Kayak

A kayak is a small, narrow watercraft which is

typically propelled by means of a double-bladed
paddle. The word kayak originates from the
Greenlandic word qajaq (IPA: [qajɑq]).

The traditional kayak has a covered deck and one or

more cockpits, each seating one paddler. The cockpit is
sometimes covered by a spray deck that prevents the
entry of water from waves or spray, differentiating the
craft from a canoe. The spray deck makes it possible
for suitably skilled kayakers to roll the kayak: that is, to
capsize and right it without it filling with water or Whitewater kayaker at Great Falls, Virginia,
ejecting the paddler. United States

Some modern boats vary considerably from a

traditional design but still claim the title "kayak", for
instance in eliminating the cockpit by seating the
paddler on top of the boat ("sit-on-top" kayaks);
having inflated air chambers surrounding the boat;
replacing the single hull with twin hulls; and replacing
paddles with other human-powered propulsion
methods, such as foot-powered rotational propellers
and "flippers". Kayaks are also being sailed, as well as
propelled by means of small electric motors, and even
by outboard gasoline engines. Inuit seal hunter in a kayak, armed with a harpoon

The kayak was first used by the indigenous Aleut,

Inuit, Yupik and possibly Ainu[1] hunters in subarctic
regions of the world.

Contents
History
20th Century & Contemporary Kayaks
Interior 360 degree photosphere of a kayak at the
Design principles Smithsonian National Museum of the American
Displacement Indian. Click for an immersive 360 degree view (ht
Length tps://tools.wmflabs.org/panoviewer/#Kayak-interio
Rocker r-Smithsonian-NMAI.jpg)
Beam profile
Types of stability
Stability from body shape and skill level
Hull surface profile
 Seating position and contact points
Materials and construction
Modern design
Types
Recreational
Sea
Sit-on-top
Surf
Waveskis
Whitewater Kayaks are often used to get closer to marine
Playboat animals, such as sea otters
Creekboats and river-running kayaks
Squirt boats
Racing
Whitewater
Flatwater sprint
Slalom
Surfskis
Marathon
Specialty and hybrids
Inflatable
Folding
Pedal
Twin hull and outrigger Kayaking in the Upsala Glacier in Los Glaciares
National Park
Fishing
Military
See also
References
Bibliography
External links

History
Kayaks (Inuktitut: qajaq (ᖃᔭᖅ Inuktitut pronunciation:  [qaˈjaq]), Yup'ik: qayaq (from qai- "surface;
top"),[2] Aleut: Iqyax) were originally developed by the Inuit, Yup'ik, and Aleut.[3] They used the boats
to hunt on inland lakes, rivers and coastal waters of the Arctic Ocean, North Atlantic, Bering Sea and
North Pacific oceans. These first kayaks were constructed from stitched seal or other animal skins
stretched over a wood or whalebone-skeleton frame. (Western Alaskan Natives used wood whereas
the eastern Inuit used whalebone due to the treeless landscape). Kayaks are believed to be at least
4,000 years old.[4] The oldest kayaks remaining are exhibited in the North America department of the
State Museum of Ethnology in Munich, with the oldest dating from 1577.[5]
Subarctic people made many types of boats for different purposes.
The Aleut baidarka was made in double or triple cockpit designs,
for hunting and transporting passengers or goods. An umiak is a
large open-sea canoe, ranging from 5.2 to 9.1 m (17 to 30 ft), made
with seal skins and wood. It is considered a kayak although it was
originally paddled with single-bladed paddles, and typically had
more than one paddler.

Subarctic builders designed and built their boats based on their

own experience and that of the generations before them passed on
through oral tradition. The word "kayak" means "man's boat" or Two people in a kayak, Nunivak,
"hunter's boat", and subartic kayaks were a personal craft, each Alaska, photographed by Edward S.
built by the man who used it—with assistance from his wife, who Curtis, 1930
sewed the skins—and closely fitting his size for maximum
maneuverability. The paddler wore a tuilik, a garment that was
stretched over the rim of the kayak coaming and sealed with
drawstrings at the coaming, wrists, and hood edges. This enabled
the "eskimo roll" and rescue to become the preferred methods of
recovery after capsizing, especially as few Inuit could swim; their
waters are too cold for a swimmer to survive for long.[6]

Instead of a tuilik, most traditional kayakers today use a spray

deck made of waterproof synthetic material stretchy enough to fit
tightly around the cockpit rim and body of the kayaker, and which The world cup competitions in
can be released rapidly from the cockpit to permit easy exit (in kayaking in Vaxholm, Sweden,
particular in a wet exit after a capsizing). photographed by Gunnar Lundh in
1938.
Inuit kayak builders had specific measurements for their boats.
The length was typically three times the span of his outstretched
arms. The width at the cockpit was the width of the builder's hips plus two fists (and sometimes less).
The typical depth was his fist plus the outstretched thumb (hitch hiker). Thus typical dimensions were
about 5.2 m (17 ft) long by 51–56 cm (20–22 in) wide by 18 cm (7 in) deep. This measurement system
confounded early European explorers who tried to duplicate the kayak because each kayak was a little
different.

Traditional kayaks encompass three types: Baidarkas, from the Bering Sea & Aleutian Islands, the
oldest design, whose rounded shape and numerous chines give them an almost blimp-like
appearance; West Greenland kayaks, with fewer chines and a more angular shape, with gunwales
rising to a point at the bow and stern; and East Greenland kayaks that appear similar to the West
Greenland style, but often fit more snugly to the paddler and possess a steeper angle between gunwale
and stem, which lends maneuverability.

Most of the Aleut people in the Aleutian Islands eastward to Greenland Inuit relied on the kayak for
hunting a variety of prey—primarily seals, though whales and caribou were important in some areas.
Skin-on-frame kayaks are still being used for hunting by Inuit in Greenland, because the smooth and
flexible skin glides silently through the waves. In other parts of the world home builders are
continuing the tradition of skin on frame kayaks, usually with modern skins of canvas or synthetic
fabric, such as sc. ballistic nylon.

20th Century & Contemporary Kayaks

Contemporary traditional-style kayaks trace their origins
primarily to the native boats of Alaska, northern Canada, and
Southwest Greenland. The use of fabric kayaks on wooden frames This Greenland paddle is 210 cm
called a foldboat or folding kayak (German Faltboot or (7 ft) in length, and much narrower
than European paddles. A storm
Hardernkahn) became widely popular in Europe beginning in
1907 when they were mass-produced by Johannes Klepper and paddle would be shorter.[7]
others. This type of kayak was introduced to England and Europe
by John MacGregor (sportsman) in 1860, but Klepper was the first
person to mass-produce these boats made of collapsible wooden frames covered by waterproof
rubberized canvas. By 1929, Klepper and Company were making 90 foldboats a day. Joined by other
European manufacturers, by the mid-1930s there were an estimated half-million foldboat kayaks in
use throughout Europe. First Nation masters of the roll taught this technique to Europeans during
this time period.[8][9]

These boats were tough and intrepid individuals were soon doing amazing things in them. In June
1928, a German named Franz Romer Sea kayak rigged his 6.1 m (20 ft) long foldboat with a sail and
departed from Las Palmas in the Canary Islands carrying 270  kg (590  lb) of tinned food and 210  L
(55 U.S. gal) of water. Fifty-eight days and 5,060 km (2,730 nmi) later he reached Saint Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands. Another German, Oskar Speck, paddled his foldboat down the Danube and four years
later reached the Australian coast after having traveled roughly 14,000 miles across the Pacific.[10]

These watercraft were brought to the United States and used competitively in 1940 at the first
National Whitewater Championship held in America near Middledam, Maine, on the Rapid River
(Maine). One “winner,” Royal Little, crossed the finish line clinging to his overturned foldboat.
Upstream, the river was “strewn with many badly buffeted and some wrecked boats.” Two women
were in the competition, Amy Lang and Marjory Hurd. With her partner Ken Hutchinson, Hurd won
the double canoe race. Lang won the doubles foldboat event with her partner, Alexander "Zee"
Grant.[11]

In the late 1930s and early 1940s, Alexander “Zee” Grant was
most likely America's best foldboat pilot. Grant kayaked the
Gates of Lodore on the Green River (Colorado River tributary)
in Dinosaur National Monument in 1939 and the Middle Fork
Salmon River in 1940. In 1941, Grant paddled a foldboat
through Grand Canyon National Park. He outfitted his
foldboat, named Escalante, with a sponson on each side of his
boat and filled the boat with beach balls. As with nearly all
American foldboat enthusiasts of the day, he did not know
how to roll his boat.[12][13][14]
Alexander Grant in his foldboat, July 19,
Fiberglass mixed with resin composites, invented in the 1930s 1941, at the bottom of the Grand
and 1940s, were soon used to make kayaks and this type of Canyon.
watercraft saw increased use during the 1950s, including in
the US. Kayak Slalom World Champion Walter Kirschbaum
built a fiberglass kayak and paddled it through Grand Canyon in June 1960. He knew how to roll and
only swam once, in Hance Rapid (see List of Colorado River rapids and features). Like Grant's
foldboat, Kirschbaum's fiberglass kayak had no seat and no thigh braces.[15] In June 1987, Ed Gillet,
using a stock off the shelf traditional design 20 foot long by 31 inch wide fiberglass tandem kayak
paddled over 2,000 miles non-stop from Monterey, California to Hawaii, landing his vessel there on
August 27, 1987, after 64 days of paddling.[16] Gillet had navigated his kayak by using a traditional
sextant and compass, along with approximately 600 pounds of food and water, including a device to
convert sea water to fresh water. Within 6 days of reaching Hawaii, both he and his yellow kayak were
featured on The Tonight Show, hosted by Johnny Carson.[17]

Inflatable rubberized fabric boats were first introduced in Europe and rotomolded plastic kayaks first
appeared in 1973. Most kayaks today are made from roto-molded polyethylene resins. The
development of plastic and rubberized inflatable kayaks arguably initiated the development of
freestyle kayaking as we see it today since these boats could be made smaller, stronger, and more
resilient than fiberglass boats.

Design principles
Typically, kayak design is largely a matter of trade-offs: directional stability ("tracking") vs
maneuverability; stability vs speed; and primary vs secondary stability. Multihull kayaks face a
different set of trade-offs. The paddler's body shape and size is an integral part of the structure, and
will also affect the trade-offs made.

Attempting to lift and carry a kayak by oneself or improperly is a significant cause of kayaking
injuries.[18] Good lifting technique, sharing loads, and not using needlessly large and heavy kayaks
prevents injuries.[19]

Displacement

If the displacement of a kayak is not enough to support the passenger(s) and gear, it will sink. If the
displacement is excessive, the kayak will float too high, catch the wind and waves uncomfortably, and
handle poorly;[20] it will probably also be bigger and heavier than it needs to be. Being excessively big
will create more drag, and the kayak will move more slowly and take more effort.[21] Rolling is easier
in lower-displacement kayaks. On the other hand, a higher deck will keep the paddler(s) drier and
make self-rescue and coming through surf easier.[20] Many beginning paddlers who use a sit-in kayak
feel more secure in a kayak with a weight capacity substantially more than their own weight.[20]
Maximum volume in a sit-in kayak is helped by a wide hull with high sides. But paddling ease is
helped by lower sides where the paddler sits and a narrower width.

While the kayak's buoyancy must be more than the loaded kayak, the optimal amount of excess
buoyancy varies somewhat with kayak type, purpose, and personal taste[20] (squirt boats, for
instance, have very little positive buoyancy). Displacements obviously must also vary greatly with
paddler weight. Most manufacturers make kayaks for paddlers weighing 65–85 kg (143–187 lb), with
some kayaks for paddlers down to 50  kg (110  lb).[20][22][23] Kayaks made for paddlers under 45  kg
(100 lb) are almost all very beamy and intended for beginners.

About 20% of the US population are not in this 65–85 kg (143–187 lb) weight range; either they are
too heavy, and will sink almost all commercial kayaks, or they are too light and small to paddle the
smallest ones without difficulty. In the United States, those who are too heavy are fairly equally split
between men and women, while those too light include many women, most pre-teens, and some
teens, but less than 1% of men.[26] Paddling an oversized kayak can be extremely tiring, especially if it
is square with a flat bottom. Oversized kayaks for children mean that they are likely to need to be
towed towards the end of a paddle. Some commercial kayaks are made to fit small adults and
children, and a few are built narrower, to fit women (see section on stability, below).[22][23]

Length

As a general rule, a longer kayak is faster: it has a higher hull

speed. It can also be narrower for a given displacement, reducing
the drag, and it will generally track (follow a straight line) better
than a shorter kayak. On the other hand, it is less maneuverable.
Very long kayaks are less robust, and may be harder to store and
transport.[21] Some recreational kayak makers try to maximize
hull volume (weight capacity) for a given length as shorter kayaks
are easier to transport and store.[27][28] Racing kayak; long hull, ~no rocker.

Kayaks that are built to cover longer distances such as touring and
sea kayaks are longer, generally 4.9 to 5.8  m (16 to 19  ft). With touring kayaks the keel is generally
more defined (helping the kayaker track in a straight line). Whitewater kayaks, which generally
depend upon river current for their forward motion, are short, to maximize maneuverability. These
kayaks rarely exceed 2.4  m (8  ft) in length, and play boats may be only 1.5–1.8  m (5–6  ft) long.
Recreational kayak designers try to provide more stability at the price of reduced speed, and
compromise between tracking and maneuverability, ranging from 2.7–4.3 m (9–14 ft).

Rocker

Length alone does not fully predict a kayak's maneuverability: a

second design element is rocker, i.e. its lengthwise curvature. A
heavily rockered boat curves more, shortening its effective
waterline. For example, an 5.5 m (18 ft) kayak with no rocker is in
the water from end to end. In contrast, the bow and stern of a This polo kayak has a lot of rocker;
rockered boat are out of the water, shortening its lengthwise that is, the bottom is not flat when
waterline to only 4.9 m (16 ft). Rocker is generally most evident at seen from the side.
the ends, and in moderation improves handling. Similarly,
although a rockered whitewater boat may only be about a meter
shorter than a typical recreational kayak, its waterline is far shorter and its maneuverability far
greater. When surfing, a heavily rockered boat is less likely to lock into the wave as the bow and stern
are still above water. A boat with less rocker cuts into the wave and makes it harder to turn while
surfing.

Beam profile

The overall width of a kayak's cross-section is its beam. A wide hull is more stable and packs more
displacement into a shorter length. A narrow hull has less drag and is generally easier to paddle; in
waves, it will ride more easily and stay dryer.[21]
A narrower kayak makes a somewhat shorter
paddle appropriate and a shorter paddle puts
less strain on the shoulder joints. Some
paddlers are comfortable with a sit-in kayak
so narrow that their legs extend fairly
straight out. Others want sufficient width to
permit crossing their legs inside the kayak.

Types of stability

Primary (sometimes called initial) stability

describes how much a boat tips, or rocks
back and forth when displaced from level by
paddler weight shifts. Secondary stability Inflatable kayaks tend to be very wide; this is not a problem
describes how stable a kayak feels when put for the large, broad-shouldered stern paddler. The smaller
bow paddler is leaning sideways and sliding her hands along
on edge or when waves are passing under the
the paddle to improve her leverage. Her safety equipment is
hull perpendicular to the length of the boat.
also too large. US Navy.
For kayak rolling, tertiary stability, or the
stability of an upside-down kayak, is also
important (lower
tertiary stability
makes rolling up
easier).

Hypothetical cross-sections of kayaks. Left to right: High primary stability but low secondary
stability, lower primary stability but ~same secondary stability, lower primary but higher
secondary stability, two extra chines, four extra chines. More chines (angles) give a more
rounded profile, decreasing stability, tracking, and the wetted area, and increasing speed.

Primary stability is often a big concern to a beginner, while secondary stability matters both to
beginners and experienced travelers. By example, a wide, flat-bottomed kayak will have high primary
stability and feel very stable on flat water. However, when a steep wave breaks on such a boat, it can
be easily overturned because the flat bottom is no longer level. By contrast, a kayak with a narrower,
more rounded hull with more hull flare can be edged or leaned into waves and (in the hands of a
skilled kayaker) provides a safer, more comfortable response on stormy seas. Kayaks with only
moderate primary, but excellent secondary stability are, in general, considered more seaworthy,
especially in challenging conditions.

The shape of the cross section affects stability, maneuverability,

and drag. Hull shapes are categorized by roundness, flatness, and
by the presence and angle of chines. This cross-section may vary
along the length of the boat.

A chine typically increases secondary stability by effectively

A cross-section through a skin-on-
frame kayak. The skin touches only
at the two gunwales, the two
stringers, and the keel.
widening the beam of the boat when it heels (tips). A V-shaped
hull tends to travel straight (track) well but makes turning harder.
V-shaped hulls also have the greatest secondary stability.
Conversely, flat-bottomed hulls are easy to turn, but harder to
direct in a constant direction. A round-bottomed boat has
minimal area in contact with the water, and thus minimizes drag;
however, it may be so unstable that it will not remain upright when floating empty, and needs
continual effort to keep it upright. In a skin-on-frame kayak, chine placement may be constrained by
the need to avoid the bones of the pelvis.[29]

Sea kayaks, designed for open water and rough conditions, are generally narrower at 55–65 cm (22–
25  in) and have more secondary stability than recreational kayaks, which are wider 65–75  cm (26–
30 in), have a flatter hull shape, and more primary stability.

Stability from body shape and skill level

The position of the center of gravity is affected by

body shape. The lower the CoG, the higher the
primary stability.

Two different approaches to giving beginners more stability;

left, a wider kayak, right, outriggers lashed across the stern
deck.

The body of the paddler must also be taken into account. A paddler with a low center of gravity (COG)
will find all boats more stable; for a paddler with a high center of gravity, all boats will feel tippier. On
average, women have a lower COG than men.[20][22][23] Women generally may fit a kayak about 10%
narrower than the kayak that would fit a similarly sized man. Commercial kayaks made for women are
rare.[22] Unisex kayaks are built for men.[21] Younger children have proportionately smaller and
lighter bodies, but near-adult-size heads, and thus a higher center of gravity.[23] A paddler with
narrow shoulders will also want a narrower kayak.

Newcomers will often want a craft with high primary stability (see above). The southern method is a
wider kayak. The West Greenland method is a removable pair of outriggers, lashed across the stern
deck.[23][30] Such an outrigger pair is often homemade of a small plank and found floats such as
empty bottles or plastic ducks.[31] Outriggers are also made commercially, especially for fishing
kayaks and sailing. If the floats are set so that they are both in the water, they give primary stability,
but produce more drag. If they are set so that they are both out of the water when the kayak is
balanced, they give secondary stability.[32][33]

Hull surface profile

Some kayak hulls are categorized according to the shape from bow
to stern

Common shapes include:

Symmetrical: the widest part of the boat is halfway between

bow and stern.
Fish form: the widest part is forward (in front) of the midpoint.
Swede form: the widest part is aft (behind) midpoint.

Seating position and contact points

Traditional-style and some modern

types of kayaks (e.g. sit-on-top)
require that paddler be seated with
their legs stretched in front of
them, in a right angle, in a position
called the "L" kayaking position.
Other kayaks offer a different
sitting position, in which the
paddler's legs are not stretched out
in front of them, and the thigh
brace bears more on the inside
than the top of the thighs (see
diagram).

A kayaker must be able to move

the hull of their kayak by moving
their lower body, and brace Kayak sitting positions. The longer boat is a West Greenland kayak, the
themselves against the hull (mostly shorter a kayak polo boat. Pale orange areas are the places against
with the feet) on each stroke. Most which the paddler braces their feet and thighs (contact with hips, and with
kayaks therefore have footrests the kayak's seat, not shown).
and a backrest. Some kayaks fit
snugly on the hips; others rely
more on thigh braces. Mass-produced kayaks generally have adjustable bracing points. Many paddlers
also customize their kayaks by putting in shims of closed-cell foam[34] (usually EVA), or more
elaborate structures, to make it fit more tightly.[34]

Paddling puts substantial force through the legs, alternately with each stroke. The knees should
therefore not be hyperextended. Separately, if the kneecap is in contact with the boat, or the knee
joint is in torsion, this will cause pain and may injure the knee. Insufficient foot space will cause
painful cramping and inefficient paddling. The paddler should generally be in a comfortable position.

Materials and construction

Today almost all kayaks are Fiberglass kayaks
commercial products
intended for sale rather
than for the builder's
personal use.

Fiberglass hulls are stiffer

than polyethylene hulls, but Carbon-fiber sprint kayak Sea kayak, Custom-made fiberglass-on-frame
they are more prone to two-piece kayak (kayaks in background are two-
damage from impact, fiberglass piece fiberglass and skin-on-frame)
including cracking. Most
modern kayaks have steep
V sections at the bow and stern, and a shallow V amidships. Fiberglass kayaks may be "laid-up" in a
mold by hand, in which case they are usually more expensive than polyethylene kayaks, which are
rotationally molded in a machine. The deck and hull are often made separately and then joined at a
horizontal seam.

Plastic kayaks are rotationally molded ('rotomolded') from a

various grades and types of polyethylene resins ranging from soft
to hard. Such kayaks are seamless and particularly resistant to
impact, but heavy.

Inflatable kayaks are increasingly popular due to their ease of

storage and transport, as well as the ability to be deflated for
extended portage. Although slower than hardshell kayaks, many Rotomoulded whitewater kayak
higher-end models often constructed of hypalon, as opposed to
cheaper PVC designs, begin to approach the performance of
traditional sea kayaks. Being inflatable they are virtually unsinkable and often more stable than
hardshell designs. New drop-stitch technology means slab, rather than tube shapes are used in the
designs with higher inflation pressures (up to 0.7 bar (10 psi)), leading to considerably faster, though
often less stable kayaks which rival hardshell boats in performance.

Solid wooden hulls don't necessarily require significant skill and handiwork, depending on how they
are made. Three main types are popular, especially for the home builder: plywood stitch & glue (S&G),
strip-built, and hybrids which have a stitch & glue hull and a strip-built deck. Kayaks made from wood
sheathed in fiberglass have proven successful, especially as the price of epoxy resin has decreased in
recent years.
Stitch & glue designs typically use modern, marine-grade plywood
with a thickness of about 3 to 5 mm (0.12 to 0.20 in). After cutting
out the required pieces of hull and deck (kits often have these pre-
cut), a series of small holes are drilled along the edges. Copper
wire is then used to "stitch" the pieces together through the holes.
After the pieces are temporarily stitched together, they are glued
with epoxy and the seams reinforced with fiberglass. When the
epoxy dries, the copper stitches are removed. Sometimes the
entire boat is then covered in fiberglass for additional strength
and waterproofing though this adds greatly to the weight and is
unnecessary. Construction is fairly straightforward, but because
plywood does not bend to form compound curves, design choices
are limited. This is a good choice for the first-time kayak builder
as the labor and skills required (especially for kit versions) is
considerably less than for strip-built boats which can take 3 times
as long to build.
Inflatable kayak
Strip-built designs are similar in shape to rigid fiberglass kayaks
but are generally both lighter and tougher. Like their fiberglass
counterparts the shape and size of the boat determines
performance and optimal uses. The hull and deck are built with
thin strips of lightweight wood, often thuja (Western Red cedar),
pine or redwood. The strips are edge-glued together around a Strip-built solid wooden kayak with
form, stapled or clamped in place, and allowed to dry. Structural fiberglass coat
strength comes from a layer of fiberglass cloth and epoxy resin,
layered inside and outside the hull. Strip–built kayaks are sold
commercially by a few companies, priced US$4,000 and up. An experienced woodworker can build
one for about US$400 in 200 hours, though the exact cost and time depend on the builder's skill, the
materials and the size and design. As a second kayak project, or for the serious builder with some
woodworking expertise, a strip–built boat can be an impressive piece of work. Kits with pre-cut and
milled wood strips are commercially available.

Skin-on-frame (SOF) boats are often more traditional in design,

materials, and construction. They were traditionally made with
driftwood frames, jointed, pegged, and lashed together, and
covered with stretched seal skin, as those were the most readily
available materials in the Arctic regions (other skins and baleen
framing members were also used at need). A "poor man's kayak"
might be frameless and stuffed with a snow "frame". Today, seal Modern skin-on-frame kayak; the
skin is cloth, sewn to fit over the
skin is usually replaced with canvas or nylon cloth covered with
wooden frame and then
paint, polyurethane, or a hypalon rubber coating, on a wooden or
waterproofed.
aluminum frame. Modern skin-on-frame kayaks often possess
greater impact resistance than their fiberglass counterparts, but
are less durable against abrasion or sharp objects. They are often
the lightest kayaks. Like the older skin-on-frame kayaks, they are often home-built to fit a specific
paddler. Engineer Xyla Foxlin built a kayak out of transparent wood as well as LEDs to create a
floating vessel that lights up at night, which she calls the Rainbowt.[35]
A special type of skin-on-frame kayak is the folding kayak. It has a
collapsible frame, of wood, aluminum or plastic, or a combination
thereof, and a skin of water-resistant and durable fabric. Many
types have air sponsons built into the hull, making the kayak float
even if flooded.

Modern design
Most modern kayaks differ greatly from the original traditional
Folding kayak, partly-assembled
subarctic kayaks in design, manufacturing and usage. They are
often designed with computer-aided design (CAD) software, often
in combination with CAD customized for naval design.

Modern kayaks serve diverse purposes, ranging from slow and

easy touring on placid water, to racing and complex maneuvering
in fast-moving whitewater, to fishing and long-distance ocean
excursions. Modern forms, materials and construction techniques
make it possible to effectively serve these needs while continuing
to leverage the insights of the original Arctic inventors.

Kayaks are long—5.8 m (19 ft), short—1.8 m (6 ft), wide—110 cm

Modern sea kayak in west Wales
(42  in), or as narrow as the paddler's hips—for example 35  cm
(14 in). They may attach one or two stabilizing hulls (outriggers),
have twin hulls like catamarans, inflate or fold. They move via
paddles, pedals that turn propellers or underwater flippers, under sail, or motor. They're made of
wood/canvas, wood, carbon fiber, fiberglass, Kevlar, polyethylene, polyester, rubberized fabric,
neoprene, nitrylon, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyurethane, and aluminum. They may sport rudders,
fins, bulkheads, seats, eyelets, foot braces and cargo hatches. They accommodate 1–3 or more
paddlers/riders.

Types
Modern kayaks have evolved into specialized types that may be broadly Major Kayak Types
categorized according to their application as sea or touring kayaks, Sea kayak
whitewater (or river) kayaks, surf kayaks, racing kayaks, fishing kayaks, Whitewater kayak
and recreational kayaks. The broader kayak categories today are 'sit-in' (SI),
which is inspired mainly by traditional kayak forms, 'sit-on-top' (SOT), which Recreational kayak
evolved from paddle boards that were outfitted with footrests and a backrest, Racing kayak
'hybrid', which are essentially canoes featuring a narrower beam and a
reduced free board enabling the paddler to propel them from the middle of
the boat, using a double blade paddle (i.e. 'kayak paddle'), and twin hull kayaks offering each of the
paddler's legs a narrow hull of its own. In recent decades, kayaks design have proliferated to a point
where the only broadly accepted denominator for them is their being designed mainly for paddling
using a kayak paddle featuring two blades i.e. 'kayak paddle'. However, even this inclusive definition
is being challenged by other means of human powered propulsion, such as foot activated pedal drives
combined with rotating or sideways moving propellers, electric motors, and even outboard motors.

Recreational
 Recreational kayaks are
designed for the casual
paddler interested in fishing,
photography, or a peaceful
paddle on a lake, flatwater
stream or protected salt water
away from strong ocean waves.
These boats presently make up
the largest segment of kayak An inflatable expedition kayak
Recreational kayak sales. Compared to other
kayaks, recreational kayaks
have a larger cockpit for easier entry and exit and a wider beam
(69–91 cm (27–36 in)) for more stability. They are generally less than 3.7 m (12 ft) in length and have
limited cargo capacity. Less expensive materials like polyethylene and fewer options keep these boats
relatively inexpensive. Most canoe/kayak clubs offer introductory instruction in recreational boats.
They do not perform as well in the sea. The recreational kayak is usually a type of touring kayak.

Sea

Sea kayaks are typically designed for travel by one, two or even
three paddlers on open water and in many cases trade
maneuverability for seaworthiness, stability, and cargo capacity.
Sea-kayak sub-types include "skin-on-frame" kayaks with
traditionally constructed frames, open-deck "sit-on-top" kayaks,
and recreational kayaks.

The sea kayak, though descended directly from traditional types,

is implemented in a variety of materials. Sea kayaks typically have
Kayaking in a double on Lake Union
a longer waterline, and provisions for below-deck storage of cargo.
in Seattle, Washington, United
Sea kayaks may also have rudders or skegs (fixed rudder) and
States
upturned bow or stern profiles for wave shedding. Modern sea
kayaks usually have two or more internal bulkheads. Some models
can accommodate two or sometimes three paddlers.

Sit-on-top

Sealed-hull ("unsinkable") craft were developed for leisure use, as

derivatives of surfboards (e.g. paddle or wave skis), or for surf
conditions. Variants include planing surf craft, touring kayaks,
and sea marathon kayaks. Increasingly, manufacturers build
leisure 'sit-on-top' variants of extreme sports craft, typically using
polyethylene to ensure strength and affordability, often with a
skeg for directional stability.
Sit-on-top three-person kayak
Sit-on-top kayaks come in 1–4 paddler configurations. Sit-on-top
kayaks are particularly popular for fishing and SCUBA diving,
since participants need to easily enter and exit the water, change
seating positions, and access hatches and storage wells. Ordinarily the seat of a sit-on-top is slightly
above water level, so the center of gravity for the paddler is higher
than in a traditional kayak. To compensate for the higher center of
gravity, sit-on-tops are often wider and slower than a traditional
kayak of the same length.

Water that enters the cockpit of a sit-on-top kayak drains out

through scupper holes—tubes that run from the cockpit to the
bottom of the hull. The cockpit is thus self-bailing. The hull may
be sealed, or perforated by hatches and deck fixtures. Contrary to
popular belief, the sit-on-top kayak hull is not self-bailing, since
water penetrating it does not drain out automatically, as it does in
bigger boats equipped with self-bailing systems. Furthermore, the
sit-on-top hull cannot be molded in a way that would assure water
tightness, and water may get in through various holes in its hull,
usually around hatches and deck accessories. If the sit-on-top
kayak is loaded to a point where such perforations are covered
with water, or if the water paddled is rough enough that such
perforations often go under water, the sit-on-top hull may fill with
water without the paddler noticing it in time. If a sealed hull Sit-on-top kayaks
develops a split or hole, it will also fill and sink.

Surf

Specialty surf boats typically have flat bottoms, and hard edges,
similar to surf boards. The design of a surf kayak promotes the use
of an ocean surf wave (moving wave) as opposed to a river or
feature wave (moving water). They are typically made from
rotomolded plastic, or fiberglass.

Surf kayaking comes in two main varieties, High Performance

(HP) and International Class (IC). High Performance boats tend
Surf Kayaking competition, Tofino,
to have a lot of nose rocker, little to no tail rocker, flat hulls, sharp
British Columbia
rails and up to four fins set up as either a three fin thruster or a
quad fin. This enables them to move at high speed and maneuver
dynamically. International Class boats have to be at least 3  m
(9.8 ft) long and until a recent rule change had to have a convex hull; now flat and slightly concave
hulls are also allowed, although fins are not. Surfing on international boats tends to be smoother and
more flowing, and they are thought of as kayaking's long boarding. Surf boats come in a variety of
materials ranging from tough but heavy plastics to super light, super stiff but fragile foam–cored
carbon fiber. Surf kayaking has become popular in traditional surfing locations, as well as new
locations such as the Great Lakes.

Waveskis
A variation on the closed-cockpit surf kayak is called a waveski.
Although the waveski offers dynamics similar to a sit–on–top, its
paddling technique and surfing performance and construction can
be similar to surfboard designs.

Whitewater

Whitewater kayaks are rotomolded in a semi-rigid, high impact

plastic, usually polyethylene. Careful construction ensures that the A waveski. Skegs below. The straps
boat remains structurally sound when subjected to fast-moving form back- and foot-rests
water. The plastic hull allows these kayaks to bounce off rocks
without leaking, although they scratch and eventually puncture
with enough use. Whitewater kayaks range from 1.2 to 3.0 m (4 to
10  ft) long. There are two main types of whitewater kayak,
playboats and river-running boats. Creekboats (for small rivers)
and squirt boats are more specialized.

Playboat

One type, the playboat, is short, with a scooped bow and blunt
stern. These trade speed and stability for high maneuverability.
Whitewater kayak
Their primary use is performing tricks in individual water features
or short stretches of river. In playboating or freestyle competition
(also known as rodeo boating), kayakers exploit the complex
currents of rapids to execute a series of tricks, which are scored for
skill and style.

Creekboats and river-running kayaks

The other primary type is the creek boat, which gets its name from
its purpose: running narrow, low-volume waterways. Creekboats
are longer and have far more volume than playboats, which makes
them more stable, faster and higher-floating. Many paddlers use Playboating competition
creekboats in "short boat" downriver races, and they are often
seen on large rivers where their extra stability and speed may be
necessary to get through rapids.

Between the creekboat and playboat extremes is a category called

river–running kayaks. These medium–sized boats are designed
for rivers of moderate to high volume, and some, known as river
running playboats, are capable of basic playboating moves. They
are typically owned by paddlers who do not have enough
River kayaks in Hokkaido, Japan
whitewater involvement to warrant the purchase of more–
specialized boats.

Squirt boats
Squirt boating involves paddling both on the surface of the river
and underwater. Squirt boats must be custom-fitted to the paddler
to ensure comfort while maintaining the low interior volume
necessary to allow the paddler to submerge completely in the
river.

Racing

A squirt boat barely floats, allowing

Whitewater
the paddler to submerge completely.
White water racers combine a fast, unstable lower hull portion
with a flared upper hull portion to combine flat water racing speed
with extra stability in open water: they are not fitted with rudders and have similar maneuverability to
flat water racers. They usually require substantial skill to achieve stability, due to extremely narrow
hulls. Whitewater racing kayaks, like all racing kayaks, are made to regulation lengths, usually of fiber
reinforced resin (usually epoxy or polyester reinforced with Kevlar, glass fiber, carbon fiber, or some
combination). This form of construction is stiffer and has a harder skin than non-reinforced plastic
construction such as rotomolded polyethylene: stiffer means faster, and harder means fewer scratches
and therefore also faster.

Flatwater sprint

Sprint kayak is a sport held on calm water. Crews or individuals

race over 200 m, 500 m, 1000 m or 5000 m with the winning boat
being the first to cross the finish line. The paddler is seated, facing
forward, and uses a double-bladed paddle pulling the blade
through the water on alternate sides to propel the boat forward. In Single-person racing
competition the number of paddlers within a boat is indicated by a
figure besides the type of boat; K1 signifies an individual kayak
race, K2 pairs, and K4 four-person crews. Kayak sprint has been in every summer olympics since it
debuted at the 1936 summer olympics.[36] Racing is governed by the International Canoe Federation.

Slalom

Slalom kayaks are flat–hulled, and—since the early 1970s—feature low profile decks. They are highly
maneuverable, and stable but not fast in a straight line.

Surfskis

A specialized variant of racing craft called a surf ski has an open

cockpit and can be up to 6.4 m (21 ft) long but only 46 cm (18 in)
wide, requiring expert balance and paddling skill. Surf skis were
originally created for surf and are still used in races in New

Surfski kayaks
Zealand, Australia, and South Africa. They have become popular in the United States for ocean races,
lake races and even downriver races.

Marathon

Marathon races vary in distances from ten kilometres to over 1000 kilometres for multi-day stage
races.

Specialty and hybrids

The term "kayak" is increasingly applied to craft that look little like traditional kayaks.

Inflatable

Inflatables, also known as the duckies or IKs,

can usually be transported by hand using a
carry bag. They are generally made of hypalon
(a kind of neoprene), nitrilon (nitrile-
rubberized fabric), PVC, or polyurethane-
coated cloth. They can be inflated with foot,
An example of hand or electric pumps. Multiple compartments
a man using an in all but the least expensive increase safety.
inflatable kayak They generally use low pressure air, almost An inflatable sit-on-top kayak
always below 0.2 bar (3 psi).

While many inflatables are non-rigid, essentially pointed rafts, best suited for use on rivers and calm
water, the higher-end inflatables are designed to be hardy, seaworthy vessels. Recently some
manufacturers have added an internal frame (folding-style) to a multi-section inflatable sit-on-top
kayak to produce a seaworthy boat. Fully drop-stitch inflatable kayaks are also available, which are
inflated to 8–10 PSI. They are much stiffer, which enhances their paddling characteristics to vastly
outperform traditional inflatable kayaks.

The appeal of inflatable kayaks is their portability, their durability (they don't dent), ruggedness in
white water (they bounce off rocks rather than break) and their easy storage. In addition, inflatable
kayaks generally are stable, have a small turning radius and are easy to master, although some models
take more effort to paddle and are slower than traditional kayaks.

Because inflatable kayaks aren't as sturdy as traditional, hard-shelled kayaks, a lot of people tend to
steer away from them. However, there have been considerable advancements in inflatable kayak
technology over recent years.

Folding

Folding kayaks are direct descendants of the skin-on-frame boats used by the Inuit and Greenlandic
peoples. Modern folding kayaks are constructed from a wooden or aluminum frame over which is
placed a synthetic skin made of polyester, cotton canvas, polyurethane, or Hypalon. They are more
expensive than inflatable kayaks, but have the advantage of greater stiffness and consequently better
seaworthiness.
Walter Höhn (English Hoehn) had built, developed and then
tested his design for a folding kayak in the white-water rivers of
Switzerland from 1924 to 1927. In 1928, on emigrating to
Australia, he brought 2 of them with him, lodged a patent for the
design and proceeded to manufacture them. In 1942 the
Australian Director of Military operations approached him to
develop them for Military use. Orders were placed and eventually
a total of 1024, notably the MKII & MKIII models, were produced
by him and another enterprise, based on his 1942 patent (No.
117779)[37] Assembling an aluminum frame for
a folding kayak; the cloth covering
(foreground) will later be stretched
Pedal
over it

A kayak with pedals allows the kayaker to propel the vessel with a
rotating propeller or underwater "flippers" rather than with a
paddle. In contrast to paddling, kayakers who pedal kayaks use their legs rather than their arms. This
allows for increased stamina and free hands while moving, making pedal kayaks popular among
fishers.[38]

Twin hull and outrigger

Traditional multi-hull vessels such as catamarans and outrigger canoes

benefit from increased lateral stability without sacrificing speed, and these
advantages have been successfully applied in twin hull kayaks. Outrigger
kayaks attach one or two smaller hulls to the main hull to enhance stability,
especially for fishing, touring, kayak sailing and motorized kayaking. Twin
hull kayaks feature two long and narrow hulls, and since all their buoyancy is
distributed as far as possible from their center line, they are more stable than
mono hull kayaks outfitted with outriggers.

Fishing

While native people of the Arctic regions hunted rather than fished from
kayaks, in recent years kayak sport fishing has become popular in both fresh Fishing kayak with
and salt water, especially in warmer regions. Traditional fishing kayaks are high lateral stability.
characterized by wide beams of up to 1.1 m (42 in) that increase their lateral
stability. Some are equipped with outriggers that increase their stability, and
others feature twin hulls enabling stand up paddling and fishing. Compared with motorboats, fishing
kayaks are inexpensive and have few maintenance costs. Many kayak anglers like to customize their
kayaks for fishing, a process known as 'rigging'.

Military

Kayaks were adapted for military use in the Second World War. Used mainly by British Commandos
and special forces, principally the Combined Operations Pilotage Parties (COPPs), the Special Boat
Service and the Royal Marines Boom Patrol Detachment. The latter made perhaps the best known use
of them in the Operation Frankton raid on Bordeaux harbor.[39] Both the Special Air Service (SAS)
and the Special Boat Service (SBS) used kayaks for reconnaissance in the 1982 Falklands War.[40] US
Navy SEALs reportedly used them at the start of Unified Task
Force operations in Somalia in 1992.[41] The SBS currently use
Klepper two-person folding kayaks that can be launched from
surfaced submarines or carried to the surface by divers from
submerged ones. They can be parachuted from transport aircraft
at sea or dropped from the back of Chinook helicopters.[42] US
Special Forces have used Kleppers but now primarily use Long
Haul folding kayaks, which are made in the US.[43]

The Australian Military MKII and MKIII folding kayaks were Klepper Aerius Quattro XT in military
extensively used during WWII in the Pacific Theater for some 33 colors
raids and missions on and around the South-East Asian islands.
Documentation for this will be found in the National Archives of
Australia official records, reference No. NAA K1214-123/1/06. They were deployed from disguised
watercraft, submarines, Catalina aircraft, P.T. boats, motor launches and by parachute.[44]

See also
Aleutian kayak Kayaking
Boat Packraft
Canoe Playboating
Canoe & Kayak UK Recreational kayak
Canoe polo Sea kayaking
Canyoning Squirt boating
Creeking Surf kayaking
Flyak Umiak
Freeboating Waveski
Kayak angst Whitewater slalom
Kayak fishing

References
1. There is scant evidence of Ainu peoples using the classic kayak design in prehistoric times. The
following indicates that they did use skin-covered vessels, however: "Like the yara chisei, bark
houses, … yara chip, bark boats, were probably substitutes for the skin-covered boat, elsewhere
surviving in the coracle and kayak. Skin-covered boats … are referred to in old [Ainu] traditions. -
Ainu material culture from the notes of N. G. Munro: in the archive of the Royal Anthropological
Institute, British Museum, Department of Ethnography, 1994, p. 33
2. Jacobson, Steven A. (2012). Yup'ik Eskimo Dictionary, 2nd edition (http://www.uaf.edu/anla/collect
ions/search/resultDetail.xml?id=CY972J2012) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2017080310
1952/http://www.uaf.edu/anla/collections/search/resultDetail.xml?id=CY972J2012) 2017-08-03 at
the Wayback Machine. Alaska Native Language Center.
3. Brydon, S (September 10, 2019). "ARCTIC HUNTERS, AMERICAN EXPLORERS,
ADVENTURERS, AND ANTHROPOLOGISTS: The ex-Museum of the American Indian Collection
of Kayaks at the Canadian Canoe Museum". Museum Anthropology. 42 (2): 71–88.
doi:10.1111/muan.12208 (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fmuan.12208). S2CID 203460793 (https://api.
semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:203460793).
 4. "History of Kayak: Eskimos 4000 Years Vision Realized – Kayak Information and Reviews" (http
s://www.waterkayaking.com/history-of-kayak-eskimos-4000-years-vision-realized/).
Waterkayaking.com. Retrieved 2021-03-05.
5. "SMV München/ English Summary" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080312121808/http://www.voe
lkerkundemuseum-muenchen.de/inhalt/html/e-home.html). 12 March 2008. Archived from the
original (http://www.voelkerkundemuseum-muenchen.de/inhalt/html/e-home.html) on 12 March
2008. Retrieved 23 February 2022.
6. D. C. Hutchinson, The Complete Book of Sea Kayaking, 5th ed., Falcon Guides, Connecticut.
7. "Home" (http://www.qajaqusa.org/QK/makegreen2.pdf) (PDF). Qajaqusa.org.
8. Altenhofer, Der Hadernkahn, Pollner Verlag, 1997, p. 143, ISBN 3925660097
9. Dyson, Baidarka, Alaska Northwest Publishing Company, 1986, pp. 80–81, ISBN 978-
0882403151
10. “Renew Attempt To Row Boat Across Atlantic,” Messenger Inquirer, April 23, 1928; “In A Rubber
Boat Over The Sea,” Baltimore Sun, September 30, 1928; “Rowing Around World In A Canvas
Boat,” Bradford Evening Star, November 13, 1935
11. “Only Three Shoot Rapids,” Philadelphia Inquirer, July 7, 1940
12. Cockleshell on the Colorado, American Whitewater, Vol 4, No 2, pp. 6–13, P2P p. 426
13. "How It Feels To Run Treacherous Rapids Of Colorado River Related By Altadenan", Pasadena
Post, July 28, 1941
14. Marston, From Powell to Power, Vishnutemple Press, 2014, p. 424, ISBN 9780990527022
15. Martin, Big Water Little Boats, Vishnu Temple Press, 2012, p. 190, ISBN 9780979505560
16. Shively, Dave. (P. 30) " The Pacific Alone, The Untold Story of Kayaking's Boldest Voyage."
Falcon; The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Blvd., Ste.200, Lanham,
MD 20706. 2018.
17. Shively p. 13, 14, 100, 106-109, 150
18. "Kayarchy – contents of chapter on sea kayaking safety" (http://kayarchy.com/html/02technique/0
10kayakingsafely/000contents.htm). Kayarchy.com.
19. "Kayarchy – paddling your sea kayak (1) starting out" (http://kayarchy.com/html/02technique/001p
addlingyourkayak/001basics.htm#carryingyourkayak). Kayarchy.com.
20. "Kayarchy – the kayak" (http://kayarchy.com/html/01equipment/002seakayaks.htm).
Kayarchy.com.
21. "Kayarchy – sea kayak design" (http://kayarchy.com/html/01equipment/004seakayakdesign.htm).
Kayarchy.com.
22. "Kayarchy – retail outlets (3) sea kayaks & paddles" (http://kayarchy.com/html/06shop/003seakay
aks.htm#seakayakstofitwomen). Kayarchy.com.
23. "Kayarchy – sea kayaking for kids" (http://kayarchy.com/html/02technique/007seakayakingforkids/
000.htm#childsizekayaks). Kayarchy.com.
24. "Weight by Height and Age of Adults: United States – 1960–1962" (https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/
series/sr_11/sr11_014acc.pdf) (PDF). Cdc.gov. Retrieved 2022-02-23.
25. "Mean Body Weight, Height, and Body Mass Index, United States 1960–2002" (https://www.cdc.g
ov/nchs/data/ad/ad347.pdf) (PDF). Cdc.gov. Retrieved 2022-02-23.
26. There seem to be no anthropometry stats of kayakers, who may not be representative of the
general population. In the American civilian population of the early 1960s, about 0.7% of men and
9% of women weighed under 50 kg (110 lb); 20% of men and 7% of women weighed over 190 lb
(86 kg).[24] In the same population in the late sixties, the average weight of both male and female
children crossed 50 kg (110 lb) at age thirteen. In the early 2000s, it was a year or two earlier, and
the mean weight of adults was over 10 kg (22 lb) heavier. Also in the early 2000s, the mean
weight of men was 190 lb (86 kg), and the mean weight of women was 163 lb (74 kg).[25]
27. "Car-Topping and Strapping Down a Kayak" (http://www.kayakroofracks.net/car-topping-kayak-str
apping-down/). Kayakroofracks.net. 2016-05-14. Retrieved 2018-05-23.
28. "How to Store a Kayak" (https://www.wikihow.com/Store-a-Kayak). Wikihow.com. Retrieved
2018-05-23.
29. "kayakways.net – Kayak Fitting" (http://www.kayakways.net/kayaksandpaddles/kayakfitting/).
Kayakways.net.
30. "Championships" (http://www.traditionalkayaks.com/travelsandadventures/championships.html).
Traditionalkayaks.com.
31. "Greenland National Championships in Sisimiut 2006" (http://freyahoffmeister.com/expeditions/gre
enland-national-championships-in-sisimiut-2006/). Freyahoffmeister.com. Retrieved 23 February
2022.
32. "Hobie Gear SideKick AMA Kit Hobie Kayak Outrigger" (https://www.kayakshed.com/product/hobi
e-sidekick-ama-kit/). Kayakshed.com.
33. "Outriggers – Wavewalk® Stable Fishing Kayaks, Portable Boats and Skiffs" (http://wavewalk.co
m/blog/2016/03/04/outriggers/). Wavewalk.com. Retrieved 23 February 2022.
34. Crowhurst, Christopher (25 September 2012). "Masik designs for modern kayaks" (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20210905103939/https://qajaqrolls.com/2012/09/masiks.html). Qajaqrolls.com.
Archived from the original (http://qajaqrolls.com/2012/09/masiks.html) on 5 September 2021.
Retrieved 29 November 2017.
35. Jason Weisberger (January 16, 2021). "Xyla Foxlin makes a clear kayak with LED lights" (https://b
oingboing.net/2021/01/16/xyla-foxlin-makes-a-clear-kayak-with-led-lights.html). Boing Boing
magazine. Retrieved July 8, 2021. "...(she calls it the 'Rainbowt')..."
36. "ICF – Canoe Sprint" (https://web.archive.org/web/20101008234648/http://www.canoeicf.com/icf/A
boutoursport/Canoe-Sprint.html). International Canoe Federation. Archived from the original (htt
p://www.canoeicf.com/icf/Aboutoursport/Canoe-Sprint.html) on 8 October 2010. Retrieved 18 July
2014.
37. Commando Kayak 2011, ISBN 978-3-033-01717-7
38. "Pedal Kayaks" (https://www.mariner-sails.com/pedal-kayaks/). Mariner-Sails. Mariner Sails Inc.
Retrieved 3 November 2020.
39. Tweedie, Neil (2010-10-28). "Cockleshell Heroes: the truth at last" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
120828152351/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/world-war-two/8090441/Cockleshell-Heroes-the
-truth-at-last.html). Daily Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0307-1235).
Archived from the original (https://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/world-war-two/8090441/Cockleshel
l-Heroes-the-truth-at-last.html) on August 28, 2012. Retrieved 2018-05-23.
40. James D. Ladd, SBS, The Invisible Raiders: the History of the Special Boat Squadron from World
War Two to the Present, Arms & Armour Press 1983, ISBN 978-0-85368-593-7 (p. 231)
41. "Canada's special forces to get ancient war-fighting machines: canoes – The Star" (https://www.th
estar.com/news/canada/2011/05/19/canadas_special_forces_to_get_ancient_warfighting_machin
es_canoes.html). The Toronto Star. 19 May 2011.
42. "SBS Boats - Klepper Canoes" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120915160021/http://www.specialb
oatservice.co.uk/klepper-canoes.php). Archived from the original (http://www.specialboatservice.c
o.uk/klepper-canoes.php) on 2012-09-15. Retrieved 2012-09-04.
43. "Kayaks | Canoes | Special Operations Forces" (http://www.americanspecialops.com/boats/kaya
k/). Americanspecialops.com. Retrieved 2018-05-23.
44. Commando Kayak, Hoehn, 2011.

Bibliography
Hoehn, John (2011). Commando Kayak: The Role of the Folboat in the Pacific War (http://hirschb
ooks.net/). Zurich, Switzerland: Hirsch Publishing. ISBN 978-3-033-01717-7.

External links
International Canoe Federation (http://www.canoeicf.com/) The International federation of kayak
and canoe bodies
The Canadian Museum of Civilization – Native Watercraft in Canada (http://www.civilization.ca/cm
c/exhibitions/aborig/watercraft/wainteng.shtml)
British Canoe Union (https://web.archive.org/web/20121012053129/http://www.bcu.org.uk/) The
National Governing Body of Kayaking in the UK
kayak size guide (https://fishinglearn.com/kayak-size-guide/) Fishing Learn
Greenlandinc terms for the parts of a kayak (http://www.qajaqusa.org/Movies/audio_glossary_ma
p.html)
A kayak made from clear wood and fiberglass with LEDs (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qg-
Exm8oRP8&t=1s) YouTube video

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