission of light waves.

Absorption in Semiconductors
In case of a semiconductor, when a light energy/light beam fall on a sample, then the photons are absorbed by
the semiconductor material sample, as a result of which an electron is raised from lower energy state to
higher energy state and in generate energy difference between the two states is equal to the energy of the
absorbed photon. This is called absorption is semiconductor.

Secondly, if the higher energy level to which electron is raised is not an equilibrium state, then it will make the
downward transition to lower state by emitting the photon of the same energy as absorbed whose energy is
equal to the energy difference between the higher and lower energy state. This process is called radiative
transition.

UV-vis Spectroscopy
In UV-vis spectroscopy, the wavelength is shorter than visible light and longer than x-rays. The range of UV
wavelength is 10-300 nm. In ultraviolet-visible light (UV-vis) spectroscopy, light absorption is measured as a
function of wavelength. The spectrum provides information about electronic transition occurring in the
material. The Beer-Lamber Law states that the Transmitancei.e. the light transmitted (IT) over the incident
intensity (I0) is dependent on the path length of the light through the sample (l), the absorption cross-section (σ)
of the sample transition, and the difference in the population of initial state (N1) and final state (N2)

T= IT/I0 = exp{-σ(N1-N2)l}

This is often written in a form referred to as Beer’s law

A= εcl = -log(IT/I0)

Where A-> Absorbance

ε-> Molar absorptivity co-eff. of the

material c-> Concentration of absorbing

species

l-> path length of light through sample

Direct and Indirect Transition

A direct transition is described as atwo particle interaction between an electron and a photon. In direct
transition, the position of the valence band top and the conduction band bottom coincides in k-space. In this
case, it is obvious that near the edge of fundamental absorption, only photon absorption is necessary for electron
transition from V-band to C-band. While in case of indirect transition as indirect band gap, the participation of
additional particle (i.e. Phonon, a quanta of crystal lattice oscillations) which would change the momentum of
electron is necessary. Hence in indirect transition, a three-particle interaction (Photon,electron,Phonon) takes
place to ensure momentum conservation as shown below

Band-Gap by UV-vis Spectroscopy

To derive a band gap value of semiconductor form a UV-vis spectrum we have to plot the graph between (αhv)
versus photon energy hvcalled Tauc plot. Because to get the value of Eg, we use Tauc relation given by the
following equation

αhv = A(hv– Eg)n

where α-> absorption co-efficient given by

α = 1/t ln(1/T)

where t-> sample thickness,

T->transmission

hv->photon energy

In the above case ‘α’ is the optical absorption co-efficient which can be calculated from absorbance ‘A’ and
thickness of the sample (t) using (α= 2.303 A/t) and hv can be calculated from wavelength using (hv =
1240/wavelength). The power factor ‘n’ takes the value n = 0.5 for direct allowed transition, n = 2 for indirect
allowed transitin, n = 3/2 for indirect forbidden transition and n = 3 for direct forbidden transitions.
 Short Type Questions
Q1. What do you mean by Band-Gap?

Ans- The difference in energy between the valence band and the conduction band of a
solid material (such as an insulator or semiconductor) that consists of the range of energy
values forbidden to electrons in the material.

Q2. What is resistivity?

Ans- The resistivity of a material is a measure of how strongly the material opposes the flow
of electric current. The unit of resistivity is (Q-m) ohm-meter.

Q3.. What is the direct and indirect band gap?

Ans- A direct band gap involves a vertical transition of electrons from valence band to
conduction band. It is two particle interaction between electron and photon,
An indirect band gap involves simultaneous interaction with lattice vibrations and a three
particle interaction between photon, electron and phonon takes place to ensure momentum
conservation as momentum of electrons takes place by photons in the indirect band gap.

Q4. Define Hall effect?

Ans- If a metal or semiconductor carrying current I is placed in a transverse magnetic field B

, an electric field E is induced in the direction perpendicular to both I and B , This
phenomenon is known as Hall effect.

Q5. Give some application of Hall Effect.

Ans-

● Hall effect can be used to measure the strength of a magnetic field in terms
of electrical voltage.
● It is used to determine whether the semiconductor is p – type or n- type material.
● It is used to determine the carrier concentration.
● It is used to determine mobility.

Q6. Why semiconductor have negative temperature co-efficient of resisitance?

Ans- Semiconductor are those material whose conductivity lies in between conductor and
insulator.When temperature increases , the electron gets the energy and breaks the bond to
become free. These free electrons acts as charge carrier when external field is applied .
Therefore , the resisitance of semiconductor decreases with increase in tempaerature . Hence
semiconductor resistance has negative temperature coefficient .
Q7. What is DLTS ?
Ans- DLTS is a powerful and commonly used technique to investigate the concentration
and carrier binding energy of defects in semiconductors . It stands for Deep Level Transient
Spectroscopy .It is a technique with good accuracy and detection limit . It is highly sensitive
technique in comparison to other technique . The DLTS measurement are performed on
semiconductor devices such as pn junction or Schotky barrier and Metal Oxide
Semiconductor and Meta insulator semiconductor/Capacitor .

Q8. What do you mean by Vander Pauw method for resistivity ?

Ans- The van der Pauw Method is a technique commonly used to measure the resistivity and
the Hall coefficient of a sample. Its power lies in its ability to accurately measure the
properties of a sample of any arbitrary shape, as long as the sample is approximately
two-dimensional (i.e. it is much thinner than it is wide), solid (no holes), and the electrodes
are placed on its perimeter. The van der Pauw method employs a four-point probe placed
around the perimeter of the sample, in contrast to the linear four point probe: this allows the
van der Pauw method to provide an average resistivity of the sample, whereas a linear array
provides the resistivity in the sensing direction. This difference becomes important for
anisotropic materials, which can be properly measured using the Montgomery Method, an
extension of the van der Pauw Method .

Q9. Define Schottky diodes .

Ans- The Schottky diode , also known as Schottky barrier diode or hot-carrier diode, is a
semiconductor diode formed by the junction of a semiconductor with a metal. It has a low
forward voltage drop and a very fast switching action . When sufficient forward voltage is
applied, a current flows in the forward direction. A silicon p–n diode has a typical forward
voltage of 600–700 mV, while the Schottky's forward voltage is 150–450 mV. This lower
forward voltage requirement allows higher switching speeds and better system efficiency.

Q10. What is the use of Hot Point Probe measurements ?

Ans- A hot point probe is a method of quickly determining whether a semiconductor sample
is n-type or p-type. The sample is probed using a voltmeter or ammeter and a heat source,
such as a soldering iron, is placed on one of the leads. The heat will cause charge carriers
(electrons in n-type, holes in p-type) to move away from the lead. The heat from the probe
creates an increased number of carriers, which then diffuse away from the contact point.
This causes a current/voltage difference.
Q11. Which type of parameters can be extracted from I-V characteristics ?
Ans- A technique is proposed to extract the reverse saturation current parameter and ideality
factor of semiconductor junctions from the low forward voltage region of the device’s
characteristics. The method involves performing a mathematical operation on the
experimental data that allows to calculate the parameters at values of forward current smaller
than the reverse saturation current. The procedure was tested and its accuracy verified on
synthetic I–V characteristics, with and without added simulated experimental error or noise.
Good agreement is obtained between the parameters used in modeling and the extracted
values. The procedure was also applied to experimentally measured IB–VBE characteristics
of a real power BJT.
Q12. What is the difference between direct and indirect ban gap
? Ans- DIRECT BAND GAP
1) A direct band-gap (DBG) semiconductor is one in which the maximum energy level of the
valence band aligns with the minimum energy level of the conduction band with respect to
momentum.
2)In a DBG semiconductor, a direct recombination takes place with the release of the
energy equal to the energy difference between the recombining particles.
3)The probability of a radiative recombination is high.
4)The efficiency factor of a DBG semiconductor is higher. Thus, DBG semiconductors
are always preferred over IBG for making optical sources.
5)Example, Gallium Arsenide (GaAs).

INDIRECT BAND GAP

1) An Indirect band-gap (IBG) semiconductor is one in which the maximum energy level of
the valence band and the minimum energy level of the conduction band are misaligned
with respect to momentum
2) In case of a IBG semiconductor, due to a relative difference in the momentum, first,
the momentum is conserved by release of energy and only after the both the momenta
align themselves, a recombination occurs accompanied with the release of energy.
3) The probability of a radiative recombination is comparatively

low. 4)The efficiency factor of a IBG semiconductor is lower.

5)Example, Silicon and Germanium
Q13. What is the use of UV-vis spectra in semiconductor?
Ans- There are different mechanisms of light absorption by semiconductors: interband
(fundamental) absorption, dopant absorption, excitonic absorption, absorption by free charge
carriers, absorption by crystalline lattice. The fundamental absorption, which leads to the
generation of electron-hole pairs as a result of optical excitation of electrons from the valence
band to the conduction band. The processes of light absorption must obey the of energy and
momentum conservation laws. This, in particular, leads to the fact that the minimum
quantum energy sufficient to electron excitation from the valence band to the conduction
band is equal to the band gap of the semiconductor. Thus, the red edge of the fundamental
absorption allows to determine the most important parameter of semiconductor material – its
band gap energy Eg. When Eg = 2 eV, the corresponding wavelength is 620 nm, therefore
fundamental absorption usually occurs in the visible and near ultraviolet spectral range. That
is why the methods of optical spectroscopy related with the fundamental absorption in
semiconductors are often called in English literature UV-Vis spectroscopy .

Long Type Questions

Q1. Write a note on CV Measurement Technique.

Ans- The CV measurement is used to determine the majority characteristic in

semiconductors.This technique employs PN junction metal semiconductor, electrolyte
semiconductor junctions, metal insulator semiconductor, capacitor metal insulator
semiconductor diode. CP measurements gives accurate information about the doping
concentration of majority charge carrier as a function of distance from the function the hall
effect technique is the competing technique to CV measurements but in hall effect it is
difficult or time consuming to provide information about the career mobility or determine
carrier death profiles in general CV profiles and hall measurements and be considered
complementary techniques. CV measurements give accurate information about the doping
concentration of the majority charge carrier as a function of distance from the junction. The
hall effect technique is the competing technique to CV measurements but in hall effect it is
difficult or time consuming to provide information about the career mobility or determine
carrier death profiles. In general, CV profiles and hall measurements and be considered
complementary techniques. The CV measurement for the various diode structures can be
related to the charge distributions within the semiconductor depletion region. As a
depletion layer width depends on the applied voltage capacitance measurement as a
function of the voltage bias can be used for determining doping concentration profiles in
semiconductors. There are two major CV methods-

● Experiments that involve steady state equilibrium conditions.

● Experiments that involve non equilibrium conditions and measurements of transient
signals.

Q2. Describe the experimental setup for the hot point probe method for
conductivity measurement with the help of a neat diagram.

Ans- The "hot-probe" experiment provides a very simple way to distinguish between n-type
and p-type semiconductors using a soldering iron and a standard multimeter. The experiment
is performed by contacting a semiconductor wafer with a "hot" probe such as a heated
soldering iron and a "cold" probe. Both probes are wired to a sensitive current meter. The
hot probe is connected to the positive terminal of the meter while the cold probe is connected
to the negative terminal. The experimental set-up is shown in the figure below:

When applying the probes to n-type material one obtains a positive current reading on the
meter, while p-type material yields a negative current. A simple explanation for this
experiment is that the carriers move within the semiconductor from the hot probe to the cold
probe. The heat source will cause charge carriers (electrons in an n-type, electron holes in a
p-type) to move away from the lead. The heat from the probe creates an increased number
of higher energy carriers which then diffuse away from the contact point. This will cause a
current/voltage difference. For example, if the heat source is placed on the positive lead of a
voltmeter attached to an n-type semiconductor, a positive voltage reading will result as the
area around the heat source/positive lead becomes positively charged. If the material were of
p-type, positively charged holes will be majority carriers, and polarity of induced voltage
would be reversed. The direction of current would also be reversed if they were shorted with
a wire. Thus a measurement of either the short circuit current or the open circuit voltage
tells us the type of material.

Q3. How does the DLTS technique of measurement work?

Ans- Deep level transient Spectroscopy measurements give information about the deep level
impurities or points defects or electrically active defects in a semiconductor. It is a technique
with good accuracy and detection limits. It is a totally non destructive technique and
establishes fundamental defect parameters and measures the concentration in material. DLTS
technique is a highly sensitive technique in comparison to all of the techniques used for
diagnosis of semiconductors. In Silicon it can take impurities and effects at a concentration of
one part in 10 to the power 12 of the material host atoms. The DLTS measurements are
performed on Semiconductor devices such as PN junction or schottky barrier diodes and
metal oxide semiconductor or metal insulator semiconductor capacitor. The dlts method
involves repeated filling and emptying of traps in the semiconductor depletion region and
simultaneous monitoring of junction capacitance with a fast meter. Due to the release of the
trapped carriers from deep level within the depletion region, the process results in capacitance
transients. The DLTS measurements are based on capture and thermal release of carriers as
traps. DLTS investigates defects present in a space charge (depletion) region of a simple
electronic device. The most commonly used are Schottky diodes or p-n junctions. In the
measurement process the steady-state diode reverse polarisation voltage is disturbed by a
voltage pulse. This voltage pulse reduces the electric field in the space charge region and
allows free carriers from the semiconductor bulk to penetrate this region and recharge the
defects causing their non-equilibrium charge state. After the pulse, when the voltage returns
to its steady-state value, the defects start to emit trapped carriers due to the thermal emission
process. The technique observes the device space charge region capacitance where the defect
charge state recovery causes the capacitance transient. The voltage pulse followed by the
defect charge state recovery is cycled allowing an application of different signal processing
methods for defect recharging process analysis.

Q4. What is Vander Pauw method ? How resistivity measured by this method ?
Ans- The van der Pauw Method is a technique commonly used to measure the resistivity and
the Hall coefficient of a sample. Its power lies in its ability to accurately measure the
properties of a sample of any arbitrary shape, as long as the sample is approximately
two-dimensional (i.e. it is much thinner than it is wide), solid (no holes), and the electrodes
are placed on its perimeter. The van der Pauw method employs a four-point probe placed
around the perimeter of the sample, in contrast to the linear four point probe: this allows the
van der Pauw method to provide an average resistivity of the sample, whereas a linear array
provides the resistivity in the sensing direction. This difference becomes important for
anisotropic materials, which can be properly measured using the Montgomery Method, an
extension of the van der Pauw Method .
Resistivity Measurement
To make a measurement, a current is caused to flow along one edge of the sample (for
instance, I12) and the voltage across the opposite edge (in this case, V34) is measured. From
these two values, a resistance can be found using Ohm ‘ s law .
R(12 ,34) = V(34)/I(12)
In his paper, van der Pauw showed that the sheet resistance of samples with arbitrary shapes
can be determined from two of these resistances - one measured along a vertical edge, such as
and a corresponding one measured along a horizontal edge, such as . The actual sheet
resistance is related to these resistances by the van der Pauw formula.
e^(-pi R{12,34}/R(s))+e^(-pi R{23,41}/R(s)) = 1
The reciprocity theorem tells us that
R(ab , cd) = R(cd , ab)
Therefore, it is possible to obtain a more precise value for the resistances R(12 , 34) and R(23
, 41) by making two additional measurements of their reciprocal values R(12 , 34) and R(23
, 41) averaging the results.
We define
R (Vertical) = ( R(12 , 34) + R(23 , 41) ) / 2
R (horizontal) = ( R(23 , 41) + R(41 , 23) ) / 2
Then, the van der Pauw formula becomes
e^(-pi R{vertical}/R(s))+e^(-pi R{horizontal}/R(s)) = 1