Primary Sensing Elements
and Transducers
I
25.1 INTRODUCTION
The measurand in an instrumentation system
makes its first contact with a Primary Detection Element
or an Input Device. There is a multiplicity and variety
of measurands to be measured. These include process
variables like temperature, pressure and flow rate
which are widely employed in process and production
plants. The measurands also include electrical
quantities like current, voltage, resistance, inductance,
capacitance, frequency, phase angle, power and
magnetic quantities like flux, flux density, reluctance
etc.
All these quantities require a primary detection
element and/or a transducer to be converted into
another analogous format which is acceptable by the
later stages of the measurement system.
The measurand or the input signal is called an
information for the measurement system. The
information may be in the form of a physical
phenomenon or it may be an electrical signal. The
process of detection and conversion of the information
into an acceptable form requires energy. This energy
may be extracted from the measurand, but in that case
it will not be represented in its faithful form as it
would be subjected to loading errors. In order that a
measurand is represented in its faithful form
undistorted, no energy should be extracted from it
during the process of conversion i.e., it should not be
subjected to any kind of loading effects. In fact, efforts
should be made to supply energy required for
conversion from outside sources so that the
measurand is not distorted during the process of
conversion in order that it be faithfully reproduced in
its analogous form. The ideal conversion is where
(739)
absolutely no energy is extracted from the measurand
during the process of conversion and all the energy
that is required for conversion is supplied from
outside, so that the measurand is not distorted and the
analogous output of the detector is a faithful represen­
tation of the measurand.
25.2 MECHANICAL DEVICES AS
PRIMARY DETECTORS
In order to extract information from mechanical
systems, only mechanical displacement or velocity can
be used, and therefore the importance of mechanical
sensing elements is obvious. Some of the commonly
used mechanical sensing elements are springs - which
convert a force or a torque into a displacement ; a
diaphragm, a capsule, bellows or Bourdon tube -
which convert pressure into a displacement, a
bimetallic strip converts temperature into a
displacement ; a mass damper system is used for
measurement of acceleration, velocity and displace­
ment. Some input devices may involve more than one
mechanical conversion for example, fluid flow
measurements may involve conversion of fluid rate
into pressure differential using an orifice, venturi tube
or pitot tube and then in turn this pressure is
converted into displacement for purposes of
measurement.
There are a number of mechanical quantities
which are to be measured. Some of these quantities are
listed in Table 25.1 along with their modes of
operation for the purposes of measurement.
These mechanical quantities include force,
pressure, displacement, flow rate, temperature and
the list is perhaps unending.
 740 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Table 25.1 Mechanical quantities and their Modes of Operation

Type Operation
1 A.
Contacting spindle, pin or finger Displacement to displacement

1 B. Elastic Member
1. Prooving ring Force to displacement.
2. Bourdon tube Pressure to displacement.
3. Bellows Pressure to displacement.
4. Diaphragm Pressure to displacement.
5. Spring Force to displacement.

C Mass

i 1. Seismic mass Forcing function to displacement.

i 2. Pendulum scale Force to displacement.
i
3. Manometer Pressure to displacement.
1
s D. Thermal
1. Thermocouple Temperature to electric current.
t
• 2. Bimaterial Temperature to displacement.
3. Temp-strk Temperature to phase.

E. Hydropneumatic

i
1. Static
(a) Float Fluid level to displacement.
s (b) Hydrometer Specific gravity to displacement. 1
1
2. Dynamic I
(zz) Orifice Velocity to pressure. j
j (b) Venturi Velocity to pressure.
(c) Pitot tube Velocity to pressure.
(d) Vernes Velocity to force. i
?
(e) Turbines Linear to angular velocity.
[------- ____ _ __ 1
The initial concept of converting an applied force into a displacement is basic to many types of primary
sensing elements. The mechanical elements which are used to convert the applied force into displacement are
usually elastic members. There are many types of these elastic members. They can be classified into three
categories, although some elastic members may fall into a combination of these categories.
The three categories are :
(z) Direct tension or compression type :
(zz) Bending type ;
(z'z'z) Torsion type.

25.3 MECHANICAL SPRING DEVICES

Most mechanical-input measuring systems employ mechanical springs of one form or another. The
displacements are usually small and engineering approximations for small displacements or deflections are
valid. Various common types of springs are shown in Fig. 25.1. These range from cantilever, helical and spiral
springs to torsion bars, prooving (proof) rings and spring flexture pivots.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 74 1

Fig. 25.1 Spring elements used for sensing force (f) or torque (7).

25.3.1 Cantilever 25.3.2 Helical Spring

A cantilever is shown in Fig. 25.2 which is Figure 25.3 shows a close coiled helical spring
subjected to a force at its free end. subjected to a compressive force F.

Fig. 25.2 Cantilever.

Deflection at the free end

x=Fl3/3EI ...(25.1)
where
Fig. 25.3 Closed coiled helical spring.
F - applied force ; N,
Displacement of spring :
I = length of cantilever, m ;
2 8 FD3n
£ = modulus of elasticity ; N / m x =---- —_ ...(25.3)
/ 2 A 3 Grf4
I = moment of inertia = —
112 J where F - applied force ; N,
b = width of cantilever ; m D= mean diameter of coiled spring ; m,
t = thickness of cantilever ; m d- diameter of spring wire ; m,
Stiffness of cantilever n= number of wires,
G= shear modulus ; N/m2.
K=F/x=3EI/l3 .-(25.2)
 742 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Stiffness of spring K = F/x Sometimes, notched bars, are used. The notched
bar has the advantage that it has a greater sensitivity
*/8
= Gd D 3n ...(25.4)
on account of its reduced diameter (of the notched
Maximum shear stress, portion).
T = 8FD/(nd3) ...(25.5)
25.3.5 Prooving (Proof) Rings
25.3.3 Spiral Spring They are used for measurement of force, weight
Figure 25.4 shows a flat spiral spring subjected a or load. The applied force causes a deflection which is
torque T. measured with the help of electrical transducers.
Prooving rings are made up of steel and are used
as force standards. They are particularly useful for
calibration of material testing machines in situations
where dead weight standards are impracticable to use

Fig- 25.4 Flat spiral spring.

The deflection of the spring is :
0= Ebt3T/12/, rad ...(25.6)
where E = modulus of elasticity, N/m2,
b - width of spring ; m, Fig. 25.5 Prooving ring.
t = thickness of spring ; m,
I = length of spring ; m, on account of their bulk. A prooving ring is a circular
T = torque ; Nm ring of rectangular cross-section as shown in Fig. 25.5
.'. Stiffness of spring which may be subjected to either tensile or compre­
K = T/e = Ebt3/12 I Nm/rad ...(25.7) ssive forces across its diameter.
Maximum fibre stress The deflection is given by :
Smax=6T/M2N/m2 ...(25.8)
x = (7t/2 ~4-^— F ... (25.10)
Spiral springs are used for production of 16 EI
controlling torque in analog instruments.
where d = outside ring diameter ; m.
25.3.4 Torsion Bars or Shafts The other terms have been explained earlier.
These are primary sensing elements for torque.
The common practice for measurement of
They are made use of in torque meters. The deflection
displacement is to attach a displacement transducer
or twist of the bar is proportional to the applied torque
between the top and bottom of the prooving ring.
and the deformation is used as a measure of the torque.
When the force is applied, the relative displacement
Some torque meters are designed so that the
can be measured. An LVDT is normally used for
angular displacement due to twisting of the bar is
measurement of deflection which is of the order of
measured with the help of a displacement trans­
1 mm or so. Another method is to use strain gauges for
ducers. In others, the strain in the surface of the bar,
measurement of strain caused by the applied force.
which is proportional to the torque, is measured with
The strain, then can be used to compute the applied
the help of strain gauges. The shear strain is a measure
of the torque. force.
Angle of twist 0 = 16T/7tGd3 rad, ...(25.9) 25.3.6 Load Cells
where T - applied torque ; Nm, Load cells utilise an elastic member as the primary
2
G = shear modulus ; N/m , transducer and strain gauges as secondary trans­
d = diameter of bar ; m ducers as shown in Fig. 25.6.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 743
Fig. 25.6 Load cells.
25.3.7 Spring Flexture Pivots
Figure 25.1 shows two different types of arrange­
ments for flexture pivots, one for the single spring
flexture pivot and the second for crossed spring flexture
pivot. The crossed-spring flexture pivot is widely used
in measurement work for the following reasons :
(i) it is practically frictionless
(zz) the pivot sensitivity i.e., the angular deflec­
tion per unit applied torque is virtually
constant for angular relations less than 15°.
25.4 PRESSURE SENSITIVE PRIMARY DEVICES
Most pressure measuring devices use elastic
members for sensing pressure at the primary stage.
Fig. 25.7 Pressure sensitive primary devices.
These elastic members are of many types and convert
the pressure into mechanical displacement which is
later converted into an electrical form using a
secondary transducer. These devices are many a time
known as force summing devices. Figure 25.7 shows
some of the commonly pressure sensitive primary devices.
The principle of working of these devices is
explained as : the fluid whose pressure is to be
measured is made to press the pressure sensitive
element and since the element is an elastic member, it
deflects causing a mechanical displacement. 'The
displacement is proportional to the pressure applied.
The displacement is then measured with the help of
electrical transducers. The output of the electrical
transducers is proportional to the displacement and
hence to the applied input pressure.
The commonly used pressure sensitive devices
are described below :
25.4.1 Bourdon Tubes
The Bourdon tubes are designed in various forms.
These are :
(z) C type (zz) Spiral
(zzz) Twisted tube and (zv) Helical.
The Bourdon tubes are made out of an elliptically
flattened tube bent in such a way as to produce the
shapes shown in Fig. 25.7. One end of the tube is
sealed or closed. The other end is open for the fluid to
enter. When the fluid whose pressure is to be
measured enters the tube, the tube tends to straighten
 744 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
out on account of the pressure applied. This causes a
movement of the free end (closed end) and the
displacement of this end is amplified through
mechanical linkages. The amplified displacement of
the free end may be used to move a pointer on a scale
calibrated in terms of pressure or may be applied to a
electrical displacement transducer whose output may
be calibrated in terms of the pressure applied.
Bourdon tube elements have several distinct advan­
tages and these include low cost, simple construction,
high pressure range, good accuracy except at low
pressures, and improved designs at the pressure for
maximum safety. Their greatest advantage is that they
are easily adapted for designs for obtaining electrical
outputs.
The disadvantages of Bourdon tubes are : their
low spring gradient which their use limits for pre­
cision measurements upto a pressure of 3 MN/m2, are
susceptible to shocks and vibrations and are subject to
hysteresis.
The Bourdon tube has the following forms :
1. C Type
The C type of Bourdon element is most commonly
used for local indication but it is also used for pressure
transmission and control applications. The tube which
is oval in section is formed into an arc of 250° and
hence the name C for the configuration which is
shown in Fig. 25.8.
The displacement of tip is,
3
x
2
where E is the modulus of elasticity ; N/m , P, the
applied pressure, N/m and other terms are as
depicted in Fig. 25.9.
Fig. 25.9 Geometry of C type Bourdon tube.
Thus relationship between the displacement of tip
and the applied pressure is non-linear i.e., each
pressure increment does not produce a corresponding
tip movement. However, a linear relationship between
the deflection of the pointer and the applied pressure
is obtained using the geared sector and pinion
movement or other mechanical means. The accuracy
of C type Bourdon tubes varies from ±0.5 to ± 2% or
poorer. However, the normal accuracy is about ± 1%.
2. Spiral Type
It is clear from Eqn. 25.11, that the displacement of
tip varies inversely as the wall thickness and depends
upon the cross-sectional form of the tube. It also varies
directly as the length of arc 'a' which in turn depends
upon the angle subtended by the arc through which it
is bent. Thus in a tube having an arc of 180°, the
displacement of the tube will be twice that of a similar
tube having an arc of 90°. Therefore, the displacement
of the free end (tip) may be increased by increasing the
length of the arc of the tube without changing the wall
thickness.
When the angle through which the arc is bent
reaches 360°, its length can be increased further in two
ways : the tube can be made in the form of a spiral, or it
can be made in the form of a helix. An increased
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 745
displacement of the free end can be obtained by
increasing the number of turns in the spiral or helix
thereby avoiding the need for further magnification. It
has been mentioned earlier that magnification is
obtained through the use of geared sector and pinion
is used in C type Bourdon tube. But while using spiral
or helix type Bourdon tubes there is no need for
further amplification and hence the geared sector and
pinion arrangement is not used in their case. The
absence of geared sector and pinion arrangement
eliminates the backlash which tends to occur when
they (geared sector and pinion) become worn owing
to continued use.
A spiral type Bpurdon tube is shown in Fig. 25.10.
Spiral tubes are made by winding several turns of the
tube with its flattened cross-section in the form of a
spiral.
Fig. 25.10 Spiral type Bourdon tube.
When the pressure to be measured is applied to
the spiral, it tends to uncoil producing a relatively
long movement of the tip whose displacement can be
used for indication or transmission.
The accuracy of spiral tube elements is higher
than that of C type elements on account of absence of
magnifying elements and is typically about ± 0.5%.
3. Helical Type
A helical type Bourdon tube is shown in Fig. 25.11.
As explained earlier, a helical bourdon element is
similar to the spiral element, except it is wound in the
form of a helix. The displacement of the tip of a helical
element is larger than that of spiral element. Usually a
central shaft is installed within a helical element and
the pointer is driven from this shaft by connecting
links. This system transmits only the circular motion
of the tip to the pointer which is directly proportional
to the changes in pressure.
Fig. 25.11 Helical type Bourdon tube.
The advantages of helix elements include the high
over-range capabilities which may be in the ratio as
high as 10 :1, its stability in fluctuating pressure appli­
cations, and its adaptability for high pressure service.
The number of coils employed in helix elements
depends upon the pressure to be measured. Helix type
of pressure elements use as few as three coils while
elements used for measurement for high pressures
may have as many as 16 coils or even more. The
accuracies obtainable from helical elements may vary
from ± 0.5% to ± 1% of span.
Bourdon tubes are made of different materials
which include brass, alloy steel, stainless steel, bronze,
phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, K Monel, Monel
and Ni-span C. The choice of type of material to be
used depends upon its elastic characteristics suitable
for the pressure range, process medium, temperature
and corrosive resistance to the media to be used.
Phosphor bronze is used in low pressure applica­
tions where the atmosphere is non-corrosive while in
applications where corrosion and/or high pressure is a
problem, stainless steel or Monel are used.
Pressure gauges using bourdon tube elements are
made with ranges from 760 mm of mercury to
700 MPa or higher for special applications with the
minimum span being about 70 kPa. In fact, there is
quite an overlap of ranges at which the various
bourdon tube elements are designed to operate and
these ranges differ from one manufacturers, to
another. One manufacturer, for example, lists spiral
bourdon tube elements from 0-75 to 0-1500 kPa
when bronze, beryllium copper and Ni-span C are
used as the materials for the element. The same
manufacturer uses the aforesaid materials for pressure
 746 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

ranges 1.5-550 MPa while using helical elements. For The displacement of bellows element is given by,
bronze, the upper span limit is 0-30 MPa ; for
, 0.453 Pbn D271-v2
beryllium copper and Ni-span C, 0-40 MPa and for «= ---------------5---------- ...(25.12)
stainless steel 0 -600 MPa. £t3
Another manufacturer uses C type bourdon tube
where P = pressure, N/m2 ;
elements using bronze upto a pressure of 7 MPa and
b = radius of each corrugation, m ;
steel and stainless steel to 150 MPa and still another
which uses these elements upto a pressure of 700 MPa. n = number of semi-circular corrugations ;
It may therefore be concluded that C-type bourdon t = thickness of wall, m ;
tube elements may be used for measurement of D = mean diameter, m ;
pressures ranging from vacuum to about 700 MPa and E = modulus of elasticity, N/m2 ;
even higher, spiral elements from vacuum to 30 MPa and v = Poisson's ratio.
and helical elements from 1.5 MPa to 550 MPa.
Normally a Bellows has the ability to move over a
25.4.2 Bellows greater distance than required in a pressure application
A metallic bellows is a series of circular parts, and, therefore, to give it maximum life and to have
resembling the folds in an accordian as shown in better accuracy, its movement is generally opposed by
Fig. 25.12. These parts are formed or joined in such a a calibrated spring so that only a part of the maximum
manner that they are expanded or contracted axially stroke is used. This system is shown in Fig. 25.13 and
by changes in pressure. The metals used in the is called spring loaded bellows.
construction of bellows, must be thin enough to be
flexible, ductile enough for reasonably easy
fabrication, and have a high resistance to fatigue
failure. Materials commonly used are brass, bronze,
beryllium copper, alloys of nickel and copper, steel
and Monel. Most of the bellows used in pressure
gauges are seamless and are made from drawn tubing
by hydraulic or other methods of rapid forming. These
methods produce uniform walls that give a higher life
expectancy. Other methods such as soldering and
welding of annular sections, rolling, spinning and
turning from solid stock may also be used for
manufacture of bellows.

Deflection of bellows when opposed by a spring is,

d=P—...(25.13)
2
where = effective area of bellows, m ;
K,,
b'sK = stiffness constants of bellows
2 and
spring respectively, N/m ,

.. p
Pressure Pp - d/— P +K^
K-------- ...(25.14)
4
If the bellows assembly operates an electric switch
or some other mechanism, we have,
p = F + ds(Kb + Ks)
...(25.15)
4
where F = force required to operate switch or
mechanism, N ;
d = deflection required to operate switch
or mechanism, m
Fig. 25.12 Bollows element.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 747
There are three main configurations in which
bellows elements are used and these are for
measurement of absolute, gauge and differential
pressures. These configurations may be illustrated
with the help of Fig. 25.14.
Fig. 25.14 Measurement of pressure with bellows.
There are two bellows, A and B. The pressure
applied to bellows A is P} and that to bellows B is P2.
In case it is desired to measure the absolute pressure,
bellows B is evacuated and the resultant pressure, Pj
is the absolute pressure. When measurement of gauge
pressure is desired, bellows B is opened up to
atmosphere with pressure P2 is equal to the
atmospheric pressure and therefore the reading of the
gauge is the gauge pressure. The measurement of
differential pressure P = P1 - P2 is done when pressure
P] is applied to bellows A and pressure P2 is applied to
bellows B.
The advantages of bellows include their simple
and rugged construction, moderate price, their
usefulness for measurement of low, medium and
high pressures, and their applicability for use in
measurement of absolute, gauge and differential
pressures. Bellows elements, like many other
elements have been greatly improved over the past
few years. The reduction of drift and hysteresis
allows their use in functions requiring ± 0.5% of full
span accuracy. They deliver relatively high forces
and are well adapted to vacuum and low pressure
measurements.
The disadvantages of bellows are that are not
suited for dynamic measurements on account of their
greater mass and longer relative movement. Also they
need temperature compensating device to avoid
errors resulting from changes in ambient temperature.
25.4.3 Diaphragms
The operating principle of diaphragm elements is
similar to that of the bellows. The pressure to be
measured is applied to the diaphragm, causing it to
deflect, the deflection being proportional to the
applied pressure. The movement of the diaphragm
depends on its thickness and diameter. The movement
is small and hence a diaphragm element does not
require any springs as is the case in bellows.
The movement of a diaphragm is a convenient
way of sensing a pressure. The unknown pressure is
applied to one side of a diaphragm. The edge of the
diaphragm is rigidly fixed and causes a deflection on
account of the applied pressure. The displacement of
the diaphragm may be measured to determine the
value of applied pressure, P.
The diaphragm, which is a very thin membrane
under pressure and therefore under radial tension,
may use capacitive or inductive transducers, to
produce an electrical output which is proportional to
the output of the transducers. The use of diaphragms
using thin membranes is limited to measurement of
low level pressure fluctuations. Since membranes can
withstand only limited values of force (produced by
pressure), diaphragms using thin membranes are
suitable for resistance and piezoelectric transducers
which require greater displacements than are
produced by membrane type of diaphragms.
Therefore, in place of membranes, it is usual to employ
thin circular plates which are either clamped, around
their circumference between two solid rings, or are
machined from a solid piece of metal. In order to
maintain linear relationship between deflection of
plates and applied pressure, the deflection of the
centre of plate should be less than half its thickness or
din < 0.51 which are essentially flexible discs.
The diaphragms, are of two types :
(zj Flat type and
(zz) Corrugated type.
These are shown in Fig. 25.15.
Corrugated diaphragms, on account of their
increased surface area, give greater deflections,
typically 2 per cent of the diaphragm diameter.
 748 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Lowest natural frequency (for air or gas medium)

% = 201 ,----- ^-5-

(b) Corrugated type
Fig. 25.15 Single diaphragm elements.
A flat diaphragm is shown in Fig- 25.16.
Fig. 25.16 Flat diaphragm.
256 Et3 d , indicators.
Pressure P =-------- -—N/m2 ...(25.16)
3(l-v2)D4
where E = Young's modulus ; N/m2,
t - thickness of diaphragm ; m,
D = diameter of diaphragm ; m,
R = radius of diaphragm ; m,
v = Poisson's ratio,
and dm = deflection at the centre of the
diaphragm ; m
The above relationship between pressure, P and
the deflection at the centre, dm is linear. But linearity
holds good as long as dm < 0.5 t and not otherwise.
The deflection at the centre is :
E rad/s .. .(25.20)
" D2y3p(l-v2)
a
where p = density of diaphragm material, kg/m
Design equations for the flat diaphragm may use
the following data :
Young's modulus for steel
E = 206 G N/m2 ; v = 0.28
and p = 7800 kg/m3
The above relationships are valid for uniform
pressure loading conditions over the entire surface of
the disc and also when the deflection smaller than half
the thickness of disc. Therefore, the response is linear
only when d < 0.5 t. In order to have a linear response
over greater deflections than d > 0.5 t, the diaphragms
are corrugated. A corrugated diaphragm is most
suitable for applications where a mechanical device is
used for measurement of deflection. This is because it
(corrugated diaphragm) gives a relatively greater
output and if combined with a high magnification
linkage, can be used for direct operation of mechanical
In some cases, a diaphragm element may consist
of a single disc ; which in others, two diaphragms are
bonded together at their circumference by soldering or
pressure welding to form a capsule. A diaphragm
element may consist of one capsule or two or more
capsules connected together with each capsule
deflecting on the application of pressure. The total
deflection is the sum of the deflections of individual
capsules. Figure 25.17 shows as diaphragm element
consisting of three capsules. In this assembly, the
individual capsule is connected axially with the next
one and is allowed to expand without any restraints.
The element may be provided with stops for
over-range and under-range protection.

3P(l-v2) 4
= —-—~R ...(25.17)
16 Et3

The deflection at a radius r from the centre is :

J 3P(l-v2)/ri2
df= l6Et3 ( -(25.18)

Maximum stress at the circumference

. 3 D2p x, , 2
S™=^2-N/m ...(25.19)
Fig. 25.17 Diaphragm element using three Capsules.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 749
Two different arrangements are used for capsular
elements, the convex and the nested type as shown in
Fig- 25.18.
Fig. 25.18 Types of capsules.
Materials used for diaphragms include phosphor
bronze, stainless steel, beryllium copper, Ni-span C,
Inconel, Monel and nickel. Non-metallic materials are
used for some applications. Buna N rubber, nylon and
Teflon are used in environments that corrode metals.
The diaphragm elements find extensive use in
applications where measurement of low pressures
including vacuum is involved. The ranges are 0-50
N/m2 to 0 -200 kN/m2. Accuracies range from ± 0.5%
to ± 1.25% of full span.
25.5 FLOW RATE SENSING ELEMENTS
25.5.1 Introduction
The measurement of flow is very important in a
large number of industries. Flow measurements
account for a high percentage of the process variables
measured in the chemical industries. Flow is the most
important variable in plant operation. The plant material
balances, quality control and continuous processes
will be impossible without flow measurements.
Flow of material in a process or system can be
measured by a variety of methods depending upon
the material and its condition, the type of flow, the
volume and the mass of the quantity flowing, the
range and rangeability, the pressure and temperature
and the accuracy required. Many accurate and reliable
methods are available for the measurement of flow.
Some of these methods are applicable only to liquids,
some only to gases and vapours and some to both.
Fluids, may be of different types, like they may be
clear or opaque, clean or dirty, wet or dry, erosive and
corrosive. Fluid streams may be multiphase, vapour,
liquid or slurries. The flow may be turbulent or
laminar. Viscosities may vary. Pressures may vary from
near vacuum to many times atmospheric, and the
temperatures may vary from cryogenic to hundreds of
degrees of Celsius.
The characteristics and properties which need to
be considered are viscosity, density, compressibility,
temperature and pressure.
In most applications, the knowledge of type of
flow, whether laminar and turbulent is very important.
All liquids have a force of friction, called viscosity;
which tends to inhibit the formation of turbulent
eddies and vortices, and maintain streamline flow.
Viscosity enters into determination of flow constants,
particularly the discharge co-efficient C which is a
function of Reynold's number.
The Reynold's number is given by :
Re=udp/q ...(25.21)
where v = velocity of flow ; m/s,
d = diameter of pipe throat or orifice ; m,
p = density of fluid ; kg/m
and q = viscosity ; Ns/m .
The Reynold's number is dimentionless, and a
useful criterion by which to compare flows in
geometrically similar installations but with different
flow conditions. It provides information regarding
conditions where streamline flow ceases and turbu­
lent flow begins. It has been found by experiments
that the flow is streamline or laminar for Reynold's
number less than 2000 and turbulence sets in
increasingly as Reynold's number increases beyond
2000. Flow becomes completely turbulent for
Reynold's number greater than 105.
Flow measurements are concerned with the
following :
(z) velocity of flow ; m/s,
3
(zz) volumetric flow rate ; m /s,
(zzz) mass flow rate ; kg/s,
3
(zu) total volumetric flow ; m , over a set period
of time,
(u) total mass flow; kg, over a set period of time.
25.5.2 Types of Flow Rate Meters
The flow rate meters can be classified into two
categories :
(i) Inferential meters
(zz) Absolute or positive displacement meters.
In inferential meters, the flow is not directly
measured but is inferred from measurements of other
quantities which are related. Inferential methods of
 750 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
measurement are based upon differentia! pressure or
head obtained from orifice plate, a venturi tube, a pitot
tube or a weir. Flow rate can also be inferred from
turbine and electromagnetic flow meters.
Fig. 25.19 Flow meters based upon producing
pressure drop using constrictions.
The purpose of this section is to briefly consider
the flow rate measuring devices with pressure related
techniques (inferential in nature) which are widely
used. The two basic techniques used are :
(?) a pressure drop is produced by means of a
constriction,
(ii) the kinetic energy of the flowing fluid is
transformed into potential energy in the
form of a static head.
Two different forms of producing constriction are
shown in Figs. 25.19(a) and 25.19(b). Figure 25.19(a)
shows a circular orifice plate while Fig. 25.19(b) shows
a venturi tube.
The fundamental equation for any flow rate sensing
element which changes the local velocity by using a
constriction or reduction in area of flow is given by :
Q=CEBXy1/2AP/pI ...(25.22)
where Q — flow rate, m/s,
C = co-efficient of discharge
actual flow rate
theoretical flow rate
E= / A*. )2 = vel°city approach factor
...(25.23)
B = expansion ratio,
= area at point Y ; m2,
Ax = area at point X ; m2,
px = density of fluid at point X, kg/m3,
AT = pressure drop between pts. X and Y; N/m"
For liquids, the fluid density can be considered to
remain constant and therefore expansion ratio B can
be taken as unity. With compressible fluids such as
gases and vapours, the density does not remain
constant and the value of B is less than unity and is a
function of ratios of pressure and areas at points X and
Y and the gas specific ratio.
The pressure drop AP can be measured with a
manometer and from there the input flow rate can be
inferred.
Orifice plates, venturi tubes and nozzles provide a
simple means of inducing a pressure drop. The flow
rate is proportional to the square root of the pressure
drop and hence there is a non-linear relationship
between output (pressure drop) and input (flow rate).
The discharge co-efficient for an orifice plate is
about 0.6 for Reynold's numbers above 10 and the
permanent pressure loss is 60-70 percent of diffe­
rential pressure AP. Therefore, an orifice plate which is
easy and cheap to install, may cause six or seven times
the pumping power as compared to a venturi tube
which has a discharge co-efficient of 0.96 for Reynold's
numbers above 10 and less tendency to trap suspended
material in the fluid being metered. However, venturi
tubes occupy greater space and are costlier.
Pitot tubes are one of the most common forms of
flow rate measuring devices which work on the
principle of converting kinetic energy of the fluid
being metered into a static head. Pitot tubes are
essentially laboratory type of instruments are not
normally used for industrial applications. Figure 25.20
Fig. 25.20 Pitot tube.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 751
shows a pitot tube installed in a pipeline for
measurement of flow-rate. The 'tube' actually consists
of two concentric tubes. The open end of the inner
tube faces the incoming flow. The outer tube has a
closed end, but has a number of holes in its walls. Both
the tubes contain the same fluid as is flowing in
the main pipeline. The pressure in the outer tube is the
static pressure in the pipeline. The total pressure in
the inner tube, however, is greater than this static
pressure. The additional pressure on the inner tube is
on account of the impact of the fluid stream on the
stationary inner tube.
Application of Bernoullis' theorem shows that the
velocity at this point in the cross-section is :
v = J—- ----- ...(25.24)
K p )
2 (i) Weirs
where PQ = static pressure ; N/m ,
2 A weir is essentially a dam with a notched
P = pressure at the entrance of the tube ; N/m ,
3
and p = density of liquid ; kg/m
Thus, the velocity at a particular point may be
determined from the pressure differential generated
by the pitot tube, which is measured by an inclined
tube manometer.
The velocity of a fluid across a section of pipe is
not uniform but varies from zero at the pipe surface to
a maximum usually at the centre of the pipe. In order
to find the mean velocity it is necessary to make a
traverse of the pipe i.e., readings are taken by placing
the Pitot tube at various positions at different points
along the cross-section of the pipe. For Reynold's
numbers above 10 , the ratio of mean velocity to the
velocity at the centre of pipe is 0.82. Once this ratio is
determined exactly for a given situation, the Pitot tube
can be placed at the centre of pipe to sense the
velocity. The mean velocity is,
28
J-(p-po)
[2
=C -(P-Po) ...(25.25)
VP
where Cv is the velocity correction factor and is the ratio
of mean velocity to the velocity at the centre.
The advantages of Pitot tubes are that they
produce a negligible loss of head when inserted in the
pipe and their cost is much smaller than that of venturi
meters or orifice meters.
The major disadvantage of Pitot tubes is that they
are laboratory type instruments as for their operation
they require mean velocity to be determined by
making transverse measurements across the diameter
of pipe and hence they cannot be used for industrial
applications which require an instant readout. The
other disadvantages are that they produce a low
differential head on account of which their sensitivity
is low, and they require high flow velocities of about
15 m/s to produce measurable heads. The small
opening of Pitot tubes may get clogged if fluids
containing solid particles are used which may give
rise to wrong results.
Weirs and flumes are commonly used devices for
open channel measurements. A detailed description of
open channel measurements is beyond the scope of
this text. The purpose here is to acquaint the reader
with this type of measurements.
opening at the top through which liquid flows as
shown in Fig. 25.21.
Fig. 25.21 Rectangular Weir.
The weirs make use of rectangular V, and
trapezoidal notches as shown in Fig. 25.22. The rate of
flow is simply measured by measuring the head of
water above the lowest point of the weir opening
through which the liquid flows. This height is
measured by means of a float installed in a box called
stilling well, which is a part of the total structure. The
float is so placed that it is not disturbed by the velocity
of flow or by turbulence of the stream.
The discharge through a rectangular notch is,
7 _
Q=3CrfL^jH15 ...(25.26)
The co-efficient of discharge, C^, varies with the
dimensions, of the weir and is usually less than 0.7.
The rectangular notch is the most commonly used
notch on account of its simplicity, ease of construction
and accuracy.
 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Fig. 25.23 Venturi flume.

The discharge can be calculated as in the case of a

venturi meter. The actual discharge is,

...(25.29)

= CMy]2gh ...(25.30)

where h - h1 -h2
Fig. 25.22 Types of Notches. M=A2/yll + (A2/A2)2

The discharge through a V notch is, C = venturi flume co-efficient (0.95 to 1)

Q=^c^H2'5‘an| ...(25.27) The maximum value of flow occurs when

h2 = f-) h.
The co-efficient of a discharge varies with notch
2 Uj
angle 0, head H, kinematic viscosity and surface
tension of liquid. Typical values of Cd are 0.58 to 0.7. Maximum discharge is given by,
The V notch offers the widest range for a single Q
^max
= 1.7 2
H1'5 ...(25.31)
size, the small opening at the lower end can
accommodate small flows while the top portion is for
large flows. However, it gives the highest loss of head
because of its shape.
The trapezoidal notch is a combination of the
rectangular and triangular notches as shown in Fig.
25.22(c). The discharge is given by :
9 Q f)

3 13 Z

...(25.28)
Applications of weirs are primarily in water
works and waste and sewage systems. Measurements
can be made from a few litres per minute to millions of
litres per day.
(if) Flumes
Figure 25.23 shows a venturi flume. It is an open
channel whose sides are arranged sharply to form a
throat, followed by a fairly long expansion section.
Stilling wells are provided for measuring the head at
both entrance and throat as shown in Fig. 25.24.
mbmwmk
Fig. 25.24 Elevation and plan of flume.
Flumes are capable of better accuracies than weirs
because the loss of head in improved versions of
flumes is about one fourth of that of weir.
Weirs and flumes have not previously found
application in process industries, but their use is
increasing with the increasing demand for water
pollution control. These measurements are a must
when large volumes of water are handled in waste
treatment facilities.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 753

Example 23.1 A C type bourdon tube made of Monel Example 23.3 A flat circular diaphragm of mild steel
metal is show in Fig. 25.9. The dimensions of the tube are: has a diameter of 15 mm. For mild steel, Young's modulus =
r = 36.5 mm, x = 16 mm, y = 3 mm, t = 0.35 mm 200 GN/m and Poisson's ratio v = 0.28. Find the thickness
of the diaphragm if the maximum stress is not to exceed
Calculate the displacement of the free end if a pressure of 300 MN/m when the applied pressure is 300 kN/m . Find
1500 kPa is applied. The modulus of elasticity for Monel the deflection at the centre for a pressure kN/m .
metal is 180 GN/m2.
Also calculate the natural frequency of the diaphragm if
Solution. From Eqn. 25.11, the displacement of the density of mild steel is 7800 kg/m3.
the tip is given by,
Solution. From Eqn. 25.19, maximum stress,
n / \0.2
a aP I -r I
n nc
Aa = 0.05 — _3D2P
E UJ w 16 t2
71 x36.5xl0“3x 1500xlO3
= 0.05 x---------------------------------- Thickness of diaphragm
180 xlO9
f36.5f'2 (16f2 f 16 f s_ l3D2P _ I3x(15x10~3)2x30x103
<0.35 J I 3 ) <0.35 J yi6S,„ V 16x300xl0 6

= 0.02 m =2 mm = 0.205 xlO-3 m =0.0205 mm

Example 23.2 A differential bellows arrangement for From Eqn. 25.17, the deflection at the centre for a
measuring absolute pressure is shown in Fig. 25.25. It uses pressure of 150 kN/m is,
two bellows each of natural length 50 mm, effective area = 3P(l-v2)
1500 mm , and stiffness = 0.5 N/mm. Bellows A is w 256 Et2
evacuated and a contains a spring of stiffness 3 N/mm. Find
d4 _ 3x 150x 1Q3(1-0,282)x (15x 1Q~3)4
the required natural length of the spring if the bellows are to
be equally compressed to a length 40 mm when a pressure of 256 x 200 x 109 x (0.205 x 10-3)3
100 kN/m absolute is applied to B. Also find the = 47.6 x 10~6 m = 0.0476 mm
displacement of the output point Cfor a change of 10 kN/m
The natural frequency is given by Eqn. 25.20,
in applied pressure.
Spring 20 t | E
n D2 pp(l-v2)
20xQ205xlQ~3 I 200 xlO9
(15xl0“3)2 V 3x7800 (T-0.282)
= 51950 rad/s = 8.3 kHz
Example 23.4 A mild steel torsion bar of 30 mm
bellows, A diameter is used for measurement of a torque of 100 Nm.
Calculate the angle of twist if the shear modulus of mild
Fig. 25.25 Bellows arrangement for measurement
of absolute pressure. steel is 80 GN/m2.

Solution.
Solution. From Eqn. 25.9,
2 Angle of twist
When a pressure of 100 kN/m is used.
Force applied 0= 16T ________ 16x100_______
F = PA = 100 x 103 x 1500 x 10”6 = 150 N nGd3 ~ 7ix 80x 109 x (30x 10-3)3

:. Compression of spring = 150/3 =50 mm = 0.236xlO-3 rad =0.81'

Thus natural length of spring = 50 + 40 = 90 mm
2
When a pressure of 10 kN/m is applied, the force is,
F = lOx 103 x 1500x 10-6 = 15 N
Total stiffness of spring plus stiffness of bellows
= 3 + 2 x 0.5 = 4 N/mm
Displacement of point C = 15/4 = 3.75 mm
Example 23.3 A venturi tube of throat diameter 60 mm
is placed in a water pipe of diameter 100 mm to measure the
volumetric flow. The volumetric flow rate through the tube
is 0.08 m3/s and the water has a density of 103 kg/m3 and
viscosity of 10~3 Ns / m2.
(a) Determine the Reynold's number for these
conditions.
 754 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

(b) The co-efficient of discharge is 0.99, determine the Solution, (a) For a Pitot tube the velocity,
upstream-to-throat differential pressure.
(c) The differential pressure calculated in (b) is
applied across an unstressed flat diaphragm. The
diaphragm is made of mild steel for which
Young's modulus is 206 GN/m and Poisson's
ratio = 0.28, and has a diameter of 10 mm and a
thickness of 0.2 mm. Determine the deflection of
the diaphragm.
Solution.
(fl) Area of throat
A correction to the result obtained above has to be
= (n / 4) x (60 x 10-3 )2 = 2827 x 10~6 m 2
applied for taking into account the Mach number. The
Velocity through throat Mach number is the ratio of the velocity of an object
moving through a gas, to the velocity of sound in air.
0-08 ,
v =------------- - = 28.3 m / s The velocity of sound in air at atmospheric pressure is
2827 xl0“6
about 330 m/s, and therefore the Mach number for the
From Eqn. 25.21, Reynold's number is, air velocity being measured is 175.4/330 - 05. At this
subsonic Mach number, a small correction of about
n vdP 28.3x60xl0~3xl0~3 .
Re =----- =----------------------------- = 1.7 x 106 3 per cent is applied. Therefore, the correct velocity of
H 10~3
air is (1 -0.03)x 175.4 = 170 m/s.
(b) From 25.23, velocity approach factor, Example 25.7 Water is flowing with a depth of 0.9 m
E = ^1 -(4 / ^ )2 = Vl~(60/100)2 = 1.25 over a rectangular notch 1.2 m wide. Find the depth offlow
over a right angled notch if the same were to pass over it.
From Eqn. 25.22, flow rate, Assume that both the notches have the same co-efficient of
discharge.
Q = CEB
Solution. For rectangular notch, the discharge is,
The value of expansion factor B for liquids is 1

.-. Q = 0.99x 1.25x 1 x—(60x 10-3)2 = 0.08

4 VlxlO3 2 ____
= - crfx 1.2 xVTx 9.81 (0.9)1-5
.•. Differential pressure
AP = 261 kN/m2 = 3.02 C,(7

(c) The deflection at the centre of the diaphragm is For a V notch, the discharge is,
given by Eqn. 25.17 « ,__ . a

_3P(1-u2)D4
” 256 Et3 Q
or 3.02 C, = — Cd 72x9.81 H25 tan 45°
_ 3x261x 103(l-Q.282)x (IQx 10~3)4
H= 1.1 m
256x206x 109x(0.2 xlO"3)3
= 17.1xl0-6m =17.1 pm Example 25.8 A right angled notch has a co-efficient of
discharge of 0.6. If head above the still is 0.5 ± 0.01 m,
Example 2,^.0 A Pitot tube is used for measurement of calculate the discharge.
velocity offlow of water having a density of 1000 kg/m .
Solution. For a right angled Vnotch, discharge is,
(a) Determine the velocity of flow at the head of the
pitot tube if it produces a differential pressure of
10 kN/m~ between its two outlets.
g
(b) The same differential pressure is obtained in air at = — X 0.6 72x9.81 X 0.52-5
an altitude where the density of air is 0.65 kg/m3.
Determine the velocity of air flow. = 0.2506 m3 / s
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 755
Now — 8 r-'
dQ- = — C, J2 x 2.5 irl.i
n cx H
dH 15 * however, the electrical output is measured by standard
dQ,
or
Q H
or dQ = ±2.5x0.2506x0.01/0.5
= ±0.0153 m3/s
Hence, the discharge can be written as 0.2506 ±
0.0153 m3/s.
25.6 TRANSDUCERS
An electronic instrumentation system consists of a
number of components to perform a measurement
and record its results. As explained earlier a generalized
measurement system consists of three major
components.
(z) an input device,
(zz) a signal conditioning or processing device, and
(zzz) an output device.
The input device receives the measurand or the
quantity under measurement and delivers a propor­
tional or analogous electrical signal to the signal
conditioning device. Here the signal is amplified,
attenuated, filtered, modulated, or otherwise
modified in format acceptable to the output device.
The input quantity for most instrumentation
systems is a "non-electrical quantity". In order to use
electrical methods and techniques for measurement,
manipulation or control, the non-electrical quantity is
generally converted into an electrical form by a device
called a "transducer". We can define a transducer as a
device which, when actuated transforms energy from
one form to another.
The broad definition of a transducer includes, for
example, devices which convert mechanical force into
an electrical signal. These devices form a very large
and important group of transducers commonly used
in industrial instrumentation area. The instrumen­
tation engineers and technologists are therefore
primarily concerned with this area of instrumentation.
Many other physical parameters such as heat, intensity
of light, flow rate, liquid level, humidity and pH value
may also be converted into electrical form by means of
transducers. These transducers provide an output
signal when stimulated by a mechanical or a
non-mechanical input : a photoconductor converts
light intensity into change of resistance, a
thermocouple converts heat energy into electrical
voltage, a force produces a change of resistance in a
strain gauge, an acceleration produces a voltage in a
piezo-electrical crystal and so on. In all cases,
methods, giving the magnitude of the input quantity
in terms of an analogous output.
25.7 ELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS
The art of electrical measurements has been
chiefly used for measurement of electrical quantities
but its value in making measurements of non­
electrical quantities in this new era of automation is
rapidly growing. In order to measure non-electrical
quantities a detector is used which usually converts
the physical quantity into a displacement. This
displacement actuates an electric transducer, which
acting as a secondary transducer, gives an output that
is electrical in nature. The electrical quantity so
produced is measured by standard methods used for
electrical measurements. The result (electrical output)
gives the magnitude of the physical quantity or
condition being measured.
The electrical signal may be a current or a voltage
or a frequency and production of these signals is based
upon electrical effects which may be resistive,
capacitive, inductive etc. in nature.
The first stage of a measurement system may
simply be called a transducer stage instead of detector
transducer stage by redefining a transducer. A trans­
ducer, in general form, may be defined as a device
which converts energy from one form to another.
However, this definition has to be restricted, many a
time especially in the field of electrical instrumen-
tatiOfl. keeping this restriction in view, a transducer
may be defined as a device which converts a physical
quantity or a physical condition into an electrical
signal. Another name for a transducer is pick up.
25.7.1 AdvflnfagdS of Electrical Transducers
There are a number of transducers which trans­
form a variety of physical quantities and phenomena
into electrical signals. The reasons for transforming a
ph sical phenomenon into electrical form are
numerous. The advantages of converting physical
quantities into analogous electrical quantities are :
(z) Electrical amplification and attenuation can
be done easily and that too with static devices.
(z'z) The mass-inertia effects are minimised. In
fact, when dealing with electrical or electronic signals,
the inertia effects are due to electrons which have
negligible mass. In many situations, we do not come
across mass or inertia problems at all.
(zzz) The effects of friction are minimised.
 756 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
(iv) The electrical or electronic systems can be
controlled with a very small power level.
(t?) The electrical output can be easily used, trans­
mitted and processed for the purpose of measurement.
(vi) Telemetry is used in almost all sophisticated
measurement systems. The entire aerospace research
and development is based upon telemetry and remote
control. The ever-enlarging field of radio monitoring
in space research has left us with no alternative but to
resort to electronic means. This completely eliminates
the data transmission through mechanical means and
hence electrical and electronic principles have to be
employed for these conditions. The remote indication
or recording is an essential part of modern day
instrumentation technology.
(vii) There has been an explosive development in
the field of electronic components and devices. This
development is on account of the fact that electronic
devices are very amenable to miniaturization.
Components which are compact, have always an,
advantage. Miniaturization on account of use of ICs
(integrated Circuits) has completely revolutionised
the field of instrumentation.
In short, it can be said that the reasons for
transforming a physical phenomenon into electrical
form is that the electrical output can be easily used,
transmitted and processed for the purposes of
measurement. Modern digital computers make the
use of these transducers absolutely essential.
When the definition of transducer is confined to a
device that covers the entire detector transducer
stage, wherein the transducer converts a non-electrical
quantity into an analogous electrical signal, the trans­
ducer may be thought of consisting of two important
and closely related parts. These two parts are :
A Sensing Element, and
A Transduction Element.
In addition, there may be many other auxiliary
parts, such as amplifiers and other signal processing
equipment, power supplies, calibrating and reference
sources, and mechanical mounting features.
1. Sensing or Detector Element. A detector or a
sensing element is that part of a transducer which
responds to a physical phenomenon or a change in a
physical phenomenon. The response of the sensing
element must be closely related to the physical
phenomenon.
2. Transduction element. A transduction element
transforms the output of a sensing element to an
electrical output. The transduction element, in a way,
acts as a secondary transducer.
25.8 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
The transducers can be classified
(z) on the basis of transduction form used,
(ii) as primary and secondary transducers,
(iii) as passive and active transducers,
(iv) as analog and digital transducers, and
(v) as transducers and inverse transducers.
25.8.1 Classification based upon
Principle of Transduction
The transducers can be classified on the basis of
principle of transduction as resistive, inductive,
capacitive etc. depending upon how they convert the
input quantity into resistance, inductance or capaci­
tance respectively. They can be classified as piezo­
electric, thermoelectric, magnetorestrictive, electro-
kinetic and optical. Table 25.2 lists the classification of
transducers based upon principle of transduction.
25.8.2 Primary and Secondary Transducers
Let us consider the case of a Bourdon's tube as
shown in Fig. 25.26. The Bourdon tube acting as a
primary detector senses the pressure and converts the
pressure into a displacement of its free end. The
displacement of the free end moves the core of a linear
variable differential transformer, (L.V.D.T.) which
produces an output voltage which is proportional to
the movement of the core, which is proportional to the
displacement of the free end which in turn is
proportional to the pressure. Thus, there are two
stages of transduction, firstly the pressure is converted
into a displacement by Bourdon tube then the
displacement, is converted into an analogous voltage
by L.V.D.T. The Bourdon tube is called a "Primary
Transducer" while the L.V.D.T. is called a "Secondary
Transducer".
Fig. 25.26 Measurement of pressure using Bourdon
tube an L.V.D.T. (Example of primary and Secondary
transducers).
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 757
Table 25.2 Types of Electrical
Electrical parameter
and class of transducer Principle of Operation Typical applications

_______________________ __________ Passive transducers (externally powered)

Resistance

Potentiometer device Positioning of the slider by an external force varies the Pressure, displacement.
resistance in a potentiometer or a bridge circuit.
Resistance strain Resistance of a wire or semiconductor is changed by elongation Force, torque,
: gauge or compression due to externally applied stress. displacement.
Pirani gauge or hot Resistance of heating element is varied by convection cooling of Gas flow, gas pressure.
wire meter a stream of gas. x
Resistance Resistance of pure metal wire with a large positive tempe­ Temperature,
thermometer rature co-efficient of resistance varies with temperature. radiant heat
i Thermistor Resistance of certain metal oxides with negative temperature Temperature, flow
coefficient of resistance varies with temperature.
■ Resistance hygrometer Resistance of a conductive strip changes with moisture content. Relative humidity.
. Photoconductive cell Resistance of the cell as a circuit element varies with incident Photosensitive relay.
light.
Capacitance

j Variable capacitance Distance between two parallel plates is varied by an externally Displacement, pressure.
; pressure gauge applied force.

j Capacitor microphone Sound pressure varies the capacitance between a fixed plate Speech, music, noise.
and a movable diaphragm.
Dielectric gauge Variation in capacitance by changes in the dielectric or Liquid level, thickness.
dielectric constant.
Inductance

| Magnetic circuit Self-inductance or mutual inductance of a.c. excited coil is Pressure, displacement.
transducer varied by changes in the magnetic circuit.
Reluctance pick up Reluctance of the magnetic circuits is varied by changing the Pressure, displacement, ■
position of the iron core of coil. vibrations, position.
Differential The differential voltage of two secondary windings of a Pressure, force,
transformer transformer is varied by positioning the magnetic core through displacement, position
an externally applied force.
Eddy current gauge Inductance of a coil is varied by the proximity of an eddy Displacement,
current plate. thickness.
Magnetostriction gauge Magnetic properties are varied by pressure and stress. Force, pressure, sound.
Voltage and Current

Hall effect pickup A potential difference is generated across a semiconductor plate Magnetic flux, current,
(germanium) when magnetic flux interacts with an applied power.
current.
1
j Ionization chamber Electron flow induced by ionization of gas due to Particle counting,
radio-active radiation. radiation.
Photoemissive cell Electron emission due to incident radiation upon Light and radiation.
photoemissive surface.
Photomultiplier tube Secondary electron emission due to incident radiation on Light and radiation,
photosensitive cathode. photosensitive relays.
Self-generating transducers (no external power)
Thermocouple and An emf is generated across the junction of two dissimilar Temperature, heat flow,
thermopile metals or semiconductors when that junction is heated. radiation.
Moving coil generator Motion of a coil in a magnetic field generates a voltage. Velocity, vibrations.
Piezoelectric pickup An emf is generated when an external force is applied to certain Sound, vibrations, accele­
crystalline materials, such as quartz. ration, pressure changes.
Photovoltaic A voltage is generated in a semiconductor junction device Light meter, solar cell.
when radiant energy stimulates the cell.
 758 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
Let us take another example which is the case of
measurement of a compressive force with the help of a
load cell in conjunction with strain gauges as shown in
Fig. 25.27. (Load cells and strain gauges are explained
later in this chapter.)
Force
Strain
gauges
Force
Fig. 25.27 Force measurement with load cell
and strain gauges.
The load cell is a short column or a strut with
resistance wire strain gauges bonded to it. The
measurand, in this case, is a force and is applied to the
column thereby producing strain. The force is first
detected by the column and is converted into strain
which is a mechanical displacement. The higher the
force, the higher is the strain and thus the input signal
(force) is converted into an analogous output (strain).
This strain changes the resistance of the strain gauges.
Thus we have an output which is a change in the value
of resistance i.e., electrical in form. Hence, in this case,
it takes two processes to convert an input into an
analogous output. The first process involves con­
version of force into mechanical displacement which
is done by the column, while the second process
involves conversion of mechanical displacement into
change of resistance which is done by strain gauges.
Thus we see that the force is detected by the
column in the first stage and hence it is called a
Primary Transducer. The output signal from the
primary transducer is converted subsequently into a
usable output by the strain gauges and therefore they
are known as Secondary Transducers.
In most of measurement systems, there is a
suitable working combination wherein a Mechanical
device acts as a primary detector transducer and the
electrical device acts as the secondary transducer
with mechanical displacement serving as the
intermediate signal.
25.8.3 Passive and Active Transducers
Transducers may be classified according to
whether they are passive or active.
1. Passive Transducers. Passive transducers
derive the power required for transduction from an
auxiliary power source. They also derive part of the
power required for conversion from the physical
quantity under measurement. They are also known as
"externally powered transducers". Typical examples of
passive transducers are resistive, inductive and
capacitive transducers.
A typical example of a passive transducer is a
'POT' which is used for measurement of displace­
ment. A 'POT' is a resistive transducer powered by a
source voltage e- as shown in Fig. 25.28. This 'POT' is
used for measurement of linear displacement x;.
Fig. 25.28 Linear potentiometer (POT),
a passive transducer.
Suppose L is the total length of potentiometer
whose total resistance K •. The input displacement is x^
:. Output voltage
S°=L
In the absence of external power, the transducer
cannot work and it hence is called a passive transducer.
2. Active Transducers. Active transducers are
those which do not require an auxiliary power source
to produce their output. They are also known as self
generating type since they develop their own voltage or
current output. The energy required for production of
output signal is obtained from the physical quantity
being measured.
Velocity, temperature, light intensity and force
can be transduced with the help of active transducers.
These transducers include tachogenerators, thermo­
couples, photovoltaic cells and piezoelectric crystals.
Consider the case of a piezoelectric crystal used for
measurement of acceleration as shown in Fig. 25.29
The crystal is sandwiched between two metallic
electrodes, and the entire sandwich is fastened to a
base which may be the floor of a rocket. A fixed mass
is placed on the top of the sandwich.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 759
acceleration
Fig. 25.29 Piezo-electric crystral measuring
acceleration - an active transducer.
The property of the piezo-electric crystals is that
when a force is applied to them, they produce an
output voltage. The mass exerts a certain force on
account of acceleration on the crystal due to which a
voltage is generated. The acceleration is applied to the
base, due to which the mass produces a force. The
mass being fixed, the force is proportional to
acceleration. The voltage output is proportional force
and hence is proportional to acceleration (the mass
being fixed).
It should be noted from above that this transducer
called "accelerometer" which converts acceleration into
electrical voltage does not need any auxiliary power
source to convert a physical phenomenon (accele­
ration in this case) to an electrical output (voltage in
this case) and therefore is an active transducer.
25.8.4 Analog and Digital Transducers
The transducers can be classified on the basis of
the output which may be a continuous function of
time or the output may be in discrete steps.
1. Analog Transducers. These transducers convert
the input quantity into an analog output which is a
continuous function of time. Thus a strain gauge, an
L.V.D.T., a thermocouple or a thermistor may be
called as "Analog Transducers" as they give an output
which is a continuous function of time.
2. Digital Transducers. These transducers convert
the input quantity into an electrical output which is in
the form of pulses.
As the binary system uses only two symbols 0 and
1 it can be easily represented by opaque and
transparent areas on a glass scale or non-conducting
and conducting areas on a metal scale. A scale
constructed to show the linear position on a movable
object and having five digits is shown in Fig. 25.30.
The complete binary number denoting position is
obtained by scanning the pattern across the scale at a
stationary index mark.
Glass scales can be read optically by means of a
light source, an optical system and photocells. Metal
scales are scanned by brushes making electrical
contact with individual tracks.
The resolution depends upon the digits
comprising the binary number and is 1/2/7 of full scale
where n is the number of digits.
25.8.5 Transducers and Inverse Transducers
There is a strong association of control with
measurement. The basic requirement for control of
physical quantities such as position, speed,
temperature, pressure and flow rate in an industrial
planet is the ability to measure these quantities. The
control action is only possible if the physical quantity
can be measured. For example, in a position control
system called "servomechanism", it is desired to control
the position of a shaft. This requires an accurate
method for measurement of the shaft position in order
that its position be accurately controlled. Further, if it
is desired that the shaft be accelerated in a controlled
manner, then the position measuring device must be
able to measure shaft position for rapid changes i.e.,
the device must have a fast dynamic response.
Figure 25.31 shows the block diagram of closed
loop control system. The controlled (output) quantity
is usually a non electrical quantity. The control action
is through an input quantity that corresponds to the
---------------( !--------------
Feed- । 1 w
forward I
network Actuator
(amplifier) [ ।
Measuring i
instrument M-
1 or transducer 1
i ।
--------- Electrical units or signals
---------- Mechanical units or signals
Fig. 25.31 Feedback control system for control
of non-electrical quantities.
 760 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

desired output (non-electrical quantity). The input

quantity called reference input is usually an electrical
quantity. The controlled quantity is measured and
converted into an analogous quantity by transducers
which form the feedback loop. The loop input
quantity (electrical in nature) is compared with the
electrical quantity proportional to the output in a
comparator. In case, the two are not equal an error
signal is produced. This error signal is amplified and
applied to an actuator in the forward path, which
corrects the output quantity till the output quantity
reaches the desired level.
1. Transducers. A transducer can be broadly
defined as a device which converts a non-electrical
quantity into an electrical quantity.
2. Inverse Transducers. An inverse transducer is
defined as a device which converts an electrical
quantity into a non-electrical quantity. It is a precision
actuator which has an electrical input and a low power
non-electrical output. A piezoelectric crystal acts as an
inverse transducer because when a voltage is applied
across its surfaces, it changes its dimensions causing a
mechanical displacement.
A current carrying coil moving in a magnetic field
is also an inverse transducer because current carried
by it is converted into a force which causes trans­
lational or rotational displacement. Many data
indicating and recording devices are inverse trans­
ducers. An analog ammeter or voltmeter converts
current into mechanical displacement. However, such
devices which include instruments like indicating
instruments, pen recorders, oscilloscopes that convert
the electrical signals to a mechanical movement are
placed at the output stage (data presentation stage)
are called output transducers.
The most useful application of inverse
transducers is in feedback measuring systems. The
development of transducers and inverse transducers,
and the advantages gained through use of feedback
has increased their applications manifold and there is
reason to believe that they will continue to grow in
importance.
A block diagram of a feedback control systems
using inverse transducers is shown in Fig. 25.32 for
comparison with the simple feedback control system
shown in Fig. 25.31. In the measuring system, the
output quantity (usually electrical in nature) is
converted to a non-electrical form suitable for
comparison with quantity to be measured
(non-electrical form). The resulting error signal is
usually transduced into electrical form and amplified
to give output indication.
--------- Electrical units or signals
----------- Mechanical units or signals
Fig. 25.32 Feedback control system for control of
electrical quantities using inverse transducer.
It is evident that the operation of the feedback is
similar for both control and measuring systems as
regards accuracy and stability. The essential
differences are in power level of the systems and the
performance requirements of transducing elements.
The control systems handle relatively high power
levels through the actuator to directly determine the
output quantity. Therefore, the actuator may have
poor regulation without affecting the control action.
The transducer and noise at the amplifier input largely
determine the accuracy of control. On the other hand,
the feedback measuring system involves use of fairly
low power devices at the output. These devices
include the indicator and inverse transducer.
However, the inverse transducer essentially
determines the characteristics of the system. The noise
connected with the transducer and amplifier input
stage is very important.
25.9 CHARACTERISTICS AND CHOICE OF
TRANSDUCERS
When choosing a transducer for any application
the input, transfer and output characteristics have to be
taken into account.
25.9.1 Input Characteristics
1. Type of Input and Operating Range. The
foremost consideration for the choice of a transducer is
the input quantity it is going to measure and its
operating range. The type of input, which can be any
physical quantity, is generally determined in advance.
A physical quantity may be measured through use of a
number of transducers. However, the choice of a
particular transducer that is selected for the purpose,
depends upon the useful range of input quantity over
which the transducer can be used. The useful
operating range of the transducer may be a decisive
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 761

factor in selection of a transducer for a particular
application. The upper limit is decided by the
transducer capabilities while the lower limit of range
is normally determined by the transducer error or by
the unavoidable noise originating in the transducer. In
fact the transducer should maintain a good resolution
throughout its operating range.
2. Loading Effects. Ideally a transducer should
have no loading effect on the input quantity being
measured. In theory, it is impossible, although in
practice steps may be taken to reduce the loading
effects to negligible proportions. The magnitude of the
loading effects can be expressed in terms of force,
power or energy extracted from the quantity under
measurement for working of the transducers.
Therefore, the transducer, that is selected for a
particular application should ideally extract no force,
power or energy from the quantity under
measurement in order that the latter is measured
accurately.
25.9.2 Transfer Characteristics
The transfer characteristics of transducers require
attention of three separate elements, viz.,
transfer function
A error, and
A response of transducer to environmental
influences.
25.9.2 A Transfer Function
The transfer function of a transducer defines a
relationship between the input quantity and the
output. The transfer function is,
% = /(?,) -(25.32)
where q0 and £/• are respectively output and input of
the transducer.
The sensitivity of a transducer is defined as the
differential quotient,
S = -^ ...(25.33)
dcli
In general, the sensitivity of transducers is not
constant but is dependent upon the quantity z/-.
However, in some cases the relationship between
the output q0 and input z/(7 is linear. In that case the
sensitivity remains constant over the entire range of
the transducer and is defined as,
dr/.
The scale factor is defined as the inverse of
sensitivity and is therefore,
scale factor = — ...(25.35)
S dqi
Some manufacturers specify the scale factor and
still call it sensitivity.
25.9.2B Error
The errors in transducers occur because they do
not follow, in many situations the input-output
relationship given by qo = ftqj. Any departure from
the above relationship results in errors. For example,
the output on account of input, z/(- has to be q0 but in
practice an output q0 is obtained, then the error of the
instrument is,
e = ^0-r/0 -.(25.36)
The error, a can be expressed in terms of either
input or the output quantity.
The error analysis has already been given in
Chapter 3. The error can be split into three
components, which are,
A scale error
A dynamic error, and
A error on account of noise and drift.
Scale Error
The scale error comprises of four different types
of errors :
(i) Zero Error. In this case the output deviates
from the correct value by a constant factor over the
entire range of the transducer. This is shown in
Fig. 25.33.
Fig. 25.33 Transducer zero error.
(zz) Sensitivity Error. Sensitivity error occurs
where the observed output deviates from the correct
value by a constant value. Suppose the correct output
is q the output would be Kq^ over the entire range of
the transducer, where K is a constant. This is shown in
Fig- 25.34.
 762 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
Fig. 25.34 Transducer sensitivity error.
(in) Non-conformity. This pertains to a case in
which the experimentally obtained transfer function
deviates from the theoretical transfer function for
almost every input. This is shown in Fig. 25.35.
Fig. 25.35 Transducer Non-conformity.
In the special case of a theoretical linear
relationship between input and output quantities, this
error is called non-linearity or non-linear distortion.
(iv) Hysteresis. All transducers are subject to the
effects of hysteresis. The output of a transducer not
only depends upon the input quantity but also upon
in input quantities previously applied to it. Therefore,
a different output is obtained when the same value of
input quantity is applied depending upon whether it
is increasing or decreasing. For decreasing values, a
greater output is obtained than with increasing values
for the same value of the input quantity. This is shown
in Fig. 25.36.
Fig. 25.36 Transducer hysteresis.
Dynamic Error
Dynamic errors occur only when the input
quantity is varying with time. This is on account of the
fact the systems contain energy storage elements and
due to this the output cannot follow the input exactly
but with a time lag.
Let us consider an R-C series circuit to which a
step input of magnitude E is applied, the voltage
across the capacitor after a time, t of application of step
input is,
ec = E[l-exp(-f/ t)]
where r = time constant = RC
The response is shown in Fig. 25.37.
Fig. 25.37 Response of RC circuit to a step input.
The dynamic or measurement error is,
e„;(0= E-ec=exp(-f/r)
The dynamic or measurement error can be made
small by having a small time constant. It should be
understood that the dynamic error is a function of
time. As the time after application of the input
increases, the dynamic error reduces. The steady state
error,
eSS=e,n^=e~t/T' =0
t —> 00 t —> oo
in this particular case.
Errors due to Noise and Drift
Noise and drift signals originating from the
transducers vary with time and are superimposed on
the output signal. The difference between noise and
drift is that noise consists of a signal of random
amplitude and random frequency whilst drift is a slow
change with time. The magnitude of the noise and
drift is normally independent of the magnitude of the
input signal.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 763
Errors due to Change of Frequency
(Frequency Response)
Frequency response and the high frequency cut off
are the two specifications that describe the response of
a transducer to a variable frequency sine wave input
applied to it. For a reasonably, linear transducer, a sine
wave input yields a sine wave output. As the
frequency of the sine wave input is increased, the
transducer is required to respond more and more
quickly. Ultimately, beyond a particular frequency the
transducer can no larger respond as rapidly as its
sinusoidal input is changing. So the output of the
transducer becomes smaller and also the phase shift
between the input and output increases. Thus as the
frequency increases the output of the transducer falls.
This roll off of amplitude of output with an increase in
Fig. 25.38 Frequency response plot.
input frequency is the frequency response. The
frequency response of a transducer is shown in
Fig. 25.38. The vertical axis is the gain of the
transducer. This may be simply the output to input
ratio. However, the gain is specified in terms of
decibels.
Gain in db = 20 log (output/input) = 20 log (^Ay,)
...(25.37)
The horizontal axis represents the frequency, and
is plotted on a 'logarithmic scale in order to cover a
wide range of frequencies.
The high frequency, cutoff (fh) is the frequency at
which the transducers gain has fallen to 0.707 of the
value it had at its stable low frequency. If the vertical
axis is scaled in db, fh occurs when the gain has
decreased by -3 db. Figure 25.38 shows that the low
frequency gain is 20 db but drops of 17 db (20 - 3 = 17 db)
at a frequency of 4 kHz. Therefore, the high frequency
cutoff takes place at 4 kHz in this case.
The high frequency cutoff can be related to the
rise time by the following relationship :
tr =0.35/fh ...(25.38)
Therefore, even if the transient response
specifications are not given, the speed of a transducer
can be determined from its high frequency cutoff.
25.9.3 Transducer Response
The response of the transducer to environmental
influences is of a great importance. This is often given
insufficient attention when choosing the best
transducer for a particular measurement. This gives
rise to results that are not as accurate as expected, or,
worse, results that are accepted as more accurate than
they actually are. The performance of the tiansducer is
fully defined by its transfer function and errors,
provided that the transducer is in constant
environments and not subject to any disturbances like
stray electromagnetic and electrostatic fields,
mechanical shocks and vibrations temperature
changes, pressure and humidity changes, changes in
supply voltage and improper mechanical mountings.
If transducers are subjected to the above environ­
mental disturbances, which they are, precautions are
taken, so that changes in transfer function and
resulting errors therefrom do not occur.
Therefore, the transducer selected must be
guarded against the interfering and modifying
inputs.
25.9.4 Output Characteristics
The three conditions in the output characteristics
which should be considered are,
A Type of electrical output,
A Output impedance, and
A Useful ouput range.
Type of Electrical Output
The types of output which may be available from
the transducers may be a voltage, current, impedance
or a time function of these amplitudes. These output
quantities may or may not be acceptable to the latter
stages of the instrumentation system. They may have
 764 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

to be manipulated i.e., their magnitudes changed or

they may have to be changed in their format by signal
conditioning equipment so as to make them drive the
subsequent stages of instrumentation system.

Output Impedance
The output impedance, Zo, of a transducer
determines to the extent the subsequent stages of
instrumentation is loaded. Ideally, the value of output
impedance should be zero if no loading effects are
there on the subsequent stage. However, the output
impedance, Zo, cannot made equal to zero and
therefore, its value should be kept as low as possible to
minimise the loading effects.
The output impedance determines the amount of
power that can be transferred to the succeeding stages
of the instrumentation system for a given output
signal level. If the output impedance is low compared
to the forward impedance of the system, the
transducer has the characteristics of a constant voltage
source (provided the output of the transducer is a
voltage), while in case the forward impedance is high
as compared with the output impedance of
transducer, it behaves as constant current source.
This can be explained as under :
An ideal constant voltage source, furnishes at its
output terminals, a voltage that is independent of the and voltage across load
load connected to the source or of the current drawn
from the source. The voltage may or may not vary in ...(25.40)
‘L r0 + rl 1+r<,/rl
time. In fact, it must vary in time, if it represents a
signal which is true of transducers since their output is In case the internal resistance (output resistance)
dependent upon the input signals which vary with R(/ of the source is much smaller than load resistance
time. (for instance : Ro = 1 kQ and RL = 1 MQ) then ratio
R()/RL is very small as compared with unity and hence,
If a constant voltage source having a voltage of E
voltage across the load is,
is [Fig. 25.39(a)] is applied across a resistance R, the
current is E/R as shown in Fig. 25.39(c). A constant el=e ...(25.41)
voltage source in a strict sense does not exist ; the and the current is,
output voltage will always vary with the current 1= E/Rl ...(25.42)
drawn from the source.
Thus the voltage across the load is constant and
This is because a practical voltage source has an
the current is independent of the internal resistance Ro
internal resistance (output resistance), Ro, on account
of the source. Thus the source behaves as a constant
of which the voltage across the load resistance, EL,
voltage source as indicated in region N of Fig. 25.39(e).
decreases with increase of current or decrease of load
An ideal current source furnishes a current that is
resistance RL.
independent of the load resistance. It remains constant
Figure 25.39(d) shows a practical voltage source
even if the load resistance varies. The current
which consists of a voltage source E in series with an
produced by a constant current source may or may not
internal resistance R(/ and a load resistance RL.
vary with time.
The current in this circuit is given by,
If a constant current passes through a resistor R,
£
1 =--- - ---- ...(25.39) as shown in Fig. 25.40(a), a potential difference occurs
Rno + RLr between the terminals which is given by E = IR. In a
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 765
strict sense, as in the case of constant voltage source, a
constant current source does not exist. A practical
current source contains a voltage source E which
causes the current. A constant current source has an
internal resistance Ry which is connected in parallel
with the current source, and is very large as compared
with the load resistance R. The current in such a
system is determined primarily by magnitudes of E
and Rl.
The current through load resistance is,
^0 I when the output resistance of transducer, is equal to
...(25.43)
If the internal resistance Ro is very large as
compared to the load resistance (for instance Ro = 1 kQ
and Rl = 1Q) the ratio RL/R0 is very small so compared
with I and therefore, load current,
IL= I ...(25.44)
Therefore, the source behaves as a constant
current source as depicted in region M of Fig. 25.40(e).
There is a region O, between regions M and N where
the source neither behaves as a constant voltage
source or a constant current source.
Therefore, we conclude, if the output impedance
of the transducer is low as compared with that of load
impedance of the successive stages, it has the charac-
Fig. 25.40 Depiction of constant current source.
teristics of a constant voltage source. On the other
hand, if the output impedance of the transducer is
much higher than that of the succeeding stages, it
exhibits characteristics of a constant current source.
When the output impedance of the transducer is
equal to that of the following stages of instrumen­
tation system, matching takes place and maximum
power is transferred from the transducer to the
succeeding stages. However, it must be understood
that in case maximum power transfer takes place,
the resistance of the succeeding stages, the efficiency is
only 50%. Also, when dealing with a.c. systems, the
impedance matching takes place when the impedance
of the load is RL -/XL in case the output impedance is
rl + 7-xl.
Useful Output Range
The output range of a transducer is limited at the
lower end by noise signals which may shroud the
desired input signal. The upper limit is set by the
maximum useful input level. The output range can be
increased, in some cases, by the inclusion of amplifier
in the transducer. However, the inclusion of an
amplifier also increases the noise level and therefore in
such situations the amplifier may not be of any use at
all.
25.10 SUMMARY OF FACTORS INFLUENCING
THE CHOICE OF TRANSDUCERS
In the following parts of this chapter, an attempt
has been made to give the details and applications of
the transducers for measurement of different physical
quantities. It will be realised that there are many ways
for measurement of a physical quantity, and in many
cases, there is no best way. The transducers and the
methods used may depend upon the instrumentation
already available and also on the experience of the
user.
Unfortunately most transducers are not sensitive
to just one quantity. If measurements are to be made
under conditions where there is likelihood of two or
more input quantities influencing the transducer, it is
desirable to select a transducer which is sensitive to
the desirable quantity and insensitive to the unwanted
quantity. If this is not possible, ways and means
should be found to eliminate or compensate for the
effects of the unwanted input quantity. The following
is the summary of the factors influencing the choice of
a transducer for measurement of a physical quantity.
 766 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
1. Operating Principle. The transducers are many
a times selected on the basis of operating principle
used by them. The operating principles used may be
resistive, inductive, capacitive, optoelectronic, piezo­
electric etc.
2. Sensitivity. The transducer must be sensitive
enough to produce detectable output.
3. Operating Range. The transducer should
maintain the range requirements and have a good
resolution over its entire range. The rating of the
transducer should be sufficient so that it does not
breakdown while working in its specified operating
range.
4. Accuracy. High degree of accuracy is assured if
the transducer does not require frequent calibration
and has a small value for repeatability. It may be
emphasised that in most industrial applications,
repeatability is of considerably more importance than
absolute accuracy.
5. Cross sensitivity. Cross sensitivity is a further
factor to be taken into account when measuring
mechanical quantities. There are situations where the
actual quantity is being measured is in one plane and
the transducer is subjected to variations in another
plane. More than one promising transducer design has
had to be abandoned because the sensitivity to
variations of the measured quantity in a plane
perpendicular to the required plane has been such as
to give completely erroneous results when the
transducer has been used in practice.
6. Errors. The transducer should maintain the
expected input-output relationship as described by its
transfer function so as to avoid errors.
7. Transient and Frequency Response. The
transducer should meet the desired time domain
specifications like peak overshoot, rise time, settling
time and small dynamic error. It should ideally have a
flat frequency response curve. In practice, however,
there will be cutoff frequencies and higher cut off
frequency should be high in order to have a wide
bandwidth.
8.Loading Effects. The transducer should have a
high input impedance and a low output impedance to
avoid loading effects.
9. Environmental Compatibility. It should be
assured that the transducer selected to work under
specified environmental conditions maintains its
input-output relationship and does not break down.
For example, the transducer should remain operable
under its temperature range. It should be able to work
in corrosive environments (if the application so requires),
should be able to withstand pressures and shocks and
other interactions to which it is subjected to.
10. Insensitivity to Unwanted Signals. The
transducer should be minimally sensitive to unwanted
signals and highly sensitive to desired signals.
11. Usage and Ruggedness. The ruggedness both
of mechanical and electrical intensities of transducer
versus its size and weight must be considered while
selecting a suitable transducer.
Electrical aspects. The electrical aspects that
12.
need consideration while selecting a transducer
include the length and type of cable required.
Attention also must be paid to signal to noise ratio
in case the transducer is to be used in conjunction with
amplifiers. Frequency response limitations must also
be taken into account.
13. Stability and Reliability. The transducer
should exhibit a high degree of stability to be
operative during its operation and storage life.
Reliability should be assured in case of failure of
transducer in order that the functioning of the
instrumentation system continues uninterrupted.
14.Static Characteristics. Apart from low static
error, the transducers should have a low non-linearity,
low hysteresis, high resolution and a high degree of
repeatability.
The transducer selected should be free from load
alignment effects and temperature effects. It should
not need frequent calibration, should not have any
component limitations, and should be preferably
small in size.
25.11 RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS
It is generally seen that methods which involve
the measurement of change in resistance are preferred
to those employing other principles. This is because
both alternating as well as direct currents and voltages
are suitable for resistance measurements.
The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed
by a simple equation that involves a few physical
quantities. The relationship is
R=pL/ A,
where R = resistance ; Q,
L = length of conductor ; m,
A = cross-sectional area of conductor ; m2,
and p = resistivity of conductor material; Q-m
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 767

Any method of varying one of the quantities Displacement

involved in the above relationship can be the design
basis of an electrical resistive transducer. There are a
number of ways in which resistance can be changed
by a physical phenomenon. The translational and
rotational potentiometers which work on the basis of
change in the value of resistance with change in length
of the conductor can be used for measurement of
translational or rotary displacements. Strain gauges
work on the principle that the resistance of a
conductor or a semi-conductor changes when strained.
This property can be used for measurement of
displacement, force and pressure. The resistivity of (rt) Linear (translational) POT
materials changes with change of temperature thus
causing a change of resistance. This property may be
used for measurement of temperature. Thus electrical
resistance transducers have a wide field of
application.

25.12 POTENTIOMETERS
Basically a resistance potentiometer, or simply a
POT, (a resistive potentiometer used for the purposes
of voltage division is called a POT) consists of a
resistive element provided with a sliding contact. This
sliding contact is called a wiper. The motion of the
(b) Rotary POT
sliding contact may be translatory or rotational. A
linear pot and a rotary pot are shown in Figs. 25.41(67) Fig. 25.41 Resistive potentiometers (POTs)
and (b) respectively. Figure 25.42 shows the diagrams for translational,
Some POTS use the combination of the two single turn rotational, and multitum helix potentio­
motions, i.e., translational as well as rotational. These meters.
POTS have their resistive element in the form of a
helix and therefore, they are called helipots.
The translational resistive elements are straight
devices and have a stroke of 2 mm to 0.5 m. The
rotational devices are circular in shape and are used
for measurement of angular displacement. They may
have a full scale angular displacement as small as 10°.
A full single turn potentiometer may provide accurate
measurements upto 357°. Multiturn potentiometers
may measure upto 3500° of rotation through use of
helipots.

The helical resistive elements are multiturn

rotational devices which can be used for measurement
of either translational or rotary motion. The resistive
element of the POT may be excited by either d.c. or a.c.
voltage. The POT is a passive transducer since it
requires an external power source for its operation.
The resistive body of potentiometer may be wire
wound. A very thin, 0.01 mm diameter of platinum or
nickel alloy is carefully wound on an insulated former.
The resistance elements are also made up from cermet, pig. 25.42 Diagrams for translational,
hot moulded carbon, carbon film and thin metal. rotational and helipots.
 768 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Let us confine, our discussion of d.c. excited The circuits shown in Fig. 25.42 are called
potentiometers. Consider a translational potentio­ potentiometer dividers since they produce an output
meter as shown in Fig. 25.42(a). voltage which is a fraction of the input voltage. Thus
Let, the input voltage is "divided". The potential divider is
a device for dividing the potential in a ratio
e. & eQ = input and output voltages
determined by the position of the sliding contact.
respectively ; V,
xt = total length of translational pot; m,
xt = displacement of wiper from its zero
position ; m,
R? = total resistance of the potentiometer ; Q

If the distribution of the resistance with respect to

translational movement is linear, the resistance per
unit length is Rp/xv

The output voltage under ideal conditions is :

resistance at the output terminals^
*o = input voltage
resistance at the input terminals
Equations 25.46 and 25.47 are based upon the
...(25.45) assumption that the distribution of resistance with
respect to linear or angular displacement is uniform
and the resistance of the voltage measuring device (i.e.
The under ideal circumstances, the output
output device) is infinite.
voltage varies linearly with displacement as shown in
Fig. 25.43(a). However, in practice, the output terminals of the
pot are connected to a device whose impedance is
finite. Thus, when an electrical instrument, which
forms a load for the pot and is connected across the
output terminals, the indicated voltage is less than
that given by Eqn. 25.46. The error, which is referred
to as a loading error is caused by the input resistance
of the output device.
Let us consider the case of a translational poten­
tiometer as shown in Fig. 25.44. Let the resistance of a
meter or a recorder monitoring the output be R .
As explained earlier if the resistance across the
Fig. 25.43 Characteristics of potentiometers. output terminals is infinite, we get a linear relation­
ship between the output and the input voltage.
Sensitivity s = °UtF’- c0= (xi/xt)ei = Kei ...(25.48)
input
p p where K = x-/xf
= -0=_L ...(25.46)
xi xt However, under actual conditions the resistance,
Rm, is not infinite. This causes a non-linear
Thus under ideal conditions the sensitivity is
relationship between the output and input voltages.
constant and the output is faithfully reproduced and
has a linear relationship with input. The same is true 25.12.1 Loading Effect
of rotational motion. The resistance of the parallel combination of load
Let 0; = input angular displacement in degrees, resistance and the portion of the resistance of the
and 0f = total travel of the wiper in degrees. potentiometer is :
Output voltage eQ = er (0. / 0f) ...(25.47) RR,,R„,
...(25.49)
This is true of single turn potentiometers only. (xf/x,)Rp + R„, KRp + Rm
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 769

The total resistance seen by the source is : Except for the two end points where K=0 i.e.,
RRpR.n x. =0 and K = 1 where x; =x, the error is always
R=Rp(l-K) + negative. Figure 25.45 shows a plot of the variation in
KRP+ Rm error with the slider position for different ratios of the
load (output device or meter) resistance to the
KR^(1-K)4 RpR„,
...(25.50) potentiometer resistance.
KR,, + R,„ The error as indicated in Fig. 25.45 is actually
~ L • ei negative. Examine Fig. 25.45, the maximum error is
Current i = — about 12 per cent of full scale if Rm^p = I- This error
R
drops down to about 1.5 per cent when Rm/Rp = 10. For
values of R„/Rp > 10, the position of maximum error
' KR2p(l-K)+RpRm
occurs in the vicinity of x;- / xf= 0.67.
The output voltage under load conditions is :
RRpRm

^Rp + RJ ;; KRpRm
(KR p+Rm)
" KRp(l-K)+RpRm *

=--------------------------- ... (25.51)

K(l-K)(Rp/Rm) + l

The ratio of output voltage to input voltage under

load conditions is :
eo __________ R________ ...(25.52)
e. K(l-K)(Rp/R„;) + l
Fig. 25.45 Variation of error due to loading
Equation 25.52 shows that there exists a effect of a potentiometer.
non-linear relationship between output voltage and
input displacement xj since K-xff xr In case Rm = oo, Maximum percentage error
eQ I e- = K. ^ax=15x(Rp/Rm) ...(25.55)
It is evident from Eqn. 25.52 that as the ratio of
It should be understood that the error in POTS is
RffRp decreases, the non-linearity goes on increasing.
on account of the non-linearity effect produced by the
This is shown in Fig. 25.43(b). Thus, in order to keep
linearity, the value of Rm/Rp should be as large as output device used for measurement whose input
possible. However, when we have to measure the resistance, R , is finite. If meter resistance were
output voltage with a given meter, the resistance of infinite there would be no linearity effects and the
the potentiometer, Rp, should be as small as possible. output voltage will be a linear function of input
displacement x- as shown in Fig. 25.43 and
Error = output voltage under load consequently, there would no error because of the
- output voltage under no load
absence of non-linearity.
=---- ---- —---------------e. K 25.12.2 Power Rating of Potentiometers
[K(l-K)(Rp/R,„) + l] '
The potentiometers are designed with a definite
K2(K-1) power rating which is related directly to their heat
...(25.53)
K(l-K)+Rm/Rp dissipating capacity. The manufacturer normally
designs a series of potentiometers of single turn with a
Based upon full-scale output, this relationship diameter of 50 mm with a wide range of ohmic values
may be written as : ranging from 100 Q to 10 kQ in steps of 100 Q. These
K2(K-1) potentiometers are essentially of the same size and of
xlOO ...(25.54) the same mechanical configuration. They have the
K(l-R) + (Rm/Rp)
same heat transfer capabilities. Their rating is typically
 770 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

5 W at an ambient temperature of 21°C This limits The linearity can be improved by using a
their input excitation voltage. Since power P = ej I Rp, resistance Rjn (made equal to the meter resistance Rm)
the maximum input excitation voltage that can be as shown in Fig. 25.46 without using a meter of higher
used is : resistance. The input-output characteristics with and
without Rjft in the circuit are shown in Fig. 25.46(b).
(“’.Lax = volt -(25.56)

25.12.3 Linearity and Sensitivity

It has been explained earlier that in order to
achieve a good linearity, the resistance of
potentiometer R , should be as low as possible when
using a meter for reading the output voltage which
has a fixed value of input resistance R .
In order to get a high sensitivity the output
voltage eQ should be high which in turn requires a high
input voltage, ef. Due to limitations of power
dissipation as is clear from Eqn. 25.56, the input
voltage is limited by the resistance of the potentio­ Fig. 25.46 Linearization of POT characteristics,
meter. In order to keep the power dissipation at a low through use of an external resistance Rln = Rm.
level, the input voltage should be small and resistance
of the potentiometer should be high. Thus for a high 25.12.4 Construction of Potentiometers
sensitivity, the input voltage should be large and this The resolution of the potentiometers influences
calls for a high value of resistance R . On the other, if the construction of their resistance elements.
we consider the linearity, the resistance of potentio­ Normally, the resistive element is a single wire of
meter should be as low as possible. The resistance conducing material which gives a continuous stepless
of the potentiometer, Rp, cannot be made low because
variation of resistance as the wiper travels over it.
if we do so the power dissipation goes up with the
Such potentiometers are available but their length (in
result that we have to make the input voltage small to
the case of translational potentiometers) and diameter
keep the power dissipation to the acceptable level.
(in the case of rotational potentiometers) restrict their
This results in lower sensitivity.
use on account of space considerations.
Thus linearity and sensitivity are therefore two
The resolution of the potentiometers is dependent
conflicting requirements. If R? is made small, the
linearity improves, but a low value of R , requires a upon the construction of the resistive element and in
lower input voltage e- in order to keep down the order to get high values of resistance in small space
power dissipation and a low value of e- results in a wire wound potentiometers are used extensively. The
lower value of output voltage eQ resulting in lower resistance wire is wound on a mandrel or a card for
sensitivity. Thus the choice of potentiometer translational displacement as shown in Fig. 25.47(a).
resistance, R , has to be made considering both the For the measurement of rotational motion these
linearity ana sensitivity and a compromise between mandrels or cards are formed into a circle or a helix.
the two conflicting requirements has to be struck.
The maximum available sensitivity of poten­
tiometer varies considerably from type to type and
also with size in a given type. The sensitivity can be
calculated from the data supplied by the manu­
facturers which includes maximum allowable voltage,
current or power and the maximum stroke. The
shorter stroke devices have generally a higher
sensitivity. Extreme values are of the order of
15 V/degree for short stroke sector type rotational
potentiometers and 12 V/mm for short stroke
(6.25 mm) translational potentiometers. These, in fact,
are maximum achievable values and usual values of
sensitivity are 10 to 100 times smaller.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers J 71
(b) Circular (Rotational) potentiometer.
Fig. 25.47 Wire wound potentiometers.
This is shown in Fig. 25.47(b). If wire wound type of
construction is adopted, the variation of resistance is
not a linear continuous change but is in small steps as
the sliding contact (wiper) moves from one turn to
another. This is shown in Fig. 25.48.
Fig. 25.48 Translational potentiometer and
its characteristics.
Since the variation in resistance is in steps the
resolution is limited. For instance, a translational
potentiometer has about 500 turns of a resistance wire
on a card of 25 mm in length and for this device the
resolution is limited to 25/500 = 0.05 mm = 50 pm.
The actual practical limit is 20 and 40 turns per
mm. Thus for translational devices the resolution is
limited to 25 -50pm.
For rotational devices, the best angular resolution
3 to 6 ,
=------ degrees ... (25.57)
where D = diameter of the potentiometer ; mm
In order to get higher resolution, thin wires which
have a high resistance have to be put close to each
other and they can be closely wound on account of
their small diameter. Thus the resolution and total
resistance are interdependent.
In case a fine resolution and high resistance are
required a carbon film or a conductive-plastic
resistance elements are used. Carbon film resistive
elements have a resolution of 12.5 nm.
25.12.5 Helipots
The resolution can be increased by using multi­
turn potentiometers. These are called helipots. The
resistance element is in the form of a helix and the
wiper travels along a "lead screw". The number of
turns is still limited to 20 to 40 turns per mm but an
increase in resolution can be obtained by using a
gearing arrangement between the shaft whose motion
is to be measured and the potentiometer shaft. As an
example, one rotation of the measured shaft can cause
10 rotations of the potentiometer shaft. This increases
the resolution of the measured shaft motion by
10 times. Multitum potentiometers are available to
about 60 turns.
Similar magnifying or amplifying techniques can
be used for translational motion as well.
25.13 NON-LINEAR POTENTIOMETERS
FUNCTION GENERATORS
In many instrumentation problems, non-linear
conditions arise. These may include the effect of
magnetic saturation, the non-linearity of the voltage
produced by a thermocouple as a function of
temperature, the air speed expressed in Mach number
as a function of wind-tunnel pressures, trigonometric
functions, etc. One simple method of solving these
non-linear functions is by the use of non-linear poten­
tiometers. A standard self-balancing potentiometer is
used to produce a displacement proportional to the
input voltage e- is shown in Fig. 25.49. This
displacement also operates a non-linear resistance 25
which produces an output voltage which is the
desired function of the input voltage e-. This operation
is illustrated in the following example. Let the input
voltage e- vary from 0 to 10 V. The desired function of
this voltage is as plotted in Fig. 25.49(b).
eQ = 0.3 ei + 0.5 e2 ...(25.58)
The maximum output voltage
e0(max) = 03 X 10 + 03 X 0 °)2 = 53 V-
A displacement proportional e- is obtained using
an amplifier and a servomotor as shown in
Fig. 25.49(rt). A good approximation of the required
resistance of the non-linear potentiometer is obtained
by shunting a linear potentiometer at 10 equally
spaced taps with the correct resistances. The desired
voltage above ground is computed from Eqn. 25.58
and are listed in Table 25.3. The current is assumed to
be 1 mA. The resistance R is the resistance from each
tap to ground, and AR is the resistance between
adjacent taps. These resistances are computed and
 772 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

listed in Table 25.3. The circuit of the non-linear
potentiometer with resistances between each tap is
shown in Fig- 25.49.
The maximum resistance between taps is 980 fl
Then a 10,000 Q, 10-tap potentiometer with 1,000 fl
between taps can be used with the correct shunt
resistance externally connected between the taps for
the non-linear potentiometer. The shunt resistance Rx
between each pair of taps necessary to produce the
desired non-linearity is,

where is the resistance between the pair of adjacent

taps of the potentiometer without the shunting
resistors, and AR is the desired resistance.
These values are given in Table 25.3. The
difference between the desired function and the ap­
proximation obtained with this 10-tap potentiometer
is the difference between the curve in Fig. 25.49 and
the straight lines connecting the points on the curve.
An adjustable tapped potentiometer is-shown in
Fig. 25.50. This has the advantages that it can be
adjusted to fit any desired curve, and that it is capable
of having both positive and negative voltage outputs.

80 180 280 380 480 580 680 780 880 980

•— ei —*| eo Non-linear potentiometer

----------------------------- o E = 53 V o----------------------------

Fig. 25.49 Non-linear-potentiometer-function

generator.

Table 25.3
e. R AR *x
eo
0 0 0 0
1 0.8 80 80 87
2 2.6 260 180 220
3 5.4 540 280 319
4 9.2 920 380 613
5 14.0 1,400 480 923
6 19.8 1,980 580 1,380
7 26.6 2,660 680 2,124 Fig. 25.50 Adjustable tapped potentiometer.

8 34.4 3,440 780 3,540

When a fixed function is desired, a wire-wound
9 43.2 4,320 880 7,330 potentiometer with the desired taper may be made.
i 10 53.0 5,300 980 49,000 An example of this type of potentiometer is illustrated
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 773
Fig. 25.51 Sine-cosine, tapered potentiometer.
in Fig. 25.51, where the taper is shown for a
continuous rotating potentiometer with a sine-cosine
output function. The potentiometer shaft is rotated at
the desired angular velocity with a servomotor when a
sine-wave input voltage is desired, or it may be
Operated with a self-balancing potentiometer circuit,
as shown in Fig 25.49 when the desired output is,
= a sin e,-
or when the axis is shifted 90°.
Cq = b cos ei
f t9. 25.52 Generation of non-linear functions
with potentiometers.
It will be remembered that servo circuits are
comparatively slow and are inadequate for fast analog
computers, yet these circuits are very accurate, usually
± 0.5 percent or better.
If the slope of the body on which the resistive wire
is wound is kept accurately uniform, there will be a
linear relationship between the output voltage and the
position of the wiper (input displacement). However,
if the shape of the body varies, it will cause a
prescribed non-linear transfer function. This is shown
in Fig. 25.52.
There are many standard functions available, or
custom position-to-voltage relationship can be
produced. This non-linear relationship may be used to
compensate for a non-linearity in the quantity being
measured or to introduce a special function into the
control and instrumentation scheme without having
to resort to special mathematics electronics or a
computer.
25.14 MATERIALS USED FOR POTENTIOMETERS
The materials used for POTS may be classified as
wire wound and non-wire wound.
1. Wire Wound Potentiometers
These are platinum, nickel chromium, nickel
copper, or some other precious resistance elements.
Wire wound potentiometers carry relatively large
currents at high temperatures. Their resistance
temperature co-efficient is usually small, is of the
order of 20 x 10~6/°C or less. Their resolution is about
0.025 - 0.05 mm and is limited by the number of turns
that can be accommodated on the card.
It should be noted that the interwinding
capacitance between turns, and between windings
and shaft, housing etc. limits the use of wire wound
potentiometers to low frequencies. The response is
limited to about 5 Hz.
2. Non-Wire Potentiometers
These are also called continuous potentiometers. The
non-wire wound potentiometers provide improved
resolution and life. This is because the resolution is no
longer limited by the number of turns that can be
wrapped onto a body. The wiper moves across a
smooth surface (not bouncing from turn to turn),
wear, bounce and the resulting failures are decreased.
The maximum speed that a wire wound potentio­
meter is turned is about 300 rpm. About that, the noise
created as the wiper bounces from turn to turn
becomes significant. A continuous potentiometer may
be turned at a speed of 2000 rpm. However, they are
 774 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
more sensitive to temperature changes, have a higher
wiper contact resistance, which is variable and can
carry only moderate currents.
The materials used for non-wire wound (or
continuous) potentiometers are :
(i) Cermet. Cermet uses precious metal particles
fused into ceramic base. These fused metal particles
act as resistance elements. The advantages of using
Cermet are large power ratings at high temperatures,
low cost and moderate temperature coefficients of the
order 100 x 10-6 to 200 x 10-6/°C Cermet is very useful
for a.c. applications.
(ii) Hot moulded carbon. The resistance element is
fabricated by moulding together a mixture of carbon
and a thermosetting plastic binder. Hot moulded
carbon units are useful for a.c. applications.
(iii) Carbon film. A thin film of carbon deposited
on a non-conductive base forms the resistance
element. The advantage of carbon film potentiometers
is their low cost. Temperature coefficients are upto
1000xl0-6/°C
(zv) Thin metal film. A very thin, vapour
deposited layer of metal on glass or ceramic base is
used as a resistance element. The advantages of this
potentiometer are its excellent resistance to changes in
environments and use on a.c. The cost is also
moderate.
25.15 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
RESISTANCE POTENTIOMETERS
Resistance potentiometers have the following
major advantages :
(i) . They are inexpensive.
(zz) They are simple to operate and very useful
for applications where the requirements are
not particularly severe.
(zzz) They are very useful for measurement of
large amplitudes of displacement.
(z'v) Their electrical efficiency is very high and they
provide sufficient output to permit control
operations without further amplification.
(v) It should be understood that while the
frequency response of wire wound
potentiometers is limited, the other types of
potentiometers are free from this problem.
(vi) In wire wound potentiometers the resolution
is limited while in Cermet and metal film
potentiometers, the resolution is infinite.
The disadvantages are :
(?) The chief disadvantage of using a linear
potentiometer is that they require a large
force to move their sliding contacts (wipers).
(zz) The other problems with sliding contacts are
that they can be contaminated, can wear out,
become misaligned and generate noise. So
the life of the transducer is limited.
However, recent developments have
produced a roller contact wiper which, it is
claimed, increases the life of the transducer
by 40 times.
Example 25.9 A linear resistance potentiometer is
50 mm long and is uniformly wound with a wire having a
resistance of 10,000 □. Under normal conditions, the slider
is at the centre of the potentiometer. Find the linear
displacement when the resistance of the potentiometer as
measured by a Wheatstone bridge for two cases is: (i) 3850 Q,
(ii) 7560D. Are the two displacements in the same direction ?
If it is possible to measure a minimum value of 10 Q
resistance with the above arrangement, find the resolution
of the potentiometer in mm.
Solution. The resistance of the potentiometer at
its normal position
= 1000/2 = 5000 Q
Resistance of potentiometer per unit length
= 1000/50 = 200 Q/mm
(z) Change of resistance from its normal position
= 5000-3850 = 1150 Q
.'. Displacement of wiper from its normal position
= 1150/200 =5.75 mm
(zz) Change of resistance from its normal position
= 7560-5000 = 2560 0
Displacement of wiper from its normal position
2560/200 = 12.80 mm
Since, one of the displacements represents a
decrease and other represents an increase in resistance
of potentiometer from its value at the normal position,
the two displacements are in the opposite direction.
Resolution = minimum measurable resistance
xmm/Q
= 10x1/200 = 0.05 mm
Example 25.10 A variable potential divider has a total
resistance of 2 k£l and is fed from a 10 V d.c. supply. The
output is connected to a load resistance of 5 k£L Determine
the loading errors for the wiper positions corresponding to
K =Xj/xt=0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1.0. Use the results to plot
a rough graph of error versus xfxt.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 775

Solution. We have Rp = 2 kQ and Rlu = 5 kQ potentiometer R3R4 is adjusted so that the bridge is balanced
and eo = O. Assuming that the displacement being measured
From Eqn. 25.53, error is,
will move a maximum distance of 12.5 mm towards A,
r k2(k~i) calculate the value of e0.
e'[K(l-K)+Rm/Rp Solution. Total length of AB = 125 mm ; Midpoint
of AB = 62.5 mm from either A or B. If the wiper moves
Substituting the values, the results are tabulated 12.5 inward towards A from midstroke, its distance
below : from B becomes 62.5 + 12.5 = 75 mm.

K Error, V £2 =(75/125)x 5000 =3000 Q

0 Hence, output voltage

0
0.25 -0.174 f R2 R4 'I
0 1^+^
0.5 - 0.454
0.75 - 0.524 3000 2500
1 0 5000 5000
The graph between error versus K =xfxt is plotted
Example 25.12 The output of a potentiometer is to be
in Fig. 25.53. (The errors are no doubt - ve but they are
read by a recorder of 10 k£l input resistance. The
shown as +ve in Fig. 25.53.)
non-linearity must be held to 1 percent. A family of
potentiometers having a thermal rating of 5 W and
resistances ranging from 100 Q to 10 kQ. in steps of 100 Q
are available. Choose from the family of potentiometers, a
potentiometer that has the greatest possible sensitivity and
which meets the non-linearity requirements. Find the
maximum excitation voltage permissible with this
potentiometer. What is the sensitivity if the potentiometer is
a single turn (560° unit) ?
Solution. From Eqn. 25.55, maximum possible
percentage linearity = 15 Rp/Rm- This is to be limited to
1 percent 15 Rp/Rm =1- Therefore, the maximum value
of resistance of potentiometer is,

Fig. 25.53 Graph of results of Example 25.10.
Example 25.11 A resistive potential divider R^R2 with
a resistance of5000 Q and a shaft stroke of 125 mm is used
in the arrangement shown in Fig. 25.54. Potentiometer
R3R4 has a resistance of 5000 Q and et=5.0 V. The initial
position to be used as reference point is such that Rj = R2
i.e., the wiper is at midstroke. At the start of the test
A
R =i = 12^22 = 666.7Q
p 15 15
Thus we are left with choice of potentiometers
having resistances of 100 Q, 200 Q, 300 Q, 400 Q, 500 Q
and 600 Q.
The potentiometer with the highest value of
resistance has the highest sensitivity. Therefore, a
potentiometer with R? = 600 Q is selected. With a
power dissipation of 5 W, the maximum value of
excitation voltage is,
%ax) = 7™; =757600 = 54.8 V

The sensitivity of potentiometer when it is a single

turn unit S = 54.8/360 = 0.152 V/degree.

Example 25.13 A helipot is provided with

400 turns/mm. The gearing arrangement is such that the
motion of the main shaft causes 5 revolutions of
B potentiometer shaft. Calculate the resolution of the
Fig. 25.54 Diagram of Example 25.11.
potentiometer.
 776 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
Solution. The resolution of potentiometer
without the gearing arrangement = 1/400 mm =25 pm.
With the gearing arrangement which causes 5
revolutions of the potentiometer shaft with one
revolution of main shaft = 25/5 = 5 pm.
Example 25.14 It is necessary to measure the position
of an object. It moves 0.8 m. Its position must be known
within 1 mm. Part of the mechanism which moves the object
is a shift in a shaft that rotates 250° when the object is
moved from one extreme to the other. A control
potentiometer has been found which is rated at 300° full
scale movement. It has one thousand turns of wire. Is the
potentiometer suitable for the application ?
Solution. The shaft provides a
250°
------= 312.5°/m or 0.3125°/mm conversion
0.8
A resolution of 1 mm at the object translates into
1 mm x 0.3125° = 0.3125°
Required resolution for the potentiometer.
The potentiometer actually has a resolution
= 0.300°
1000
.’. The resolution of the potentiometer is higher
than that required for the application and hence the
potentiometer is very much suited for the application.
Example 25.15 A control potentiometer is rated as :
resistance = 150 Q, power rating - 1 W. De-rate the
potentiometer by 10 mW/°C above 65°C, thermal resistance
= 30°C/W.
Can the potentiometer be used with a 10 V supply at 80°C
ambient temperature ?
Solution. Power dissipated by potentiometer
P = (10)2/150 = 0.667 W = 667 mW
The actual temperature of the potentiometer is the
sum of the ambient temperature and temperature rise
produced due to self heating.
0pot =80° + (667)x30xl0“3 = 100°C
The allowable power dissipation must be
decreased by 10 mW for each °C above 65°C
Dissipation allowed
= 1.0-10x 10“3(100 -35)
= 0.65 W= 650 mW
A first glance, it would appear that the
potentiometer is well below the rated 1 W power
dissipated. This could have been true if the
temperature of the potentiometer were 65°C.
However, the temperature of the potentiometer is
100°C and therefore de-rating in power dissipation
has to done on account of increase in temperature. The
de-rated power dissipation is 650 mW while the
potentiometer is dissipating 667 mW and hence it will
fail.
25.16 STRAIN GAUGES
If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed,
its resistance changes on account of the fact that both
length and diameter of conductor change. Also there
is a change in the value of resistivity of the conductor
when it is strained and this property is called
piezoresistive effect. Therefore, resistance strain
gauges are also known as piezoresistive gauges. The
strain gauges are used for measurement of strain and
associated stress in experimental stress analysis.
Secondly, many other detectors and transducers,
notably the load cells, torque meters, diaphragm type
pressure gauges, temperature sensors, accelerometers
and flow meters, employ strain gauges as secondary
transducers.
25.16.1 Theory of Strain Gauges
The change in the value of resistance by straining
the gauge may be partly explained by the normal
dimensional behaviour of elastic material. If a strip of
elastic material is subjected to tension, as shown in
Fig. 25.55 or in other words positively strained, its
longitudinal dimension will increase while there will
Fig. 25.55 Change in dimensions of a strain gauge
element when subjected to a tensile force.
be a reduction in the lateral dimension. So when a
gauge is subjected to a positive strain, its length
increases while its area of cross-section decreases as
shown in Fig. 25.55. Since the resistance of a conductor
is proportional to its length and inversely proportional
to its area of cross-section, the resistance of the gauge
increases with positive strain. The change in the value
resistance of strained conductor is more than what can
be accounted for an increase in resistance due to
dimensional changes. The extra change in the value of
resistance is attributed to a change in the value of
resistivity of a conductor when strained. This
property, as described earlier, is known as
peizoresistive effect.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 777

Let us consider a strain gauge made of circular The gauge factor is defined as the ratio of per unit
wire. The wire has the dimensions : length = L, area = change in resistance to per unit change in length.
A, diameter = D before being strained. The material of r _AR/R
the wire has a resistivity p. Gauge factor Cj r — ...(25.67)
f AL/ L
Resistance of unstrained gauge R -pL/ A.
Let a tensile stress s be applied to the wire. This or — = Gf— = Cfx£ ...(25.68)
produces a positive strain causing the length to
increase and area to decrease as shown in Fig. 25.55. where e = strain = —
Thus when the wire is strained there are changes in its L
dimensions. Let AL = change in length, AA = change in The gauge factor can be written as :
area, AD = change in diameter and AR = change in
= 1 + 2v+^P
resistance. ...(25.69)
E
In order to find how AR depends upon the Ap/p
material physical quantities, the expression for R is = 1 + 2v
£
differentiated with respect to stress s. Resistance Resistance Resistance
Thus we get: change due to change due to change due to
change of length change in area piezoresistive effect
= + ...(25.59)
ds A ds A2 ds A ds akm=1+2v+ap/p
f AL/ L AL/ L
Dividing Eqn. 25.59 throughout by resistance
R -pL/ A, we have The strain is usually expressed in terms of
1 dR 1 dL 1 dA 1 dp microstrain. 1 microstrain = 1 pm / m.
------- =----- ----------- +---- — ...(25.60)
R ds Lds A ds p ds If the change in the value of resistivity of a
material when strained is neglected, the gauge factor
It is evident from Eqn. 25.60, that the per unit
is :
change in resistance is due to :
G/=l + 2v ...(25.70)
(0 per unit change in length - AL/ L
(ii) per unit change in area = AA / A and Equation 25.70 is valid only when Piezoresistive
(iii) per unit change in resistivity - Ap / p
Effect i.e., change in resistivity due to strain is almost
negligible.
Area A = -D2 /. — =2.-D.— ...(25.61) The Poisson's ratio for all metals is between 0 and
4 ds 4 ds
0.5. This gives a gauge factor of approximately, 2. The
or ljXJ2K/4)DgD=ljD (2562) common value for Poisson's ratio for wires is 0.3. This
A ds (n/4)D2 ds D ds gives a value of 1.6 for wire wound strain gauges.
:. Equation 25.60 can be written as : Table 25.4 gives the value of gauge factors for the
various materials.
1 dR 1 dL 2 dD 1 dp
-------- =----------------------- 1---------- .. .(Zo.oJ)
R ds L ds D ds p ds Table 25.4 Gauqe Factors
Now, Poisson's ratio Material Gauge Material Gauge Factor
I Nickel
lateral strain dD / D - 12.1 Platinum + 4.8
V =----- -------- :----------------- =-------------- j
longitudinal strain dL/ L
■ Manganin + 0.47 Carbon + 20
...(25.64) j 1
Nichrome + 2.0 Doped
or dD / D = -v x dL/ L 100-5000
; Constantan + 2.1 Crystals
... ...(25.65)
R ds L ds L ds p ds ; Soft iron + 4.2

For small variations, the above relationship can be Example 25.16 A resistance wire strain gauge uses a
written as : soft iron wire of small diameter. The gauge factor is + 4.2.
AR AL AL Ap Neglecting the piezoresistive effects, calculate the Poisson's
— = — +2v — + — ...(25.66)
R L L p ' ratio.
 778 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Solution. The gauge factor is given by Eqn. 25.69, Strain gauges are broadly used for two major
G 1 + 2v + *
P/P types of applications and they are :
J e (i) Experimental stress analysis of machines
and structures, and
If piezoresistive effect is neglected, the gauge
factor is given by Eqn. 25.70 as : (ii) Construction of force, torque, pressure, flow
and acceleration transducers.
Gf= l + 2v
25.17.1 Unbonded Metal Strain Qgug§s
4.2-1
Poisson's ratio v = —----- =--------- = 1.6 An unbonded metal strain gauge is shown in pig.
2 2
25.56. This gauge consists of a wire stretched between
Example 25.17 A compressive force is applied to a two points in an insulating medium such as air. The
structural member. The strain is 5 micro-strain: Two wires may be made of various copper nickel, chrome
separate strain gauges are attached to the structural nickel or nickel iron alloys. They are about 0.003 mm
member, one is a nickel wire strain gauge having a gauge in diameter, have a gauge factor of 2 to 4 and sustain 9
factor of-12.1 and the other is nichrome wire strain gauge force of 2 mN. The length of wire is 25 nun or less.
having a gauge factor of 2. Calculate the value of resistance In Fig. 25.56, the flexture element is connected via
of the gauges after they are strained. The resistance of strain a rod to a diaphragm which is used for sensing of
gauges before being strained is 120 Cl. pressure. The wires are tensioned to avoid buckling
Solution. According to our convention, the tensile when they experience a compressive force.
strain taken as positive while the compressive strain is
taken as negative.
Therefore, strain e = -5 x 10-6 Piaphragm
(1 micro strain = 1 pm / m)
Now AR / R (See Eqn. 25.68)
.•. Change in value of resistance of nickel wire
strain gauge :
AR = G^e x R
= (-12.1)x (-5x 10-6)x 120

= 7.26 xlO’3Q =7.26 mQ

Thus there is an increase of 7.26 mfl in the value of
resistance.
For nichrome, the change in the value of
resistance is :
AR = (2)x (-5x 10~6)x 120
= 1.2xlO’3Q =-1.2 mf)
Thus, with compressive strain, the value of
resistance gauge shows a decrease of 1.2 mQ in the
value of resistance.

25.17 TYPES OF STRAIN GAUGES

The following are the major types of strain gauges:
A Unbonded metal strain gauges
A Bonded metal wire strain gauges
A Bonded metal foil strain gauges
A V acuum deposited thin metal film strain gauges
A Sputter deposited thin metal strain gauges
Fig. 25.56 Set-up of a unbonded strain gauge
A Bonded semiconductor strain gauges
and measurement with a Wheatstone
A Diffused metal strain gauges. bridge.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 779
The unbonded metal wire gauges, used almost
exclusively in transducer applications, employ
preloaded resistance wires connected in a wheatstone
bridge as shown in Fig. 25.56(b). At initial preload, the
strains and resistances of the four arms are nominally
equal, with the result the output voltage of the bridge,
eQ = 0. Application of pressure produces a small
displacement which is about 0.004 mm (full scale), the
displacement increases tension in two wires and
decreases it in the other two, thereby increase the
resistance of two wires which are in tension and
decreasing the resistance of the remaining two wires.
This causes an unbalance of the bridge producing an
output voltage which is proportional to the input
displacement and hence to the applied pressure.
Electric resistance of each arm is 120 Q to 1000 Q,
the input voltage to the bridge is 5 to 10 V, and the full
scale output of the bridge is typically about 20 mY to
50 mV.
25.17.2 Bonded Wire Strain Gauges
The bonded metal-wire strain gauges are used for
both stress analysis and for construction of transducers.
A resistance wire strain gauge consists of a grid of
fine resistance wire of about 0.025 mm in diameter or
less. The grid is cemented to carrier (base) which may
be a thin sheet of paper, a thin sheet of bakelite or a
sheet of teflon. The wire is covered on top with a thin
Carrier (base)
Terminals
Wire grid
(a) Linear strain gauge.
Fig. 25.57 Resistance wire strain gauge.
sheet of material so as to prevent it from any
mechanical damage. The spreading of wire permits a
uniform distribution of stress over the grid. The
carrier is bonded with an adhesive material to the
specimen under study. This permits a good transfer of
strain from carrier to grid of wires. The wires cannot
buckle as they are embedded in a matrix of cement
and hence faithfully follow both the tensile and
compressive strains of the specimen. Since, the
materials and the wire sizes used for bonded wire
strain gauges are the same as used for unbonded wire
strain gauges, the gauge factors and resistances for
both are comparable.
The size of the strain gauges varies with
application. They can be as small as 3 mm by 3 cm
square. Usually they are larger but seldom more than
25 mm long and 12.5 mm wide.
For excellent and reproducible results, it is
desirable that the resistance wire strain gauges should
have the following characteristics :
(z) The strain gauge should have a high value of
gauge factor Gy. A high value of gauge factor indicates
a large change in resistance for a particular strain
resulting in high sensitivity.
(zz) The resistance of the strain gauge should be
as high as possible since this minimizes the effects of
undesirable variations of resistance in the measurement
Wire grid
(d) Helical gauge.
 780 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
circuit. Although undesirable, but necessary, are the
resistance of connecting leads and terminals, etc.
Typical resistances of strain gauges are 120 Q, 350 Q
and 1000 Q. Although a high resistance value of strain
gauges is desirable from the point of view of
swamping out the effects of variations of resistance in
other parts of the bridge circuit in which they are
invariably used but it results in lower sensitivity.
Thus in order to get high sensitivity higher bridge
voltages have to be used. The bridge voltage is limited
by the maximum current carrying capacity of the
wires which is typically 30 mA.
(in) The strain gauges should have a low
resistance temperature co-efficient. This is essential to
minimise errors on account of temperature variations
which affect the accuracy of measurements.
(iv) The strain gauge should not have any
hysteresis effects in its response.
(v) In order to maintain constancy of calibration
over the entire range of the strain gauge, it should
have linear characteristics i.e., the variations in
resistance should be a linear function of the strain.
(vi) The strain gauges are frequently used for
dynamic measurements and hence their frequency
response should be good. The linearity should be
maintained within accuracy limits over the entire
frequency range.
The desirable characteristics of resistance wire
strain gauges are listed above but no single material is
able to satisfy all the properties since they are, many a
times, conflicting in nature. A number of metals and
their alloys have been used in making resistance wire
strain gauges. Some popular metals and alloys used
for construction of resistance wire strain gauges are
listed in Table 25.5 along with their properties.
Table 25.5 Materials for Strain Gauges
Gauge Resistivity
Material Composition Q m
Factor
Nichrome Ni : 80% 2.5 100xl0~8
Cr : 20%
Constantan Ni : 45% 2.1 48xl0"8
Cu : 55%
Isoelastic Ni : 36% 3.6 105 xlO-8
Cr : 8%
Mo : 0.5%
1 Nickel - -12 6.5 xlO-8
Platinum - 4.8 lOxlO’8
Base (Carrier) Materials
Several types of base or carrier materials are used
to support the wires. Impregnated paper is used for
room temperature applications. The range of some of
the other materials is :
Epoxy - 200°C to 150°C, Bakelite cellulose or fibre
glass materials - upto 200°C for continuous operation
and 300°C for limited operation.
Adhesives
The adhesives act as bonding materials. Like
other bonding operations, successful strain gauge
bonding depends upon careful surface preparation
and use of the correct bonding agent. In order that the
strain be faithfully transferred on to the strain gauge,
the bond has to be formed between the surface to be
strained and the plastic backing material on which the
gauge is mounted. It is important that the adhesive
should be suited to this backing ; numerous materials
are used for backings which require different adhesive
materials. It is usually desirable that the adhesive
material should be of quick drying type and also be
insensitive to moisture in order to have good
adherence.
Ethylcellucose cement, nitrocellucose cement,
bakelite cement and epoxy cement are some of the
commonly used adhesive materials. The temperature
range up to which they can be used is usually below
175°C.
Leads
The leads should be of such materials which have
low and stable resistivity and also a low resistance
temperature co-efficient.
Resistance Temperature Upper Temperature
Co-efficient/°C
°C
0.1 xlO'3 1200
± 0.02 x 10’3 400
0.175 xl0~3 1200
6.8 xlO’3 -
4.0 x!0~3 _________ -
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 781
25.17 .3 Bonded Metal Foil Strain Gauges
This class of strain gauges is only an extension of
the bonded metal wire strain gauges. The bonded
metal wire strain gauges have been completely
superseded by bonded metal foil strain gauges.
Metal foil strain gauges use identical or similar
materials to wire strain gauges and are used today for
most general-purpose stress analysis applications and
for many transducers. The metals and alloys used for
foil type strain gauges are shown in Table 25.5. A
typical bonded metal foil strain gauge is shown in
Fig. 25.58.
Fig. 25.58 Bonded metal foil gauge.
Foil type gauges have a much greater heat
dissipation capacity as compared with wire wound
strain gauges on account of their greater surface area
for the same volume. For this reason, they can be used
for higher operating temperature range. Also the large
surface area leads to better bonding.
The sensing elements of foil gauges are formed
from sheets less than 0.005 mm thick by photo-etching
processes, which allow greater flexibility with regard
to shape. In Fig. 25.59, for example, the three linear
Fig. 25.59 Metal foil strain gauges.
grid gauges are designed with fat end turns. This local
increase in area reduces the transverse sensitivity which is a
spurious input since the gauge is designed to measure the
strain component along the length of grid elements.
For foil type strain gauges, the manufacturing
process also easily provides convenient soldering tabs,
which are integral to the sensing grid, on all four
gauges as shown in Fig. 25.59.
Foil type of gauges are employed for both stress
analysis and as well as for construction of transducers.
Foil type of gauges are mounted on a flexible
insulating carrier film about 0.025 mm thick which is
made of polymide, glass phenolic etc. Typical gauge
resistances are 120, 350 and 1000 Q with the allowable
gauge current of 5 to 40 mA which is determined by
the heat dissipation capabilities of the gauge. The
gauge factors typically range from 2 to 4.
Minimum practical gauge size is constrained by
the manufacturing limitations and handling
attachment problems. The smallest gauge sizes are
about 0.38 mm long. Foil type of gauges can be
applied to curved surfaces ; the minimum safe bend
radius can be as small as 1.5 mm in some strain
gauges.
The maximum measurable strain varies from 0.5
to 4 percent. However, special postyield gauge devices
allow measurement upto 0.1. Fatigue life of gauges
varies with conditions. However, 10 million cycles at
± 1500 microstrain can be applied to foil gauges
without causing failure.
Many different adhesives have been developed for
fastening strain gauges to specimens. Gauges and
fastening methods are available to cover temperature
ranges from - 269°C to 816°C.
It is interesting to carry out simple calculations to
find out what effect an applied stress has on a metal
 782 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

strain gauge. Hooke's law gives a relationship

Deflection x =-----
between stress and strain for linear stress-strain curve 3 EI
(i.e., for elastic limits) in terms of modulus of elasticity
of the material under stress. Hooke's law may be
written as : _ 3 x 200 x 109 x 45 x 1Q~12 x 12.7 x 10~3
Strain e =s/ E ...(25.71) (0.25)3
where G, s and E are respectively the strain, stress and
= 22 N
modulus of elasticity. The units for stress and
modulus of elasticity are N/m . Bending moment at 0.15 m from free end
The change in the value of resistance is quite small M = Ex =22x0.15 =3.3 Nm
as is clear from the following example. Stress at 0.15 m from free end

Example 25.18 A resistance, wire strain gauge with a M t 3.3 0.003 2

s =—.-=---------- =x-------= 110 MN/m
gauge factor of 2 is bonded to a steel structural member I 2 45xl0-12 2
subjected to a stress of 100 MN/m . The modulus of c. . AL
Strain s=—
elasticity of steel is 200 GN/m . Calculate the percentage L
change in the value of the gauge resistance due to the applied = ± = noxio|=o55xio_3
stress. Comment upon the results. E 200 xlO9
Solution. :. Gauge factor
s _100xl06
Strain _ AR/R _0.152x120 _23
E -200xl09 " AL/ L~ 0.55xlO-3 ~
= 500 x 10 6 (500 microstrain) Example 25.20 A strain gauge is bonded to a beam
AR 0.1 m long and has a cross-sectional area 4 cm . Young's
We have, — = GfE = 2 x 500 x 10-6 =0.001 =0.1%
R J modulus for. steel is 207 GN/m . The strain gauge has an
:. The change in resistance is only 0.1%. unstrained resistance of 240 Q and a gauge factor of 2.2.
When a load is applied, the resistance of gauge changes by
Comments. The above example illustrates that a very 0.013 Q. Calculate the change in length of the steel beam
heavy stress of 100 MN/m2 results in resistance and the amount offorce applied to the beam.
change of only 0.1 per cent, which is by all means a Solution. We have gauge factor
very small change. This may present difficulties in
r _AR/R
measurement. Lower stresses produce still lower
f AE/L
changes in resistance which may not be perceptible at
all or the methods required to detect these changes and therefore change in length
may have to be highly accurate. To overcome this
difficulty we must use strain gauges which have a cf
high gauge factor which produce large changes in
(0.013/240) n in_6
resistance when strained. These changes are easy to = -------- ------ - x 0.1 = 2.46 x 10 b m
detect and measure with good degree of accuracy. 2.2
Stress s = Ee
Example 25.19 A single strain gauge having resistance = 207 xl09x 2.46 x!0~6
of 120 CL is mounted on a steel cantilever beam at a distance
0.1
of 0.15 mfrom the free end. An unknown force F applied at
= 5.092 xlO6 N/m2
the free end produces a deflection of 12.7 mm of the free end.
The change in gauge resistance is found to be 0.152 Q. The Force F = sA
beam is 0.25 m long with a width of 20 mm and a depth of = 5.092 x IO6 x 4x IO'4 = 2.037x IO3 N
3 mm. The Young's modulus for steel is 200 GN/m2.
Calculate the gauge factor. 25.17 .4 Evaporation Deposited Thin Metal
Strain Gauges
Solution. Moment of inertia of beam,
Evaporation deposited thin film metal strain
1 = 1/12 (bd3) = 1 /12 x 0.02 x (0.003)3
gauges are mostly used for the fabrication of
= 45xl0-12 m4 transducers. They are of sputter deposited variety. Both
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 783

processes begin with a suitable elastic metal element. Semi-conducting materials such as silicon and
The elastic metal element converts the physical germanium are used as resistive materials for
quantity into a strain. To cite an example of a pressure semi-conductor strain gauges. A typical strain gauge
transducer/ a thin, circular metal diaphragm is consists of a strain sensitive crystal material and leads
formed. Both the evaporation and sputtering that are sandwiched in a protective matrix. The
processes form all the strain gauge elements directly production of these gauges employs conventional
on the strain surface, they are not separately attached semi-conductor technology using semi-conducting
as in the case of bonded strain gauges. wafers or filaments which have a thickness of 0.05 mm
In the evaporation process, the diaphragm is and bonding them on a suitable insulating substrates,
placed in a vacuum chamber with some insulating such as teflon. Gold leads are generally employed for
material. Heat is applied until the insulating material making the contacts. Some of the typical semi­
vaporises and then condenses, forming a thin conductor strain gauges are shown in Fig. 25.60. These
dielectric film on the diaphragm. Suitably shaped strain gauges can be fabricated along with integrated
templates are placed over the diaphragm, and the circuit (IC) operational amplifiers which can act as
evaporation and condensation processes are repeated pressure sensitive transducers.
with the metallic gauge material, forming the desired
strain gauge pattern on top of the insulating substrate.
In the sputtering process, a thin dielectric layer is
deposited in vacuum over the entire diaphragm
surface. The detailed mechanism of deposition is,
however, entirely different from the evaporation
method. The complete layer of metallic gauge is
sputtered on the top of the dielectric material without
using any substrate. The diaphragms are now
removed from the vacuum chamber, and
microimaging techniques using photomasking
materials are used to form the gauge pattern. The
diaphragms are then returned to the vacuum
chamber. Sputter etching techniques are used to
remove all unmasked metal layer, leaving behind the
desired gauge pattern.
Resistance and gauge factors of film gauges are
identical to those of foil gauges. Since no organic
cementing materials are used, thin film gauges exhibit Fig. 25.60 Semi-conductor strain gauge.
a better time and temperature stability.
Advantages
25.17 .5 Semi-conductor Strain Gauges
It has been explained above in order to have a (?) Semi-conductor strain gauges have the
high sensitivity, a high value of gauge factor is advantage that they have a high gauge
desirable. A high gauge factor means a relatively factor of about ± 130. This allows measure­
higher change in resistance which can be easily ment of very small strains of the order of
measured with a good degree of accuracy. 0.01 microstrain.

Semiconductor strain gauges are used where a
very high gauge factor and a small envelope are
required. The resistance of the semi-conductors
changes with change in applied strain. Unlike in the
case of metallic gauges where the change in resistance
is mainly due to change in dimensions when strained,
the semi-conductor strain gauge depend for their
action upon piezo-resistive effect i.e., the change in
the value of the resistance due to change in resistivity.
(ii) Hysteresis characteristics of semi-conductor
strain gauges are excellent. Some units
maintain it to less than 0.05%.
(iii) Fatigue life is in excess of 10 x 106 operations
and the frequency response is upto 1012 Hz.
(ir) Semi-conductor strain gauges can be very
small ranging in length from 0.7 to 7 mm.
They are very useful for measurement of
local strains.
 784 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Disadvantages
(z) The major and serious disadvantage of
semi-conductor strain gauges is that they are
very sensitive to changes in temperature.

(zz) Linearity of the semi-conductor strain gauge

is poor. The equation for the fractional
change in resistance is :
AR/ R = As + Be^m

where A and B are constants.

This gauge is rather non-linear at
comparatively high strain levels. The gauge
factor varies with strain. For example, if the
gauge factor is 130 at 0.2 percent strain, then
it is 112 at 0.4 percent strain. The charac­
teristics can be made linear by proper doping.

(zzz) Semi-conductor strain gauges are more

expensive and difficult to attach to the object
under study.

25.17 .6 Diffused Strain Gauges

The diffused strain gauges are primarily used in 2-element rosette
transducers. The diffusion process used in IC 90° stacked
(Foil)
manufacture is employed. In pressure transducers, for
example, the diaphragm would be of silicon rather
than metal and the strain gauge effect would be
realized by depositing impurities in the diaphragm to
form an intrinsic strain gauge. This type of
construction may allow lower manufacturing costs in
some designs, as a large number of diaphragms can be
made on a single silicon wafer.

FAER-25RB-12SX
25.18 ROSETTES 3-element rosette
In addition to single element strain gauges, a 45° planar
combination of strain gauges called "Rosettes" are
available in many combinations for specific stress
analysis or transducer applications.
In practical problems^, an element may be
subjected to stresses in any direction and hence it is
not possible to locate the direction of principal stress.
Therefore, it is not possible to orient the strain,
gauges along the direction of principal stress. Hence
there is a necessity to evolve a strain gauge
measurement system which measures the values of FAED-25B-35SX
(Foil) 2-element rosette
principal strains and stresses without actually 90° shear planar
knowing their directions. The solution to the problem (Foil)
lies in using three strain gauges to form a unit called a
Rosette. Some forms of Rosettes are shown in
Fig. 25.61. Fig. 25.61 Some forms of Rosettes.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 785
25.19 RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
The resistance of a conductor changes when its
temperature is changed. This property is utilized for
measurement of temperature.
The variation of resistance R with temperature
T(°K) can be represented by the following relationship
for most of the metals as :
R = R0(l + a1T + a2T2+...+ an ?"+...) ...(25.72)
where Ry = resistance at temperature T = 0
and ap a2,a3,...a/( are constants.
The resistance thermometer uses the change in
electrical resistance of conductor to determine the
temperature.
The resistivity of metals showed a marked
dependence on temperature was discovered by Sir
Humphry7 Davy. A few years later Sir William
Siemens preferred the use of platinum as an element
in the resistance thermometer. His choice proved most
propitious, as platinum is used to this day as the
primary element in all high accuracy resistance
thermometers. In fact, the platinum resistance
temperature detector (PRTD) is used today as an
interpolation standard from oxygen point (- 182.96°C)
to antimony point (630.74°)
Platinum is especially suited for this purpose, as it
can withstand high temperatures while maintaining
excellent stability. As a noble metal, it shows limited
susceptibility to contamination. All metals produce a
positive change in resistance with temperature. This,
of course, is the main function of an RTD. The system
error is minimized when the nominal value of RTD is
large. This implies a metal with a high value of
resistivity should be used for RTDs. The lower is the
resistivity of the metal, the more material we will have
to use.
The requirements of a conductor material to be
used in RTDs are :
(z) The change in resistance of material per unit
change in temperature should be as large as
possible.
(zz) The material should have a high value of
resistivity so that minimum volume of
material is used for the construction of RTD.
(zzz) The resistance of materials should have a
continuous and stable relationship with
temperature.
Gold and Silver are rarely used for construction
of RTDs on account of their low resistivities. Tungsten
has relatively a high resistivity, but is reserved for
high temperature applications as it is extremely brittle
and difficult to work. Copper is used occasionally as
an RTD element. Its low resistivity forces the element
to be longer than the platinum element, but its low
linearity and low cost make it an economical
alternative. Its upper limit of temperature is about
120°C.
Fig. 25.62 Industrial platinum resistance
thermometer.
The most common RTDs are made of either
platinum, nickel or nickel alloys. The economical
nickel wires are used over a limited temperature
range. They are quite non-linear and tend to drift with
time. For measurement integrity, platinum is the
obvious choice.
The common values of resistance for a platinum
RTD range from 10 Q for the bird cage model to
several thousands ohm for the film RTD. The single
most common value is 100 Q at 0°C with a resistance
temperature co-efficient of 0.00385/°C. The more
chemically pure platinum wire has a resistance
temperature co-efficient of 0.00392/°C.
The construction of an industrial type of platinum
RTD is shown in Fig. 25.62.
The characteristics of various materials used for
resistance thermometers are plotted in Fig. 25.63.
Metals commonly used for resistance thermo­
meters are listed in Table 25.6 along with their salient
properties.
An examination of the resistance versus
temperature curves of Fig. 25.63, shows that the
curves are nearly linear. If fact, when only short
temperature spans are considered, the linearity is
 786 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

The reason for using a0 as the fractional slope of

resistance-temperature curve is that this same
constant be used for conductors having the same
material with different dimensions. The value of a0
can be found from the value of resistance ancl
temperatures as shown in 25.64. In general,
1
a°o = X(sloPeat0o)

Temp. —>.

Fig. 25.63 Characteristics of materials used for

resistance thermometers.
more evident. This fact is employed to develop
approximate analytical equations for resistance versus
temperature for a particular metal.

Table 25.6 Metals Used for Resistance

Thermometers

IM Fig. 25.64 A straight line representing an approximate

Min Max
relationship between resistance R. and temperature 0.
Platinum 0.39 -260 110 1773
Copper 0.39 0 180 1083 Example 25.21 Find the linear approximation between
Nickel 0.62 -220 300 1435 30°C to 60°C using the resistance-temperature curve as
Tungsten 0.45 -200 1000 3370 shown in Fig. 25.64.

25.19.1 Linear Approximation Solution. We have

01=3O°C and 02 =60°C
A linear approximation means that we may
develop an equation for a straight line which Mean temperature
approximates the resistance versus temperature curve 0Q =(30 + 60)/2 =45°C
over a specified span. Figure 25.64 shows a curve of
From Fig. 25.64, we have :
variation of resistance R with temperature 0°C.
Resistance at 30°C,
Here a straight line has been drawn between the
points of the curve which represent O^C and 02°C R„0j = 4.8 Q, resistance at 60°C,
with 0O°C representing the mid point temperature. Ra =6.2 Q and resistance at 45°C
The equation of this straight line is' the linear Rn = 5.5 Q
approximation of the curve from O^C to 02°C. The
From Eqn. 25.74,
equation of the straight line is written as :
1 Re2
Rq = 1^(1 +a0oA0) with 02 <0O <02 ...(25.73) ao = —x
0 02~ 01
where Rq = approximate resistance at 0°C;Q, eo
= J_ 6.2 x 4.8
Rq^ = approximate resistance at 0o°C;Q, ~5.5X 60-30 = 0.0085° C
A0 = 0 -0Q = change in temperature ; °C,
Hence, the linear approximation is :
a0 = resistance temperature co-efficient at
temperature 0o°C;/°C Rq = 5.5[1 + 0.0085(0- 45)] Q
 Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 787

25.19.2 Quadratic Approximation 2. Quadratic Expansion : The resistance RQ at any

A quadratic approximation of the resistance temperature 0°C is given by :
temperature curve is more accurate representation of R„v = RUnq [1
the curve over a limited range of temperature. The L + a , A0 + a9(AO)2]
quadratic approximation relationship includes both a We can find the quadratic terms, by forming two
linear term as in Eqn. 25.73 and an addition has a term equations using two points about the mean
which varies as the square of the difference in temperature 0O = 115°C
temperature. The approximation is written as : We have, Rn = 598.48 O at 0n = 115°C
°o u
1^ = Ryo[l + a1A0+a2(A0)2] ...(25.75) Now using 100°C and 130°C as the two points, we
where have :
04 = linear fractional change in resistance ; /°C 573.40 = 589.48 [1 + 04(100 -115) +a2(100 -115)2]
and a 2 = quadratic fractional change in 605.52 = 589.48 [1 + 04 (130 -115) +a2(130 -115)2]
resistance, /(°C)2 From above, we have,
Values of and a2 are found from tables and 04 = 1.823 xlO~3/°C
graphs as indicated in the example given below by
and 04 =-0.22 x 10~6/(°C)2
using values of resistance and temperature at three
different points. Two equations are formed and values Hence,
of 04 and a2 are calculated from these. R0 = 589.48[l+ 1823 xlO-3 (9 - 115) - 0.22xlO-6(0 - 115)2] Q

Example 25.22 Use the following values of resistance Example 25,23 A platinum thermometer has a
versus temperature for an RTD to find the linear and resistance of 100 O at 25°C.
quadratic approximations of resistance between 100°C and (a) Find its resistance at 65°C if the platinum has a
> 13O°C about a mean temperature of!15°C. resistance temperature co-efficient of0.00392/°C.
(b) If the thermometer has a resistance of 150 O,
Temperature, °C Resistance Fl
calculate the temperature.
90 562.66 Solution, (a) Using the linear approximation, the
95 568.03 resistance at any temperature 0°C, is
100 573.40 ^0 = ^0O^ + a0oA0l

105 578.77 .•. Resistance at 65°C is,

110 584.13 R65 = 100 [1 + 0.00392 (65 -25)]
115 589.48 = 115.68 0
120 594.84 (b) Suppose 0 is the unknown temperature,

125 600.18 150 = 100[l +0.00392 (0-25)]

or 0 = 152.55°C
130 605.52
Example 25.24 A copper resistor at 20°C is to used to
Solution. 1. Linear Expansion : Given :
indicate the temperature of bearings of a machine. What
0: =100°Q e2=130°G 0O=115°C resistance should not be exceeded if the maximum bearing
Ra = 573.40 0, R^ = 605.52 0, Ry = 589.48 0 temperature is not to exceed 150°C ? The resistance
v2 «o temperature co-efficient of copper is 0.00393/°C at 20°C.
From Eqn. 25.74,
Solution. The value of resistance in case the
1 *02
temperature is not to exceed 150°C can be calculated
afl = a, =----- x—*—-—
91 1 \ 02-0l as under.
R150 = 10 [1 + 0.00392 (150 -20)] = 15.11 O
1 605.52-573.40
” 598.48 X 130-100
Example 25.25 A temperature alarm unit with a time
constant of 120 s is subjected to a sudden rise of temperature
= 0.00182 /°C
of50°C because offire. If an increase of30°C is required to
The linear approximation is : actuate the alarm, what will be the delay in sudden
Rd = 598.48[1 + 0.00182(0-115)] Q temperature increase ?
 788 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Solution. Assume the thermometer be a first

order system, the variation of indicated temperature 0,
to a step input temperature 0O is,
0 = 0()[1 - exp(-f / t)J
30 = 50[l-exp(-f/120)]
or t - 110 s
The alarm would be delayed by 110 s.

25.20 THERMISTORS
Thermistor is a contraction of a term "thermal
resistors". Thermistors are generally composed of
semi-conductor materials. Although positive tempe­
rature co-efficient of units (which exhibit an increase
in the value of resistance with increase in temperature)
are available, most thermistors have a negative
coefficient of temperature resistance i.e. their resistance
decreases with increase of temperature. The negative
temperature coefficient of resistance can be as large as
several percent per degree Celsius. This allows the
thermistor circuits to detect very small changes in
temperature which could not be observed with an
RTD or a thermocouple. In some cases the resistance
of thermistor at room temperature may decrease as
much as 5 percent for each 1°C rise in temperature.
This high sensitivity to temperature changes makes
thermistors extremely useful for precision tempe­
rature measurements control and compensation.
Thermistors are widely used in applications
which involve measurements in the range of - 60°C to
15°C. The resistance of thermistors ranges from 0.5 Q
to 0.75 MQ. Thermistor is a highly sensitive device.
The price to be paid off for the high sensitivity is in terms
of linearity. The thermistor exhibits a highly non­
linear characteristic of resistance versus temperature.
25.20.1 Construction of Thermistors
Thermistors are composed of sintered mixture of
metallic oxides such as manganese, nickel, cobalt,
copper, iron and uranium. They are available in
variety of sizes and shapes. The thermistors may be in
the form of beads, rods and discs. Some of the
commercial forms are shown in Fig. 25.65.
A thermistor in the form of a bead is smallest in
size and the bead may have a diameter of 0.015 mm to
1.25 mm. Beads may be sealed in the tips of solid glass
rods to form probes which may be easier to mount
than the beads. Glass probes have a diameter of about
2.5 mm and a length which varies from 6 mm to
50 mm. Discs are made by pressing material under
high pressure into cylindrical flat shapes with
diameters ranging from 2.5 mm to 25 mm.
Fig. 25.65 Different forms of construction of
thermistors.
25.20.2 Resistance-Temperature
Characteristics of Thermistors
The mathematical expression for the relationship
between the resistance of a thermistor and absolute
temperature of thermistor is :
R.fi - RT2exp p ...(25.76)
12j_
where = resistance of the thermistor at
absolute temperature ; °K
Rp9 = resistance of the thermistor at
absolute temperature ?2; °K
and P = a constant depending upon the
material of thermistor, typically
3500 to 4500 °K
The resistance temperature characteristics of a
typical thermistor are given in Fig. 25.66. The
resistance temperature characteristics of Fig. 25.66
shows that a thermistor has a very high negative
temperature co-efficient of resistance, making it an
ideal temperature transducer. Figure 25.66 also shows
the resistance temperature characteristics of platinum
which is a commonly used material for resistance
thermometers. Let us compare the characteristics of
the two materials. Between - 100°C and 400°C, the
thermistor changes its resistivity from 10 to 10 "Qm,
a factor of 10 , while platinum changes its resistivity
by a factor of about 10 within the same temperature
range. This explains the high sensitivity of thermistors
for measurement of temperature.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 789
Fig. 25.66 Resistance-temperature characteristics
of a typical thermistor and platinum.
The characteristics of thermistors are no doubt
non-linear but a linear approximation of the
resistance-temperature curve can be obtained over a
small range of temperature. Thus, for a limited range
of temperature, the resistance of a thermistor varies as
given by Eqn. 25.77.
Re = RpJl + a^AO] ...(25.77)
A thermistor exhibits a negative resistance
temperature co-efficient which is typically about
0.05/°C.
An individual thermistor curve can be closely
approximated through the Steinhart-Hart equation :
y = A + B log, R + C(log, R)3 ...(25.78)
where T = temperature ; °K,
R = resistance of thermistor ; Q,
A, B, C = curve fitting constants.
A, B and C are found by selecting three data
points on the published data curve and solving the
three simultaneous equations. When the data points
are chosen to span no more than 100°C within the
nominal centre of thermistors temperature range, this
equation approaches a remarkable ±0.2 °C curve fit.
A simpler equation is :
D
T =------ --------- C ...(25.79)
log, R - A
where A, B and C are found by selecting three (R, T)
data points and solving three resultant simultaneous
equations. Equation 25.79 must be applied over a
narrower temperature range in order to approach the
accuracy achieved by Steinhart-Hart equation.
Another relationship that can be conveniently used for
resistance-temperature curve of thermistors is :
Rj- =aRoexp(b/T) ...(25.80)
where, RJ.,R()= resistance of thermistor at tempe­
rature T°K and ice point respectively.
25.20.3 Voltage-Current and Current-Time
Characteristics of Thermistors
Three important characteristics of thermistor
make them extremely useful in measurement and
control applications. These are :
A the resistance-temperature characteristics.
A the voltage-current characteristics.
A the currcnt-tinie characteristics.
1. Resistance-Temperature Characteristics. The
resistance-temperature characteristics have already
been described in Art. 25.20.2. The other two
characteristics are described below.
2. Voltage-Current Characteristics. These
characteristics are shown in Fig. 25.67. Figure 25.67
shows that the voltage drop across a thermistor
increases with increasing current until is reaches a
peak value beyond which the voltage drop decreases
as the current increases. In this portion of the curve,
the thermistor exhibits a negative resistance
characteristic. If a very small voltage is applied to the
thermistor, the resulting small current does not
produce sufficient heat to raise the temperature of the
thermistor above ambient. Under this condition,
Ohm's law is followed and the current is proportional
to the applied voltage. Larger currents, at larger
Fig. 25.67 Voltage-current characteristics
of thermistors.
 790 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
applied voltages, produce enough heat to raise the
thermistor temperature above the ambient
temperature and its resistance then decreases. As a
result, more current is then drawn and the resistance
decreases further. The current continues to increase
until the heat dissipation of the thermistor equals the
power supplied to it. Therefore, under any fixed
ambient conditions, the resistance of a thermistor is
largely a function of the power being dissipated
within itself, provided that there is enough power
available to raise its temperature above ambient.
Under such operating conditions, the temperature of
the thermistor may rise 100°C or 200°C and its
resistance may drop to one-thousandth of its value at
low current.
This characteristic of self-heat provides an entirely
new field of uses for the thermistor. In the self-heat
state, the thermistor is sensitive to anything that
changes the rate at which heat is conduced away from
it. It can so be used to measure flow, pressure, liquid
level, composition of gases, etc. If, on the other hand, the
rate of heat removal is fixed, then the thermistor is
sensitive to power input and can be used for voltage or
power-level control.
3. Current Time Characteristics. The current-time
characteristics shown in Fig. 25.68 indicate the time
delay to reach, maximum current as a function of the
applied voltage. When the heating effect just
described occurs in a thermistor network, a certain
Fig. 25.68 Current-time characteristics of thermistors.
finite time is required for the thermistor to heat and
the current to build up to a maximum steady-state
value. This time, although fixed for a given set of
circuit parameters, may easily be varied by changing
the applied voltage or the series resistance of the
circuit. This time-current effect provides a simple and
accurate means of achieving time delays from
milliseconds to many minutes.
25.20.4 Applications of Thermistors
Although major applications of thermistors are
measurement and control of temperature, they may be
used for a number of other applications. The various
applications of themistors are :
1. Measurement of Temperature. A thermistor
produces a large change of resistance with a small
change in the temperature being measured. This large
sensitivity of thermistor provides good accuracy and
resolution. A typical industrial-type thermistor with a
2000 Q resistance at 25°C and a resistance temperature
co-efficient of 3.9 percent per °C exhibits a change of
78 Q per degree °C change is temperature. When this
thermistor is connected in a simple series circuit
consisting of a battery and micro-ammeter as shown
in Fig. 25.69, any change in temperature causes a
change in the resistance of thermistor and corres­
ponding change in the circuit current. The micro­
ammeter may be directly calibrated in terms of
temperature. The micro-ammeter may be able to give
a resolution of 0.1 °C.
Micro-am meter
Battery calibrated in
E terms of
temperature
Fig. 25.69 Simple series circuit for measurement of
temperature using a thermistor.
The use of a bridge circuit as shown in Fig. 25.70
gives higher sensitivities. The 4 kQ thermistor used
will readily indicate as small changes as 0.005°C in
temperature. The high sensitivity together with high
thermistor resistance which may about 100 kQ, makes
the thermistor ideal for remote measurement or
control, as the changes in contact or transmission line
resistances due to change in the ambient temperature
have almost a negligible effect on the accuracy of
measurement or control. For example a 150 m long
transmission line made of copper when subjected to
change of 25°C will affect the accuracy of
measurement or control by approximately 0.05°C.
2. Control of Temperature. A simple temperature
control circuit may be constructed by replacing the
micro-ammeter shown in the typical thermistor
temperature control circuit of 25.70 with a relay. This
is shown in the typical thermistor temperature control
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 791

Fig. 25.70 Measurement of temperature using a thermistor and a bridge circuit for getting higher sensitivities.

circuit of Fig. 25.71. It uses a 4 kQ thermistor
connected in an a.c. excited bridge. The unbalance
voltage is fed to an a.c. amplifier whose output excites
a relay coil. The relay contacts are used to control the
current in the circuit which generates the heat. These
circuits can be controlled to a precision of 0.00005°C.
mounted against or near a circuit element, such as a
copper meter coil, and experiencing the same ambient
temperature changes, can be connected in such a way
that the total circuit resistance is constant over a wide
range of temperatures. This is shown in the curves of
Fig. 25.72, which illustrates the effect of a compen­
sation network.
The compensator consists of a thermistor, shunted
by a resistor. The negative temperature coefficient of
this combination equals the positive coefficient of the
copper coil. The coil resistance of 5,000 Q at 25°C,
varies from approximately 4,500 Q at 0°C to 5,700 Q at
60°C, representing a change of about ±12 per cent.

Fig. 25.71 Typical thermistor temperature

control circuit.
Thermistor control systems are inherently
sensitive, stable and fast acting and require relatively
simple circuitry. The voltage output of the standard
bridge circuit at 25°C is about 18 mV/°C using a 4 kQ
thermistor in the configuration of Fig. 25.70.
3. Temperature Compensation. Because
thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient of
resistance-opposite to the positive coefficient of most
electrical conductors and semiconductors—they are
widely used to compensate for the effects of
temperature on both component and circuit
performance. Disk-type thermistors are used for this
purpose where the maximum temperature does not Fig. 25.72 Temperature compensation of a copper
exceed 125°C. A properly selected thermistor, conductor by means of a thermistor network.
 792 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
With a single thermistor compensation network, this
variation is reduced to about ± 15 Q or ±| per cent.
With double or triple compensation networks,
variations can be reduced even further.
4. Other Applications. The other applications of
thermistors include :
(i) measurement of power at high frequencies
(zz) measurement of thermal conductivity
(in) measurement of level,.flow and pressure of
liquids
(iv) measurement of composition of gases
(v) vacuum measurements and
(i’z) providing time delay.
25.20.5 Salient Features of Thermistors
1. Thermistors are compact, rugged and
inexpensive.
2. Thermistors when properly aged, have good
stability.
3. The response time of thermistors can vary
from a fraction of a second to minutes,
depending on the size of the detecting mass
and thermal capacity of the thermistor. It
varies inversely with the dissipation factor.
The power dissipation factor varies with the
degree of thermal isolation of the thermistor
element.
4. The upper operating limit of temperature for
thermistors is dependent on physical
changes in the material or solder used in
attaching the electrical connections and is
usually 400°C or less. The lower temperature
limit of temperature is normally determined
by the resistance reaching such a high value
that it cannot be measured by standard
methods.
5. The measuring current should be
maintained to as low a value as possible so
that self heating of thermistors is avoided
otherwise errors are introduced on account
of change of resistance caused by self
heating. Where it is not possible to avoid self
heating, thermistor stability can be
maintained at given temperature by using an
auxiliary heating element. The average
power dissipation can be effectively reduced
and the highest sensitivity retained by
energizing the thermistor with pulses of
measuring power.
6. Thermistors can be installed at a distance
from their associated measuring circuits if
elements of high resistance are used such
that the resistance of leads (even though the
leads may be very long) is negligible. This
way the resistance of leads does not affect
the readings and hence errors on this count
are negligible.
The above features give thermistors advantages
over conventional thermocouples, resistance thermo­
meters, and filled system thermometer sensing elements
for measurement of temperature. Thermistors not only
find use in temperature measurements but are also
used in other applications as explained in 25.20.4.
Example 25.26 A thermistor has a resistance
temperature co-efficient of-5% over a temperature range of
25°C to 50°C. If the resistance of the thermistor is 100 Oat
25°C, what is the resistance at 35°C ?
Solution. Resistance at a temperature of 35°C is:
R35 = 100 [1 -0.05(35 -25)] = 50°Q
Example 25.27 A thermistor has a resistance of39800
at the ice point (0°C) and 794 O at 50°C. The resistance­
temperature relationship is given by RT = aR0 exp (b/T).
Calculate the constants a and b.
Calculate the range of resistance to be measured in case the
temperature varies from 40°C to 100°C.
Solution. The resistance at ice point R$ = 3980 Q
Absolute temperature at ice point = 273°K
3980 = a x 3980 x exp( b / 273)
or 1 = a exp(b/273) ...(i)
Resistance at 50°C is RT = 794 Q.
Absolute temperature corresponding to 50°C
T = 273 + 50°=323 K°.
Hence, 794 = ax3980 exp (b/323) ...(zz)
= 3980 exp (b/323)
Solving (i) and (zz), we have,
a=30xl0-6 and b = 2843
Absolute temperature at 40°C
= 273 + 40=313 K°.
.'. Resistance at 40°C ;: *
= 30 x 10’6 x 3980 x exp(2843 /313)
Absolute temperature at 100°C
= 273 + 100=373 °K
.'. Resistance at 100°C
= 30 x 10“6 x 3980 x exp(2843 /373)
Thus the range of resistance is 244 Q to 1051Q.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 79J

Example 25.28 An automatic temperature control (ii) Resistance of thermistor at 25°C = 10,000 Q
arrangement for an electric oven is shown in Fig. 25.73. The .•. Frequency of oscillations
thermistor has a resistance of 2000 Q at 70°C. A
potentiometer is used for obtaining balance conditions. The
2 zt x 7500 x 500 x 10-12
temperature of oven changes and therefore the rheostat has
to be set at 1800 Q to obtain balanced conditions. Using the = 31.83 kHz
linear approximation for the resistance temperature curve (iii) Resistance of thermistor at30°C
obtain the change in the value of temperature of oven. The = 10,000(1 -0.05(30 -25)] =7500 Q
resistance temperature coefficient can be assumed as
.•. Frequency of oscillations
-0.05/°C.
=-------------- iH Hz
Solution. Using linear approximation, we have :
2tcx 5700x 500xlO-12
1800 = 2000[l -0.05 (0 -70)] or 0 =72°C
= 42.44 kHz
.'. Change in temperature of oven =2°C
Example 25.2c) A thermistor has a resistance of 10 kQ 25.21 THERMOCOUPLES
at 25°C. The resistance temperature co-efficient is - 0.05/°C. The operation of thermocouples has been
A Wien's bridge oscillator uses two identical thermistors in explained in Chapter 9.
the frequency determining part of the bridge. The value of The emf produced in a thermocouple circuit is
capacitance used in the bridge is 500 pF. Calculate the value given by :
of frequency of oscillations for
E = zz(A0)+b(A0)2
(i) 20°C, (ii) 25°C, and (iii) 30°C.
(Eqn. 9.71 on page 278)
The frequency of oscillations is
where A0 = difference in temperature between the
f = l/2nRCHz
hot thermocouple junction and the
where R and C are resistance and capacitance respectively.
reference junction of the
thermocouple ; °C,
and a, b= constants.
a is usually very large as compared with b and
therefore emf thermocouple is E -a (A0) or A0- El a.
In a thermocouple temperature measuring circuit,
the emf set-up is measured by sending a current ’
through a moving coil instrument, the deflection
being directly proportional to the emf. Since emf is a
function of temperature difference A0, the .instrument
can be calibrated to read the temperature. The emf
may also be measured by a potentiometer.
Figure 25.74 shows a typical circuit of an iron
constantan thermocouple.
Fig. 25.73 Temperature control system using
thermistors.

Solution, (z) Resistance of thermistor at

20°C = 10,000 [1 -0.05(20 -25)] = 12,500 Q
:. Frequency of oscillations

* f = —^—
J 2nRC

=-------------- - ------------ Hz
2nx 12500x 500xlO-12
Fig. 25.74 Measurement of temperature
= 25.46 kHz with thermocouple.
 794 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Base-metal couples Rare metal couples

h-
Positive Copper Iron Chromel 90% Chromel Platinum 90% Tungsten 95% Rhodium
Wire Cr. 10% Ni rhodium 10% rhenium 5% iridium

Negative Constantan Constantan Alumel 94% Ni, Constantan Platinum Tungsten 72% iridium
Wire 40% Ni, 60% 2% Al, rhenium 26%
Cu approx. + Si and Mn
i
Temp, - 250 to + 400 - 200 to + 850 - 200 to + 1100 - 200 to + 850 0 to + 1400 0 to + 2600 0 to + 2100
range (°C)
Spot max. 500 1100 1300 1100 1650
(°C)
Charac- Resists oxi­ Low cost. Resistant to oxi­ Suitable for Low emf. For use in Similar to
| teristics dising and Corrodes in dising but not oxidising Good resis­ non-oxidising platinum
reducing at­ the presence to but not for tance to atmospheres rhodium­
1 mospheres of moisture reducing reducing oxidising only. The 5% platinum
up to 350°C. oxygen, and atmosphere. atmospheres, atmospheres, rhenium arm
Requires sulphur- Susceptible to carbon- poor with is brittle at
protection bearing attack by bearing reducing room
from acid gases. Suit­ carbon-bearing gases and atmospheres, temperatures.
fumes. able for gases sulphur, cyanide Calibration is
reducing at­ and cyanide fumes. affected by
1 mospheres. fumes. High emf. metallic vap­
ours and con­
< tact with me­
1. . ... . tallic oxides.

Since the thermo-electric emf depends upon the in temperature should always produce a linear rise in
difference in temperature between the hot junction emf i.e., the value of 'b' (Eqn. 9.71) should be
and the reference junction, the temperature of the negligible.
latter should remain absolutely constant in order that
The emf of many thermocouples follows the
the calibration holds good and there are no errors on
quadratic relationship given by Eqn. 9.71. Figure 25.75
account of change in ambient temperature. The
shows curves for several combinations of metals,
temperature of the reference junction is controlled for
when one of the junctions, reference junction, is kept
this purpose. The reference junction temperature is
at a temperature 0°C and the temperature of the other
usually 0°C.
junction, the detecting junction, is the variable
Thermocouples are used for measurement of temperature (i.e., the temperature to be measured).
temperature upto 1400°C. The common types of
It should be home in mind that thermocouples are
thermocouples are given in Table 25.7 together with
active transducers unlike RTD and thermistors which
useful temperature range. It should be mentioned here
are passive transducers.
that the combination of metals be so chosen that a rise

Fig. 25.75 Temperature emf curves for thermocouples with

reference junction at 0°C.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 795

25.21.1 Construction of Thermocouples
In industrial applications the choice of materials
used to make up a thermocouple depends upon the
temperature range to be measured, the kind of
atmosphere to which the material will be exposed, to
output emf and its stability, mechanical strength, and
the accuracy required in measurements. Thermo­
couple materials are divided into two categories :
(t) Rare metal types using platinum, rhodium, etc. and
(n) Base metal type.
Several combinations of dissimilar metals make
good thermocouples for industrial use. These
combinations apart from having linear response and
high sensitivity, should be physically strong to
withstand high temperatures, rapid temperature
changes, and the effect of corrosive and reducing
atmospheres. Based on years of experience in
A pair of two dissimilar metals that are in physical
contact with each other form a thermocouple. These
metals may be twisted, screwed, peened, clamped or
welded together. The most commonly used method
for fabricating is to weld the metals together.
Thermocouples do not use bare conductors except
in applications where atmospheric conditions permit
their use. These conditions obtain when temperatures
to be measured are low and the atmosphere is
non-corrosive. Industrial thermocouples employ
protective sheathing surrounding the junction and a
portion of the extension leads. The leads and the
junction are internally insulated from the sheath,
using various potting compounds, ceramic beads or
oxides. The type of insulation used depends upon the
process being monitored. The different types of
protective sheaths used for thermocouples are shown

junction junction junction

Welded

Thermocouple wires without insulators (Bare)

I'T^T I I I I I I I I I I I 130
Thermocouple wires with double holes round insulators

Thermocouple wires with fish spine insulators

Terminal
connection
fig. 25.76 Protective sheaths for thermocouples.
 796 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
Fig. 25.77 Construction of hot junctions.
Thermocouples are normally not installed in
pipelines, vessels and other pieces of equipment
directly. They are usually placed inside protective
wells so that may be easily removed or replaced
without interruption or shut down of plant. Protective
wells are made of stainless steel or some other special
alloy material. They are normally 12.5 mm to 25 mm in
diameter.
The use of protective wells slows the response
appreciably as they increase the mass of thermo­
couple. However, in applications, where response
time is primary consideration, bare or thin sheathed
thermocouples are used.
Figure 25.77 shows a few arrangements for hot
junctions which are more robust. They have wires
insulated by mineral insulation and protected by a
stainless outer casing which prevents the ingress of
damaging hot gases or damage due to force or
pressure. Thermocouples are available in a variety of
size, ranging from 0.25 mm to 3 mm.
The sensitivity of thermocouples can be increased
by reducing the mass of the measuring junction. One
method of reducing the mass is to butt weld the two
thermocouple wires. In applications where the
mechanical strength of the butt weld is not sufficient,
the two wires are twisted together and the ends are
welded.
25.21.2 Measurement of Thermocouple
Output
The output emf of a thermocouple as a result of
difference between temperatures of measuring
junction and reference junction can be measured by
the following methods :
(z) Measuring the output voltage directly with a
permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC)
instrument. A millivoltmeter is used since
the output is the order of mV.
(z'z) Measuring the output voltage with the help
of a d.c. potentiometer.
(zzz) Measuring the output voltage after
amplifying it.
1. Millivoltmeter. The simplest type of
temperature measurement using a thermocouple is by
connecting a sensitive milli-voltmeter across the cold
junction. The deflection is proportional to the current
flowing in the circuit. If the resistance of meter is Rm
and that of the external circuit is R^ the current is
In order to ensure sufficient current to deflect the
movement, the resistance of the meter should be small
since the sensitivity of thermocouples is quite small
and they produce an output voltage which is a few
mV/100°C. Industrial moving-coil thermocouple
instruments commonly have a resistance of about 50 Q
and the resistance of the external circuit (resistance of
thermocouple and its leads) is about 10 — 20 Q. Thus
there will be large loading errors if this method of
measurement is used. These errors can be eliminated if
a high resistance is used in series with the instrument
both to have a high input resistance and to swamp out
errors caused on account of variation in resistance of
leads.
2. Potentiometers. The most commonly used
method for measurement of temperature with
thermocouple employs a d.c. self balancing potentio­
meter described in Art. 15.2 on page 466. There are no
loading errors as at balance no current is drawn from
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 797
the thermocouple whose emf is being measured. The
resistance variation problems are also absent when
potentiometers are used.
Many types of automatic potentiometers have
been developed both for automatic recording of
temperature on chart recorders and for automatic
process control.
3. Amplifiers with Output Devices. The use of
transistors and integrated circuit methods has led to
the development of compact and cheap d.c.
amplifiers. The amplifiers amplify the output of the
thermocouple and feed to indicating or recording
devices. These devices may be either analog or digital
type. In this case also, the loading errors and errors on
account variation of resistance are absent. Therefore
there are no circuit problems. But a disadvantage of
these methods is that they require an auxiliary source
of power while direct deflection method do not
require any separate source.
25.21.3 Compensating Circuit
When temperatures near ambient are to be
measured with a thermocouple and it is inconvenient
to use a fixed reference junction and therefore
compensating circuits must be employed in the
measuring system. An arrangement for automatic
compensating is shown in Fig. 25.78. A temperature
sensitive bridge is included in the thermocouple
circuit, such that variations in the ambient
temperature are compensated for by the changes in
the resistance Rc and the compensating junction.
su pression resistance
Fig. 25.78 Thermocouple with bridge
type compensation.
Multichannel thermocouple systems sometimes
use a heated, thermostatically controlled reference
junction as shown in Fig. 25.79. By using a regulated
temperature control of the reference junction, an
accuracy of ± 3% can be obtained.
Fig. 25.79 Thermocouple reference junction.
25.21.4 Reference Junction Compensation
A factor which is important in the use of
thermocouple is the requirement of a known reference
temperature of the reference junction. This is because
when the reference junction is not held at 0°C, the
observed value must be corrected by adding to it a
voltage that has resulted from a temperature
difference equal to the amount by which the reference
junction is above 0°C. (This is because the
thermocouples are calibrated with temperature of
reference junction as 0°C.)
Now Ep = Et + Eo where ET is the total emf at
temperature T, Ef, is the emf on account of
temperature difference between detecting (hot) and
the reference junction and EQ is the emf due to
temperature of the reference junction being above 0°C.
Since, there exists a non-linear relationship between
the emf and the temperature, it is important that
temperatures are determined by the above process
rather than converting an emf to temperature and then
adding it to ambient temperature.
25.21.5 Lead Compensation
In many applications it is desirable to place the
reference junction at a point far removed from the
measurement junction. The connecting wires from the
thermocouple head to the meter are, therefore, very
long and are usually not at the same temperature
throughout their length. This causes errors, which can
be avoided by using connecting wires made of the
same material as the thermocouple wires. The
implementation of this arrangement may not be
possible in many cases due to cost and other
consideration. Under these circumstances, materials
are chosen such that the relationship between emf and
temperature is the same or almost the same as that for
thermocouple wires. These wires then called
Compensating Leads.
 798 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
25.21.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Thermocouples
Advantages
1. Thermocouples are cheaper than the
resistance thermometers.
2. Thermocouples follow the temperature
changes with a small time lag and as such are
suitable for recording comparatively rapid
changes in temperature.
Thermocouples are very convenient for measuring
the temperature at one particular point in a piece of
apparatus.
Disadvantages
1. They have a lower accuracy and hence they
cannot be used for precision work.
2. To ensure long life of thermocouples in their
operating environments, they should be
protected in an open or closed-end metal
protecting tube or well. To prevent
contamination of the thermo-couple, when
precious metals like platinum or its alloys
are being used, the protecting tube has to be
made chemically inert and vacuum tight.
3. The thermocouple is placed remote from
measuring devices. Connections are thus
made by means of wires called extension
wires. Maximum accuracy of measurement
is assured only when compensating wires
are of the same material as the thermocouple
wires. The circuitry is, thus, very complex.
Example 25.30 Calculate the thermoelectric
sensitivity of a device using bismuth and tellurium as the
dissimilar metals. Estimate the maximum output voltage for
a 100°C temperature difference at room temperature using
one junction. The sensitivity of bismuth is -72 \xV/°C and
that of tellurium is 500 pV/°C.
Solution. Sensitivity of thermocouple
= 500 -(-72) = 572 pV/°C
.’. Voltage output for a temperature difference of
100°C = 572 x 10~6 x 100 = 57.2 mV
Example 25.31 A chromel-alumel hot junction is
connected to a potentiometer. This is at a temperature of
20°C and gives a reading of 27.07 mV. Determine the
measured temperature assuming the thermocouple to
conform to the values given in Fig. 25.75 which are based on
reference junction at 0°C. The emf corresponding to a
temperature of 20°C is 0.8 mV. Consult curves given in
Fig. 25.74.
Solution. The measured emf is the algebraic sum
of emfs at the hot and reference junctions.
.'. Required emf is
Et = Et + EQ = 27.07+ 0.8
= 27.87 mV
Corresponding to this emf the temperature is
620°C.
Example 25.32 A thermocouple circuit uses a chromel­
alumel thermocouple which gives an emf of 33.3 V when
measuring a temperature of 800°C with reference tempe­
rature 0°C. The resistance of the meter coil, Rm is 50CI and a
current of 0.1 mA gives full scale deflection. The resistance
of junctions and leads, Re, is 12 Q. Calculate :
(a) resistance of the series resistance if a temperature
of 800°C is to give full scale deflection ;
(b) the approximate error due to rise of 1 Q in Re;
(c) the approximate error due to a rise ofl0°C in the
copper coil of the meter.
The resistance temperature co-efficient ofcoil is 0.00426/°C.
Solution, (a)
Emf E = i(Rm+Rs + Re)
or 33.3 x 10-3 = 0.1 xlO-3 (50+RS+12)
or series resistance Rs =271Q
(b) Current in the circuit with increased resistance
= —33,3x10 3---- = 0.0997 mA
(50 + 271 + 1 + 12)
.'. Approximate error in temperature
' =£^997-Mx800 = _z4oc
0.1
(c) Change in resistance of coil with a temperature
increase of 10°C = 50 x 0.00426x 10 =2.13 Q
Current in the circuit with increase resistance of
coil
33.33 xlQ~3
A = 0.09936 mA
50 + 2.13 + 271 + 12
.'. Approximate error in temperature
0.09936-0.1
=---------------- x 800 = -5.12 °C
0.1
Example 25.33 The simple potentiometer circuit of
Fig. 25.80 is to work from a platinum/platinum rhodium
10 per cent thermocouple and have a measuring range of
900°C - 1200°C.
The scale readings are to be correct for a reference junction
temperature of20°C. The slide wire resistance is 2.5 Q and
the circuit is standardized to give 1.08 V between A and B.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 799

Find the values of resistance and R7. Data from need some form of reference compensation with
thermocouple tables for platinum/platinum- rhodium 10 per regards to ice point, RTDs are more linear than
cent with 0°C reference junction temperature is : thermocouples but the changes in their resistance is
very small even for large change in input
emffor 20°C = 0.112 mV
temperatures i.e., they have low sensitivity. The
emffor 900°C = 8.446 mV thermistors have a large change in resistance with
emffor 1200°C= 1.946 mV temperature and thus have a high sensitivity.
However, they exhibit a highly non-linear
resistance-temperature characteristics. Their typical
properties are shown in 25.81.
For each of these transducers, electronic compen­
sation circuits have to be used in order to overcome
their shortcomings. Also, additional circuitry may be
needed to increase their voltage or current outputs.
Usually, this additional electronics circuitry takes the
form of monolithic integrated circuits. Thus, it
requires to combine the temperature sensing element
with signal conditioning electronics to produce single
monolithic integrated circuit package.
Three integrated circuit (IC) packages are
Fig. 25.80 Diagram of Example 25.33. described in this section. They are :
(z) LM 335 - it provides an output of 10 m V/°K
Solution. The resultant emfs at the detecting
(zz) LM 34 - it provides an output of 10 mV/°F
junction temperature of 0j, and reference junction
temperature of 09 =20°Q are (zzz) AD 592 - it provides a current output of
lpA/°K
at 900°C E1 = 8.446 - 0.112 = 8.334 mA
1. LM 335 Series. The LM 335 is a temperature
and at 1200°C E2 = 11.946 - 0.112 = 11.834 mV
sensitive zener diode, which when reverse biased into
With the same standardising current, the emfs its breakdown region, gives an output of :
are : Vz = y 0 mV ...(25.81)
1.08
x
Rj + 2.5 + R-, where T = temperature ; °K
= 8.334 xlO-3 •••(0 0 = temperature ; °C
1.08 The size of degree kelvin and degree Celsius are
and Ea(i = x(R1+2.5) the same, and therefore there is 273° offset.
Rj + 2.5 + R2
Hence, Eqn. 25.81 can be written as :
= 11.834 xlO'3 ••■(«) Vz =2.73xl03 + 10 0mV ...(25.82)
Dividing (zz) by (z), we have The three temperature ranges available are listed
Rj+2.5 11.834 in Table 25.8. Notice that none of these ranges come
-------- or Rj = 5.95 D
- 8.334 closer to the temperature range of thermocouples or
RTDs. This is inherent in the silicon material of
Substituting the value of Rj in (z), we get integrated circuit.
R2 = 762.6 Q
Table 25.8 LM/135/235/2335
25.22 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT TEMPERATURE Temperature Ranges
TRANSDUCERS
Device Range (°C) Use
Each of the three temperature transducers
described earlier, i.e., RTD, thermistors and LM 135 -55 to + 150 Defence
thermocouples have some significant limitations. For LM 235 -45 to + 125 Industrial
example, thermocouples have a low output signal
LM 335 -45 to + 100 Commercial
which varies non-linearly with temperature. Also they
 800 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Temp. 0
Advantages
H Self-powered ►» Wide variety H More linear than thermocouple ►► Most linear
►► Simple H Wide temperature range » High output H Highest output
H Rugged ►► Most stable ►> Fast ►> Inexpensive
H Inexpensive H Most accurate H Two-wire ohms measurement
Disadvantages
►► Non-linear ►► Expensive ►► Non-linear H 0 <200°C
►> Low voltage ► > Current source required
► > Limited temperature H Power supply required
►► Reference required ► > Small AR H Fragile ►► Slow
►> Lest stable ►► Low absolute resistance ►► Current source required ►► Self-heating
► > Self-heating ► > Self-heating H Limited configuration

Fig. 25.81 Properties of temperature transducers.

A simple circuit using LM 335 is shown in across the zener diode at nominal temperature is first
Fig. 25.82. Since LM 335 is a zener diode, a reverse bias calculated. Let this voltage be
voltage is applied to produce zener current. The = Supply-^nominal
current should be limited to :
bias 10~3
400 pA < Iz < 5 mA
(1 mA=10~3A)
where I is the zener current.
For linear results, it is important that the load
The testing at the manufacturer's end is done at I,
current be small compared to the minimum current
= 1 mA, which is a reasonable choice. At higher
that will actually flow through the zener diode. This
currents, LM 335 will heat itself on account of power
requires that the following inequalities should be
(L K) which it has to dissipate. At current levels,
followed : t
below 1 mA, the accuracy decreases.
'load ~ 'z min -(25.84)
A simple temperature transducer circuit using
LM 335 is shown in 25.82. V T V . -V
maxT < supply maxT
T
gc\
RL " *
bias

The rated non-linearity is ± 1°C . However, it will

Fig. 25.82 Simple temperature transducer
using LM 335.
In order to determine the proper size of series
limiting resistor as shown in Fig. 25.82, the voltage
be desirable to adjust the transducer so that maximum
accuracy is achieved over the desired range.
The 2.73 V offset voltage (See Eqn. 25.82) which
accrues on account of conversion from Kelvin scale to
Celsius scale is nuisance. Ideally, 0°C should produce
0 V d.c.
The circuit of Fig. 25.83 provides opportunity for
two point calibration capability. Initially, the pote­
ntiometer is adjusted to give -2.73 V(-2.73x 103mV)
at its wiper and the 10 kQ potentiometer is set at its
midrange. The temperature sensor is placed at its
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 801
lowest temperature. The zero potentiometer is
adjusted to remove half of the error. Then the
temperature sensor is placed at the maximum
temperature and the 10 kQ potentiometer is adjusted
to remove half of the upper point error.
Alternately, the temperature sensor is placed at its
two extreme ends and half of the error is adjusted each
time. The zero adjustment at the bottom and 10 kQ
adjustment at the top.
Fig. 25.83 Two point calibrations for LM 335
temperature sensor.
The temperature sensors should be allowed
enough time to stabilize to their new temperature
before making any adjustments. The value of Rzero
zero should be small as compared to Rbias in order that
the adjustment of RzeTO, does not affect the zener
current Iz.
Example 25.34 Design a circuit using a LM 335 to
cover a range of - 10 V to + 50 V with a nominal tempe­
rature of 20°C. Assume a supply voltage of 15 V. Also,
calculate the minimum recommended loud resistance. The
output of zener diode is,
IZ =2.73 + 10xl0~3eV
The zener current is limited to 1 mA.
Solution. Using the circuit of Fig. 25.83, at the
nominal temperature,
Vz = 2.73 + (10 x ICT3 )x 20 = 2.93 V
But since the anode of zener is at -2.73 V the
output voltage is,
^out = K + Offset
= 2.93 -2.73 = 0.2 V = 200 mV
5-0 2
Rh. = , = 4.8kQ
bas lx 10"3
To minimize the effects of adjusting R,eroon /bias,
selert Rzero<<Rbias'
Let Rzcro=500n.
To check load resistance, solve the inequality for RL
Vmax 7 R,bias
.
»
L Vsupply - Vmax T
In order to find out Vmax
__ T/',
v2 = 2.73+ 10x 10-3 x 50 = 3.23 V
Vmax T/ =3.23-2.73 = 0.5 V
n 0.5x4.7xl03
K, »------------------- = 522 Q
L 5-0.5
2. LM 34 Series. The LM 34 series are precision
integrated circuit sensors, whose output voltage is
linearly proportional to Fahrenheit temperature (it
provides an output of 10 mV/°F). The LM 34 thus hits
advantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated
in terms of degrees Kelvin, as the user is not required
to subtract a large constant voltage from its output to
obtain convenient Fahrenheit scaling. The LM 34 does
not require any external calibration or trimming to
provide typical accuracies of ±0.5° F at room
temperature or ±1.5 °F over its full scale temperature
range of -50 to 300°F. It has a low cost, low output
impedance, linear output, and precise inherent
calibration which makes its interfacing to readout or
control circuitry especially easy.
It draws a very small current, of the order, of 70 p A
from its supply and therefore its self heating is small
typically about 0.2°F. The LM 34 can be applied easily
in the same way as other IC temperature sensors. It
can be glued or cemented to a surface and its
temperature will be within ±0.02°F of the surface
temperature.
Several circuits for using the LM 34 are shown in
Fig. 25.84. The simplest, Fig. 25.84 (a) requires no extra
components. It gives an output which varies between
50 mV to 3 V d.c. indicating temperatures ranging
from +5°F to 300°F. In case temperatures below 0°F
arc required, the IC must be provided with a negative
source of power.
Often, it is necessary to locate the temperature
sensor more than a few centimetres from the support
electronics. For this, there are two additional
requirements. Only two leads should be run to the
sensor. The signal returned by the sensor should be
current and not voltage. This eliminates the effects or
series resistance in the wiring. The circuits shown in
Figs. 25.84(c) and 25.84(d) meet these requirements.
In Fig. 25.84(d) it is necessary to ground the
sensor.
 802 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

not affected by the resistance of the wiring. The

current output of AD 592 is,
I =lxio~6r ...(25.87)
out

ra where T = temperature, °K
a>
X
or fout =273xlO-6 + lxlO-6eA ...(25.88)

where 0 = temperature, °C

AD 592 has a low cost. Its range is -25°C to

+ 105°C. The accuracy is 0.5°C specified at 25°C. The
(«) (b) linearity is 0.2°C over a range of 0° to 70°C.
Two typical applications of AD 592 are shown in
Fig. 25.85. In Fig. 25.85(a) a single potentiometer is
used to convert the current to voltage. The single point
calibration assumes correct readings at calibration
point.
The zero offset voltage can be removed with the
zero potentiometer as shown in Fig. 25.85(b).
Adjustment of zero and span potentiometers is done
just it was described for LM 335 circuit of 25.83.

Fig. 25.84 Typical applications of LM 34.

(a) simplest (b) negative temperature (c) remote
sensing (d) remote sensing with grounded sensor.

In either circuit, the output voltage produces a

current IT. This combines with the quiescent bias
current needed to run the chip (70 pA) and flows
through the twisted pair of wires.

;r = vout/499 ...(25.86)
At the processing electronics the bias current is
split off and flows through 50 kQ potentiometer. So IT
passes through 499 Q resistor to recover the original
voltage. It should be noticed that when the remote
sensor is grounded, the output voltage must be taken
Zero Ground
differentially between + V and the signal returned the
sensor.
(b) Two point zero and span
AD 592 Series. In case the signal is to be
3.
transmitted over a large distance, AD 592 is a better Fig. 25.85 Temperature sensing and
choice as its output is current and a current signal is conversion with AD 592.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 803
25.23 VARIABLE INDUCTANCE TRANSDUCERS
The variable inductance transducers work,
generally, upon one of the following three principles:
(?) change of self inductance,
(n) change of mutual inductance, and
(???) production of eddy currents,
1. Transducers working on principle of change
of Self Inductance
The self inductance of a coil L = N2 / R
where N = number of turns, and
R - reluctance of the magnetic circuit.
The reluctance of the magnetic circuit R = / / pA
.-.Inductance L = N2p(A/ /) = N2 p G ...(25.89)
where p = effective permeability of the medium in
and around the coil; H/m
G = A / / = geometric form factor
A = area of cross-section of coil; m2
and / = length of coil; m
It is clear from Eqn. 25.89 that the variation in
inductance may be caused by :
(?) change in number of turns, N,
(zz) change in geometric configurations, G, and
(zzz) change in permeability, p.
Inductive transducers are mainly used for
measurement of displacement. The displacement to be
measured is arranged to cause variation of any of
three variables in Eqn. 25.89 and thus alter the self
inductance L by AL.
The different types of inductive transducers for
measurement of translational and rotary displace­
ments are shown in Fig. 25.86.
Differential Output. Normally the change in self
inductance ALis adequate for detection for subsequent
stages of instrumentation system. However, if the
succeeding instrumentation responds to AL, rather
than to L+AL the sensitivity and accuracy will be
much higher. The transducer can be designed to
provide two outputs one of which is an increase of self
inductance and the other is a decrease in self
inductance. The succeeding stages of instrumentation
system measure the difference between these outputs
i.e. 2 AL This is known as the differential output. The
advantages of differential outputs are :
(z) The sensitivity and accuracy are increased.
(zz) The output is less affected by external
magnetic fields.
(z7z) The effective variations due to temperature
changes are reduced.
(iv) The effects of changes in supply voltage and
frequency are reduced.
The differential arrangement consists of a coil
which is divided into two parts. In response to a
physical signal, which is normally a displacement, the
inductance of one part increases from Lto L+ AL while
that of the other part decreases from Lto L-AL The
change is measured as the difference of the two
resulting in an output of 2 AL instead AL when only a
single winding is used. The differential arrangements
are shown in Fig. 25.86.
2. Transducers working on principle of change
of Mutual Inductance
An inductive transducer working on the principle
variation of mutual inductance uses multiple coils.
The mutual inductance between two coils is
M= K^.
where and L, = self-inductances of two coils,
and K = co-efficient of coupling.
Thus mutual inductance between the coils can be
varied by variation of self-inductances or the co-efficient
of coupling. However, the mutual inductance can be
converted into a self-inductance by connecting the
coils in series. The self-inductance of such an arrange­
ment varies between + 1^-2 M toL1 + L>+2A4 with
one of the coils being stationary while the other is
movable. The self-inductance of each coil is constant
but the mutual inductance changes depending upon
the displacement of the movable coil.
The different arrangements of measurement of
translational and rotary displacements are shown in
Fig. 25.86.
In the differential arrangement, the fixed coil is
divided into two parts. The movement of the movable
coil increases the mutual inductance of one part by AM
and decreases that of the other by AM.
Air or iron cored coils can be used for inductive
transducers. Both have their own advantages and
disadvantages.
Air Cored Coils. Air cored coil transducers can be
operated at a higher carrier frequency because of
absence of eddy current losses in air cores. The
inductance of air cored coils is independent of the
current carried by the coil as the permeability of air is
constant and does not depend upon the current
carried by the coil. Hence air cored coil transducers
can be used for measurement of displacement
variations occurring at fairly high frequencies.
804 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Variable Inductance Transducers.

Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 805
Iron Cored Coils. The greatest disadvantage of
iron cored coils transducers is that their inductance is
not constant but depends upon the value of the
current carried by the coil. Also, at high frequencies,
the eddy current loss tends to be high and therefore
iron cored coil transducers cannot be used beyond a
particular frequency. The frequency of supply voltage
should not exceed 20 kHz for iron core transducers to
keep the core losses to acceptable values. Hence, for
accurate measurements the frequency of the input
displacement should not exceed 2 kHz.
The advantages of iron cored coil transducers are:
(?) Their size is much smaller than that air cored
transducers on account of high permeability
of iron cores.
(iz) Iron cored transducers are less likely to
cause external magnetic fields because their
magnetic field is confined to the iron core of
the transducer on account of high
permeability and are less affected by stray
magnetic fields on account of the high
magnetic field produced by them.
Most iron cored transducers are of the variable
reluctance type where the length of air gap in the
magnetic circuit is varied. In most applications the
reluctance of magnetic circuit is primarily that of air
gaP-
3. Transducers working on principle of
production of Eddy Currents
These inductive transducers work on the
principle that if a conducting plate is placed near a coil
carrying alternating current, eddy currents are,
produced in the conducting plate. The conducting
plate acts as a short-circuited secondary winding of a
transformer. The eddy currents flowing in the plate
produce a magnetic field of their own which acts
against the magnetic field produced by the coil. This
results in reduction of flux and thus the inductance of
the coil is reduced. The nearer is the plate to the coil,
the higher are the eddy currents and thus higher is the
reduction in the inductance of the coil. Thus the
inductance of the coil alters with variation of distance
between the plate and the coil.
A number of arrangements are possible and two
arrangements are shown in Fig. 25.86. The plate may
be at right angle to the axis of the coil. The
displacement of the plate causes a change in the
inductance of the coil. In the other arrangement a
conducting sleeve runs in parallel and coaxially over a
coil. If the short-circuited sleeve is away from the coil,
the inductance of the coil is high while if the sleeve is
covering the coil, its inductance is low. The change in
inductance is a measure of displacement.
Example 23.33 In « variable reluctance type proximity
inductive transducer shown in Fig. 25.87 the coil has an
inductance of 2 mH when the target made offerromagnetic
material is 1 mm away from the core. Calculate the value of
inductance when a displacement of 0.02 mm is applied to the
target in a direction moving it towards the core. Show that
the change in inductance is linearly proportional to the
displacement. Neglect the reluctance of the iron parts.
J Displacement
Target
Air gap (iron)
Coil
Core
Q 6 O O O O O iron
O O O O O
Output
Fig. 25.87 Variable reluctance inductive transducer.
Solution. Inductance with air gap length of 1.00 mm,
L=2 mH
Length of air gap when a displacement of 0.05 mm
is applied,
= 1.00-0.02 =-0.98 mm
Now inductance is inversely proportional to the
length air gap as the reluctance of flux paths through
iron are neglected. Since the gap length decreases, the
inductance increases by AL
L+AL = 2 x —— = 2.04 mH
0.98
Change in inductance AL=0.04mH
The ratio of change in inductance to the original
inductance is 0.04/2 = 0.02, and ratio of displacement
to original gap length is also 0.02. Hence the change in
inductance is linearly proportional to the displace­
ment. This linear relationship, however, is true of only
very small values of displacements.
25.24 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSFORMER (LVDT)
The most widely used inductive transducer to
translate the linear motion into electrical signals is the
linear variable differential transformer (LVDT). The basic
 806 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
construction of LVDT is shown in Fig. 25.88. The
transformer consists of a single primary winding P
and two secondary windings Sj and S2 wound on a
cylindrical former. The secondary windings have
equal number of turns and are identically placed on
either side of the primary winding. The primary
winding is connected to an alternating current source.
A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former.
The displacement to be measured is applied to the arm
attached to the soft iron core. In practice the core is
made of high permeability, nickel iron which is
hydrogen annealed. This gives low harmonics, low
null voltage and a high sensitivity. This is slotted
longitudinally to reduce eddy current losses. The
assembly is placed in a stainless steel housing and the
end lids provide electrostatic and electromagnetic
shielding. The frequency of a.c. applied to primary
windings may be between 50 Hz to 20 kHz.
Former
Fig. 25.88 Linear variable differential
transformer (L.V.D.T.).
Since the primary winding is excited by an
alternating current source, it produces an alternating
magnetic field which in turn induces alternating
current voltages in the two secondary windings.
The output voltage of secondary. Sr is Esl and
that of secondary, S2, is Ej2. In order to convert the
outputs from S1 and S2 into a single voltage signal, the
two secondaries and S2 are connected in series
opposition as shown in Fig. 25.89(b). Thus the output
voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two
voltages.
Differential output voltage,
E0 = Esl~Es2 -(25-9°)
When the core is at its normal (NULL) position,
the flux linking with both the secondary windings is
equal and hence equal emfs are induced in them. Thus
at null position : Es] - £s2. Since the output voltage of
the transducer is the difference of the two voltages, the
output voltage £0 is zero at null position.
A.C.
excitation
Primary
winding
Arm
Core
Displacement
row?
Es
52
S2 6
Secondary
windings
A.C.
excitation
Primary
winding
(b)
Fig. 25.89 Circuits of an LVDT.
Now if the core is moved to the left of the NULL
position, more flux links with winding S1 and less
with winding S2. Accordingly output voltage £sl, of
the secondary winding S]z is more than Es2, the output
voltage of secondary winding S2. The magnitude of
output voltage is, thus, EQ = Esl -Es-> and the output
voltage is in phase with say the primary voltage.
Similarly, if the core is moved to the right of the null
position, the flux linking with winding S2 becomes
larger than that linking with winding Sr This results
in £s2 becoming larger than Esl. The output voltage in
this case is EQ = Es] - Es2 and is 180° out of phase with
the primary voltage. Therefore, the two differential
voltages are 180° out of phase with each other.
The amount of voltage change in either secondary
winding is proportional to the amount of movement
of the core. Hence, we have an indication of amount of
linear motion. By noting which output voltage is
increasing or decreasing, we can determine the
direction of motion. In other words, any physical
displacement of the core causes the voltage of one
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 807

secondary winding to increase while simultaneously Figure 25.91 shows the core of an LVDT at three
reducing the voltage in the other secondary winding. different positions. In Fig. 25.91(b) the core is at null
The difference of the two voltages appears across the position, it is symmetrical with respect to both the
output terminals of the transducer and gives a secondary windings. This is called the null position. At
measure of the physical position of core and hence the this position Esl -Es2 hence the output voltage EQ =0.
displacement.
As the core is moved in one direction from the
null position, the differential voltage i.e., the
difference of the two secondary voltages, will increase
while maintaining an in-phase relationship with the
voltage from the input source. In the other direction
from the null position, the differential voltage will also
increase, but will be 180° out of phase with the voltage
from the source. By comparing the magnitude and
phase of the output (differential) voltage with that of
the source, the amount and direction of the movement
of the core and hence of displacement may be
determined.
The amount of output voltage may be measured
to determine the displacement. The output signal may
Primary
also be applied to a recorder or to a controller that can winding
restore the moving system to its normal position.
The output voltage of an LVDT is a linear function
of core displacement within a limited range of motion,
say, about 5 mm from the null position. Figure 25.90
shows the variation of output voltage against
displacement for various positions of core. The curve
is practically linear for small displacements (upto
about 5 mm as mentioned above). Beyond this range
of displacement, the curve starts to deviate from a
straight line.

Fig. 25.90 Variation output voltage with

linear displacement for an LVDT.

Figure 25.90 shows the variation of output voltage

versus displacement for various positions of core. The
curve is practically linear for a limited range of
displacement from the null position. Beyond this
range of displacement the curve starts to deviate from Fig. 25.91 (a) and (b) LVDT at different positions,
a straight line. (c) Core of LVDT at different positions.
 808 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
When the core is moved to the left as in Fig. 25.91(a)
and is at A, Esl is greater than Es2 and therefore phase
angle <|)= 0. When the core is moved to the right
towards B shown in Fig. 25.91(c) Es2 is greater than
E^and hence the output voltage is negative or a phase
angle of 180°.
The characteristics are linear upto 0 - A and 0 - B
but after then they become non-linear as shown in
Fig. 25.91.
Ideally the output voltage at the null position
should be equal to zero. However, in actual practice
there exists a small voltage at the null position. This
may be on account of presence of harmonics in the
input supply voltage and also due to harmonics
produced in the output voltage on account of use iron
core. There may be either an incomplete magnetic or
electrical unbalance or both which result in a finite
output voltage at the null position. This finite residual
voltage is generally less than 1% of the maximum
output voltage in the linear range. Other causes of
residual voltage are stray magnetic fields and
temperature effects. The residual voltage is shown in
Fig. 25.92. However, with improved technological
methods and with the use of better a.c. sources, the
residual voltage can be reduced to almost a negligible
value.
A Output
voltage, Ea
Fig. 25.92 Enlargement of hatched portion
of Fig. 25.90.
25.24.1 Advantages of LVDT
1. High range. The LVDTs have a very high range
for measurement of displacement. This can be used for
measurement of displacements ranging from 1.25 mm
to 250 mm. With a 0.25% full scale linearity, it allows
measurements down to 0.003 mm. However, the
dynamic response is considerably slower than the
2.5 kHz excitation signal.
2. Friction and Electrical Isolation. The LVDT has
many commendable features that make it useful for a
wide variety of applications. Some of these features
are unique to the LVDT and are not available in any
other transducers. The features arise from the basic
fact that LVDT is an electrical transformer with a
separable non-contacting core.
Ordinarily, there is no physical contact between
the movable core and coil structure which means that
the LVDT is a frictionless device. This permits its use
in critical measurements that cannot tolerate the
addition of low mass core but cannot tolerate friction
loading. The absence of friction between coil and core
of an LVDT means that there is no wear out. This gives
an LVDT essentially infinite mechanical life. This is of
paramount importance in applications such as the
fatigue-life testing of materials and structures. The
infinite mechanical life is also important in high
reliability mechanisms and systems found in aircrafts,
missiles, space vehicles and critical industrial
equipment.
The frictionless operation of the LVDT combined
with the induction principle by which the LVDT
function is truly infinite resolution. This means that
LVDT can respond to even minute motion of the core
and produce an output.
3. Immunity front External Effects. The
separation between LVDT core and LVDT coils
permits the isolation of media such as pressurized,
corrosive, or caustic fluids from the coil assembly by a
non-magnetic barrier interposed between the core and
inside of the coil. It also makes the hermetic sealing of
the coil assembly possible and eliminates the need for
a dynamic seal on the moving member. Only a static
seal is necessary to seal the coil assembly within the
pressurized system.
The fact that the LVDT is a transformer means
that there is complete isolation between excitation
voltage given to the primary winding and the output
produced by the secondary windings. This makes an
LVDT an effective analog computing element without
the need of buffer amplifiers. It also falicitates the
isolation of the signal ground from excitation ground
in high performance measurement and control loops.
4. High input and high sensitivity. The LVDT
gives a high output and many a times there is no need
for amplification. The transducer possesses a high
sensitivity which is typically about 40 V/min.
5. Ruggedness. These transducers can usually
tolerate high degree of shock and vibrations especially
when the core is spring loaded without any adverse
effects. They are simple in construction and by virtue
of their being small and light in weight, they are stable
and easy to align and maintain.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 809

6. Low Hysteresis. LVDTs show a low hysteresis 2. Acting as a secondary transducer it can be used
and hence repeatability is excellent under all conditions. as a device to measure force, weight and pressure etc.
7. Low Power Consumption. Most of LVDTs The force measurement can be done by using a load
consume power which is less than 1 W. cell as the primary transducer while fluid pressure can
be measured by using Bourdon tube which acts as
25.24.2 Disadvantages of LVDTs primary transducer. The force or the pressure is
1. Relatively large displacements are required convened into a voltage. In these applications the high
for appreciable differential output. sensitivity of LVDTs is a major attraction.
2. They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields Some of the typical applications of LVDTs are
but shielding is possible. This is done by providing shown in Fig. 25.93. In Fig. 25.93(a) four LVDTs are
magnetic shields with longitudinal slots. used for measurement of weight or pressure exerted
3. Many a times, the transducer performance is by liquid in a tank. They (LVTDs) are excited in
affected by vibrations. parallel to increase the sensitivity.
4. The receiving instrument must be selected to Figure 25.93(b) shows two LVDTs which are used
operate on a.c. signals or a demodulator network must for measurement and control of thickness of a metal
be used if a d.c. output is required. sheet being rolled. When the thickness equals the
desired value, the two LVDTs are balanced out.
5. The dynamic response is limited
mechanically by the mass of the core and electrically
by the frequency of applied voltage. The frequency of
the carrier should be at least ten times the highest
frequency component to be measured.
6. Temperature affects the performance of the
transducer. But when temperature effects are expected
to influence the performance, manganin wire may be
used instead of copper wire. Unfortunately manganin
has a high resistivity and therefore its use results in
loss of sensitivity. The sensitivity with manganin coils
may be as low as 1/5 of that with copper coils.
Temperature also causes phase shifting effects which
may be minimized by using a capacitor across one of
the secondary windings.

25.24.3 Uses of LVDTs

The uses of LVDTs are numerous. Some of the
major applications of LVDTs are listed below :
1. The LVDT can be used in all applications where
displacements ranging from fraction of a mm to a few
cm have to be measured. The LVDT acting as a
primary transducer converts the displacement direct
into an electrical output proportional to displacement.
This is a fundamental conversion i.e., the mechanical
variable (displacement in this case) is directly
converted into an analogous signal (voltage in this
case) in one stage only. In contrast, the electrical strain
gauge requires the assistance of some form of a
sensing element to act as primary transducer to
convert the mechanical displacement into strain which
in turn is converted into an electrical signal by the
strain gauge acting as a secondary transducer.
Therefore, two stages of signal conversion are
involved in strain gauges while there is only one in
case of LVDT when displacement is being measured.
 810 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Sensitivity of instrument
= amplification factor x sensitivity of LVDT
= 4 x 10“3 x 250 = 1 V/mm = 1000 mV/mm
1 scale division = 5/100 V = 50 mV
Minimum voltage that can be read on the voltmeter
= (l/5)x 50 = 1 mV
.'. Resolution of instrument
= lx (1/1000) = lx IO-3mm

Example 25.38 A steel cantilever is 0.25 m long,

20 mm wide and 4 mm thick.
(a) Calculate the value of deflection at the free end for
the cantilever when a force of 25 N is applied at
this end. The modulus of elasticity for steel is
200 GN/m2*. 3I
(b) An LVDT with a sensitivity of 0.5 V/mm is used.
The voltage is read on a 10 V voltmeter having
100 divisions. Two tenths of a division can be
read with certainty.
Fig. 25.93 Sonic applications of LVDTs.
(c) Calculate the minimum and maximum value of
Figure 25.93(c) shows an LVDT being used for force that can be measured with this arrangement.
measurement of tension in a cord while Fig. 25.93(d) Solution, (a) Moment of area of cantilever
shows a complex system where a number of LVDTs I = —bt3
are used in a manufacturing process where a complex 12
machining gob is to done. = ^-x (0.02 )x (0.004)3
Example £5.36 The output voltage of a LVDT is 1.5 V
at maximum displacement. At a load of 0.5 MD, the = 0.107 x 10~9m4
deviation from linearity is maximum and it is ± 0.003 V
Fl3
from a straight line through origin. Deflection x =-----
3 EI
Find the linearity at the given load.
25x(0.25)3
Solution. %age linearity
3x200x109x0.107x10~9
= ±2^92x100 = ±0.2% = 6.08 x 10-3m = 6.08 mm
1.5
(b) Deflection per unit force
Example 25.37 The output of an LVDT is connected to
x _ 6.08
a 5 V voltmeter through an amplifier whose amplification
F ~ 25
factor is 250. An output of 2 mV appears across the
terminals of LVDT when the core moves through a distance = 0.2432 mm/N
of 0.5 mm. Calculate the sensitivity of the LVDT and that of Overall sensitivity of measurement system :
the whole set-up. The milli-voltmeter scale has 100 = 0.2432^^x0.5 —
divisions. The scale can be read to 1/5 of a division. N mm
Calculate the resolution of the instrument in mm. = 0.1216 V/N
Solution. Sensitivity of LVDT 1 scale division = (10/1000) = 0.1 V
_ output voltage Since two tenths of a scale division can be read
displacement with certainty, resolution = (2 /10)x0.1 = 0.02 V
(c) Minimum force that can be measured
= 2xl-° =4xl0~3 V/mm
= 0.02/0.1216 = 0.1645 N
0.5
Maximum force that can be measured
= 4 mV/mm
= (10/0.1216) =82.2 N
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 81 1
25.25 ROTARY VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSFORMER (RVDT)
A variation of linear variable differential
transformer (LVDT) may be used to sense angular
displacement. This is the Rotary Variable Differential
Transformer (RVDT). The circuit of a RVDT is shown
in Fig. 25.94. It is similar to the LVDT except that its
core is cam shaped and may be rotated between the
windings by means of a shaft.
Fig. 25.94 Rotary variable differential
transformer (RVDT).
The operation of a RVDT is similar to that of an
LVDT. At the Primary null position of the core, the
output voltage of secondary windings Sj and S2 are
equal and in opposition. Therefore, the net output is
zero. Any angular displacement from the null
position win result in a differential voltage output.
The greater this angular displacement, the greater
will be the differential output. Hence the response of
the transducer is linear.
Clockwise rotation produces an increasing
voltage of a secondary winding of one phase while
counter clock-wise rotation produces an increasing
voltage of opposite phase. Hence, the amount of
angular displacement and its direction may be
ascertained from the magnitude and phase of the
output voltage of the transducer.
25.26 SYNCHROS
A synchro is an electromagnetic transducer which is
commonly used to convert the angular position of a
shaft into an electric signal. Although the name
"Synchro" is universally used in the instrumentation
field, trade names such as Selsyns, Microsyns and
Autosyns are used for these instruments.
There are two types of synchro systems :
(z) control or error detecting type and
(zz) torque transmission type.
Torque transmission type of systems are used
only to drive very light loads, such as pointers.
Ironically, torque transmission systems have very
little output torque. When large torques and high
accuracies are needed, control type synchros are used.
25.26.1 Control Type Synchro Systems
These systems are used as error detectors in
positional control systems.
The classical synchro system consists of two units:
(a) a synchro transmitter and
(b) a synchro receiver.
The basic synchro unit is called a "Synchro
Transmitter". Its construction is similar to that of a
three phase alternator. The stator is made up of
laminated steel in order to reduce core losses. It is
slotted to accommodate a balanced three phase
winding, with the axis of each stator winding
displaced by 120° in space. The three stator coils are
identical and are Y (star) connected. The rotor has a
salient pole construction, is dumb-bell shaped and is
wound with a concentric coil. An a.c. voltage is
applied to die rotor through two slip rings. The
constructional features and schematic diagram are
shown in Figs. 25.95 and 25.96 respectively.
Fig. 25.95 Constructional features of synchro
transmitter.
Let an a.c. voltage be applied to the rotor of a
synchro-transmitter as shown in Fig. 25.96. The
voltage is :
vr = V2 Vr sin(a.t
where Vr - r.m.s. value of rotor voltage, V,
wc = carrier frequency ; rad/s
This voltage produces a magnetising current and
consequently an alternating sinusoidally varying flux
along its axis and distributed nearly sinusoidal in
space. Voltages are induced in the three stator
windings. As the air gap flux is sinusoidally distri­
buted in space, the flux linking with any stator
windings is proportional to the cosine of the angle
between the rotor and the stator winding axes and so
is the voltage induced in each stator winding. It
should understood, that since the voltages in each
 812 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

stator winding are produced by transformer action,
the three stator voltages may have different values (as
they link with different values of flux) but they are in
time phase with each other. Thus, the rotor as the
primary winding of a single phase transformer and
the three stator windings act as secondary windings.
When 0R =0, from Eqn. 25.92 it is seen that
maximum voltage is induced in the stator winding S2,
while it follows from Eqn. 25.96 that the terminal
voltage Vs3sl, is Zero. This position of the rotor is
defined Electrical zero of the transmitter and is used as
reference for specifying angular position of the rotor
(See Fig. 25.98).
Synchro- Control
transmitter transformer

Fig. 25.96 Schematic diagram of synchro transmitter. Fig. 25.98 Syncho error detector.

Let Vsln, Vs2n and Vs3n respectively be the voltages The output of the synchro transmitter is applied
induced in the stator windings Sp S2 and S3 with to the stator windings of a Synchro Control Transformer.
respect to neutral n. Then, for the rotor position of the The synchro control transformer is similar in
synchro transmitter as shown in Fig. 25.96, where the construction to a synchro transmitter except that the
rotor axis makes an angle 0R with respect to axis of rotor of a control transformer is not of salient pole type
stator winding S2. but is cylindrical in construction. The use of
cylindrical construction has an advantage because
=kVrsincoctcos(0R+12O°) ...(25.91)
whatever may be the positron of the rotor, the length
Vs2n = kVr sin coj cos 0R ... (25.92) of air gap remains constant, and therefore irrespective
V3n = kVr sincocfcos(0R+24O°) ...(25.93) of the position of the rotor, the input impedance of the
The three terminal voltages of the stator windings control transformer remains the same.
are : The synchro-transmitter-control transformer pair acts
^sls2 — ^sln ^s2n
as an error detector. The arrangement for error-detector
is shown in Fig. 25.98. Circulating currents of the same
= 73kVrsin(eR+240°)sinwct ...(25.94) phase are of different magnitudes flow through the
^s2s3 — ^s2n ^s3n stator windings transmitter and control transformer.
This results in establishment of an identical flux
= V3 kVsin(0
r
p +120°)' sin
' i\
...(25.95) pattern in the air gap of control transformer. The
^s3sl — s3n ^sln control transformer flux axis is in the same position as
the flux axis in the transmitter. The voltage induced in
= V3 kVrr sin©,,K sinceC t ...(25.96)
the rotor of the control transformer is proportional to
The variation of the scator terminal voltages with
the cosine of the angle between axes of the two rotors.
angle 0R is shown in Fig. 25.97. This voltage is given by :
t?(f) = k'Vr cos <|)sin coct ...(25.97)
where <|) = angular displacement between axes of
rotor of synchro transmitter and rotor of
synchro control transformer.
when (|) = 90°, i.e., the axis of rotor of synchro­
transformer is at right angles to that of axis of rotor
transmitter, the voltage induced in the control
transformer rotor is,
pig. 25.97 Variation of stator terminal e(t) = k'Vr cos (90°) sin (act = 0
voltages with ()R.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 813

This position of the rotor of control transformer is

known as Electrical Zero.
In Fig. 25.98, the rotors of transmitter and the
control transformer are respectively shown in their
zero positions.
Let the rotor of transmitter rotate through an
J2 VR sin
angle 0R in the direction indicated and let the rotor of
control transformer rotate by an angle 0t. in the same
direction resulting in a net angular separation of
cj) = (90° - 0R + 0C) between the two rotors.
From Eqn. 25.97, the voltage at the rotor terminals
of synchro transformer is :
e(f) = k'Vr cos (9O°-0R + 0C) sin oyt
= k'Vr sin(0R -0C) sin cod ...(25.98)
For small angular displacements between the two
rotor positions.
Fig. 25.100 Typical wave forms of synchro
sin(0R-0C)-0R-0C ...(25.99) error detector.
From Eqn. 25.98 for small angular displacements
between the two rotor positions We see from this diagram that the output of
synchro error detector is a modulated signal, the
e(t) = k'Vr sin (0R - 0C) sin cocf ...(25.100)
modulating wave has the information regarding the
The synchro transmitter - control transformer pair lack of correspondence between the two rotor
thus acts as an error detector giving a voltage signal at positions and the carrier wave is the a.c. input to the
the rotor terminals of control transformer which is rotor of the synchro transmitter. This type of
proportional to the difference between the transmitter modulation is known as suppressed-carrier modulation.
and control transformer shaft positions. From Eqn. 25.100 the modulating signal representing
The error signal is fed to an amplifier which in the discrepancy between the two shaft positions is,
turn feeds a servomotor as shown in Fig. 25.99. The ^(O=Ks(0r-0c) ...(25.101)
servomotor through gears moves the rotor of the
where K. is known as sensitivity of error detector and
control transformer thus giving a closed loop
has the units of volt per degree of angular difference of
positional control system.
the shafts of the synchro pair.
As pointed out earlier the rotor of the control
transformer is made cylindrical in shape so that the air
gap is practically uniform. This is essential for a
control transformer, since its rotor terminals are
usually connected to an amplifier therefore the change
in the rotor output impedance with rotation of the
shaft must be minimised. Another distinguishing
feature is that the stator winding of the control
transformer has a higher impedance per phase. This
feature allows several control transformers to be fed
from a single transmitter.

25.26.2 Synchros as Torque Transmitters

In instrumentation systems ; synchros are
normally used in the torque transmission mode. In
this mode, the synchro transmitter and receiver are
Fig. 25.99 Positional control system.
connected as shown in Fig. 25.101.
Equation 25.100 is represented graphically in Initially winding S2 of the stator of transmitter is
Fig. 25.100 for an arbitrary time variation of (0R - 0r). positioned for maximum coupling with rotor winding
 814 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
[Fig. 25.101(a)]. Suppose its voltage is V. The coupling
between and S2 of the stator and primary ^rotor)
winding is a cosine function. (See Eqns. 25.91, 25.92
and 25.93). Therefore the effective voltages in these
windings are proportional to cos 60° or they are V/2
each. So as long as the rotors of the transmitter and
receiver remain in this position, no current will flow
between the windings because of the voltage balance.
Fig. 25.101 Torque transmission using synchros.
When the rotor of the transmitter is moved to a
new position, the voltage balance is disturbed.
Assume that the rotor of the transmitter is moved
through 30° [See Fig. 25.101(b)], the stator winding
voltages of the transmitter will be changed to 0,
73/2 V and 73/2 V respectively. Thus there is a
voltage imbalance between the stator windings of the
transmitter and the receiver. This voltage imbalance
between the windings causes currents to flow between
the windings producing a torque that tends to rotate
the rotor of the receiver to a position where the voltage
balance is again restored. This balance is restored only
if the receiver turns through the same angle as the
transmitter and also the direction of rotation is the
same as that of the transmitter i.e., 30° in this case. Thus
a synchro can be used to determine the magnitude and
the direction of an angular displacement.
25.27 RESOLVERS
Resolvers are used for conversion of angular
position of a shaft into cartesian co-ordinates. The
output of the transducer is in the form of two signals,
one proportional to the sine of the angle and the other
proportional to cosine of the angle.
A resolver is a very precise electromagnetic device
comprising of two stator and two rotor windings. The
construction of a resolver is similar to that of a two
phase, two pole wound rotor induction motor. The
two stator windings are identical and are housed in a
magnetic structure, with the axis of two windings 90°
to each other. Similarly, the two rotor windings are
placed in a magnetic structure and are mutually
perpendicular to each other.
Stator windings are supplied with an alternating
voltage that produces an alternating magnetic flux
which induces voltages in the two rotor windings. The
output voltage of the rotor windings is proportional to
the stator voltage and the coupling between stator and
rotor windings. The way in which the windings are
placed, the rotor output voltages are proportional to
the sine and cosine of the rotor angle.
Referring to Fig. 25.102, which shows the winding
configuration of a resolver, when one of the stator
windings say S-^S, is excited by an a.c. source, with the
other stator winding S2S4 short circuited, the
following output voltages are obtained from the rotor.
£ri-3 = £Si-3 cos 0 ...(25.102)
ER2-4 = -£Si-3sin0 ...(25.103)
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 815

When the two stator windings are excited, the

outputs are as under :

£ri-3 = ES1-3 cos 0 + ES2-4 sin 0 ••■(25.104)

£R2-4 = ES2-4 COS 0-ESl-3 sin 0 •••(25.105)

When two rotor windings are excited, we get the

following outputs from the stator windings :

Esi-3 = ER]-3 cos 0 - eR2-4 sin 0 •••(25.106)

and £S2 4 = ER2_4 cos 0 + ER] 3 sin 6 ...(25.107)

For all above equations 0 = angular displacement Fig. 25.103 Schematic diagram of a parallel
of rotor. plate capacitive transducer.

25.27.1 Classification of Resolvers The capacitive transducer works on the principle

Resolvers are classified in two groups :
A Computing resolvers and
A Synchro resolvers.
Computing Resolvers are used for generating sine,
cosine, and tangent functions as well as for solving
geometric relationships.
Synchro Resolvers are used for data transmission.
They perform the same functions as synchro
transmitters, receivers and control transformers but
with a better accuracy.
25.27.3 Applications of Resolvers
The applications of resolvers are :
(z) Vector resolution,
of change of capacitance which may be caused by :
(z) Change in overlapping area A,
(zz) Change in the distance d between the plates,
and
(zzz) Change in dielectric constant.
These changes are caused by physical variables
like displacement, force and pressure in most of the
cases. The change in capacitance may be caused by
change in dielectric constant as is the case in
measurement of liquid or gas levels.
The capacitance may be measured with bridge
circuits. The output impedance of a capacitive
transducer is :
Xc=l/2n/C,

(zz) Vector composition, where C = capacitance and

(zzz) Vector angle and component resolution, / = frequency of excitation in Hz

(iv) Pulse amplitude control and pulse resolution,
(v) Phase shifting.
25.28 CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
The principle of operation of capacitive
transducers is based upon the familiar equation for
capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.
Capacitance C = e AI d
= Er£QA/d ...(25.108)
where A = overlapping area of plates ; m2,
d = distance between two plates ; m,
e = £r£Q = permittivity of medium ; F/m,
er = relative permittivity,
e0 = permittivity of free space ;
8.85xlO’12 F/m
A parallel plate capacitors is shown in Fig- 25.103.
In general, the output impedance of a capacitive
transducer is high. This fact calls for a careful design
of the output circuitry.
The capacitive transducers are commonly used
for measurement of linear displacement. These
transducers use the following effects :
(z) Change in capacitance due to change in
overlapping area of plates, and
(zz) Change in capacitance due to change in
distance between the two plates.
25.28.1 Transducers Using Change in
Area of Plates
Examining the equation for capacitance (Eqn. 25.108),
it is found tfiht the capacitance is directly proportional
to the area, A of the plates. Thus the capacitance
changes linearly with change in area of plates. Hence
this type of capacitive transducer is useful for
measurement of moderate to large displacements say
 816 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

from 1 mm to several centimetres. The elementary For a cylindrical capacitor the capacitance is :
diagrams of two types of capacitive transducers are _ 2 ntx
shown in Figs. 25.104(rr) and (b). The area changes C =----------------- F ...(25.112)
log/ D21 Da )
linearly with displacement and also the capacitance.
Figure 25.105 shows the variation of capacitance. As where x = length of overlapping part of cylinders; m,
mentioned earlier, the response is linear as shown, the D2 - inner diameter of outer cylindrical
initial non-linearity is due to edge effects. electrode ; m
and D] = outer diameter of inner cylindrical
electrode ; m

Sensitivity

dx
2 tie c ,
= ------------------ F/ m ...(25.113)
Capacitance log/ D2 / )
6 Output 6 - Increases
• Decreases Therefore, the sensitivity is constant and the
relationship between capacitance and displacement is
linear as shown in Fig. 25.105.

Fig. 25.104 Capacitive transducers working on the Fig. 25.105 Capacitance displacement curve of ca­
principle of change of capacitance with change of area. pacitive transducer (working on principle of change of
plate area caused by change in displacement).
For a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance is :
The principle of change of capacitance with
C = ^ = ^-F ...(25.109)
change in area can be employed for measurement of
angular displacement. Figure 25.106(rz) shows a two-
where x = length of overlapping part of plates ; m, plate capacitor. One plate is fixed and the other is
and w = width of overlapping part of plates ; m movable. The angular displacement to be measured is
O Z~' applied to movable plate. The angular displacement
Sensitivity 5 = — = e—F/m ...(25.110) changes the effective area between the plates and thus
dx d
changes the capacitance. The capacitance is maximum
The sensitivity is constant and therefore there is when the two plates completely overlap each other i.e.,
linear relationship between capacitance and dis­ when 6 =180°.
placement. .-. Maximum value of capacitance
Sensitivity for a fractional change in capacitance
SC 1
= S' =------ = - ...(25.111)
Cdx x Capacitance at angle 6 is,

This type of a capacitive transducer is suitable for £0r~

C=— ...(25.115)
measurement of linear displacements ranging from 2d
1 mm to 10 mm. The accuracy is as high as 0.005%. where 0 = angular displacement in radian.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 817
Sensitivity S = ~=^ ...(25.116)
Fig. 25.106 Capacitive transducer for measurement
of angular displacement.
Therefore, the variation of capacitance with angular
displacement is linear. This is shown in Fig. 25.106(b).
It should be understood that the above, mentioned
capacitive transducer can be used for a maximum
angular displacement of 180°.
25.28.2 Transducers Using Change in Distance
between Plates
Figure 25.107(a) shows the basic form of a
capacitive transducer utilizing the effect of change of
capacitance with change in distance between the two
plates. One is a fixed plate and the displacement to be
measured is applied to the other plate which is
movable. Since, the capacitance, C, varies inversely as
the distance d; between the plates the response of this
transducer is not linear and as shown in Fig. 25.107(b).
Thus, this transducer is useful only for measurement
of extremely small displacements.
pA
Sensitivity S = — =-----T ...(25.117)
clr x~
From Eqn. 25.105, it is clear that the sensitivity of
this type of transducer is not constant but varies over
the range of the transducer. Thus, as explained earlier
this transducer exhibits non-linear characteristics.
The relationship between variation of capa­
citance, C with variation of distance between plates, x,
(b)
Fig. 25.107 Capacitive transducer using the principle
of change of capacitance with change of distance
between plates.
is hyperbolic and is only approximately linear over a
small range of displacement. The linearity can be
closely approximated by use of a piece of dielectric
material like mica having a high dielectric constant. In
this type of transducer, a thin piece of mica thinner
than the minimum gap distance is inserted between
the plates.
Theoretically, the sensitivity of the transducer can
be increased to any desirable value by making the
distance between the plates extremely small. But a
practical limit is reached when the electric field
strength in the air gap exceeds the breakdown voltage.
The breakdown limit in air at atmospheric pressure is
about 3 kV/mm.
Figure 25.108 shows an arrangement for measure­
ment of linear displacement. The displacement when
applied to the cantilever type spring plate moves it
towards the second plate decreasing the distance. This
increases the capacitance of the capacitor. It is clear
that the capacitance of air dielectric capacitor does not
vary linearly with change in distance between the
plates and therefore, this arrangement is funda­
mentally non-linear. However, linearity can be closely
approximated by keeping the change in the distance
small or by having a medium of high dielectric
constant in the space between the two plates.
 813 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

measurement of rotational displacement.

25.28.3 Differential Arrangement

Fig. 25.108 Capacitive transducer using A linear characteristic can be achieved by using a
cantilever spring plate differential arrangement for the capacitive displace­
Two silvered quartz diaphragms form a capacitor ment transducers. This arrangement using three plates
as shown in Fig. 25.109. The displacement of these is shown in Fig. 25.111. and P2 are fixed plates and
diaphragms varies the capacitance of this capacitive M is the movable plate to which the displacement to
transducer. This type of a transducer forms a pressure be measured is applied. Thus we have two capacitors
gau^e which works very satisfactorily. If the pressure whose differential output is taken.
is reduced to perfect vacuum between the
Fixed -i
diaphragms, the transducer measures the absolute plate P. \
pressure of the surrounding medium. Quartz is used
because it has a very low mechanical hysteresis. The
----------------- £
disadvantage of this type of transducer is that it has
'Movable
high temperature co-efficient and this must be taken । plate, M
into consideration when making precision type
measurements. Fixed —
plate P2

Fig. 25.111 Differential arrangement of capacitors.

Let the capacitance of these capacitors be q and

C2 respectively, when the plate M is midway between
the two fired plates, under this condition the
capacitances CI and C2 are equal.

q = £ A / d and C2 = £ A / d

An alternating current voltage E is applied across

plates P-l and P2 and the difference of the voltages
across the two capacitances is measured. When the
movable plate is midway between the two fixed plates
Fig. 25.109 Capacitive transducer using q = C2 and therefore E1 = E2 = E /2.
Quartz diaphragms. Voltage across q is,

Rotational displacement can be measured with an q = Eq/(q + q)=E/2

arrangement shown in Fig. 25.110. As the rotor plates
and voltage across C2 is
of the capacitor are displaced in the counter clockwise
direction the capacitance increases. The change in the e2 = Eq/(q + q) = £/2
capacitance is a measure of the angular displacement.
Differential output when the movable plate is
This capacitive transducer can be effectively used for
midway AE - E1 - E? = 0.
measurement of torque.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 8 I 9

Let the movable plate be moved up due to Initial capacitance of transducer

displacement x. Therefore the values and C2
become different resulting in a differential voltage
= C = E„i+ec UA
0 d 0' d
output.
-£0 dUl+Erl2] ...(25.120)
Now C =
1 d-x
J „ £A
and C, =-------
2 d+x

E =
1 Cj + C2
_ sA/(d + x) £_ d-x £
e A/(d-x) + £ A! (d + x) 2d

&A/(d-x) £ _ d+x
£A/(d-x) + £/l/(d + x) 2d
Differential output voltage
= AE = E, - E}
Fig. 25.113 Capacitive transducer for measurement
_ d + x£ d-x £ of level of a non-conducting liquid.
2d 2d
Let the dielectric be moved through a distance x in
= -E ...(25.118) the direction indicated. The capacitance changes from
d
C to C + AC.
Therefore the output voltage varies linearly as the
.-. C + AC = E0^(Z1-x)+E0£r^(/2 + x)
displacement x.
Sensitivity S = -^= — ...(25.119) Wr7
x d - £°^ 1 + +
The differential method can be used for displace­
= e07(/i + M2) + e0^(£r-1)
ments of IO-8 mm to 10 mm with an accuracy of 0.1%.

25.28.4 Variation of Dielectric Constant for = C + eo“(sr-l) ...(25.121)

Measurement of Displacement
The third principle used in capacitive transducers
is the variation of capacitance due to change in
dielectric constant. Figure 25.112 shows a capacitive
transducer for measurement of linear displacement
working on the above mentioned principle. It has a
dielectric of relative permittivity e .
Fig. 25.112 Capacitive transducer using principle of
change in dielectric constant for measurement of
displacement.
.-. Change in capacitance
wx
AC = £o—(£r-l) ...(25.122)
Hence the change in capacitance is proportional to
displacement.
25.28.5 Variation of Dielectric Constant for
Measurement of Liquid Level
Capacitive transducers using the principle of
change of capacitance with change of dielectric are
normally used for measurement of liquid levels.
Figure 25.113 shows a capacitive transducer used for
measurement of level of a non-conducting liquid.
The electrodes are two concentric cylinders and the
non-conducting liquid acts as the dielectric. At the lower
end of the outer cylinder there are holes which allow
passage of liquid. In case these holes are small, they
provide mechanical damping of the surface variation.
 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Sinusoidal transfer function

The value of capacitance for this capacitor is,
£1/?1 +£2/i2 £Q(/co) _ jwKx
C = 27is0?—-—— ...(25.123) Xi(co) 1 +/cot

The amplitude ratio is thus :

where /q = height of liquid ; m,
/z = height of cylinder above liquid ; m, £n COT 1
M = —2- (/co) =
KX. J 71 + co2t2
s = relative permittivity of liquid, I

£2 = relative permittivity of vapour ...(25.125)

above liquid, Phase shift
j2 = inside radius of outer cylinder ; m, §= n/2 -tan-1 cot rad. ...(25.126)
= outside radius of inner cylinder ; m, The frequency response curves are shown in
Eq = permittivity of free space ; F/m Fig. 25.115.

Relationship 25.123 is based upon the assumption

h » ?2 and r0»r2-r[»a
Now r2 = r+a and =r
£i/q + e2/72
...(25.124)
0 loge(l + fl/r)
f

25.28.6 Frequency Response of Capacitive

Transducers
Figure 25.114 shows a simple circuit for capacitive
transducers using change in capacitance due to
change in distance between plates. Let the distance
between the plates be xQ when they are stationary.
Under this condition no current flows and output Fig. 25.115 Frequency response of
voltage is eQ = E^. capacitive transducers.

Equation 25.125 shows that this arrangement

(Fig. 25.114) cannot be used for static measurements as
output is zero for co = 0. This arrangement should not
be used for low frequency applications as it will result
in inaccuracies (See Fig. 25.115). The arrangement
should be used for high frequency applications
(beyond a frequency co,) in order to achieve high
degree of accuracy in measurements.
Fig. 25.114 Capacitive transducer. Examining Eqns. 25.125 and 25.126, we have
£n
Thus, then a relative displacement from the M= (/co) « K and 4> = 0 for cot >> 1
position, a voltage eQ is produced.
The following analysis is done for small Thus both magnitude ratio as well phase shift are
displacements with x-J d <0.1. constant and are independent of frequency.
r r
Transfer function
•= £—n-(s)
—
In order to make cot >> 1 for low frequencies, t has
X,(s) to be made large. Now t - RC. Thus for a given
capacitor t can be increased by increasing the value of
Kts
resistance R. This resistance is of the order of 1 MQ or
1 + TS more. In order to prevent loading of capacitive
£, transducers, readout or measuring device should have
where K = — V/m,
xo an impedance of at least 10 MQ (or more) such as
t = time constant = RC provided by FETs.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 821
25.28.7 Advantages of Capacitive Transducers
The major advantages of capacitive transducers
are :
(/) They require extremely small forces to
operate them and hence are very useful for
use in small systems.
(z7) They are extremely sensitive.
(ni) They have a good frequency response. This
response is as high as 50 kHz and hence they
are very useful for dynamic studies.
(iv) They have a high input impedance and
therefore the loading effects are minimum.
(v) A resolution of the order of 2.5 x 10-3 mm can
be obtained with these transducers.
(vi) The capacitive transducers can be used for
applications where stray magnetic fields
render the inductive transducers useless.
(vii) The force requirements of capacitive
transducers are very small and therefore
they require small power to operate them.
25.28.8 Disadvantages of Capacitive
Transducers
The principal disadvantages of capacitive trans­
ducers are :
(z) The metallic parts of the capacitive transducers
must be insulated from each other. In order to reduce
the effects of stray capacitances, the frames must be
earthed.
(zz) The capacitive transducers show non-linear
behaviour many a times on account of edge effects.
Therefore guard rings must be used to eliminate this
effect. Guard rings are also a must in order to
eliminate the effect of stray electric fields, especially
when the transducers have a low value of capacitance
of the order of pF.
(zzz) The output impedance of capacitive
transducers tends to be high on account to their small
capacitance value. This leads to loading effects. The
output impedance depends upon the frequency of the
signal used to determine the value of capacitance. For
capacitances lying between 10-500 pF, the frequencies
used are such that they give an output impedance in
the range of 1 kQ to 10 MQ. This high value of output
impedance means that the insulation resistance must
be kept high, to avoid the shunting of the capacitance
unduly and reducing the sensitivity. Both the above
conditions are difficult to meet in practice especially
when there is humidity.
(iv) The cable connecting the transducer to the
measuring point is also a source of error. The cable
may be source of loading resulting loss of sensitivity.
Also loading makes the low frequency response poor.
Let us take a capacitive transducer of capacitance
C. This capacitor is used with its polarizing source to
produce an emf £0 at no load. Let a load impedance
be connected across it. The output value of voltage
with load connected is :
£L =-—g°/z (See 2-37 page 35)
and impedance of transducer is,
Zo = 1 / jcoC
En
£ =______ Q____ ...(25.127)
L 1 + 1/ jwC ZL
In order to have good response coC ZL should be as
large as possible. This means that for a particular
value of C and ZL, co should be large. Thus capacitive
transducers should be used for dynamic measure­
ments at high frequencies.
In order to have good response at low frequencies
the value of the capacitance should be large so that
output impedance ZQ of the transducer is high. This
thereby makes EL nearly equal to £Q.
The capacitive transducers are connected to the
second stage of the instrumentation system through
cables. The cables are a source of loading. Consider a
capacitive transducer as shown in Fig. 25.116.
Capacitive
transducer
Fig. 25.116 Capacitive transducer with its
output cable.
Let C - capacitance of transducer ; F,
and Cc — capacitance of the cable ; F
If we neglect the leakage resistance, the output
impedance of transducer is Z0=l/ ;wC.
Impedance of load (taking cable as the load) is :
ZL=1/ )coCf
Voltage at the second stage
_____ Eq______ C
£L ~ £0 ...(25.128)
1 + j^c / C + Cc
 822 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
Thus in order that the loading effects be
minimised the capacitance of the cable should be as
small as possible as compared to capacitance of
transducer or Cc « C. This requires short lengths of
cables to have small loading errors. Consider the
polarizing voltage to be short-circuited it is then seen
that C and Cf are connected in parallel.
Minimum resonant frequency
f . =-----------------Hz ...(25.129)
2ziR//(C+C.)
where R; = leakage resistance.
If the cable capacitance Cf is high, the frequency
Anin decreases. Hence cable must have small capaci­
tance to improve low frequency response.
(r) The capacitance of a capacitive transducer may
be changed on account of presence of extraneous
matter like dust particles and moisture.
(vi) The capacitive transducers are temperature
sensitive and therefore any change in temperature
adversely affects their performance.
(vii) The instrumentation circuitry used with these
transducers is very complex.
25.28.9 Uses of Capacitive Transducers
(z) Capacitive transducers can be used for
measurement of both linear and angular displace­
ments. The capacitive transducers are highly sensitive
and can be used for measurement of extremely small
displacements down to the order of molecular
dimensions i.e., 0.1 x 10-6 mm.
This is on account of the fact that small
capacitance changes produced on account of small
displacements can be measured. In practice it is
possible to detect capacitance changes of the order of
1 aF’ and that too with a good degree of accuracy.
On the other hand, they can be used for
measurement of large distances upto about 30 m as in
aeroplane altimeters. The change in displacement
method is generally preferable for either very small or
very large displacements. The change in area method
is used for measurement of displacements ranging
from 10 mm to 100 mm.
(zz) Capacitive transducers can be used for the
measurement of force and pressure. The force and
pressure to be measured are first converted to
displacement which causes a change of capacitance.
* 1 aF = IO"18 F.
(zzz) Capacitive transducers can also be used directly
as pressure transducers in all those cases where the
dielectric constant of a medium changes with pressure.
For instance, the dielectric constant of Benzene changes
by 0.5 per cent in the range of pressure of 1 to 1000 times
the atmospheric pressure. Similarly, the dielectric
constant of air at 19°C changes from 1.0006 to 1.0548 in
the same pressure range. Variation of dielectric
constant with pressure also occurs in solids, primarily
in crystals like MgO, LiF, NaCI, KC1 and KBr.
(iv) Capacitive transducers are used for
measurement of humidity in gases since the dielectric
constant of gases changes with change in humidity
thereby producing a change in capacitance. The
change in capacitance is quite small but is detectable.
An idea of change of dielectric constant can be had
from the example of air. The dry air at 45°C has a
dielectric constant of 1.000247 and that of air saturated
with water is 1.000593 at the same temperature. These
measurements are carried out with microwave
techniques and the frequency is of the order of 10 GHz.
(v) Capacitive transducers are commonly used in
conjunction with mechanical modifiers for measure­
ment of volume, density, liquid level, weight etc.
Example 25.39 Figure 25.117 shows a capacitive
transducer using five plates. The dimensions of each plate
are 25 x 25 mm and the distance between plates is 0.25 mm.
This arrangement is to be used for measurement of
displacement by observing the change in capacitance with
distance x. Calculate the sensitivity of the device. Assume
that the plates are separated by air. The permittivity of air is
8.85 x 10~12F/m.
H-------- /---------- ►h
X
Fig. 25.11.7 Capacitive transducer for
measurement of linear displacement.
Solution. The five plate transducer forms a
combination of four capacitors connected in parallel. If
the movable plate is moved through a distance x on
the right side,
Capacitance of each capacitor
c, _ s0(/-x)w
d
where w = width of each plate.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 823

Capacitance of transducer Thus we have,

, 4en(/ -.v)w fo2 / /oi ~ ^2
C = 4C = —^---- —
d
But Cj = eA/ d}
Sensitivity of transducer
dC _ -4e0 w and C2 = s AI d2
fo2 _ pi _ [^2
dx d
4x8.85xl0~12x25xlQ~3 foi F2 \ ^1
0.25 xlO-3 The frequency of the oscillator after the appli­
= -3540 pF/m cation of pressure is :
= 3.54 pF/mm (Disregarding the sign).
Example 23.40 A capacitive transducer uses two
quartz diaphragms of area 750 mm separated by a distance
of 3.5 mm. A pressure of 900 kN/m when applied to the top 1-0.3 + 4.0
x 100 = 96.2 kHz
diaphragm produces a deflection of 0.6 mm. The capacitance V 4.0
is 370 pF when no pressure is applied to the diaphragms. ;. Change in frequency of oscillator
Find the value of capacitance after the application of a
= 100 -96.2 = 3.8 kHz.
pressure of 900 kN/m2.
Example 25.42 A capacitive transducer is made up of
Suppose
Solution. and C2 are respectively the
two concentric cylindrical electrodes. The outer diameter of
values of capacitance before and after application of
the inner cylindrical electrode is 3 mm and the dielectric
pressure. Let d^ and d2 be the values of distance
medium is air. The inner diameter of the outer electrode is
between the diaphragms for the corresponding
3.1 mm. Caladate the dielectric stress when a voltage of 100 V
pressure conditions.
is applied across the electrodes. Is it within safe limits ? The
C1 = s AI d^ and C2 = £ A / d2 length of electrodes is 20 mm. Calculate the change in
C2 d} capacitance if the inner electrode is moved through a
or
C] d2 distance of 2 mm. The breakdown strength of air is 3 kV/mm.
Solution. Length of air gap between the two
c, = c,xi electrodes (3.1 - 3) / 2 = 0.05 mm
d2
.'. Dielectric stress
But d1 - 3.5 mm and d2 = 3.5 - 0.6 = 2.9 mm
= 100 / 0.05 = 2000 V/mm = 2 kV/mm
.'. Value of capacitance after application of pressure
The breakdown strength of air is 3 kV/mm and
C2 =370 x 3.5/2.9 = 446.5 pF
hence the dielectric is safe.
Example 25.41 A pressure measuring instrument uses Capacitance of the transducer
a capacitive transducer having a spacing of 4 mm between
2keZ
its diaphragms. A pressure of 600 kN/m produces an
average deflection of 0.3 mm of the diaphragm of the loge(D2/DJ
transducer. The transducer which has a capacitance of
2kx 8.85x 10-12 x 20 x IO-3
300 pF before application of pressure and is connected in an ---------- ------------------------ F = 33.9 pF
loge(3.1/3) P
oscillator circuit having a frequency of 100 kHz. Determine
the change frequency of the oscillator after the pressure is The moving in electrode is shifted through a
applied to the transducer. distance of 2 mm.
Solution.The subscript 1 is used for values before I = 20 -2 = 18 mm
application of pressure and 2 is used for values after = 18xl0-3 m
application of pressure.
New value of capacitance
Resonant frequency
/0 = 1/2kJLC 2kx8.85x10~12x18x10“3
-loge(3.1/3) pF
The inductance is constant but the capacitance is
variable. .•. Change in value of capacitance
.•. /0] =1/2 7t^/ LCj and fQ2 = 1 / 2 n yjLC2 AC = 33.9 - 30.5 = 3.4 pF
 824 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Example 25.43 A capacitive transducer circuit used Example 25.44 A parallel plate capacitive transducer
for measurement of linear displacement. The transducer is a uses plates of area 500 mm which are separated by a distance
parallel plate air capacitor wherein the capacitance can be 0.2 mm. Calculate the value of capacitance when the di­
changed by changing the distance between the plates. This electric is air having a permittivity of 8.85 x 10~12 F/m
transducer is to be used for dynamic measurements. (z) Calculate the change in capacitance if a linear
Suppose a flat frequency response with an amplitude ratio displacement reduces the distance between the
within 5% is required down to a frequency range of 20 Hz. plates to 0.18 mm. Also calculate the ratio of per
What is the minimum allowable value of time constant ? unit change of capacitance to per unit change of
Calculate the phase shift at this frequency. The area of plates displacement.
is 300 mm and the distance between plates is 0.125 mm. (zz) Suppose a mica sheet 0.01 mm thick is inserted in
Calcidate the value of series resistance R. What is the the gap. Calculate the value of original capaci­
amplitude ratio at 5 Hz with the above time constant ? tance and change in capacitance for the same
Calculate the high frequency voltage sensitivity of the displacement. Also calculate the ratio of per unit
transducer if the battery voltage is 100 V. change in capacitance to per unit change in
Solution. For a flat response within 5 percent, the displacement. The dielectric constant of mica is 8.
amplitude ratio is M = 1 - 0.05 = 0.95 Solution. Initial capacitance
C=^
From Eqn. 25.125
d
1 8.85 x10’12x 500x1 O’6,,
V1+(1/(ot)2 =--------------------- =--------- F
0.2 x 10’3
or 0.95 = 1 = 22.125 pF
71+(1/2 x kx20xt)2
(?) Change in displacement
or Minimum time constant Ad - 0.2 - 0.18= 0.02 mm
t = 24.2 xlO’3 s = 24.2 ms Capacitance after application of displacement,
From Eqn. 25.126, phase shift <j> = n/2-tan-1 8.85 x 10’12 x 500 xlO’6
cdt = 71 / 2 — tan’1 (2 71 x 20 x 24.2 x 10’3) = 18.2°
0.18 x 10’3
Capacitance
= 24.583 pF
c_ 8.85x10-12x300x10-6
Change in capacitance
0.125 xlO-3
= 21.24 xlO’12 F. AC = 24.583 -22.125
= 2.458 pF.
Series resistance
_ _ 24.2 xlO’3 v >•
Ratio &C/C
=---- -—
” C ~21.24xl0-12 Ad / d
_ (2.458/22.125) _
= 1.14 x 109Q = 1140Q
(0.02/0.2)
Amplitude ratio at 5 Hz is :
(zz) Initially the displacement between the plates is
M= . 1 ----
0.2 mm. Since the thickness of mica is 0.01 mm, the length
^1+(1/2x7tx 5x24.2 x 10"3)2 of air gap between the plates =0.2 -0.01 =0.19 mm.
= 0.605 Initial capacitance of transducer,
Thus the output is reduced nearly to 60% of its
C =____ _______
high frequency value. Therefore this transducer d1/ Ej +d2 / e2
arrangement cannot be used for low frequency
applications. 8.85 xl0’12x 500x10’6
---------------------------------- p
High frequency sensitivity of the transducer (0.19/1 + 0.01/8)xl0’3
K.^ 100
= 23.137 pF
x 0.125 xl0~3
When a displacement of 0.02 mm is applied, the
= 800 x 103 V / m = 800 kV/m length of air gap is reduced to (0.19 - 0.02) = 0.17 mm.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 825

Capacitance with displacement applied, A circuit for conversion of current to voltage

signals is shown in Fig. 25.119.
8.85 x 10-12 x 500 xlO-6 r
=----------------------------- y F = 25.839 pF.
(0.17/1 + 0.01/8)xl0"J

Change in capacitance
AC = 25.839 -23.137 =2.702 pF
Ratio
AC/C (2.702/25.839) .... Fig. 25.119 Voltage output from a
-------- =-------------------- = 1.U40
Ad/d (0.02/0.2) capacitive transducer.

Example 25'45 A variable capacitance angular
velocity pickup is shown in Fig. 25.118(a). Prove that the
current, i, flowing in the circuit in which the transducer is
connected across a battery of constant d.c. voltage Eb is
directly proportional to the angular velocity dQ / dt. Since
voltage signals are readily manipulated, how might the
current signal be transduced to a proportional voltage ? The
area of capacitor is A = KQ.
Example 25-4<> A push-pull non-contact capacitive
transducer is shown in Fig. 25.120(a). It consists of four
parallel plates separated by air. Plates A, C and D are fixed
and plate B can be moved. Plate B has a thickness t and is at
a distance d from plates on either side. Plates B, C, D are all
of length I, while plate A has length 21. All plates have a
width w. The gap between plates C and D can be considered
as negligible. Neglecting the end effects, derive expressions
for capacitances CACand CADfor movement of the midpoint
of plate B between x = ±l/2. x =0 is the position of
symmetry.

Plate A

Movement
Plate B

Fig. 25.118 Capacitive transducer for measurement

of angular velocity.

Solution. The battery voltage, Eb, is constant

while the capacitance, C, is variable and its value
depends upon the angular displacement. The
overlapping -area of plates is proportional to angular
displacement, 0. Let A = KQ, where K = a constant.
Suppose the charge is q and the capacitance is C. Plate B
dq = d(EbC) = E dC
.’. Current
dt dt b dt '
Now capacitance
C = e A / d and
sK( dQ} Fig. 25.120 Push-pull capacitive transducer.
.. Current 1 = E, — —
b d {dt)
Solution. Figure 25.120(b) shows a simplified
Now Eb, d and K are constants.
arrangement where the central plate B is moved to the
i= K' — left by a distance x.
dt
The capacitance between plates A and C is
where K' = a constant. combination of capacitance in parallel with a series
Hence current i is proportional to dQ / dt or the combination of two capacitances each of value C2,
angular velocity. where :
 826 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

e0(//2-x)u7 location of the electrodes. A piezo-electric element

1 2d + l used for converting mechanical motion to electrical
signals may be thought as charge generator and a
. r _ £Q(l/2+x)w
3nd C>2 — capacitor. Mechanical deformation generates a charge
and this charge appears as a voltage across the
Capacitance between plates A and C is, electrodes. The voltage is E = QI C.
cAC =0^02 The piezo-electric effect is direction sensitive. A
tensile force produces a voltage of one polarity while a
2 Id + It/2 + tx
= enzr -------------------- compressive force produces a voltage of opposite
0 2d(2d + t)
polarity.
Similarly, capacitance between plates A and D, A piezo-electric crystal is shown in Fig. 25.121.
2 Id + It / 2 - tx
C
^AD
2d(2d + t)

25.29 PIEZO-ELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS

A piezo-electric material is one in which an
electric potential appears across certain surfaces of a
crystal if the dimensions of the crystal are changed by
the application of a mechanical force. This potential
is produced by the displacement of charges. The effect
is reversible, i.e., conversely, if a varying potential is
applied to the proper axis of the crystal, it will change
the dimensions of the crystal thereby deforming it.
This effect is known as piezo-electric effect. Elements
exhibiting piezo-electric qualities are called as electro-
resistive elements.
Common piezo-electric materials include Rochelle
salts, ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, lithium
sulphate, dipotassium tartrate, potassium dihydrogen
phosphate, quartz and ceramics A and B. Except for
quartz and ceramics A and B, the rest are man-made
crystals grown from aqueous solutions under carefully Fig. 25.121 (a) Piezo-electric crystal used for
controlled conditions. The ceramic materials are poly­ measurement offeree, (b) Axis numbering system for
the crystal.
crystalline in nature. They are, basically, made of
barium titanate. They do not have piezo-electric The magnitude and polarity of the induced surface
properties in their original state but these properties charges are proportional to the magnitude and direction
are produced by special polarizing treatment. of the applied force F. The polarity of induced charges
The materials that exhibit a significant and useful depends upon the direction of applied force.
piezoelectric effect are divided into two categories : Charge Q = dxF coulomb ...(25.130)
A Natural group and where d = charge sensitivity of the crystal;
A Synthetic group. C/N : (it is constant for a given crystal)
Quartz and Rochelle salt belong to natural group and F = applied force, N
while materials like lithium sulphate, ethylene
The force F causes a change in thickness of the
diamine tartrate belong to the synthetic group.
crystal.
The piezo-electric effect can be made to respond ' AE
to (or cause) mechanical deformations of the material F = —— At newton ...(25.131)
in many different modes. The modes can be : thickness n
where A = area of crystal; m
expansion, transverse expansion, thickness shear and
face shear. The mode of motion affected depends on t = thickness of crystal; m, and
the shape of the body relative to the crystal axis and E = Young's modulus N/m2
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 327

Young's modulus The values of crystal voltage sensitivity,

stress permittivity and charge sensitivity for barium titatate
strain At 11 and quartz are shown in Table 25.8.
= — N/m2 ...(25.132)
AAt Table 25.9 Properties of Barium Titanate
and Quartz
Area A = zul
where w = width of crystal : m, and Voltage Charge
Permittivity,
Material Sensitivity Sensitivity, d
I = length of crystal; in e F/ m
g Vm/N pC/N
.■. From Eqns. 25.130 and 25.131, we have, charge: Barium 12 xlO’3 12.5 x 10'9 150
titanate
Q = dA£(At/f) ...(25.133)
Quartz 50 x 10~3 40.6 x 10-12 2
The charge at the electrodes gives rise to an
output voltage EQ
Sometimes it is desired to express the output
Voltage E0 = Q/Cp ...(25.134) voltage or charge in terms of deflection rather than in
where Cp = capacitance between electrodes ; F terms of either stress or force. This is because it is
really the deformation that causes the charge
Capacitance between electrodes generation. Thus we must know the modulus of
Cp = £r&QA/t ...(25.135) elasticity of the material for this purpose. The values
From Eqns. 25.130, 25.134, 25.135, of modulus of elasticity are :
Barium titanate : 12 xlOloN/ m,
Quartz : 8.6 x 106 N / m2

But FI A = P = pressure or stress in N/M2 It has been stated earlier that the piezo-electric
d effect is direction sensitive. The main characteristics of
Eo=----- tP ...(25.137)
Sr£0
piezo-electric motion to voltage transducers can be
illustrated by considering only one common mode of
= gtP ...(25.138) deformation i.e., thickness expansion. For this mode
where g = d / £rEQ ...(25.139) the physical arrangement is shown in Fig. 25.121(a).
'g' is the voltage sensitivity of the crystal. This is Various double-subscripted physical constants are
constant for a given crystal cut. Its units are Vm/N. used to describe numerically the phenomena
En £„ 11 occurring. The convention is that first subscript refers
Now g= ...(25.140) to the direction of the electrical effect and the second
to that of the mechanical effect. The axis numbering
But Eq/ t = electric field strength, V/m
system is given in Fig. 25.121(F).
Let e = Eq / t = electric field The two main families of constants i.e., the ‘d’
electric field £ constants and 'g' constants are considered. For
g = — ---------- =- ...(25.141) barium titanate the commonly used constants are d^
stress P
and g33
Now EQ/t is the electric field intensity in the
crystal and P is the pressure or the applied stress to the field produced in direction 3
g,3 =------ £----------------------------
crystal. Therefore, crystal voltage sensitivity, g, can be stress applied in direction 3
defined as the ratio of electric field intensity to
pressure (or stress). Now EQ/t = e is the electric field = ...(25.143)
intensity in the crystal and P is the pressure or the
stress applied to the crystal. Therefore, crystal voltage Voltage output
sensitivity, g, can be defined as the ratio of the electric F
field intensity to pressure (or stress). The units of g are ~ &33x"7 x =&33 ...(25.144)
/l
Vm/N.
Thus if g is known for a particular material, the
From Eqn. 25.139, voltage output per unit stress can be calculated by
charge sensitivity d = er&0 g C/N ...(25.142) knowing the value of t.
 828
In order to relate the applied force to the
generated charge, the d constants are used. One of the
d constants can be defined as :
d charge generated in direction 3
33 force applied in direction 3
= ...(25.145)
Actually d33 can be calculated from g33 if the
relative permittivity of the material is known. From
Eqn. 25.139, we get
^33 = er€0 $33 ...(25.146)
When dealing with quartz, subscripts 11 are used
because in quartz the thickness - expansion mode is
along the crystallographic axis conventionally called
axis 1.
The piezo-electric transducer is cut from a larger
crystal in the direction of any of the electrical or
mechanical axes perpendicular to the optical or crystal
axis. The values of d and g are not necessarily the same
but are dependent upon the axis of cut.
25.29.1 Modes of Operation of Piezo-electric
Crystals
The piezo-electric crystals are used in many
modes. These modes are :
(?) Thickness shear, (zz) Face shear,
(zzz) Thickness expansion and
(m) Transverse expansion.
These modes are shown in Fig. 25.122.
(c) Thickness expansion
pig. 25.122 Modes of operation of piezo-electric crystals.
Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
By cementing two crystals together so that their
electrical axes are perpendicular, 'benders' or twisters
can be produced (See Fig. 25.123). This means that a
bending motion applied to a bender produces an
output voltage. Similarly, a twisting motion applied to
a twister produces an output.
(<?) Crystal twister "bimorph"
(b) Ceramic bender "bimorph" or "multimorph".
(c) Crystal bender "bimorph".
Fig. 25.123 Curvature of "twister" and "bender"
piezo-electric transducers when voltage is applied.
Piezo-electric crystals can be used in another
mode for force measurement. A crystal controlled
electronic oscillator uses a thin plate of quartz. The
natural frequency of mechanical oscillation of the
plate determines the frequency of electrical oscillation.
25.29.2 Properties of Piezo-electric Crystals
The desirable properties of piezo-electric materials
are stability, high output insensitivity to temperature
and humidity and the ability to be formed into most
desirable shape.
Quartz is the most stable piezo-electric material.
However, its output is quite small. On the other hand,
Rochelle salt provides the highest output but it can be
worked over a limited humidity range and has to be
protected against moisture. The highest temperature
is limited to 45°C.
Barium titanate has the advantage that it can be
formed into a variety of shapes and sizes since it is
polycrystalline. It has also a higher dielectric constant.
Natural crystals possess the advantages that they have
higher mechanical and thermal stability, can
withstand higher stresses, have low leakage (their
volume resistivity is about 1016Q - m) and have a good
frequency response. The synthetic materials, in
general, have a higher voltage sensitivity.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 829

Example 25.47 A quartz piezo-electric crystal having a Charge Q = dF

thickness of 2 mm and voltage sensitivity of0.055 V - m/ N = 150 x 10-12x 5 C = 750 pC
is subjected to a pressure of 1.5 MN/in. Calculate the
voltage output. If the permittivity of quartz is Capacitance
40.6 x 10 F / m, calculate its charge sensitivity. n Q 750 x IO"12 _ ___ c
C,, = f- =------—— F =250 pF
Solution. From Eqn. 25.138, voltage output
£o =8
* =0.055 x2x 10‘3x 106xl.5x 106
25.29.3 Equivalent Circuit of Piezo-electric
= 165 V Transducers
Charge sensitivity The basic equivalent circuit of a piezo-electric
d = e0 £r g (See Eqn. 25.139) transducer is shown in Fig. 25.124(a).
= 40.6 x 10“12 x 0.055 The source is a charge generator. The value of the
= 2.23 x 1CF12 C / N = 2.23 pC / N charge is Q = dF.
Example 25.48 A piezo-electric crystal having The charge generated is across the capacitance,
dimensions of 5mmx5mmxl.5mm and a voltage of the crystal and its leakage resistance Rp.
sensitivity of 0.055 V -m/ N is used for force measurement. The charge generator can be replaced by an
Calculate the force if the voltage developed is 100 V. equivalent voltage source having a voltage of
Solution. From Eqn. 25.138, the applied pressure is
E0 = “-=^ -(25.147)
P = A =______100_____ .N/m2
g t 0.055 x 1.5 x 10~3 p p

= 1.2 MN/m2 in series with a capacitance, Cp, and resistance, R?, as

shown in Fig. 25.124(b).
Force F = PA
= 12 x 106x 5x5x 10'6 =30N
Example 25.4g A barium titanate pickup has the
dimensions of 5 mm x 5 mm x 1.25 mm The force 5
acting on it is 5 N. The charge sensitivity of barium titanate S-
5
is 150 pC/N and its permittivity is 12.5 x 10~9 F / m. If O
the Modulus of elasticity of barium titanate is
12 x 106 N / m2, calculate the strain. Also calculate the
charge and the capacitance.
Solution. Area of plates Fig. 25.124 Equivalent circuits of
A = 5 x5 xlO-6 =25 x 10-6 m2 piezo-electric transducers.
Pressure P = 5/(25 x 10 6) N/m2
= 0.2 MN/m2 25.29.4 Loading Effects and Frequency
Response
Voltage sensitivity
Let the transducer be loaded by a capacitance CL
d 150 x 10~12
and a resistance RL. The capacitance CL is the
£0Er ~ 12.5 xlO"9
combination of the capacitance of the load, the capa­
= 12 x 10’3 Vm/N citance of the cable and the stray capacitance. The
diagram showing the load connected to a piezo­
Voltage generated
electric transducer is given in Fig. 25.125(a).
Eo=ZtP
The value of leakage resistance, R , of the crystal
= 12xl0'3 x 1.25 x 10~3 x0.2 xlO6 =3 V
is very large. It is of the order of 0.1 x 10 “ Q. The
Strain £ = At value of load resistance, RL, is considerably smaller
stress than RfJ, and hence the equivalent circuit of the
Young's modulus Piezo-electric crystal under load conditions is as
0.2 x 106 shown in Fig. 25.125(b) in which the leakage
= 0.0167.
12 xlO6 resistance, Rp, of the crystal has been dropped.
 830 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

At medium and high frequencies :

o>2(Cp + RL)2RL2» 1

E C
-(25150)

Thus at medium and high frequencies, the

response is independent of frequency, but is
dependent upon CL i.e., the capacitance of load circuit.
In practice this transducer is nearly always coupled to
virtual Earth point of an amplifier which has a
feedback capacitor, this arrangement being known as
charge amplifier.
From Eqn. 25.148, it is clear that under steady
Fig. 25.125 Circuit of a Piezo-electric crystal under state conditions i.e., when co = 0, the transducer does
conditions of load, not provide any output. As far as the maximum
frequency limit is concerned, it is imposed by the
The voltage output of the transducer under no
mechanical resonance of the piezo-electric crystal and
load conditions, is therefore Eq. Under conditions of
load, impedance of load its associated mountings.
The piezo-electric transducers are mainly used for
Z = measurement of displacement. They can be used for
L 1+
measurement of force, pressure or acceleration. These
Total impedance of circuit quantities when measured with piezo-electric trans­
Z =__ 1__ + rl
ducers are first converted into displacement and the
f j© Cp 1 + yco CL Rl displacement is subsequently applied to these trans­
ducers to produce an output voltage. Hence the
_ 1 + ^RL(Cp + Cl) conversion of displacement into voltage by piezo­
(A^y(l + 7kDCpRL) electric crystals is considered here.
For the purpose of analysis it is necessary to
Hence, the voltage across the load,
consider the transducer, the connecting cable and the
Zr
E,L = -ix
y EL amplifier as a unit. The impedance of the transducer is
very high and hence an amplifier with a high input
RL U(aCp)(1 + j(iiCpRL)

— ------------------------ —------------------- x ____________ —__________________ —_______ E

impedance has to be used in order to avoid loading
+ l + jwRL(Cp + CL) 0 errors.
Figure 25.126(a) shows the complete set-up for
1E measurement of displacement.
l + 7<o(Cf,+ CL)RLJ 0 Charge produced
*/ = Rq xi coulomb ...(25.151)
The magnitude of voltage across the load is :
where = sensitivity ; C/m,
______ 03 CP RL______ and Xj = displacement; m
...(25.148)
7l + <o2(C, + Ct)2RL2
Figure 25.126(b) shows the equivalent circuit of
the measurement set up.
rfE wC dF Rp = leakage resistance of transducer ; Q,
— i------ =— r = as En = —
Cp [^/(Cp + CJ2^2 c,
Cp = capacitance of transducer ; F
Cc = capacitance of cable ; F,
0) Rl
...(25.149) CA = capacitance of amplifier ; F
^iT72(c;, + c,)2r7
Ra = resistance of amplifier ; Q
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 831

d (e,) d(x )
RC—El + e, = K R—-^
dt L q dt ...(25.155)

d(<q)^ F d(Xi)
dt L dt ...(25.156)
where K = sensitivity = Kcf / C V / m ...(25.157)
Taking Laplace transform, we get ;
(ts + 1) £l(s) = Kxs X((s)
Transfer function
Charge I k £l(s) Kxs
generator Qj Cp, — i—
CA=^ ra eL
X.(s) ~ 1+TS ...(25.158)
<?=V' । ”
£
Sinusoidal transfer function —(/co) = J® Rx
%i 1 + /cot
The amplitude ratio is :
Current
generator E.
'cr ——(»
KX. J

1
...(25.159)
x/'1 + (1/cdt)2
Fig. 25.126 Set-up of a piezo-electric transducer
and its equivalent circuit. The phase shift <j) = 7t/2 - tan"1 cot rad ...(25.160)
The charge generator is converted into a constant At high frequencies co »1 .'. A4 = land(f) = 0
current generator as shown in Fig. 25.126(c). The Hence high frequency sensitivity is :
capacitance connected across the current generator is
X = eL/xi ...(25.161)
C, where :
Thus the frequency response of piezo-electric
C = Cp + Cc + CA ...(25.152) transducers is the same as that of capacitive
RaRp transducers. This is shown in Fig. 25.125.
Resistance ...(25.153)
From Eqn. 25.159, we see that steady state
Ra + Rp
response piezo-electric transducers to a constant
Since the leakage resistance of transducer is very displacement x- is zero. Therefore, piezo-electric
large (of the order of 0.1 x 1012 Q) and therefore, transducer cannot be used for measurement of static
R~Ra displacements.
Converting the charge generator into a current
25.29.5 Impulse Response of Piezo-electric
generator
Crystals
dq ( d x\
i = -L = K\---- U ...(25.154) Let a displacement x- be applied to the transducer;
CR dt dt J
where x■ = A, 0<t<T
where iCR is the current of the constant current
generator. and xi = 0, T < t < oo

Now iCR = ic+iR The function is shown in Fig. 25.127(a).

Output voltage at load Therefore the charge is suddenly increased to K^ A
and the crystal voltage rises to eL AJC. Thus the initial
condition is e,E = Kq A / C at t =0+.
or ~7T=ACR~'^ From Eqns. 25.156 and 25.157, we have :
d(eL) jz
or Cd^ = 1CR~1R
t—— + e, = Kx d——
dt L dt

= K d{X‘} eL d^x^ ...(25.162)

11 dt R dt
 832 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

25.29.6. Uses of Piezo-electric Materials

and Transducers
The uses of piezo-electric materials and
transducers are described below :
(i) The desirable properties expected out of a
piezo-electric material are, stability, high output,
insensitivity to temperature variations, insensitivity to
variations in humidity and also the ability to be
formed into a usable component. Undoubtedly the
most stable material is quartz. However, its output is
low. Rochelle salt, on the other hand provides, the
Fig. 25.127 Pulse response of piezo-electric highest output out of any of the piezo-electric
transducers. materials. But it requires protection from moisture and
hence cannot be used above a temperature of 45°C.
Solving the differential equation with initial
Because of its stability, quartz is commonly used
condition, we get,
for stabilizing electronic oscillators. The crystal is
eL = (Kq A/C)-[exp(-t/r)] ...(25.163) ground to proper shape and is connected in an
appropriate electronic circuit whose frequency is
For T < t < oo, the value of x. = 0 and hence the
differential equation is : controlled by it.
(ii) The use of piezo-electric transducer elements
T-^ + fL=O ...(25.164) is confined primarily to dynamic measurements. The
voltage developed by application of strain is not held
At t = T , Eqn. 25.163 still holds good and there­ under static conditions. Hence, the elements are
fore eL = (Kq A/ C) [exp (- 11 t)] primarily used in the measurement of such quantities
Value of eL at t = T is : as surface roughness and in accelerometers and
vibration pickups.
eL = (Kq A/C) exp (-T/t) ...(25.165) (iii) Ultrasonic generator elements also use barium
However, at t =T, x;- suddenly decreases by a titanate, a piezo-electric material. Such elements are
value A. This causes a sudden decrease in charge by an used in industrial cleansing apparatus and also in
amount Kq A resulting in a sudden change of eL by an underwater detection system known as sonar.
amount Kq A/C from its value at t = T~.
Example 25.30 A piezo-electric quartz crystal has an
Hence at t = T+, the value of eL is : area of 100 mm2 and is 1 mm thick. It is held between two
metal electrodes and is used for measurement of changes in
eL=(Kq A/C)[exp(-T/x)]-Kq A/C
force across the crystal. Young's modulus for the material is
= K A/C [exp (- T / t) -1] ...(25.166) 90 GN/m , the charge sensitivity is 2 pC/N, the relative
permittivity is 5.
This becomes the initial condition for Eqn. 25.163. p
The resistivity is 10 Cl m A 20 pF capacitance and a
The solution is :
resistance of 100 MCI are connected in parallel across the
K A electrodes. If a force Ft=0.01 sin 1000 t newton is applied,
eL =-^[exp(-T/T-l)]exp[-(f-T)/T] find
C
...(25.167) (a) peak to peak voltage swing across the electrodes
For T < t < oo under open circuit arid under load conditions and
(b) the maximum change in crystal thickness. [Fj is
Figure 25.127(b) shows the impulse response with the instantaneous value of force F]. The
three different time constants. In order to have faithful permittivity offree space is 8.85 pF/m.
reproduction of input displacement x-, the value of Solution. The rms value of voltage under open
time constant r should be large. If the decay and the circuit
under shoot is to be kept within say, 5 per cent of true r. dt F
£0 =------- x —
value, r should be at least 20 T.
ereo A (See Eqn. 25.136)
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 833

Maximum value of voltage under open circuit F t

At = rnax
AF
E = V2 x—
Oma* srE0 A 0.01 x 1 x 10-3
100 x 10-6x 90x 109
_ dt * ^max
= 1.1 x 10-12 m
ErE0 A
as maximum value of force Fmax = ^2F.
A,(peaktopeak) = 2 * 1-1 * 10~12 = 2.2 X 10-12 m
Example 25.51 In a piezo-electric transducer a flat
Hence, peak to peak value of voltage under open
frequency response within 5% is required. Find the value of
circuit:
minimum frequency in terms of time constant for which it
F —7 F -7 ^rnax
c0 (peak to peak) c0 max Z a can be used. If the time constant of the transducer is 1.5 ms,
erE0 n find the value of minimum frequency. Find the phase shift at
n 2 X 10-12 X 1X io-3 0.01 this frequency.
5 x 8.85 x IO-12 100 x 10-6 Solution. In order to obtain a flat response within
5%, the amplitude ratio should be :
= 9.03 xlO-3 V = 9.3 mV
M = 1-0.05 = 0.95
Leakage resistance of crystal
Now M= . = or 0.95
R= — = 1012x 1x10 \ = 10 x 1012 Q 71+(V COT)2
p A 100 xlO-6
= - —------- or cof = 3.04
Load resistance RL =100 MQ =100 x 106 Q 71 + (1/®t)2
Hence the resistance of the crystal is very large as .■. Minimum value of frequency
compared with resistance of load i.e., Rp » RL and
therefore we can neglect R . 3.04 3.04
(0=----- =------------- z-
t 1.5 xlO-3
Capacitance of crystal
= 2.02 x 103 rad/s.
£rE0A
P d Phase shift §=h/2 -tan-1 cot rad.
= 90° - tan-13.04 =90°-71.8° =18.2°
_ 5x8.85 xl0~12x 100 x!0~6
1X 10"3 Example 25.52 A piezo-electric transducer has a capaci­
tance of1000 pF and a charge sensitivity of 40 x 10~3 CI m
= 4.43 x 10-12 F The connecting cable has a capacitance of 300 pF while the
The peak to peak output voltage under load oscilloscope used for readout has a readout input resistance
conditions is : ofl MFI with a parallel capacitance of 50 pF.
(a) What is the sensitivity (V/m) of the transducer
alone ?
Hl + o^Cp + Q)2^2 (b) What is the high frequency sensitivity (V/m) of
the entire measuring system ?
2 x2x 10-12x0.01 (c) What is the lowest frequency that can be
p —_________________________
0 (peaktopeak) 5 x g.85 x 10-12 X 100 X 10"6 measured with 5 per cent amplitude error by the
entire system ?
1000 X 4.43 X 1O~12X 100 X IQ6 (d) What is the value of an external shunt capaci­
tance that can be connected in order to extend the
^1 +(1000)2 X (4.43 + 20)2 X (io-12) X (100 x 106)2
range of 5 pet cent error down to 10 Hz ?
= 1.58 mV (e) With external capacitance calculated in
This means that the output signal is attenuated to (d) connected in the circuit, what is the system
high frequency sensitivity ?
a great extent due to loading.
Solution, (a) Charge sensitivity of transducer
From Eqn. 25.132, the maximum value of change
in thickness is : =40xl0-3 C/m
 834 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Capacitance of transducer Find the response if the applied force is :

Cp = 100xl0-12 F F = 0.1 N for 0 <t <2 ms,
:. Sensitivity of transducer and F =0 N for 2 ms <t <00
K = ~ = 40-X-1Q3 =40xl06V/m. Find the value of voltage just before and just after the
impulse is terminated. Also find the voltage after 10 ms of
Cp 1000 xl0~12
application of the pulse.
(b) The total capacitance of the measuring circuit Solution. The leakage resistance of the transducer
C = CP + Cc+Cx is very large as compared with the resistance of the
measuring system R =1 MQ =106Q
= 1000+ 300+ 50 =1350 pF
The capacitance of the system
High frequency sensitivity of entire system
C= + Cc + C^
_Kg _ 40 x 1Q~3
= 2000 + 500 = 2500 pF
C ~1350xl0"12
Time constant of circuit
= 29.63 xlO6 V/m t= RC =106x 2500 x 10~12
(c) Time constant of system = 2.5 x 10-3 s = 2.5 ms
x= RC Voltage across the load
= 1 x 106x1350 x 10~12 s = 1.35 ms dF , ±, x
= —exp(-t/T)
The lowest frequency that can be used for 5
percent magnitude error is found as under : 100xl0“12 n. . in_3.
=------------- tv x 0.1 x exp(-f /2.5 x 10 )
2500 x 10'12
0.95 = l or cor = 3.04
71+(1/cot)2 = 4x 10 3exp(-400t) for 0<f<2ms

3.04 3 , At t = 2 ms,
or co =------------ - = 22.54 rad / s eL = 4 x 10-3exp(-400 x 2 x 10-3)
1.35xl0’3
=il.8 x 10-3 V =1.8 V
.’. Minimum frequency that can be used with 5%
error f = 22.54 / (2 7t) = 358.7 Hz This is voltage at just before t = 2 ms

(d) It is now required that a frequency of 10 Hz be The voltage output just after 2 ms :
measured with 5% error. eL =^[exP(-f/T)-1l
Time constant
100 X IO’12 X 0.1 f-2xlO-3T1
3.04 3.04 .ooo in_3
t =----- =---------- = 48.38 x 10 Js = ---------------------73— exp ----------- g-
co 27rxl0 2500 x 10-12 ^2.5x10“9J

Total capacitance = 4 xlO-3 x (0.55)

c = 48.38 x 10-3 F = 4g38F = -2.2xl0’3 V=-2.2 mV
lxio6
The voltage output beyond 2 ms is given by :
/. External capacitance required dF
eL =~^[exP(-T/T-l)][exp-(t-T)/T]
Ce = 48380 -1350 = 47030 pF
(e) High frequency sensitivity with external 100 x 10~12 x 0.1 F-2x10~3
=------------------- 75— exp ----------- - -1
capacitance 2500 x 10"12 L2-5 x 10
= -4-X1° V/m =827 kV/m exp[-(f-2 xl0~3)/10-3]
48380 x IO-12
= -2.2 x 10“3 exp [- 400 t -0.8]
Example 25.53 A piezo-electric transducer has a for 2 ms < t < 00.
capacitance of 2000 pF and a charge sensitivity of
100 x 10~12 C/N. The resistance of transducer is 106 MQ Voltage after 10 ms of application of pulse :
= -2.2 x 10~3 exp [- +00 x 10 x 10"3 -0.8]
and the impedance of the measuring system consists of a
capacitance of500 pF in parallel with a resistance ofl MQ. = -0.09 x 10-3 V = -0.09 mV
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 835

Example 25.54 A pulse is applied to a piezo-electric through the strip. When a transverse magnetic field
transducer for a time T. Prove that in order to keep the passes through the strip, an output voltage appears
undershoot to a value within 5%, the value of time constant across the output leads. This voltage is proportional to
should be approximately 20 T. the current and the field strength.
Solution. The value of voltage at t = T is given by : The output voltage is,
KA Eh = KHIB/t ...(25.168)
=-^-exp(-T/T)
V-m
where K,, = Hall effect coefficient; -------------- =■
The voltage reduces by a factor exp (-T/t)from H A-Wbm“2
its value at t =0. t - thickness of strip ; m,
For 5% undershoot, the value of voltage at t = T and I and B are respectively the current in ampere and
should be 0.95 of its initial value flux density in Wb/m2.
0.95= exp(-T/t) Thus the voltage produced may be used for
or T/t =0.0513 or t =19.5 T measurement of either the current / or the magnetic
field strength B.
Therefore in order to keep the undershoot to 5%
within its initial value t ~20 T. Typical values of Hall Effect Co-efficient of
different materials are given in Table 25.9.
25.30 HALL EFFECT TRANSDUCERS
The principle of Hall Effect Transducers has already Table 25.10 Hall Effect Co-efficients
been explained in chapter 7 on page 179. This is being I Tempe­
Field strength v«m
Material rature
re-introduced for continuity. Wb/m2
I '• °C A-Wb-m2
The principle of working of a Hall Effect
Transducer is that if a strip of conducting material As 0.4 to 0.8 20 4.52 x 10’9
carries a current in the presence of a transverse I
: C 0.4 to 1.8 Room - 11.73 xlO-9
magnetic field as shown in Fig. 25.128, a difference of
Bi 0.113 20 -1x1 O’6
potential is produced between the opposite edges of
the conductor. The magnitude of the voltage depends Cu 0.8 to 2.2 20 -52xl0-12
upon the current, the strength of magnetic field and
Fe 1.7 22 l.lxlO-9
the property of the conductor called Hall Effect. The
Hall effect is present in metals and semiconductors in n-Ge 0.001 - 0.8 25 -8xl0“3
varying amounts, depending upon the densities and Si 2 23 4.1 x 10"6
mobilities of carriers. j
Sn 0.4 Room -2x1 O’12
1 Te 0.3 - 0.9 20 53xl0‘6

The Hall effect emf is very small in conductors

and is difficult to measure. But in some semicon­
ductors, such as germanium, the emf produced is
sufficiently large to be measured by a sensitive
moving coil instrument.

25.30.1 Applications of Hall Effect Transducer

Fig. 25.128 Hall Effect Element.
Let us consider Fig. 25.128, current is passed
through leads 1 and 2 of the strip. The output leads
connected to edges 3 and 4 are at the same potential
when there is no transverse magnetic field passing
The following are some of the applications of the
Hall Effect Transducer.
1. Magnetic to Electric Transducer. The Hall
Effect Transducer can be used as a Magnetic to Electric
transducer. A semiconductor plate is inserted into the
magnetic field to be measured. The magnetic lines of
force are perpendicular to the semiconducting plate.
The transducer gives an output voltage which is
proportional to B, the magnetic field density. The
 836 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
system has the advantage of requiring a very small
space in the direction of the magnetic field and
therefore, the Hall element can be inserted in narrow
gaps for magnetic measurements in air spaces. Also,
the element gives out a continuous electric signal in
direct response to the magnetic field strength.
Its disadvantages are a high sensitivity to tempe­
rature variations and to the fact that the Hall
co-efficient may vary from plate to plate, thereby
necessitating individual calibration in each case.
2. Measurement of Displacement. The Hall effect
element can be used for the measurement of the
location or displacement of a structural element i.e., it
can serve as an indirect acting position displacement
or proximity transducer in cases where a change of
geometry of a magnetic structure causes a change of
magnetic field strength. An example is shown in
Fig. 25.129 which shows a ferro-magnetic structure
having a permanent magnet. The Hall effect trans­
ducer is located-in the gap, adjacent to the permanent
magnet.' The field strength produced by the
permanent magnet in the gap, where the Hall effect
element is located, is varied by changing the position
of a ferro-magnetic plate. The voltage output of the
Hall effect transducer is proportional to the field
strength in the gap which is a function of the position
of the ferromagnetic plate from the structure i.e., the
displacement. The method permits measurements of
displacement down to 0.025 mm.
Fig. 25.129 Measurement of Displacement
using Hall effect transducer.
3. Measurement of Current. An interesting
application of Hall effect transducer is shown in
Fig. 25.130. The device serves to measure current in a
conductor without the need for interrupting the circuit
and without making electrical connection between the
conductor circuit and the meter. (This is similar in
action to the clamp on ammeter described on
page 323.) A current (d.c. or a.c.) passes through the
conductor and sets up a magnetic field surrounding
the conductor. This magnetic field is proportional to
the current. A Hall effect transducer is placed in a
slotted ferro-magnetic tube which acts as a magnetic
concentrator. The voltage produced at the output
terminals is proportional to the magnetic field
strength and hence is proportional to the current
flowing in the conductor. The system can be used for
measurement of currents from less than a mA to
thousands of ampere. At high current levels, the
magnetic concentrator can be omitted since the
magnetic field is fairly strong in the vicinity of the Hall
effect element and thus can cause appreciable output
voltages which can be easily detected.
Magnetic
Fig. 25.130 Measurement of current using
Hall effect transducer.
4. Measurement of Power. The method for
measurement of power using a Hall effect transducer
has been explained in Art. 11.7 on page 365.
Example £5^55 A Hall effect transducer is^ used for the
measurement of a magnetic field of 0.5 Wb/m . The 2 mm
thick slab is made of Bismuth for which the Hall's co-efficient
is- 1 x 10~6 V ml (A- Wb m~2) and the current is 3 A.
Solution. From Eqn. 25.168, the output voltage is,
Eh = Kh IB/t
= -1x10"6x3x0.5/(2x10“3)
= - 0.75 x IO-3 V = -0.75 mV
25.31 MAGNETORESISTORS
The resistivity of some metals and semi­
conductors at low temperatures changes if exposed to
a magnetic field. The effect is known as magneto­
resistance. Magneto-resistive elements operate on the
law of electrodynamics which says that Lorentz forces
act upon mobile charge carriers in a magnetic field,
causing electrons to move in an indirect route,
thereby lengthening the current path and increasing
the resistance of material. The amount of deflection of
the electrons depends upon electron mobility. It is the
highest in a semiconductor such as indium antimonide
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 837
2
which has a mobility of 7.8 m /Vs as compared to
50xl04* m2/Vs for a metal. Magneto-resistors are
made from indium antimonide or indium arsenide
which have a mobility of 2.4 m /Vs.
Magneto-resistors are sensitive to the total magnetic
field and not to its rate of change. Figure 25.131 shows
the magneto-resistive characteristics. HQ is the
effective anistropy field in the material and is sum of
the demagnization anistropy field and the anisotropy
field of elemental deposition. With no field applied
the domain, magnetization is along elemental length
at 0. As the field increases the resistance increases,
Fig. 25.131 Basic magneto-resistive characteristics.
until at' b the elements are rotated by 45° to the
elemental length. Any further increase in field leads to
saturation at C. The magneto-resistive element may be
operated at O, or at b by means of an external bias
magnet. Operation at b gives linear characteristics.
The magneto-resistive effect is increased as the
ratio of length (/) to width (w) of the material
decreases. This is shown in Fig. 25.132.
Fig. 25.132 Magnetoresistive curves for
different geometry devices.
Magneto-resistors are built by depositing a film of
about 25 pm of indium antimonide/nickel antimonide
into a 0.1 mm thick substrate. The film is in the form of
a meander and the value of resistance at zero magnetic
field can be varied by changing the dimensions of this
meander and the number of loops. The film is
insulated from the substrate, which may be made
from a magnetic base coated with a thin insulating
film of a non-magnetic material, such as ceramic or
plastic.
The value of resistance depends on the direction
of the magnetic field, as indicated in Fig. 25.133. The
maximum change in resistance occurs when the nickel
antimonide crystals are parallel to each other and the
magnetic and electric fields are at right angles to each
other. The temperature response of the magneto­
resistor depends on the material doping. Generally
resistance decreases with temperature and the drop in
resistance is greater after the application of the
magnetic field, so that the ratio of resistance in a
magnetic field to resistance without a field decreases
with temperature.
Fig. 25.133 Effect of magnetic field direction on a
magnetoresistor : (a) and (b) field direction,
(c) resistance curve.
The magneto-resistive effect, in some metals, is
even noticeable at room temperatures, for example,
Bismuth. The resistivity of bismuth doubles when it is
exposed to a field of 1.5 x 106 A/m. Therefore, this
metal could be used for measurement of flux density.
The bismuth transducer consists of a thin wire
wound in a flat bipolar spiral 0.5 mm to 30 mm in
diameter cemented between two sheets of mica.
Figure 25.134 shows an arrangement of using a
bismuth transducer for measurement of flux density.
A bismuth conductor has the property of experiencing
a change in electrical resistance if the conductor is
placed in a transverse magnetic field. This effect has
been used by several experimenters. One or two
bismuth spirals are placed in some sort of thin
mounting that can be inserted in the magnetic field, as
for example, between armature and poles of a d.c.
motor. The spiral can be made one arm of a
Wheatstone bridge (or two spirals may be used in
 838 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
opposite arms as shown in Fig. 25.134). By calibration
the resistance can be related to field strength. One
difficulty is a rather low sensitivity to weak fields.
Another and more serious, trouble is the effect of
temperature on the resistance of bismuth, so that large
errors can result unless the temperature is carefully
controlled or the effect compensated.
Fig. 25.134 Use of bismuth spirals in conjunction
with a Wheatstone bridge for measurement of magnetic.
For a bismuth transducer, the percentage change
of resistance against flux density is linear except at
lower end. In all cases the temperature co-efficient of
resistance can cause errors and measurements should
be made at constant temperature with low currents to
avoid self heating effects of the transducer.
The range of values of flux density for which this
transducer can be used is from 0.01 to 1.5 Wb/m2.
Bismuth gives a linearity of ±1% above a critical
lower value.
Mu-metal has the property of changing its
impedance if placed in a transverse magnetic field-.
This property may be used to measure flux density
with a conventional a.c. bridge.
This method is shown in Fig. 25.135 who two
mu-metal wires are placed in the unknown magnetic
field. The impedance of the wires is a function of the
strength of magnetic field and is measured with an a.c.
bridge.
Fig. 25.135 Measurement of flux density with
Mu-metal wires.
This transducer produces an acceptable emf for
the input to an instrumentation system and is capable
of measuring field strength of the order of 10-7 Wb/m2.
More modern transducers use either indium
antimonide or indium arsenide which are more
sensitive than either bismuth or mu-metal. The
magneto-resistive effect is more marked in indium
antimonide but indium arsenide is usually used for
transducers because the room temperature resistivity
of indium arsenide is 100 times greater than that of
indium antimonide.
The change in resistance is proportional to square
of the flux density for small values but deviates from
this relationship for larger values of flux densities.
25.32 MAGNETO-ELASTIC AND
MAGNETO-STRICTIVE TRANSDUCERS
A change in mechanical stress of a ferromagnetic
material causes its permeability to change. This
phenomenon is known as the Villari effect or
magnetostriction and is particularly strong in Nickel
Iron alloys. The permeability changes in response to
dimensional changes, such as compression, tension or
torque. This magnetic-elastic effect can cause the
induction of voltages and hence can be used in
mechanic-electric transducers.
A transducer utilising the Villari effect basically
consists of a coil wound on a core of magneto-strictive
material to which a force, causing a stress in the core,
is applied. The stress causes a change in the
permeability of the core and hence the inductance.
The range of force over which this transducer can
be used depends upon the cross-sectional area of the
core as the stress in the core should not exceed
70 M/m . Individual calibration is necessary to
determine the accuracy of the device which has a poor
linearity and is subject to hysteresis.
If a magneto-strictive material is subject to pure
torsion the permeability increases irrespective of
direction (See Fig. 25.136). Pure tension alters the B-H
curve of the material and decreases the permeability
[Fig. 25.136(F)]. By applying sufficient tension to the
wire the permeability torsion curve becomes similar to
a B- H loop, Fig. 25.136(c).
A practical torsion transducer using this principle
consists of a nickel wire, 0.5 mm in dia, stretched
between the poles of a magnet and having a small
stylus rigidly fixed to the mid point. Before attaching
the wire between the poles, the wire is twisted. This
results in additional torsional stress. Two pick-up coils
are connected in series are wound around the two
halves of the wire.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 839

a force and hence produces a stress in the laminated

core thereby changing its permeability. The change in
permeability produces a voltage in coil C surrounding
the core. Since, the force and consequently the stress
are proportional to the acceleration, that is force
F = Md2 x / dt2 = Mx
and since the voltage is proportional to dF/dt, the
output is proportional to third derivative of displace­
ment (x) of the mass M.

Magnetostrictive Effect
When a ferromagnetic magnetic material is
subjected to changing magnetisation, its permeability
changes with change in magnetisation (on account of
non-linear B-H characteristics of material) thereby
causing a change in the dimensions of the material.
This effect is magnetostriction and is very much
pronounced in nickel iron alloys, although in these
materials, the change in dimensions with change in
magnetisation is quite small.
If a rod is premagnetised by a d.c. field produced
by a coil as shown in Fig. 25.138 and an a.c. field
produced by another coil C2 is superposed, it will
Fig. 25.136 (a) Effect of pure torsion on the
permeability of nickel, (b) Effect of pure tension on the
B-H curve of nickel, (c) Effect of torsion and simultaneous
strong tension on the permeability of nickel.

As the displacement of stylus increases the stress

on one side of the torsion wire and decreases it by an
equal amount on the other half. This produces an
increase of flux in one half and a decrease in other half.
These changes in the magnetic flux produce voltages
in the two pick up coils as the movement takes place.
The resultant voltage is a function of the stress
applied. The frequency response of these transducers
is flat over a range of 150 Hz to 15 kHz.
Figure 25.137 illustrates the functioning of a magneto­
elastic accelerometer. Acceleration of the mass M causes

Acceleration

Fig. 25.138 Magneto-strictive transducer for

generation of ultrasound.

periodically change the length of rod on account of

change in magnetization. The effect will be maximum
at resonance i.e., if the frequency coincides with the
lengthwise oscillation frequency of the rod. This
Fig. 25.137 Schematic diagram of frequency is in general, at the high end of the audio
Magneto-elastic transducer. frequency range or in the ultrasonic range.
 840 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Arrangements of the type shown in Fig. 25.138
can be used as powerful generators for ultrasonic
oscillations which may cause effects like :
(i) cavitation in liquids
(n) breaking up of particles such bacterial cells
and
(ni) formation of stable emulsions of oil and
water or even mercury and water. The same
system can also be used as a tuned magneto­
elastic transmitter for ultrasound.
assuming R is small in comparison with R y, is R since
junction R and Ry is a virtual earth. The voltage gain
is R/R.
The voltage output of this transducer is quite low
and amplification is needed before it could be used.
An operational amplifier can be used with the circuit
shown in Fig. 25.140. The illumination level at which
the circuit switches is controlled by the bias
potentiometer.
+12 V

25.33 OPTO-ELECTRONIC TRANSDUCERS

The opto-electronic transducers include photo
voltaic cell, semiconductor photodiode and photo­
transistors. These transducers have already been
explained in Chapter 19. However, some additional
information is being given here.

25.33.1 Photo-voltalic cell

The "photo-voltaic cell", or "solar cell" as it is Fig. 25.140 Circuit for control of switching
sometimes called, produces an electrical current when with a bias potentiometer.
connected to a load. Both silicon (Si) and selenium
types are used. An alternative trigger circuit to switch when the
Photo-voltaic cells may be used in a number of light exceeds a certain value is shown in Fig. 25.141.
applications. Multiple-unit silicon voltaic devices may This circuit uses an operational amplifier.
be used for sensing light as a means of reading
punched cards in the data processing industry.
Gold-doped germanium cells with controlled spectral
responses act as photovoltaic devices in the infra-red
region of the spectrum and may be used as infra-red
detectors.

Applications of Photo-voltaic cell

The characteristics of a photo-voltaic cell are logari­
thmic in nature as shown in Fig. 19.29 on page 588.
A logarithmic characteristic may have useful
application in practice. When the transducer is remote
from the amplifier, any noise picked up or the con­
necting leads may be attenuated by using the high
CMRR (common-mode rejection ratio) of the ampli­
fier as shown in Fig. 25.139. The input impedance
Fig. 25.139 Amplifier having a high value of CMRR.
Fig. 25.141 Trigger circuit used for switching when
illumination exceeds a predetermined
level.
The high input impedance presents a high load to
the transducer. Positive feedback is used and the
voltage at non-inverting input is set by the potential
divider Rj and R2. The voltage of the photovoltaic cell
must exceed VR2 /(RT + R2) to trigger the circuit.
Such a circuit may be used in a punched card or
punched tape reader to sense the pattern of holes in
the cards/tapes. The size of the transducer may be an
advantage if the holes are closely spaced.
The extension of the above method may be used
to add the outputs of several photocells together. Such
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 841

Fig. 25.142 Array of Photo-voltaic cells to

determine the width of material passing.

an application may occur while measuring the width
of a material passing over rollers if the mean position
of the materials is subject to variations. Two rows of
photo-voltaic cells are arranged so that both edges of
material partially obscure (cut off) a row. The total
output is summed to give an output proportional to
the width of the material. This is shown in Fig. 25.142.
The accuracy and resolution is determined by the
physical size of transducers, which should be small to
obtain good results.
The off-set control is adjusted to give zero output
voltage with the transducers in the dark. The gain of
the amplifier is adjusted by varying the value of
feedback resistor so that a full scale voltage of 10 V
is obtained with all the transducers moderately
illuminated (of course equally).
Such an array of transducers can be especially
manufactured, sometimes on a single chip of a semi­
conducting material. They have excellent thermal
tracking between individual cells, closely matched
outputs and accurate pitching dimensions. They can
be encapsulated in special mounts to suit the
specifications of the customers.
The other areas of applications of photovoltaic cell
which have been described earlier are their use
(i) in photographic exposure meters and
(ii) in space crafts to supply electric energy.
They are also being increasing used as an
unconventional source of electric power in remote
areas.
25.33.2 Photoconductive Cell
Another Photo-electric effect that has proved very
useful is the photo-conductive effect, which is used in
photo-conductive cells or photo-cells. In this type of
device, the electrical resistance of the material varies
with the amount of light energy striking it.
A typical control circuit utilizing a photo­
conductive cell is illustrated in Fig. 25.143. The
potentiometer is used to make adjustments to
compensate for manufacturing tolerances in photocell
sensitivity and relay operating sensitivity. When the
photo-cell has the appropriate light incident upon it,
its resistance is low and the current through the relay
is consequently high to operate the relay. When the
light is interrupted or shut off partially or completely,
the resistance of the photocell increases thereby
reducing the current through the relay. The current
may drop down to a level where it will not be able to
operate the relay thereby de-energizing the relay.
To controlled
circuit
Fig. 25.143 Photocell and Relay control circuit.
 842 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
Example 25.56 The relay of Fig. 25.144(a) is to be
controlled by a photo-conductive cell. The characteristics of
the photo-conductive cell are shown in Fig. 25.144(b). The
circuit delivers 10 mA at a 30 V setting when the cell is
illuminated with about 400 lm/ni2. The circuit becomes
deenergised when the cell is dark. Calculate (a) the required
series resistance and (b) The dark current.
Fig. 25.144 (a) Relay control by a Photo-conductive cell.
Fig. 25.144 (b) Photocell illumination characteristics.
Solution, (a) Referring to Fig. 25.144(F), the
resistance of cell corresponding to an illumination
level of 400 lm/m2 «1 kQ.
Hence from Fig. 25.144(a), External resistance
R2 = (30/10 x ICT3) - 1000
= 2,000 Q =2 kQ
(b) By extrapolating the resistance versus
illumination curve [Fig. 25.144 (F)], dark resistance
corresponds to 100 kQ.
30
Dark current =----- -5———~3
2 x 103 + 100 x 10
« 0.3 mA.
Applications of Photo-Conductive Cells
The low resistance of photo-conductive cells
when they are exposed to light means that they can
and are, designed to carry moderate currents, such as
are capable of operating a relay coil (See Example
25.56) directly without any amplification. They can be
designed to operate upon low voltages and are thus
used in industrial control equipments. For example,
they can be used
(/) for counting packages moving on a conveyor
b«jdt
(ii) in burglar alarm circuits, wherein the
interception of light actuates an alarm
circuit. Actually, in the latter application a
device would be used which is sensitive in
the infra-red region, so that the burglar
would not see the beam of light.
Another application makes use of their light
dependant resistance property. If a photo-conductive
cell is inserted as a component in another circuit, light
can be made to control a parameter of that circuit. To
cite a few examples, the insertion of a photo-
conductive cell may alter the bias of a transistor or
change the gain of an amplifier. Such circuits are used
in automatic brightness compensation of T.V- receivers,
so that when the room light is switched on, the
brightness of the screen is automatically adjusted. The
volume of an audio amplifier can be controlled by
light-this is particularly useful if several channels
have to be controlled together. The device may also be
used as a light controlled switch.
Figure 25.145 shows a light measuring circuit
consisting of a balanced bridge for measurement of
light alternation at Photo-conductive cell R2- This is a
form of a differential circuit. The two photo-
conductive cells are similar and they keep the bridge
under conditions of balance whatever may be the
environmental conditions. This reduces the effects of
power supply variations, light history and tempe­
rature drifts of photo-conductive cells and the
variations of light emitted by the lamp, as both halves
of the bridge experience similar effects and the bridge
remains balanced in case initially R1R4 = R2R3.
If a transluscent object is inserted in the path of
light falling on photo-conductive cell R2, the light to it
is partially cut off i.e., light is attenuated. This changes
the resistance of photo-conductive cell R2, thereby
rendering the bridge unbalanced. The output voltage
of the bridge, on account of the unbalance is amplified
and measured with the help of an appropriate
detector. The output of the detector is a measure of the
light attenuation.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 843
msumms
Fig. 25.145 Measurement of Light Attenuation.
Example 25.57 The bridge circuit of Fig. 25.146 is
used for measurement of attenuation of light. R1 and R3 are
resistors having a value of 1 kQ each. R2 and R4 are two
photo-conductive cells whose values of resistance depend
upon the light incident upon them. The bridge input voltage
is 10 V d.c. and the output of the bridge is measured with a
detector which can be considered to have an infinite input
impedance.
Initially the intensity of light incident on both R2 and
R4 is 400 lm/m2 with the result both R? and R4 have a
resistance value ofl k£l each [Refer to Fig. 25.144(b)]. The
2
light falling on R2 is now attenuated to 100 lm/m and
therefore its resistance increases to 2 ktl. The intensity of
light falling on R4 remains the same. Find the output
voltage of the bridge.
Solution. Initially each of the four resistances
forming the bridge is 1 kQ each with the result that the
bridge is balanced and its output voltage is zero.
When the light falling on cell R2 is attenuated, its
resistance increases to 2 kQ, with the other three
resistances remaining 1 kH each and the bridge
becomes unbalanced and an output voltage appears
across terminals b and d. This voltage is the open
circuit voltage, between terminals b and d since the
detector has an infinite impedance. This voltage can be
found by redrawing the bridge circuit as shown in
Fig. 25.147.
Fig. 25.147 Diagram of Example 25.57.
Potential of point
10 1
b = 10----- —,-xl03=5 V
103 +103
Potential of point
d = 10--------- T x 2 x 103
2 x 103 +103
= 3.33 V
.’. Output voltage of the bridge when the light
falling on cell R2 is attenuated is
Ehd =5-3.33=1.67 V
25.33.3 Semi-conductor Photo-diode
A reverse biased semi-conductor diode passes
only a small leakage current (a fraction of 1 pA in
typical silicon diodes) if the junction is not exposed to
light. Under illumination, however, the current rises
almost in direct proportion to the light intensity. Thus,
the photodiode can be used in applications similar to
those in a photo-conductive cell.
When the device operates with a reverse voltage
applied, it functions as a photo-conductive device.
When operating without the reverse voltage, it
functions as a photo-voltaic device. It is also possible
to arrange for a photodiode to change from
 844 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
photo-conductive mode to photo-voltaic mode.
However, the photodiode has very important
advantages over the photo-conductive cell. These
advantages are its response, time is much faster, so
that it may be used in applications in which light
fluctuations occur at high frequencies.
The photo-conductive cell is useful only at very
low frequencies.
Figure 25.148 shows the symbol and typical
illumination characteristics for a silicon photodiode.
Reverse • Forward
voltage voltage
mimhbmm
Fig. 25.148 The symbol and typical illumination
characteristics for the silicon photodiode.
Example 25.58 A photodiode with illumination
characteristics is shown in Fig. 25.148. It is connected in
series with a 200 Q resistance and a 0.5 V supply. The
supply polarity is reverse biases the device. Draw the d.c.
load line for the circuit and determine diode currents and
voltages at 1500, 10,000 and 20,000 lm/m illumination.
Solution. A circuit is shown in Fig. 25.149 when
=0, = IpRj =0,
Fig. 25.149 Photodiode with load resistance.
Plot point A on Fig. 25.148 at
lD=0 and Vd=-0.5V
where ID = current through diode.
When Vn=0, Vr.=Es,
/ '41= A? =-2.5 mA
D Rt 200
Plot point B at ID = - 2.5 mA and VD = 0- Praw the
load line through A and B. From the load line, we get
At 1500 lm/m2: ID =-0.2 mA Vp=-Q.45V
At 10,000 lm/m2 : ID =-1.9 mA VD=-0.12V
At 20,000 lm/m2 : ID =-3.6 mA VD =0.22 V-
Note that the polarity of VD changes from -ve tq
+ ve at the highest level of illumination.
Applications of Photodiodes
It is important to realize that the photodiode and
photo-voltaic cell are similar types of devices
operating on the same principle.
In the case of photodiodes, a way of reducing the
capacitance of the device and hence its time constant
(t = RC), a special device called PIN Photodiode may be
used. An I or intrinsic layer is introduced between P
and N ends. This effectively increases the width of
depletion layer thus reducing the capacitance. Thus
faster response and low noise are obtained-
Typical values for a photodiode are :
Junction capacitance =10 pF,
Reverse resistance = 50 MQ and
Forward resistance = 100 Q
The following circuit (Fig. 25.150) is used for the
photodiode.
Fig. 25.150 High quality light meter.
This circuit used is becoming more popular as
integrated circuit operational amplifiers come down
in price. It has the disadvantage of requiring a dual
power supply but has a linear output voltage capable
of driving the meter directly. Thus it is used in high
quality light meters for photometry and studio
photographic work. Some of the applications of
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 845
photo-voltaic cell can be applied to a photodiode.
Because of their fast response time, photodiodes are
used in film sound track readers. The sound track is
printed on the film as a variable area. As it moves
through the protector, it is examined through a fine
(<0.1 mm slit) and the light falling on the photodiode
is varied. The highest mode that can be reproduced is
thus dependant upon the response of the photodiode
as well as the film speed; the width of slit and the
definition of photographic emulsion. This is shown
diagrammatically in Fig. 25.151.
Fig. 25.151 Sound track reader.
Photodiodes can be used as detectors of
modulated light in optical communication systems.
The photodiodes can be used in switching circuits
as they have a fast response time. A switching circuit
using a photodiode is shown in Fig. 25.152. The
transistor is normally 'ON' due to the bias resistor.
When the photodiode is illuminated, the base current
is reduced turning the transistor 'OFF'.
Fig. 25.152 A switching circuit using a photodiode.
25.33.4 Phototransistors
The sensitivity of a photodiode can be increased
by as large a factor 100 by addition of a junction which
makes it a N-P-N device i.e., a photo-transistor. A
simple representation of the construction is shown in
Fig. 25.153, which also shows the circuit represen­
tation of a photo-transistor.
Fig. 25.153 Photo-transistor and its circuit
representation.
Illumination of the central region causes the
release of electron hole pairs here. This lowers the
barrier potential across both junctions, causing an
increase in the flow of electrons from left hand region
into the central region and on to the right hand region.
For a given amount of illumination on a very
small area, the photo-transistor provides a much larger
output current than that is available from a
photodiode and therefore photo-transistor is much
more sensitive than a photodiode. The typical charac­
teristics of a photo-transistor are shown in Fig. 25.154.
Fig. 5.154 The circuit symbol and output
characteristics for the phototransistor.
 846 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Example 25-59 A photo-transistor of circuit shown in
fig. 25.155 (a) with characteristics shown in Fig. 25.155 (b)
has a supply voltage of 20 Vand a collector load resistance of
2 kQ- Determine the output voltage when the illumination
level is :
2 2
(a) Zero (b) 200 W/m and (c) 400 W/m .
Another use of the base terminal is at extremely
low light levels. Here the dark current is important
and can be reduced by connecting a high resistance
between base and emitter. The resistance acts as a
by-pass and greatly reduces the dark current through
the photo-transistor.
Although a meter in the collector circuit will
indicate illumination, the circuit is sensitive to
variations. If another transistor is used to amplify the
transducer current, feedback is available across the
emitter resistor for stabilising the gain of the
photo-transistor. This produces a good quality linear
light meter which may be calibrated against a
standard source or by comparison with a lux meter.
The circuit is shown in Fig. 25.156.

Fig. 25.155 The phototransistor circuit and d.c.

load line of Example 25.59.

Solution. The circuit and load line are shown in

Fig. 25.155. The load line for a 2 kfl resistance is drawn
with the following considerations :
When Ic = 0, VCE =20 V (Point A)
When Ic -10 mA, Fig. 25.156 Linear Light Meter.
VCE = 20-10 x 10~3 x 2 xlO3 2. Operation of Relay. A device for further
= 0 V (Point B) increasing the sensitivity is the photo-Darlington
transistor, shown diagrammatically in Fig. 25.157.
From the intersection of the load line and the
Here the photo-transistor has a second transistor
characteristics of photo-transistor, we obtain :
connected as a Darlington pair in the same case. The
(fl) For zero illumination, output voltage =20 V
2
(b) At an illumination level of 200 W/m , output
voltage = 12.5 V
2
(c) At an illumination level of 400 W/m , output
voltage = 4 V

Applications of Photo-Transistors
1. Linear Light Meter. As in normal use the
effective base current is supplied by the incoming
illumination, no connection is usually made to the
base terminal. In some applications it is necessary to
forward bias the transistor to the centre of its
operating characteristic by a d.c. voltage applied to the
base terminal. Thermal stabilisation techniques may
be employed, or an electrical threshold control is
possible. Fig. 25.157 Application of a photo-Darlington transistor.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 847
two transistors can be matched and the photo-current
is multiplied by the combined of both transistors.
This gives enough current to operate a larger relay
directly as shown in the diagram.
It should be evident that although it has
disadvantages for analog work, the photo-transistor
will make an excellent switching device for digital
applications. Here load resistance is not so much a
consideration as we are only concerned whether the
transistor is 'on' or 'off'.
3. Modulated Light. If the light directed on the
photo-transistor is coded and the circuit of Fig. 25.158
responds only to that code, stray light can be ignored.
In practice an oscillator operating at a few kilo-hertz
drives a light-emitting diode. The photo-transistor is
followed by a tuned amplifier such that it responds
only to the frequency of operation. Stray light thus
produces no output. If the beam is interrupted all
output ceases and the appropriate safety device can be
operated.
Fig. 25.158 Use of modulated light.
Modulated light is also used in communication
systems, for example, to transmit speech down a light
beam. Such a system has the advantages of secrecy
and freedom from interference but the transmitter and
receiver must be in line of sight and the range is
limited to a few hundred metres.
Photo-transistors can also be used with logic
circuits, either via an amplifier or trigger circuit, or
directly with TTL logic gates as shown in Fig. 25.159.
These are used in tape readers for computers. Another
application is to sense an object between the doors of
an automatic lift and this information is entered into
the logic circuits controlling the lift together with
information about the position of the lift and which
button is pressed.
With the circuit shown, a controlled amount of
hysteresis in the trigger circuit is provided by the
resistor R. Two gates are necessary to achieve the
correct phase relationship.
Fig. 25.159 Use of photo-transistor with logic.
4; Use in Shaft Encoders^ Photo-transistors are
used in shaft encoders which translate angular
position into a digital code. This is done by shining
lamps through a coded perspex disc on to photo­
transistors. The Gray code is normally used which is
then translated into binary code by a logic network
and used as the input to a digital control system.
5. Use as Switching Devices for Digital Circuits.
It is evident that photo-transistors have disadvantages
as regards analog circuits, but they can be used as
excellent switching devices for digital applications. In
these applications, the load resistance is not of much
consequence as we are concerned only to know
whether the transistor is "ON" or "OFF". They are
useful in these applications because they have small
rise and fall times. Photo-transistors can be used in a
wide range of applications which include,
(z) computer punch card/tape readers
(zz) counting of objects
(zzz) digital machine control
(iv) digital process control
(v) pattern recognition
25.34 DIGITAL ENCODING TRANSDUCERS
The transducers often communicate with digital
computers and therefore transducers which have a
digital output are preferable as they are convenient to
use since they can be directly interfaced with a digital
computer. However, few transducers exist which can
provide a direct digital output. In most of the situations
in measurement systems, we come across transducers
which provide only an analog output. Therefore, with
such transducers we have to use an analog to digital
(A/D) converters to realize the digital data which
could be handled by digital computers.
 848 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Digital transducers are called Encoders. They are

I
available but they are normally in the form of linear or Tachometer encoder
rotary displacement transducers.
Digital encoding transducers, or Digitisers, Displacement
(rotary or translational)
enable a linear or rotary displacement to be directly
converted into digital form without intermediate
forms of analog to digital (A/D) conversion. Such Incremental encoder
3
digitisers may be known as digital encoders or linear
digitisers, or for rotary applications, shaft digitisers
or shaft encoders.
A digitiser is perhaps the most elementary form of nnnnnnnnnnn
Once per revolution pulse
analog to digital (A/D) converter because it converts a
continuous displacement an analog quantity to be
defined incrementally in some binary or decimal code.
There are several techniques used for achieving this
conversion, each with its own advantages and
limitations, which include cost, simplicity of
4-bit binary coded abs. encoder
associated circuitry and reliability etc.

25.35 CLASSIFICATION OF ENCODERS

The Digital Displacement transducers can be
classified into three major categories :
A tachometer transducers
A incremental transducers
A absolute transducers.

25.35.1 Tachometer Encoders

A tachometer encoder has only a single output signal
which consists of a pulse for each increment of displac­
ement. This is shown in Fig. 25.160. If the motion were
always in one direction, a digital counter could
accumulate these pulses to determine the displacement
from a known starting point. However, any motion in
the opposite direction, would also produce identical
pulses, which would produce errors. Therefore, this
digital transducer, is usually used for measurement of
speed, rather than for displacement, and in situations
where the rotation never reverses.
25.35.2 Incremental Encoders
The problems caused by reverse motion in the
case tachometer encoder are solved by using air
incremental encoder. The incremental encoder uses at
least two (and sometimes a third) signal generating
elements. The two tracks (the tachometer encoder uses
only one track), in the case incremental encoder are
mechanically shifted by | cycle relative to each other.
This allows detection of motion which signal rises
first. Thus an up down pulse counter can be used to
subtract pulses whenever the motion reverses. A third
output, which produces one pulse per revolution at a
distinct point, is sometimes provided for zero reference.
One revolution
Fig. 25.160 Classification of Encoders.
An incremental encoder has the advantage of being
able to rotate through as many revolutions as the
application requires. However, any false pulses
resulting from electric noise will cause errors that
persist even when the noise disappears. The failure of
system power also causes total information about the
position data which cannot be retrieved even after
re-application of power.
25.35.3 Absolute Encoders
These are generally limited to measurement of a
single revolution. They use multiple tracks and
outputs, which are read out in parallel to produce a
binary representation of the angular shaft input
position. Since, there is a one-to-one correspondence
between binary output, position data are recovered
when power is restorted after an outage. The transient
electric noise causes only transient measurement
errors.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 849
25.36 CONSTRUCTION OF ENCODERS
Encoders of all three types mentioned above, can
be constructed as
A Contacting type and
A Non-contacting type.
25.36.1 Contacting or Brush Type
(Resistive Encoders)
The shaded areas are made of conducting
material and the unshaded areas are made of
non-conducting materials. Brushes are placed on the
transducer which act as sliding contacts. The circuit of
sliding contacts, which come in contact with
conducting areas are completed and the circuits of
others which make contacts with insulated area are
not completed. Thus the encoder gives out a digital
read out which is an indication of position and hence
the encoder determines the displacement.
In Fig. 25.161, the read-out lamps are only shown
for an explanatory function. The voltages on the four
lamps-lines could be sent to a digital computer
directly. If a visual read-out were desired, these four
voltages would be applied to a binary-to-decimal
conversion module and then read out decimally on a
display.
Fig. 25.161 Translational Encoder.
While the code pattern of Fig. 25.161 is most
convenient for explaining how motion is represented
in the familiar natural binary system, many
commercial encoders use a different code patterns
such as Gray code in order to avoid errors resulting
from small misalignments which occur in practical
applications. For example (Fig. 25.162), at the
midpoint of binary scale, if the shaded area of 2 bit
were displaced slightly to the left, instead of going
MSB = Most significant bit
Fig. 25.162 Linear displacement transducers using
Natural binary and Gray codes.
from 0111(7) to 1000(8), the count would go from
0111(7) to 0011(3). The Gray code shown in the same
diagram does not suffer from this problem since only
one bit changes at each transition in the case of Gray
code. Since the Gray code output may not be
compatible with the read-out device, conversion from
Gray code to natural binary system (or vice versa) may
be necessary. This is accomplished by using standard
logic gates as shown in Fig. 25.163.
Gray code is used for overcoming the inherent
disadvantages of a natural binary code. In a natural
binary code, a change of decimal number by one may
result in a change of number of bits. In the example
quoted above, the transition from natural number to 7
to 8, would need a change in all four bits as number 7
is represented by 0111 and number 8 by 1000. Thus, an
error of one bit in a large digital number, in practice,
will result in large error when the binary number is
converted to decimal number. In the case of digital
transducers, an increment of this order, would result
in large errors when the result is reflected back into
the decimal system.
In case of Gray code, in which case the change in
one value to the next is by one bit only. For example,
the change in value from 7 to 8 (in decimal system) is
0100 (corresponding to 7) to 1100 (corresponding to a
value of 8). Thus there is a change in one bit only.
Therefore, the use of Gray system greatly reduces the
errors.
 <850 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
MSB
LSB
Gray/Binary code convertions
using Exclusive OR gates
Fig. 25.163 Natural and Gray binary codes.
Advantages and Disadvantages
The advantages of this type of encoder are :
(/) It is relatively inexpensive.
(n) It can be made to any degree of desired
accuracy provided that the sector is made
large enough to accommodate the required
number of rows for binary numbers, and are
quite adequate for slowly moving systems.
The disadvantages are :
(z) The major problem with the use of these
encoders is on account of wear of contactors
and maintenance of the contacts.
(zz) There is often an ambiguity of one digit in
the least significant binary digit.
The resolution of digital transducers depends
upon the number of digits comprising the binary
number. The resolution is 1/2" of full scale where n is
the number of digits.
The range is up to several metres with an accuracy
of 1 part in 20,000 of full scale. The accuracy obviously
depends on the accuracy with which the scale is
drawn.
25.36.2 Optical Displacement Transducers
Optical transducers follow the following two
types of principles for their operation :
(?) they consist of a system of coded tracks
consisting of transparent and opaque sections
and associated lamps and photocells to
detect the corresponding switching sequence,
(iz) they rely on the use of Moire's fringe
techniques, capable of much higher
resolution when used for incremental
measurement.
A sector (Fig. 25.164) may be designed with a
pattern of opaque and translucent areas. A
photo-electric sensor and a light source is placed on
the two sides of the sector. The displacement is
applied to the sector and therefore changes the
amount of light falling on the photo-electric sensor.
The pattern of illuminated sensor then carries the
information as to the location of the sector.
Figure 25.164 shows a possible sector of pattern of
opaque and translucent areas. The number of levels in
the encoder determines the accuracy with which
device operates.
Fig. 25.164 Pattern of translucent and opaque
sectors used in optical encoders.
Moire Fringe Method
The application of moire fringes has become
increasingly popular in recent years as a means of
obtaining the very high degree of resolution required
for positioning machine tool cross-slides. Certain
systems rely on a coarse/fme solution in which a
conventional coded pattern is used for approximate
positioning and a moire fringe incremental encoder
and associated integrating counter for deriving fine
positioning information. The latter encoder may be
either rotary or linear.
The Moire Fringe Method is an optical method of
amplifying displacement and uses two identical
gratings. The gratings consist of a number of slits on
an opaque screen, the slits being transparent. The
pitch of the gratings is quite small, and may be
between 0.005 mm to 0.05 mm.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers
Figure 25.165 shows two gratings of the same
pitch, mounted face-to-face, with the ruling inclined at
angle G to each other. As shown in figure, a set of dark
bands, called Moire fringes, is obtained, with fringe
spacing very large as compared to pitch of the grating.
Fig. 25.165 Moire Fringes.
A movement of the grating in a direction perpen­
dicular to the gratings would move the fringes in a
direction perpendicular to the fringes by a larger
amount. The movement of the fringes can be
measured and from the same, movement of the
grating can be calculated or alternatively, the number
of fringes passing a given point can be counted, using
a photo-electric transducer. This method of
displacement measurement is used for measuring the
movement of work in machine tools with an accuracy
of ± 0.001 percent over a large range.
Direction of travel -------------------------- ►
1/4 line
travel
1/4 line
travel
3/4 line
travel
Fig. 25.166 Moire fringe measuring technique.
851
The essential element of a moire fringe measuring
system, be it linear or rotary, is a length of transparent
material engraved transversely or in the case of a
rotary transducer, radially with a precisely known
number of lines per unit length or angle rotation.
When two similarly engraved sections are super­
imposed at a slight angle, a beam of light projected
through the twin layer produces a dark area; caused
by the angular intersection of the individual lines.
Travel of one section in the direction of its long
axis produces a movement of this dark area (fringe) at
right angles to the movement; travel in the opposite
direction produces a reversal of the fringe movement.
One complete movement of the fringe across the
field represents a distance of one line division, thus a
very small movement is translated into an easily
readable quantity resulting in a very accurate system
for measurement-particularly when the engravings
are finely spaced. Linear resolutions of 2.5 pm to an
accuracy of ±1.2 pm in 250 mm travel are obtainable.
Defects due to possible minor local blemishes are
integrated out because the fringe signal is derived
from the interference pattern of a considerable
number of lines. The use of Moire fringe technique
reproduces a typical fringe pattern and resulting
waveforms on the outputs of four photo-cells evenly
spaced across the track is shown in Fig. 25.166.
 852 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
A simple form of rotary encoder based on moire
fringes is illustrated schematically in Fig. 25.167. It
comprises a drum, lamp, collimating lens, prism and
photocell assembly. The drum consists of a metal strip
0.05 mm thick and photo-etched to leave webs
comprising the grating, and formed as the periphery
between two end cheeks. Up to 500 lines may be
obtained for a drum size up to 75 mm diameter. In
operation the light from the lamp is collimated by the
lens and projected through the drum, via a prism. This
enables a lens of reasonable focal length to be
accommodated by doubling back the light beam,
across the body of the encoder using a prism. The form
of construction of the drum and optical system has the
advantage over the more conventional approach, the
latter having one fixed and one moving section, in that
Fig. 25.167 Drum type Moire fringe optical encoder.
the gratings on opposite sides of the drum, while
simulating the more traditional grating assembly,
move in opposite directions to each other, thereby
generating twice as many Moire fringes as there are
diffraction strips. Thus for a diffraction grating of 500
strips comprising the circumference of the drum, 1000
pulses would be sensed at the first photo-cell. The
number of pulses is further multiplied as in a
conventional system by the number of photo cells, the
number of four being chosen to permit both increase
resolution and direction of rotation to be obtained, the
latter by appropriate decoding logic. The drum is
rotated by means of a pressure roller in direct contact
with a flat surface representing the axis of the linear
direction to be measured.
The benefits of a Moire fringe type of linear or
rotary digitiser (namely high resolution and accuracy)
may be easily lost by neglect of the fundamental
limitations of the associated mechanical drive or
linkage. For example, attaching a digitiser to a lead
screw is fraught with danger of impairing the system
accuracy because the incremental accuracy of the slide
position is directly dependant on the accuracy of the
lead screw, and due allowance must be made for wear
of the screw and associated nuts. The advent of the
recirculating ball type of lead screw has offered one
practical solution to this problem however, and
marked a major step forward in pursuit of the 2.5 pm
goal of machine tool users. The linear type of Moire
fringe digitiser possesses the advantage that it can be
used to measure incremental motion directly but
tends to require engineering specifically to fit a
particular application.
25.37 SHAFT ENCODER
A shaft encoder is a digital device used for
measurement of angular position. An increasing
number of measuring instruments are being-used to
communicate with a digital computer for measure­
ment and control applications. The amount of raw
data generated by large scale test programmes is so
great that automated computer reduction of these data
in meaningful form becomes a necessity. In addition,
the feedback control systems for complex processes
are becoming increasingly dependent on digital
computers for part or complete action of computers
for generation of control action. Therefore, there is a
necessity of measuring devices that form a basic part
of these systems whose output is compatible with
digital nature of the computer. In practice, there are
two forms of generation of digital signals. The first
form converts the analogue variable to a shaft rotation
(or translation in linear measurements) and then using
many types of shaft angle encoder to generate digital
voltage signals. The second approach is to convert the
analogue variable to an analogue voltage which is
then converted to a digital voltage by one of many
voltage to digital converters as given in Chapter 26.
The shaft angle encoder and voltage to digital
converter are perhaps the most close approaches to
true digital transducers, the first being for motion and
the second for voltage. Here we consider the shaft
angle encoder for transducing the analogue motion to
digital voltage.
In order to understand the operation of a shaft
encoder, we should first consider a translational
encoder (a linear displacement digital transducer as
given earlier) is shown in Fig. 25.161. The encoder
shown has four tracks (bits) and is divided into
conducting and insulating portions, with the smallest
increment being 0.01 mm. As the scale moves under
the brushes, the respective lamp circuits are made or
broken so that the numbers shown on the readout
lamps is at every instant equal to one hundredth of a
mm.
For angular displacements, the pattern given in
Fig. 25.164 is simply deformed so that the length of the
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 853
scale becomes the circumference of a circle on a flat
disc. The brushes are then placed along a radial line on
the disc. Figure 25.168 shows the disc.
Fig. 25.168 A rotary shaft encoder rising four track.
The disc is divided into concentric circular tracks
and each of these is then divided into segments in a
manner depending upon the code being used. For
pure binary code, the inner track is halved, the next
quartered and the next divided into 8 parts and so on.
Each track has twice as many segments as the adjacent
one near the centre. The detection method determines
the treatment of the disc. The alternate segments on
each track are made transparent and opaque, if
transmitted light and photo-cells are used. If the
segments are made reflecting and non-reflecting,
reflected light and photo-cells are used. Electrical
methods are used for detection in case the segments
are made conducting and non-conducting alternatively.
Thus if the scale is scanned radially a binary 0 or 1
is obtained from each track depending upon the
angular position of the disc. Each position of the disc,
provided the resolution angle is exceeded between
positions, gives a unique number comprising the same
number of digits as there are tracks on the disc.
The accuracy depends upon the number of tracks
and if there are n tracks, the accuracy obtained is :
360°
—— and is easy to obtain ± 10 s of arc accuracy.
Such discs are manufactured with diameters
ranging from 50 mm to 250 mm. The sequence and
order of indications represent the position of shaft in
coded form.
25.37.1 Coding Limitations
Irrespective of the form of the transducer the
predominant problem associated with the absolute
position encoder is that of providing a noise free,
stable and unambiguous output. Assuming that
practical limitations preclude obvious solutions such
as stepping the shaft by means of an intermittent
motion mechanism and electrically inhibiting the
output during movement, two main techniques are
adopted, depending on the form of encoder. These are
the use of 'Gray codes' and 'Double-brush systems'.
The former are preferred for optical encoders which
tend to be inherently free from noise, while combi­
nations of both techniques together with digital­
complement systems, have been used for brush-type
encoders.
The problem of obtaining an unambiguous digital
output, irrespective of shaft position may be
appreciated from a study of a four bit pure binary
brush type encoder illustrated in Figure 25.169. It is
formed from a number of coded concentric tracks in
which live segments are separated by means of
insulating segments and connected to a collector ring
for applying an energising voltage via a contacting
Fig. 25.169 Binary coded encoder disc.
brush. Four coding brushes, (one per track) are shown,
to enable a binary output to be detected from the
appropriate patterns on the discs.
The example shown is impractical, because if the
shaft comes to rest at a transition between say, 0 and
15, mechanical positioning limitations preclude any
certainty that all four brushes were reading a binary 1
on a conducting segment, or a binary '0' on an
adjacent insulator.
25.37.2 Brush Type Encoders
Continuing with the simple brush type encoder,
let us look at application of a double brush system to
'V scanning' as shown in Fig. 25.170(a). The same
binary pattern is used as shown in Fig. 25.169 but with'
two sets of brushes disposed symmetrically as shown
about the least significant (2°) brush. The brushes are
spaced so that each pair is nominally equal to the digit
length of the previous lesser significant track. The
brushes are connected by a logic network as shown in
Fig. 25.170(b) and the output is transmitted according
to the following rules of operation.
 854 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

When the least significant brush reads 0, the next
leading brush is read.
When the least significant brush reads 1 the next
lagging brush is read.
Thus for the position shown in Fig. 25.170, the
least significant brush is reading 'O' and the leading
brush is read to also give a 'O', and so on for successive
brushes. Thus although the least significant brush is
on a point of transition the total encoder output is
stable on all '0"s“ or T's without ambiguity. An
alternative to ‘V scan is 'IT scan which is similar
except that the brushes are spaced one least significant
digit apart as shown in Fig. 25.171(a) with associated
logic in Fig. 25.171(h) which has a faster readout speed.

(a) Binary coded disc with U-scanning.

(b) Logic decoding for U-scan.

fig. 25.171
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers V :
25.37.3 Codes and Decoding
Possibly the simplest way of overcoming the risk
of ambiguity is the use of a cyclic code in which only
one digit is changed at a time.
An objective of Gray's innovation was to reduce
coding errors in pulse code transmission systems to
provide a code and corresponding encoder in which
the coding error is never greater than one counting
unit. Another purpose was to simplify and to reduce
the cost of manufacturing encoders. An example of a
popular Gray coded disc is shown in Fig. 25.172(a)
from which it can be seen that for any transition point
e.g., 0 to 15 the readout encounters a change in one
brush position only. The code requires conversion to
pure binary and involves the decode logic shown in
Fig. 25.172(b) based on exclusive OR gates. Starting
(b) Gray to binary decoder.
Fig. 25.172
with the most significant digit this time, the state of
each brush is either confirmed or reversed depending
on whether the sum of the previous more significant
'1' is even or odd, respectively. Titus in Fig. 25.172(b)
the output of each gate is 'T when only one input is
present.
In general, the construction of brush-type
digitisers has evolved over some years with the result
that reliable performance can be claimed. Early
attempts to produce the coded tracks were based on
conventional printed circuit technology but these
proved unsatisfactory and sophisticated techniques
based on photo engraving are now applied to encode
the required pattern in gold-plated copper
interspersed with insulated melamine sectors ; the
latter chosen for wear properties that match the
conducting sections. Precious metal brushes are
shaped to conform to particular stiffness criteria so
that vibrations are not induced and 'bounce' problems
are minimised.
In general, it is not usual to exceed three decade
(12 bit B C D) on one disc, and if greater resolution is
required two or more discs may be geared together.
The alternative magnetic or optical forms of
encoders are generally conceded to be capable of
higher resolution, greater accuracy and to be less
prone to wear than the brush type, because wiping
contacts are eliminated. They tend to be more
expensive when applied to a system however, because
the signal output is several orders lower than that
obtainable from a brush-type digitiser. A brush-type
digitiser can switch voltage levels reliably up to 12 V
d.c. and may consequently be used for subsequent
processing or to switch indicator tubes directly,
whereas the magnetic or optical encoder requires
associated electronics to raise the signal level and
shape the output to a useful form for subsequent
processing.
25.37.4 Optical Encoders
There are two basic generic styles of optical
encoders :
A incremental
A absolute.
The incremental encoder provides a pulse each time
the shaft rotates through a predefined distance while
an absolute encoder provides a “whole world" output
with a unique code pattern representing each position.
An eight bit absolute optical shaft encoder is
shown in Fig. 25.173. The output code is derived from
independent tracks on the encoder disc corresponding
to individual photo detectors. The output from these
detectors would then be high or low (1 or 0)
depending upon the code disc pattern for that
particular position.
 856 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
Fig. 25.173 An 8 bit absolute optical shaft encoder.
Absolute Encoders are used in applications where
a device is inactive for long periods of time or moves
at slow rates, such as for flood control, telescopes,
cranes etc.
Absolute encoders use the natural binary code or
Gray code and BCD in addition to many other codes.
The incremental encoder creates a series of
equally spaced signals corresponding to the
mechanical increment required. For example, if we
divide a shaft rotation into 100 parts, an encoder
would be selected to supply 1000 square wave cycles
per revolution. By using a counter to count these
cycles, we can find out how much the shaft has
rotated. Suppose the count is 100, then the shaft has
rotated through 360 x (100 /1000) =360°.
The simpler type of incremental encoder is the
tachometer encoder. Its output waveform and code
track on the disc are shown in Fig. 25.174. A
tachometer encoder is sometimes called a single track
incremental encoder because it has only one output
and cannot detect direction. The output is usually a
square wave.
(a) Straight binary system.
(b) Cyclic (Gray) code.
Fig. 25.174 Shaft Encoders.
Information about velocity is available by looking
at the time interval between pulses or at the number of
pulses within a time period. These transducers have
been explained earlier in Art. 25.35.
Optical encoders tend to follow one of two
principles of operation ; they consist of either a system
of coded tracks consisting of transparent and opaque
sections and associated lamps and photocells to detect
the corresponding switching sequence, or they rely on
the use of moire fringe techniques, capable of much
higher resolution when used for incremental
measurement.
The absolute digitiser comprises an assembly
consisting of a Gray-coded pattern photographically
reproduced on a glass disc mounted on the input
shaft. The code consists of ten annular tracks each
with a pattern of opaque and transparent sections.
The code reading system employs a filament lamp
and collimating lens from which light passes through
the disc and a narrow radial slit, to be detected by ten
photovoltaic cells. Depending on the angular position
of the shaft, certain cells receive light from the
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 857
transparent portions of the disc and enable the
outputs from all ten cells to reproduce the shaft
position directly in parallel-Gray-coded form. The
output, which is noise free, is suitable for
amplification and subsequent processing for use in
digital servo systems, computers, data logging and
visual displays.
Figure 25.174 shows the shaft encoders using
straight binary and Gray codes.
25.38 AUTOSYN
It is a high resolution incremental encoder based
upon the electromagnetic coupling between a fixed
scale provided with an a.c. excited serpentive
conductor, produced by printed circuit techniques,
and a similar but smaller sensing winding which
travels over a scale as show in Fig. 25.175. When the
alignment is as shown in’Fig. 25.175(b), the output is at
its positive maximum. A displacement of s/2 results in
minimum output while a movement of s gives
negative maximum output. Further, a displacement of
Fig. 25.175 Inductosyn transducer.
3 s/2 gives minimum again, and a travel of 2s gives a
positive maximum. The output variation over 2s cycle
length is essentially consinusoidal. A coarse digital
output is obtained by counting the cycles of spacing
2 s, while fine resolution is obtained by electronically
digitizing the analog voltage variation within each
cycle. As in other incremental encoders, to detect
direction of motion, the sensor element includes a
second winding displaced s/2 from the first,
providing a sinusoidal signal. With both a sine and
cosine output available, the device behaves essentially
as a resolver and can use resolver-to-digital type of
electronics similar to that discussed earlier under
synchros. Inductosyns are available in both
translational (best accuracy ± 0.001 mm) and rotary
(best accuracy ± 0.5 second of arc) forms. The standard
spacings s available are 1.25, 0.625 and 2 mm.
25.39 PHOTO OPTIC TRANSDUCERS
The fibre optic transducers can be classified into two
categories as explained before in Art. 19.20.5 on page
599. This classification places the optic transducers as:
(?) intensity or intrinsic transducers and
(n) interferometric or extrinsic transducers.
The following paragraphs describe how physical
parameters can be measured with fibre optic
transducers.
25.39.1 Temperature Transducers
Optical fibres can be used for measurement of
temperature. This is because the temperature induces
changes in refractive index of the fibre. The core and
claddings of the fibres have different indices of
refraction because of the difference in their
composition. The refractive index is a function of both
composition and temperature, and it changes at
different rates in response to a temperature change. A
higher temperature change causes the critical angle of
the fibre to change slightly, which in turn changes the
amount of light lost through leakage in the cladding as
shown in Fig. 25.176. Total internal reflection occurs at
angles of incidence greater than the critical angle. At
angles of incidence less than the critical angle, some
light is lost due to refraction.
Cladding
Core
(n) Total internal reflection (b) Light leakage caused by
changes in the refractive
incidence of core
and cladding
Fig. 25.176 Fibre optic temperature transducer.
25.39.2 Measurement of Sound
The measurement of sound level can be done with
either
(z) an intensity fibre optic transducer or with
(n) an interferometric type transducer. In this
case we have chosen an interferometric
transducer as shown in Fig. 25.177.
Part of the beam passes through the reference coil,
which is enclosed in stable environments and the
remaining passes through the sensing coil. Sound
 858
beam
Fig. 25.177 Interferometer-type optical fibre
sound transducer.
waves distort the sensing fibre, which causes its
optical length to change, thus altering the relative
phases of the light in each fibre. The sound level is a
function of the phase shift, which will be seen in the
interference pattern when the two beams are
recombined.
Figure 25.178 shows in details the operation of
Intensity and interferometric transducers. With
intensity senors, the measured variable causes a
Detector
(«) Intensity-microbend modified cladding.
(b) Interferometric transducer - phase displacement.
Fig. 25.178
change in the intensity propagating in the fibre. On
the other hand, with interferometric transducers, the
measured variable causes a phase change of the light
propagating in the fibre. This beam is then compared
with the reference beam as shown in Fig. 25.179 and
the phase displacement owing to the sensed beam
causes a change in intensity of interference pattern
shown in Fig. 25.179.
Fig. 25.179 Change in intensity of the interference
pattern caused by phase displacement.
Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
25.35.8 Measurement of Level
Measurement of level is another application of
fibre optic sensors.
The principle of sensing liquid level using fibre
optic technology is straight forward. If one end of the
cable or rod is cut and polished properly to form a
prism and the prism is in air, light transmitted from
the other end is reflected back with negligible loss.
Under these conditions, the end near the light source
will appear bright as shown in Fig. 25.180(a).
polished end
Fig. 25.180 Optical fibre level detector in
air and liquid.
If the polished end of the rod is now submerged in
a liquid with a higher refractive index than that of the
fibre rod, most of the light transmitted through the rod
will be absorbed by the liquid rather than being
reflected as shown in Fig. 25.180(b) and the light
source will appear as dark.
The darkness is dependent upon the liquid level.
Multilevel sensing can be achieved by bunding a
number of fibre optic rods of different lengths as
shown in Fig. 25.181.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 859
Review Questions
1. Describe with the help of neat diagrams, the
mechanical devices used as primary detectors.
Derive their output in terms of their physical
dimensions.
2. Derive for a metallic diaphragm, expressions for
deflection, maximum stress and natural frequency
in terms of the physical dimensions, when it is
subjected to a pressure on one side.
3. Describe with neat sketches the following types of
primary detecting elements :
(z) Bourdon tubes
(z'z) Bellows and
(iii) Diaphragms.
4. Describe the methods for measurement of flow
using (i) venturimeters and (ii) orifice plates.
Derive the expressions for flow rate in each case.
5. Explain how a Pitot tube can be used for
measurement of flow. Describe how the velocity
profile of a liquid flowing in a pipe is taken care of
in the measurements when using Pitot tubes.
6. Describe the different types of weirs and flumes
are used for measurement of flow in open
channels. Derive the related expressions.
7. Differentiate between the following using suitable
examples :
(z) control systems using feedback
(z’z) measurement systems using feedback.
8. Define the following :
(z) Transducer
(z'z) Inverse transducer and
(zzz) Output transducer
Give suitable examples.
9. Differentiate between the following citing suitable
examples :
(z) Transducers and Inverse transducers
(zz) Active and passive transducers
(zzz) Primary and secondary transducers
(iv) Analog and digital transducers
(v) Output and inverse transducers
10. Describe the different criteria for selection of
transducers for a particular application.
11. For a transducer, describe the following :
(z) Input characteristics
(zz) Transfer characteristics
(zzz) Output characteristics.
12. For a transducer, describe the following :
(z) transfer function (zz) error.
13. Explain the following types of errors for a transducer:
(z) Scale errors
(zz) Dynamic errors and
(iii) Noise and drift errors.
14. Define the following with reference to transducers:
(i) Zero error,
(ii) Sensitivity error,
(iii) Non-conformity error,
(iv) Hysteresis error,
(v) Dynamic error, and
(vi) Cross sensitivity.
15. Describe the constructional details of a resistance
potential divider and derive the expression for its
output voltage when connected across a meter of
finite impedance.
16. Derive the expression for error for a resistance
potential divider when connected across a load of
finite resistance. Draw typical curves to shown the
variation of error with input displacement for
different values of load resistance. Derive the
condition for maximum error.
17. Explain that sensitivity land linearity are two con­
flicting requirements in a resistance potential
divider.
18. Explain the construction of wire wound strain
gauges and derive the expression for the gauge
factor.
19. (a) Describe the construction of foil type strain
gauges and explain their advantages over wire
wound strain gauges.
(b) Explain the construction of semi-conductor
strain gauges and explain their advantages and
disadvantages.
20. Explain with diagrams, the bonded and unbonded
types of strain gauges.
For bonded strain gauges, describe the materials
used for base, and adhesive materials and also the
materials used for leads.
21. Describe the working and construction of
resistance thermometers. Describe the materials
used for RTDs, along with their properties. Sketch
their typical characteristics.
22. What are thermistors ? Explain their different
forms of construction. Draw their resistivity versus
 860 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
temperature characteristics and show that they
have a very high value of sensitivity as compared
with that of metal resistance thermometers.
Describe their applications.
23. Draw and describe the following for thermistors :
(z) Resistance-temperature characteristics
(zz) Voltage-current characteristics, and
(iii) Current-time characteristics.
24. Describe the construction, theory and working of
thermocouples. Describe the different types of
compensations used and also the methods of
measurement of their output voltage.
25. Describe the method for measurement of
temperature with use of
(i) RTDs (ii) Thermistors, and
(iii) IC sensors.
Describe their advantages and limitations.
26. Give an overview of the inductive transducers
explaining their principle of operation like variation
of number of turns, geometric configuration and
permeability. Draw neat sketches to show the above
effects.
27. How is a differential output taken from an inductive
transducer ? Explain the advantages when inductive
transducers are used in push-pull configuration.
28. Explain the construction and principle of working
of a linear voltage differential transformer
(L.V.D.T). Explain how the magnitude and
direction of the displacement of core of an L.V.D.T.
detected ? Why is the frequency of excitation of
primary winding kept very high as compared to
the frequency of the signal being detected ?
29. Explain the different principles of working of
capacitive transducers.
30. Explain how by using a differential arrangement a
capacitive transducer which works on the principle
of variation of capacitance with displacement between
two plates the response can be made linear.
31. Describe the properties of materials used for
piezo-electric transducers. Derive expressions for
voltage and charge sensitivities.
32. Describe the different modes of operation of
piezoelectric transducers. Define and sketch binders
and twisters. Explain the applications of piezo­
electric transducers.
33. Draw the equivalent circuit of piezo-electric
transducers. Derive the expression for magnitude
of voltage across the load by making simplifying
assumptions. Prove that for medium and high
frequencies the magnitude of the voltage across the
load is independent of frequency.
34. Derive the expressions for frequency response
characteristics of piezo-electric transducers.
35. Derive the expression for impulse response of
piezo-electric transducers. Sketch the response curves.
36. Describe the construction, principle of working
and applications of Hall Effect transducers.
37. Explain the constructional features of
(z) synchro-transmitters and
(ii) synchro transformers.
Explain how the above pair can be used as an error
detector in a servomechanism.
38. Derive the expressions for voltages in the three
phases of a synchro-transmitter. Derive also the
equations for voltages between line and the neutral
point and explain the concept of 'zero' in a
synchro-transmitter and a synchro-transformer.
39. Explain how a synehro-transmitter and receiver
pair can be used as transducers in the torque
transmission mode.
40. Explain the construction, working and appli­
cations of resolvers.
41. Explain the principle of working, constructional
details and applications of light dependent resistors.
42. Explain the principle of working, constructional
details and applications of photo-diodes. Draw the
characteristics.
43. Explain the principle of working constructional
details and applications of photo-transistors. Explain
why are they preferred for digital applications.
Draw their characteristics.
44. Explain the principle of working and construc­
tional details of a photo-voltaic cell. Explain, why
is it very useful for space applications.
45. Define a digital transducer and explain its applica­
tions for measurement of linear and angular
displacements.
46. Describe the following :
(0 Tachometer Encoder (zz) Incremental Encoder
(zzz) Absolute Encoder.
47. Describe in details the contact type of encoders and
explain why Gray code is used in them.
48. Describe the following types of shaft encoders :
(z) resistive type (zz) optical type.
49. Describe the method of using Moire Fringes for
measurement of linear and rotational displacements
in encoders. Describe its advantages and limitations.
50. Describe how fibre optic transducers are used for:
(z) measurement of temperature
(zz) measurement of sound level
(zzz) measurement of liquid level.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 861
Unsolved Problems
1. A steel diaphragm is used for pressure measure­
ment. It is 50 mm in diameter and is to be designed
to measure a maximum pressure of 1.5 MN/m2.
The modulus of elasticity of steel is 200 GN/m2
and Poisson's ratio is 0.3. Calculate the thickness of
diaphragm in order that the maximum deflection
is not more than 1/3 of its thickness. Calculate the
natural frequency of diaphragm. The density of
steel is 7800 kg/m3. [Ans. 1.1 mm, 26,600 Hz]
2. A torsion bar is made of mild steel and has a
diameter of 25 mm. The shear modulus of mild
2
steel is 80 GN/m . Calculate the value of shear
sensitivity. Suppose a torque of 10 x 103 Nm is
applied to the bar, calculate the value of shear
strain angle. If the bar is notched to 15 mm
diameter, what is the value of shear sensitivity and
the shear angle for the above torque ?
[Ans. 4 x 10-6 rad/Nm,
18.8 x 10“6 rad/Nm, 0.188 rad]
3. A vertical venturimeter has its inlet and throat
diameters as 20 mm and 100 mm respectively. A
differential mercury manometer connected to the
inlet and throat points gives a reading of 250 mm.
Determine the rate of flow of water if the co­
efficient of discharge is 0.98.
[Ans. 0.0628 m3/s]
4. A venturi tube of throat diameter 60 mm is placed
in a water pipe of diameter 100 mm to measure
volumetric flow. The volumetric flow rate through
the tube is 80 x 10~3 m3 /s. Water has a density of
103kg / m2 and a viscosity of 10-3Ns I m2.
(a) Determine Reynold's number.
(b) Given that the co-efficient of discharge is 0.99,
determine the upstream and throat differential
pressure.
(c) The differential pressure is applied at the
centre of a mild steel diaphram having the
following data :
diameter = 10 mm, thickness = 0.2 mm
2
modulus of elasticity = 206 GN/m and Pois­
son's ratio = 0.28.
Calculate the deflection of the centre of diaphragm.
[Ans. 1698 x 103, 356.1 kN/m2, 23.3 x 10"6 mm]
5. An orifice plate is situated in a water pipe of 50 mm
diameter and has an orifice of 30 mm diameter. For
a Reynold's number of 1,00,000 the discharge
co-efficient is 0.61. Calculate this nominal exit
velocity V2 at the orifice to give this flow value and
also the pressure differential. The value of density
is 1000 kg/m and the kinematic viscosity is
10"6 m 2 / s. [Ans. 3.33 m/s, 130 kN/m2]
3
6. The density of air in a duct is 1.2 kg/m and its
maximum velocity is 20 m/s. The duct is 100 mm in
diameter and the velocity is to be measured using a
80 mm diameter orifice and a differential manometer.
If the co-efficient of discharge is assumed to be 0.6,
calculate the necessary range of the manometer in
mm of H2O. [Ans. 100 mm of H2O]
7. A Pitot tube is to be used to measure the speed of
an aeroplane. The pressure differential is measured
by a U tube manometer using water. The density of
air is 1.22 kg/mJ. If the reading of the manometer is
80 mm of water and the velocity correction factor is
0.98, calculate the velocity of the aeroplane. Assume
that air is incompressible. [Ans. 35.15 m/s]
8. A Pitot tube with a thermometer attached is used
to measure the velocity of air in a duct. A differential
pressure of 100 mm of water is recorded. The tem­
perature is 27°C. The static pressure is 10 kN/m . The
barometer reading is 760 mm of mercury. The gas
constant is 287 J/kg and the specific gravity of mercury
is 13.6. The velocity correction factor is 0.98. Calculate
the mean velocity of air. [Ans. 38.2 m/s]
9. A submarine moves horizontally in sea and has its
axis 15 m below the surface of water. A Pitot tube
properly placed in front of submarine and along its
axis, is connected to the two limbs of a U tube
containing mercury. The difference of mercury
level in the two limbs is 170 mm. Find the speed of
submarine. Assume that sea water is 1.26 times as
dense as compared to normal water. The specific
gravity of mercury is 13.6. [Ans. 6.4 m/s]
10. Water flows over a rectangular notch 1 m wide
over a depth of 0.15 m and afterwards passes
through a triangular right angled notch. Find the
depth of water through the latter notch. The
co-efficient for discharge are 0.62 and 0.59
respectively for rectangular and triangular
notches. [Ans. 0.357 m]
11. A 5000 Q voltage dividing potentiometer feeds a
load of 8000 Q. Calculate the percentage error
based upon full scale for slider positions at 0, 0.2,
0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0 p.u. of the total travel. Plot the
graph between p.u. travel and percentage error.
[Ans. Percentage error : 0, 1.8. 5.2. 7.8. 7.2. 0]
 862 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
12. A potentiometer has a resistance of 5000 Q and is
rated at 3 W. What is the maximum allowable
excitation voltage ? Calculate the value of the
sensitivity and resolution if the length of potentio­
meter is 0.1 m and there are 200 turns. Also
calculate the percentage leading error at 0.67 of the
travel if a meter of 5000 Q is connected across the
pot. [Ans. 122 V, 12.2 V/mm, 0.61 V, - 12.1%]
13. A voltage dividing potentiometer is used to
measure an angular displacement. The angle of
displacement is 60° and total angle of travel of
potentiometer is 355°. Calculate the voltage output
on open circuit if the potentiometer is excited by a
60 V source. Calculate the actual value of the
output voltage at this setting if a voltmeter of 1 MQ
resistance is connected across the output. The
resistance of the potentiometer is 1 kQ. The turns
are uniformly distributed. Calculate the percentage
error. [Ans. 10.14 V, 10.1386 V, - 0.014%]
14. A resistive displacement transducer with a shaft
stroke of 25 mm is applied to the circuit shown in
Fig. 25.182. The applied voltage is 10 V. What is the
displacement indicated for each of the voltage
readings 3.0 V, 5.0 V, 8.0 V ? Assume that the
resistance of output device R is infinite.
Fig. 25.182 Resistance potentiometer.
[Ans. 7.5 mm, 12.5 mm, 20 mm]
15. The circuit shown in Fig. 25.182 is used by a
resistive displacement transducer. The input voltage
is 5 V. If the resistance of potentiometer (R + ) is
1000 Q and the wiper is set so that R^ = 300 Q,
calculate the value of output voltage. Assume the
resistance, Rin to be infinity. [Ans. 1.5 V]
16. A resistive displacement transducer with a shaft
stroke of 50 mm is used in the circuit shown in
Fig. 25.182. The total resistance of potentiometer
R^ + R, =400Q and the input voltage is 4 V. The
wiper is 37.5 mm from B (fl). What is the value of
Ro ? (b) What is the value of output voltage ? Assume
the value of Rm to be infinity. [Ans. 300 Q, 3 V]
17. In a resistive potentiometer the maximum
percentage error is 15 Rf) / Rm where R? and RWiare
respectively the resistance of potentiometer the
load respectively. A position measurement may
have a maximum non-linearity of 0.5 percent when
driving a load of 10 kQ resistance. Find out the
maximum value of resistance of potentiometer.
[Ans. 333 Q]
18. A resistive potentiometer is rated as 200 Q, 1 W
(derate at 10 mW/°C above 60°C) 30°C/W thermal
resistance. It is used with 10 V supply at 70°C
ambient temperature. Calculate,
(i) the power dissipated by potentiometer
(ii) actual temperature of potentiometer
(iii) power dissipation allowed.
Can the potentiometer be used safely under the
above conditions ?
[Ans. 500 mW, 85°C, 750 mW, yes]
19. Find the strain that results from a tensile force of
1000 N applied to a 10 m long aluminium bar
having cross-sectional area of 4 xlO-4 m~. The
2
modulus of elasticity of aluminium is 69 GN/m“.
[Ans. 38.23 microstrain]
20. A resistance wire strain gauge having a nominal
resistance of 350 Q is subjected to a strain of
500 microstrain. Find the change in the value of
resistance neglecting the piezo-resistive effect.
[Ans. 0.35 Q]
21. Compare the resistance change produced by a
strain of 150 microstrain if a strain gauge of
nominal resistance of 120 Q is used (z) when made
of wire resistance having a gauge factor of 2.13 and
(iz) when made of a semiconducting material
having a gauge factor of 151.
[Ans. (z) 0.03834 Q, (zi) 2.718 Q]
22. A strain gauge has a gauge factor of 4. If the strain
gauge is attached to a metal bar that stretches from
0.25 m to 0.255 m when strained, what is the
percentage change in resistance ? If the unstrained
value of gauge is 120 Q, what is the resistance
value of gauge after application of strain ?
[Ans. 8%, 129.6 Q]
23. A metallic strain gauge has a resistance of 120 Q
and a gauge factor of 2. It is installed on an
aluminium structure which has a yield point stress
of 0.2 GN/m and Young's modulus of 68.7 GN/m2,
determine the change in resistance of the gauge
that would be caused by loading the material to
yield point. [Ans. 0.7 Q]
24. A semiconductor gauge having a resistance of
1000 Q and a gauge factor of -133 is subjected to a
compressive strain of 500 microstrain. Calculate
the new value of resistance of the gauge.
[Ans. 1066.5 Q]
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers
25. A strain gauge having a gauge factor of 4 is used
for testing a machine. If the gauge resistance is
10 Q, and the strain is 20 x 10~6, how much will the
resistance of strain gauge change ?
[Ans. 8 xlO'3Q]
26. A strain gauge has a resistance of 120 Q unstrained
and the gauge factor is - 12. What is the resistance
value if the strain is 1%. [Ans. 105.6 Q]
27. A strain gauge with a gauge factor of 4 has a
resistance of 500 Q. It is to be used in a test in which
the strain to be measured may be as low as 5 x 10-6.
What will the change in resistance of gauge be ?
[Ans. 10 xlO-3Q]
28. A strain gauge is bonded to a steel beam 0.25 m
long and has a cross-sectional area of 0.4 x 10~3m2.
Young's modulus of elasticity for steel is
207 GN/m". The strain gauge has a unstrained
resistance of 240Q and a gauge factor of 2.20. When
the load is applied, the gauge's resistance changes
by 0.013 Q. Calculate the change in length of the
steel beam and the amount of force applied to the
beam. [Ans. 2.46 x 10~ 6 m, 2.037 x 103 N]
29. A platinum resistance thermometer has a
resistance of 150 Q at 0°C. What is the resistance
when the temperature is 200°C ? When the
thermometer has a resistance of 400 Q, what is the
value of the temperature ? The resistance
temperature co-efficient of plantinum is 0.0039/°C.
[Ans. 170.25 Q, 427°C]
30. The following table gives the variation of
resistance with temperature for a RTD.
Temperature °C Resistence Q
15 106.06
18 167.14
21 108.22
24 109.3
26.5 110.38
29.5 111.46
33 112.75
Find the linear and quadratic approximation of the
above resistance temperature curve for tempe­
rature variations between 15°C and 33°C about a
mean temperature of 24°C.
[Ans.Rg = 109.3 [1 + 3.41 x 10’3 (9-24)],
Rq = 109.3 [1 + 3.55 x 10- 9 (0 - 24.3)
-0.66 x 10'6 (0 -24)2]]
31. The resistance temperature relationship for a
thermistor is given by :
Rp2= RriexpP(l/T2-l/T1)
If the value of 0 is 4000 °K and the resistance of
thermistor is 200 kQ at - 100°C, find the value of
resistance at 400°C. Find the ratio of two resis­
tances. Find the ratio of two resistances for
platinum over the same temperature range.
Platinum has a resistance temperature co-efficient
of 0.0039/°C. [Ans. 6.93 x 103Q, 28.8 xlO6, 2.95]
32. A thermistor may be assumed to have a linear
temperature resistance over a limited temperature
range. The variation resistance is - 05°C rise of
temperature. The thermistor has a resistance of
1000Q at 20°C. Calculate the value of its resistance
at 25°C. Supposing this thermistor is used in series
with a copper coil, what is the value of the
resistance of copper coil if the resistance at 20°C
and 25°C is the same for the series connected
circuit comprising of coil and the thermistor ? The
resistance temperature co-efficient of copper may
be assumed as 0.004°C. [Ans. 750 Q, 12.5 kQ]
33. An LVDT has an output of 6 V rms when the
displacement is 0.4 x 10 3 mm. Determine the
sensitivity of this instrument in V/mm. A 10 V
voltmeter with 100 scale divisions is used to read
the output. Two-tenths of a division can be
estimated with ease. Determine the resolution of
the voltmeter.
The above arrangement is used in a pressure trans­
ducer for measuring the deflection of a diaphragm.
The diaphragm is deflected through 0.5 x 10“3 mm
2
by a pressure of 1000 N/m . Determine the
sensitivity and resolution of this instrument.
[Ans. 15000 V/rmn, 0.02 V,
7.5 m V/N-m , 2.67 Nm]
34. An LVDT with a secondary voltage of 5 V has a
range of ± 25 mm.
(fl) Find the output voltage when the core is
- 18.75 mm for the centre
(b) Plot the output voltage versus core position for
a core movement going from + 18.75 mm to
- 10 mm.
[Ans. (a) — 3.75 V (b) 3.75 V to — 2 V linearly]
35. An LVDT with a secondary voltage of 5 V has a
range of ± 25 mm.
(a) Find the core movement from centre if the
output voltage is - 3 V
(b) Plot the core positions versus output voltages
varying from + 3 V to - 4.5 V.
[Ans. (fl) - 15 mm (b) 15 mm to - 22.5 mm linearly]
 864 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
36. A parallel plate capacitive transducer has plates of
600 mm2 area which are separated by air by a
distance of 0.2 mm. The resistance of the
transducer is 20 x 106 Q. Calculate the time
constant of the transducer and find the attenuation
of the output at 1000 Hz. The permittivity of air is
8.85 x 10~12 F/m. [Ans. 0.531 ms, 4.2~2]
37. Two plates of parallel plate capacitive transducer
are 30 mm apart and the space is filled with two
different dielectric materials, one material is 1 cm
thick with a dielectric constant of 5 and the other
material is 20 mm thick with a dielectric constant
10. If the capacitive transducer were to be made up
of a single dielectric material ? What is the
dielectric constant of that material ? [Ans. 7.5]
38. A parallel plate capacitive transducer uses air as
the dielectric medium for measurement of
displacement as shown in Fig. 25.114. The plates
are 300 mm in area and are separated by a
distance of 1.25 mm. Find the time constant an 1
series resistance if the output is attenuated by 5%
by a frequency of 30 Hz. The permittivity of air is
8.85 x 10‘12 F/m. [Ans. 16.1 ms, 7580 MQ]
39. In a variable capacitance transducer the
diaphragms are 20 mm in diameter and 4 mm
apart. If a pressure produces an average deflection
of 0.25 mm, calculate the value of capacitance after
the application of force. The capacitance before
application of force is 400 pF. [Ans. 427 pF]
40. A displacement capacitive transducer uses a
differential arrangement with two outer plates
which are fixed and a central plate which is
movable. The distance between fixed and movable
plates is 5 mm when no displacement is applied. A
voltage of 1000 V rms is applied across the fixed
plates. Find the differential output voltage if a
displacement of 0.01 mm is applied to the central
plate. Find also the sensitivity of the transducer:
[Ans. 2 V ; 200 V/mm]
41. For vibration measurement a d.c. voltage of 90 V is
applied across the series combination of a parallel
plate air capacitor and a C.R.O. The parallel plate
air capacitor has plates of 625 mm area displaced
by 0.25 mm. The oscilloscope may be considered as
a resistance of 10 MQ in parallel with a capacitance
of 10 pF. The sensitivity of the oscilloscope is
1 mV/cm. Determine the displacement sensitivity
and the frequency for which a flat response within
5% can be obtained. [Ans. 3.6 x 106 ; 22 kHz]
42. Air exhibits a breakdown strength of about
3 kV/mm. What limitation does this impose on the
ultimate sensitivity of a variable displacement
capacitive transducer ?
43. The voltage sensitivity for barium titanate is
12 x 10’2 Vm I N Vm/N while that of quartz is
50 x 10-2 Vm / N. The permittivity of barium
titanate is 12.5 x 10~9 F/m and that of quartz is
40.6 x 10-12 F/m. Calculate the charge sensiti­
vities and their ratio. If the thickness of crystal in
each case is 2.5 mm, calculate the sensitivities in
each case and their ratio.
[Ans. 150 p C/N, 2 pC/N, 75 ; 30 x 10“6 V/N-m"2,
125 x 10’6 V/N-m’2, 0.24]
44. A quartz crystal h$s the dimensions of
2 mm x2mm xlmm. Quartz has the following
properties charge sensitivity =21 C/N. Young's
modulus = 8.6 x 1010 N/m2.
Permittivity = 40.6 x 10“12 F/m.
Calculate the value of force, charge and voltage if
the crystal is subjected to a strain of
10 x 10-6 m / m. [Ans. 34 N, 6.88 pC, 43 V]
45. A barium titanate crystal has dimensions of
5 mm x 5 mm x 1.5 mm. The Young's modulus of
barium titanate is 12xlO6N/m2, its charge
sensitivity is 150 pC/N and permittivity
12.5 x 10-9 F/m. A capacitance of 10 pF in parallel
with 100 MQ resistance is connected across the
crystal. Calculate the rms value of voltage under
open circuit and load conditions when a force of
0.0142 sin 100 t newton is applied to the crystal.
Calculate the rms value of deflection. The
resistance of the crystal may be neglected.
[Ans. 72 mV, 62.4 mV, 0.05 mm]
46. A flat frequency response within 10% is required
from a piezo-electric crystal. Find the value of
minimum frequency for which it can be used if the
time constant is 2 ms. Find also the phase shift.
[Ans. 164 Hz, 26°]
47. A piezo electric transducer has an input
Xj = At 0 < t < T, Xj = 0 T < t < co.
Solve the differential equation to find the value of
output voltage. For -t = T, find the error.
Calculate this error by using the following
approximation.
T KTV
exp - T / t = 1---- 4— — 4- ...
T 2VTJ
Explain the error as a percentage of the ideal value
of output voltage. What must be the value of TI r
if the error is to be 5 percent ? For this value of
T/t evaluate the error caused by truncating the
series.
48. The hot junction of a chromel alumel thermocouple
is connected to a potentiometer terminals are at
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 865

24°C. The potentiometer whose terminals are at 51. The emf of an iron constantan thermocouple is to
24°C reads 25.76 mV. What is the temperature of be measured by the potentiometer shown in Fig.
the thermocouple junction ? 25.80. A potential difference of 1.0186 V is applied
The calibration chart of the thermocouple is : over points A and B and is standardized using a
Weston cell. The current through the resistor is to
Temperature °C Voltage, mV be 2 mA, and the range of temperature
20 0.8 measurement is to be from 250°C to 850°C.
24 0.95 Calculate the value of resistances Rv R2 and R$, for
28 1.12 an ambient temperature of 20°C. The emf of the
iron constantan couple with reference junction at
0°C is 1.019 mV at 20°, 13.553 mV at 250°C and
480 26.25
48.716 mV at 850°C.
488 26.72
[Ans. 1?! = 6.27 Q, R2 = 485.5 Q, Rs = 17.58 Q]
493 26.04
52. A germanium crystal having dimensions of
[Ans. 488°C] 5x5x2 mm is used for measurement of flux
49. A thermopile arrangement of the copper density. Hall effect co-efficient is
- 8 x 10~13 V - m / A Wb m-2. If the current
constantan thermocouple consists of three junction 2
pairs and has the reference junction at 200°C. If the density in the crystal is 0.3 A/mm and the voltage
output voltage is 3.3 mV, determine the tempe­ developed is - 0.36 V, find the value of flux
density. [Ans. 0.012 Wb/m2]
rature of the detecting junction.
The calibration chart for a thermocouple junction 53. The circuit of Fig. 25.144(a) uses a supply voltage of
is : 20 V d.c. A current of 5 mA flows when the cell is
2
illuminated with 400 lm/m and de-energized
Temperature °C Voltage, mV when the cell is dark. Find (a) the value of R1 and
(b) dark current. The characteristics of the
photocell are shown in Fig. 25.144(b).
[Ans. (fl) 3 kfi (b) 0.194 mA]

100 54. The circuit of a photodiode is shown in Fig. 25.149

4.22
and its characteristics curves with load line are
200 9.23
shown in Fig. 25.148. At an illumination level of
250 11.95 5000 lm/m2, find

[Ans. 171.95°C] (a) the diode current

50. A PMMC instrument has a resistance of 5 Q and is (b) voltage drop across resistance Rj and
calibrated to read correctly when the resistance of (c) diode voltage drop.
the external circuit is 2 Q. Calculate the percentage [Ans. (fl) 0.9 mA, (b) 0.18 V, (c) 0.32 V]
error if the resistance of the circuit is changed to 55. The circuit and characteristic curves of a photo­
4 Q. What would have been the error if the PMMC transistor are shown in Fig. 25.155. At an illumi­
instrument had a resistance of 500 fl ? nation level of 300 W/m2, find (fl) VCE, (b) VRL (c) Zc.
[Ans. 22.2%. 0.397%] [Ans. (fl) 8.5 V (b) 11.5 V (c) 5.6 mA]

M ------------- --------------------- - ---------------------- —................................ ........... ........................................................

Objective Type Questions

Tick (\) the most appropriate answer : 2. An Inverse transducer converts

1. A transducer converts (a) electrical energy to any other form of energy

(fl) mechanical energy into electrical energy (b) electrical energy to light energy

(b) mechanical displacement into electrical signal (c) mechanical displacement into electrical signal

(c) one form of energy into another form of energy (d) electrical energy to mechanical form.

(d) electrical energy into mechanical form.

 866 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

3. One of the following can act as an Inverse (b) only the output characteristics should be
transducer considered
(a) electrical resistance potentiometer (c) only the transfer characteristics should be
(b) L.V.D.T. considered
(c) capacitive transducer (d) input, output and transfer characteristics
(d) piezo electric crystals. should be considered.
12. A cantilever is used as a primary sensing element
4. One of the following is an active transducer
for measurement of force. The measured deflection
(a) strain gauge (b) selsyn
0.5 mm for a particular set up. Suppose each of
(c) photovoltaic cell (d) photo-emissive cell. the dimensions i.e., length, width and thickness of
5. A strip chart recorder is the cantilever of the cantilever are doubled with the
(a) an active transducer (b) an inverse transducer force and material of cantilever remaining the
(c) an output transducer (d) (b) and (c). same, the deflection is

6. In a transducer, the experimentally obtained (a) 1 mm (b) 2 mm

transfer function is different from the theoretical (c) 0.251 mm (d) 0.125 mm.
transfer function, the errors result from this 13. A closed coil spring has a stiffness of 20 x 10 6
difference are called N/m. Suppose the diameter of the wire is doubled,
(a) Zero errors (b) Sensitivity errors its outer diameter is made two times and its
(c) Non-conformity errors number of turns are made 2 times, the stiffness of
(d) Dynamic errors. the new spring will be
7. In a transducer, the observed output deviates from (a) 20 x 10-6 N/m (b) 80 x 10-6 N/m
the correct value by a constant factor the resulting (c) 10 x 10“6 N/m (d) 160 x W6 N/m.
error is called 14. A diaphragm has a natural frequency of 30 kHz. If
(fl) Zero Error (b) Sensitivity Error both its diameter and thickness are halved, the
(c) Non-conformity Error natural frequency is
(d) Hysteresis Error. (a) 15 kHz (b) 240 kHz
8. A transducer has an output impedance of 1 kfl and (c) 60 kHz (d) 120 kHz.
the load resistance is 1 MQ, the transducer behaves 15. A pressure of 256 kN/m2acting on a diaphragm
as produces a deflection of 0.2 mm at the centre. What
(fl) a constant current source pressure would produce the same deflection if the
(b) a constant voltage source diameter is 2 times the earlier one and the
1
(c) a constant power source thickness is — of the earlier one
2
(d) none of the above.
(a) 2 kN/m2 (b) 128 kN/m2
9. If a transducer has an output impedance of 1Q and
(c) 64 kN/m2 (d) 0.5 kN/m2.
a load resistance of 1 kfl, it behaves as
16. A pressure applied to a bellows element produces
(fl) a constant current source
a linear displacement of 2 mm. Suppose the
(b) a constant voltage source
number of bellows elements is made 3 times and
(c) a constant impedance source thickness of the bellows element is halved, what
(d) none of the above. would be the displacement of the element for the
10. The lower limit of useful working range of a same applied pressure ?
transducer is determined by (fl) 24 mm (b) 12 mm
(fl) minimum useful input level (c) 48 mm (d) 3 mm.
(b) by transducer error and noise 17. A torsion bar of 30 mm diameter produces a twist
(c) cross sensitivity of 1 minute when torque of 200 Nm is applied.
(d) dynamic response. Supposing the diameter of the torsion bar is
11. While selecting a transducer for a particular reduced to 15 mm, what would be the angle of
application twist for the same torque ?
(fl) only the input characteristics should be consid­ (fl) 4 minute (b) 8 minute
ered (c) 2 minute (d) 0.125 minute.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 86/

18. A Reynold's number of 1000 indicates meter (3000 of movement full scale) with a total of
(a) turbulent flow (b) laminar flow 5000 turns of wire. Its resolution is
(c) a flow which can either be turbulent or laminar (a) 0.1 mm (b) 0.2 mm
(J) none of the above. (c) 0.01 mm (rf) 0.02 mm.
19. In a venturi meter the flow is 0.15 m /s when the 27. In wire wound strain gauges, the change in
2
differential pressure is 30 kN/m . What is the value resistance on application of strain is mainly due to
* 9
of flow when the differential pressure is 60 kN/m . (a) change in length of wire
(a) 0.212 m3/s (b) 0.106 m3/s (b) change in diameter of wire
(c) 0.3 m3/s (rf) 0.075 m3/s. (c) change in both length and diameter of wire
20. Pitot tubes are useful (rf) change in resistivity.
(fl) for industrial applications 28. Unbonded strain gauges are
(b) for laboratory experimental purposes (a) exclusively used for transducer applications
(c) for both industrial and laboratory applications (b) exclusively used for stress analysis
(rf) none of the above. (c) commonly used for both transducer applica­
21. Water is flowing with a depth of 0.9 m over a tions as well as for stress analysis
rectangular notch 1.2 m wide. Find the depth of (rf) none of the above.
flow over a right angled notch if the same were to 29. The gauge factor is defined as
pass over it. Assume that both the notches have the Z.AL/L
same co-efficient of discharge (a)--------- (b)---------
V AR/R AL/ L
(a) 0.91 n (b) 1.1 m ,'AR/R
(c)--------- («)----- 7~
(c) 2.2 m (rf) 0.45 m. AD/D Ap/p
22. A resistance potentiometer is a where L, D, p and R are respectively the length,
(fl) first order instrument diameter, resistivity and resistance of strain gauge.
(b) zero order instrument 30. For wire wound strain gauges the approximate
(c) second order instrument value of gauge factor is
(rf) none of the above. (fl)l+2Ap/p (b)l+2AR/R
23. In a resistance potentiometer, the non-linearity (c)l+2v (rf)l+2AD/D.
(a) increases with increase of load to potentiom­ where p, R, v and D are respectively resistivity,
eter resistance resistance, poisson's ratio and diameter.
(b) decreases with increase of load to potentiom­ 31. Metal foil type of strain gauges are superior to wire
eter resistance wound metal strain gauges because
(c) is not dependent upon load to potentiometer (fl) they have a higher heat dissipation capacity
resistance (b) they have a larger surface area which makes
(rf) none of the above. the bonding easier
24. In a resistance potentiometer high value of (c) they can be fabricated economically using tech­
resistance of POT leads to niques which are similar to those used for fabri­
(a) high value of sensitivity cation of microelectronic circuitry
(rf) all the above.
(b) low value of sensitivity
32. Metal foil gauges use fat end turns in order to
(c) low value of non-linearity
(fl) reduce transverse sensitivity
(rf) low value of error.
(b) reduce longitudinal sensitivity
25. A 100 Q resistive potentiometer is used with an
input supply voltage of 10 V. The temperature of (c) reduce cross sensitivity
the POT is of the thermal resistance 30°C/W and (rf) all the above.
the ambient temperature is 40°C 33. In semi-conductor strain gauges, the change in
(a) 60°C (b) 80°C resistance on application of strain
(c) 70°C (rf) 100°C. (fl) is much higher than that in the case of metal
26. A helipot is used for measurement of linear strain gauges and this is mainly due to change
displacement of 0.1 m. It uses a 10 turn potentio­ in dimensions
 868 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

(b) is much higher than that in the case of metal 39. A thermistor exhibits
strain gauges and this is mainly due to change (a) only a negative change of resistance with
in resistivity increase in temperature
(c) is lower than that in the case of metal strain (fe) only a positive change of resistance with
gauges increase in temperature
(d) none of the above. (c) can exhibit either a negative or positive change
34. In semi-conductor strain gauges, when tensile of resistance with increase of temperature
strain is applied depending upon the type of material used
(a) resistance increases in N-type of materials (d) none of the above.
(b) resistance increases in P-type of materials 40. The resistance value of a thermistor is 5000 Q at
(c) resistance increases in both P and N type mate­ 25°C and its resistance temperature co-efficient is
rials 0.04/°C. A measurement with a lead resistance of
(d) resistance decreases in both P and N type mate­ 10 Q will cause an error of
rials. (a) 0.02°C (fe) 0.05°C
35. The RTDs use the principle of change of resistance (c) 0.1°C (d) none of the above.
with temperature. The properties of a conductor 41. The temperature transducers exhibit non-linear
material to be used as an element of an RTD should
behaviour. The order in which they exhibit
possess the following properties
non-linearity (highest to lowest) is
(a) the change in resistance per unit change in
(a) Thermocouples, RTDs. thermistors
temperature should be as small as possible
(fe) Thermistors, thermocouples, RTDs
(b) the resistance of the materials should not have
a continuous and stable relationship with (c) RTDs, thermocouples, thermistors
temperature (d) Thermistors, RTDs, thermocouples.
(c) the change of resistance with temperature 42. Three types of temperature transducers are
should not be a linear function compared as regards their sensitivity. The order in
(d) none of the above. which they exhibit their sensitivities (highest to
lowest) is
36. Platinum is the commonly used metal for RTDs.
This is because (a) Thermistors, RTDs, thermocouples
(a) platinum has a constant value of resistance (fe) Thermocouples. RTDs, thermistors
temperature co-efficient of 0.004°C for a (c) TDs, thermistors, thermocouples
temperature range between 0 to 100°C (d) RTDs, thermocouples, thermistors.
(b) the resistivity of platinum tends to increase less 43. Thermocouples are
rapidly at higher temperatures (fl) passive transducers
(c) platinum is available in pure form for commer­ (fe) active transducers
cial applications and has a stability over higher
(c) both active and passive transducers
ranges of temperature
(d) output transducers.
(d) all the above.
44. Thermocouples
37. The resistance of a thermometer is 5 Q at 30°C and
(fl) are most commonly used temperature trans­
6.5 Q at 60°C. Using linear approximation, the
ducers
value of resistance temperature co-efficient at 45°C
(fe) require reference junction compensation
(a) 0.009/°C (fe) 0.0087/°C
(c) have a low output voltage level
(c) 0.0085/°C (d) 0.01/°C.
(d) all the above.
38. The sensitivity of thermistors as compared with
sensitivity of platinum resistance temperature 45. A thermocouple produces a voltage of 50 mV. Its
detector over a temperature range of -100°C to internal resistance is 50 Q. The resistance of its
leads is 10 Q. Its output is read by a PMMC meter
400°C to changes in temperature is
having an internal resistance of 120 Q. The output
(a) 100 times (fe) 106 times
voltage indicated is
(c) 107 times
(fl) 33.3 mV (fe) 25 mV
(d) 10° times.
(c) 40 mV (d) 10 mV.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 869

46. Air cored Inductive transducers are suitable for 53. An L.V.D.T.
use
(fl) exhibits linear characteristics upto a displace­
(a) at lower frequencies ment of ± 5 mm
(b) at higher frequencies (b) has a linearity of 0.05%
(c) at equal frequencies (c) has an infinite resolution and a high sensitivity
(d) as are employed for iron cored transducers. which is of the order of 40 V/mm
47. The size of air cored transducers as compared with (d) all the above.
their iron cored counterparts is 54. An L.V.D.T.
(a) smaller (b) bigger (fl) has very good frequency response as the mass
(cj same (d) all the above. of the core to which the input signal is applied
48. An iron cored transducer is exited with a is fairly large
frequency of 20 kHz. The maximum value of (b) is immune to stray magnetic fields
frequency of displacement to be measured with (c) has a zero voltage at the null point even if the
this transducer should not exceed supply voltage contains and harmonics and
(fl) 0.5 kHz (b) 1 kHz even if the two secondary windings are not
(c) 1.5 kHz (d) 2 kHz. exactly similar and even asymmetrically placed
with respect to primary winding
49. Inductive transducers are used in differential con­
(d) none of the above.
figuration because the output is not influenced by
55. There are two modes in which synchro transmitter
(a) external magnetic fields
-transmitter pairs are used i.e., (z) error detection
(b) temperature changes
mode (z'z) torque transmission mode. The torque in
(c) variations of supply voltage and frequency the torque transmission mode
(d) all the above. (fl) is greater than that in the error transmission
50. Two inductive transducers working on the mode
principle of change of self inductance L, are con­ (b) is smaller than that in the error transmission made
nected in a push pull arrangement. If the change of (c) the torque is the same in both the modes
inductance of transducers is AL the change of
(d) none of the above.
inductance exhibited at the output terminals is
56. The rotor of a synchro-transmitter
(fl) AL (b) 2AL
(zz) uses a salient pole type of construction
(c)±2AL (d) zero.
(b) uses a cylindrical pole type of construction
51. In an L.V.D.T., the two secondary windings are
(c) may use either salient pole or cylindrical type
connected in differential to obtain
of construction
(fl) higher output voltage
(d) none of the above.
(b) an output voltage which is phase sensitive i.e.,
the output voltage has a phase which can lead 57. The electrical zero of synchro-transmitter is when
the voltage induced
us to a conclusion whether the displacement of
the core took place from right to left or from left (zz) in coil Sr of stator is maximum
to right (b) in coil S3, of stator is maximum
(c) in order to establish the null or the reference (c) in coil S2, of stator is maximum
point for the displacement of the core (d) in coil S2, of stator is maximum and the voltage
(d) both (b) and (c). across terminals S3,S1 is zero.
52. In an L.V.D.T., the core is made up of a 58. The electrical zero of a synchro-transformer is
(fl) non-magnetic material (fl) displaced by an angle 180° from the zero of a
(b) a solid ferro-electric material synchro-transmitter
(c) high permeability, nickel-iron hydrogen annealed (b) displaced by an angle 90° from the zero of a
material in order to produce low harmonics, synchro-transmitter
low null voltage, and high sensitivity. The core (c) displaced by an angle 0° from the zero of the
is slotted to reduce eddy current losses transmitter
(d) all the above. (d) none of the above.
 8 70
59. In a synchro-transmitter, the voltages induced in
the three windings of the stator are
(a) displaced 120° in time phase
(b) are in time phase with each other
(c) displaced 90° in time phase
(d) none of the above.
60. When a synchro-transmitter synchro control
transformer pair is used as an error detector the
output voltage obtained from the rotor terminals of
the synchro-transformer is
(a) sinusoidal
(b) suppressed carrier modulated
(c) half wave rectified
(J) none of the above.
61. The rotor of a synchro-transformer is made
cylindrical in construction
(fl) in order that air gap remains uniform
(b) there is no change of reactance of the rotor
winding with change of rotor position
(c) there should not be any change in the rotor
winding impedance with position of rotor since
the rotor winding is connected to an amplifier
(tf) all the above.
62. A synchro-transmitter transformer pair is used as
error detector. The sensitivity of the pair is
100 V/rad. The rotor of the transformer turns through
an angle of 0.5 rad while the transformer rotor
turns through an angle of 0.45 rad. The value of
error signal representing the two shaft positions is:
(a) 5V (b) 99.5 V (c) 90 V (d) 10 V.
63. How many windings does a simple resolver have ?
(a) one stator and two rotor windings
(b) one rotor and two stator windings
(c) two stator and two rotor windings
(d) a one stator and one rotor winding.
64. In Fig. 25.102, a simple resolver is shown. The
stator windings are excited with voltages £S1_3 and
ES24‘ Find the voltages across rotor windings £R_13
and £R2^when an angle 0
(«) Eri-3 ~ ^si-3 si11® + ES2-4COS®
£r2-4 - ^si-3 s* 11® ~ £$2-4COS$
(^) Eri-3 = ^si-3 cos® ~ES2 4sinO
ER2-4 = £$i-3 cos$ + ES2 4 sin 0
(c) Era 3 = £^ 3 cos© + ES2 4sin0
£r2-4 £$i cos 0 Es 24 sin 0
(d) Era3 = £^ 3 cos0 + £<., 4sin0
E^2-4 = £$1-3 cos 6 + £St 4sin0.
Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
65. Capacitive transducers are normally used for
(a) static measurements
(b) dynamic measurements
(c) both static and dynamic measurements
(J) transient measurements.
66. The dynamic characteristics of capacitive trans­
ducers are similar to those of
(fl) low pass filters (b) high pass filters
(c) notch filters (d) band stop filters.
67. A capacitive transducer working on the principle
of change of capacitance with change of displace­
ment, exhibits non-linear characterics. The response
of these transducers can be made linear by using
(fl) differential arrangement
(b) use of an OPAMP
(c) working them over a small displacement range
(d) all the above.
68. Capacitive transducers can be used for
measurement of liquid level. The principle of
operation used in this case is
(a) change of capacitance with change of distance
between plates
(b) change of area of plates
(c) change of dielectric strength
(J) none of the above.
69. What is the order of minimum displacement that
can be measured with capacitive transducers ?
(a) 1 cm (b) 1 mm
(c) 1 pm (d) 1 x ICT12 m.
70. The capacitive transducers have a high output
impedance and therefore,
(a) to reduce loading effects long lengths of cable
should be used
(b) to increase the value of resonant frequency
long lengths of cables should be used
(c) long cable lengths should be used in conjunc­
tion with capacitive transducers in order to
improve their frequency response
(d) none of the above.
71. The voltage sensitivities of Barium titanate and
quartz are respectively 12 x IO-3 Vm/N and
50 x IO-3 Vm/N. Their respective permittivities are
12.5 x IO-9 F/m and 40.6 x IO-12 F/m. What are their
charge sensitivities ?
(fl) 1.04 xlO6C/N, 1.23 x109C/N
(b) 150 pC/N, 2 pC/N
(c) 20 pC/N, 50 pC/N
(d) none of the above.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 871

72. Ceramic materials are used for piezo-electric 79. Tuned magneto-elastic transducers can be used for
transducers generation of
(a) they are polycrystalline in nature (a) radio waves (b) electric current
(b) they are basically made of barium titanate (c) ultrasound waves (d) all the above.
(c) they do not have piezo-electric properties in 80. A Hall effect transducer can be used for
their original state but these properties are measurement of
produced by special polarizing treatment (fl) power (b) current
(d) all the above. (c) displacement (d) all the above.
73. Quartz and Rochelle salt belong to 81. A Hall effect transducer is used for measurement
(a) natural group of piezo-electric materials of a magnetic field of 1.5 Wb/m with a copper
(b) synthetic group of piezo-electric materials transducer for which the Hall effect co-efficient is
-52 x 10-12 V-m / A-Wb m~2. The thickness of
(c) can belong to natural or synthetic group of
piezo-electric materials provided properly the element is 2 mm and the current passing is 5 A,
polarized find the voltage generated

(d) all the above. (fl)-0.195 pV (b) 0.195 pV

(c) -390 mV (d) -390 x 10'9 V.
74. Piezo-electric transducers are
(fl) passive transducers (b) active transducers 82. A photo-voltaic cell is connected across a very
large value of resistance, its sensitivity at higher
(c) inverse transducers (d) (b) and (c).
illumination levels is typical
75. A barium titanate crystal has a thickness of 2 mm. (a) infinity (b) zero
Its voltage sensitivity is 12 x 10-3 Vm/N. It is
subjected to a pressure of U.5 MN/m2. Calculate the (c) some finite value which is very large

voltage generated (d) some finite value which is very small and nears
zero.
(fl) 3 V (b) 6 V
83. Which of the following photo-electric devices is
(c) 12 V (d) 5 V.
most suitable for digital applications ?
76. A pieze-electrical transducer has an output voltage
(fl) photo-emissive cell (b) photo-diode
of 3 V at no load conditions. It has a capacitance
(c) photo-transistor (d) photo-voltaic cell.
250 pF. It is connected to load capacitance of
125 pF. Find the voltage across the load at high 84. Which of the photo-electric transducers is used for
frequencies. production of electric energy by converting solar
energy
(a) IV (b) 2 V
(fl) photo-emissive cell (b) photo-diode
(c) 9 V
(c) photo-transistor (d) (b) and (c)-
(d) cannot be determined with the data given.
85. Which of the following optical transducers is an
77. Magneto-elastic transducers work on the principle of
active transducer ?
(a) change of dimensions with change of applied
(fl) photo-emissive cell (b) photo-diode
stress
(c) photo-transistor (d) photo-voltaic cell.
(b) change of permeability with change in stress
(c) change of co-ercive force with change of stress 86. A cadmium sulphide cell has the highest response
for a light of wavelength of nearly
(d) none of the above.
(fl) 300 nm (b) 800 nm
78. Magnetostriction is the effect produced when a
(c) 500 nm (d) 600 nm.
magnetic material is subjected to change of
magnetization 87. A photo-diode functions as
(a) the change of magnetization results in change (fl) photo-conductive device while working with
of permeability reverse voltage
(b) the change in magnetization results in change (b) photo-voltaic device while working without a
of dimensions reverse voltage
(c) the change in magnetization results in change (c) photo-voltaic devices while working with or
in temperature without reverse voltage
(d) none of the above. (d) none of the above.
 872 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

88. A photo-conductive cell is useful for (7 three outputs

(fl) high frequency applications (d) all the above.
(b) medium frequency applications 95. A tachometer encoder can be used for
(c) low frequency applications measurement of displacement
(d) all the above. (fl) in both the directions
89. The photo-diode as compared to a photo-transistor (b) in one direction only
has (7 its output pulses are counted only for the
(a) faster switching time (b) lower sensitivity forward direction
(c) higher size for the same value of output current (d) its output pulses are counted for only the
(J) all the above. reverse direction.
90. For measurement of temperature 96. Incremental counters use
(fl) only intensity type fibre optic transducers can (fl) one channel (b) two channels
be used (7 two channels and sometimes three
(b) only interferometric type Jibre-optic trans­ (d) none of the above.
ducers can be used
97. Absolute Encoders are used for
(c) both intrinsic and interferometric type of trans­
(fl) normally one revolution
ducers can be used
(b) continuous speed
(d) none of the above.
(c) continuous speed in both the directions
91. When measuring sound level-with a inter­
ferometric type transducer (d) none of the above.
(fl) a laser beam is used with a beam splitter 98. Moire Fringes are used for measurement of rotary
(b) measured variable causes a phase shift in the displacement along with
light propagating through optic fibre (fl) only contact type encoders
(7 the phase shift is a measure of sound level (b) only optical encoders
(d) all the above. (7 both contact type and optical encoders
92. While measuring liquid level with fibre optic (d) none of the above.
transducers, the fibre rod or cable is cut in the form 99. The resolution of a 8 bit shift encoder is
of (fl) 360727 (b) 360729
(fl) sphere (b) rectangle (c) 360728 (d) none of the above.
(7 prism (d) none of the above.
100. Absolute encoders are used where
93. A linear displacement transducer (digital)
(fl) fast varying signals are not used
normally uses
(b) when position data is to be recovered even alter
(fl) straight binary code (b) BCD
a temporary power out age
(7 Gray code (d) Hexadecimal code.
(7 transient noise can be tolerated as it causes only
94. A tachometer encoder has a transient disturbance
(fl) one output (b) two outputs (d) all the above.

1. (7 2. (a) 3. (d) 4- (7 5. (d) 6. (7 7. (b) 8. (b) 9- (7 10. (b)

11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (fl) 14. (7 15. (fl) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (b) 19. (7 20. (b)
21. (b) 22. (b) 23. (b) 24. (a) 25. (c) 26. (d) 27. (c) 28. (fl) 29. (b) 30. (7
31. (d) 32. (a) 33. (b) 34. (b) 35. (d) 36. (d) 37. (b) 38. (b) 39. (7 40. (b)
41- (b) 42. (fl) 43. (b) 44. (d) 45. (a) 46. (b) 47. (b) 48. (d) 49. (7 50. (c)
51- (d) 52. (c) 53. (d) 54. (d) 55. (b) 56. (fl) 57. (d) 58. (b) 59. (b) 60. (b)
61. (d) 62. (fl) 63. (7 64. (7 65. (b) 66. (b) 67. (d) 68. (7 69. (7 70. (d)
71. (b) 72. (d) 73. (fl) 74. (d) 75. (c) 76. (b) 77. (b) 78. (b) 79. (7 80. (d)
81. (a) 82. (d) 83. (d) 84. (d) 85. (d) 86. (7 87. (a) 89. (d) 90. (7
88. (7
91. (d) 92. (c) 93. (7 94. (fl) 95. (b) 96. (7 97. (fl) 98. (b) 99. (7 100. (d)