196 J. N. Pelton and S.

Madry

Fig. 4 Deployable solar array

by EXA for high-power
missions. (Graphic courtesy of
EXA)

space, it cannot be understated that space is a hostile environment. Solar radiation

and coronal mass ejections from the sun can and do lead to satellite failures by
knocking out the power system. Circuit breakers and the ability to power down a
satellite during a major solar storm event are something that large and more
expensive satellites have as normal part of their operational routine. Small satellites
should be operated with similar concern for these solar radiation and ion blast events
from the sun.
One of the systems marketed via the cubesat store is the Crystalspace P1U EPS.
This is a compact power supply with battery pack configured for both 1-unit and
2-unit cubesat configurations. This particular product includes a “fast maximum
power point tracking boost converter.” This is able to charge integrated doubled
battery pack and provide power distribution as required for cubesat configurations.
Battery output in the electrical power system is fed through duplicated converters.
Depending on the type of system ordered and solar array capabilities, these electrical
power systems can provide voltage outputs starting at 3.3 V and up to 12 V. Pinouts
and voltage outputs can be custom ordered in order to accommodate specific user
needs (cubesat shop, Crystal Space 2019).
Another option is the Endurosat Electric Power System that also provides two
battery packs and the following additional features: (i) three solar panel channels
in order to provide a channel for each of the cubesats’ three axes and six panel
connectors (typically USB connectors unless otherwise specified); (ii) input
voltage (per solar panel channel) up to 5.5 V; (iii) input current (again this is
for each of the three solar panel channels) up to 1.8 amperes; and (iv) a full
guarantee of performance warranty and up to 5 hours of technical support
(Endurosat 2019).
Power Systems for Small Satellites 197

There are many other electrical power systems available such as the electrical
power system including rechargeable battery packs from ISIS and many other
suppliers that can be found on the web and those noted at the end of this chapter.
It is important to work with suppliers if there are issues related to the US Interna-
tional Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR) or other similar restrictions in other
countries such as the European Commission requirements. For the most part, these
do not apply to the smaller-sized energy systems.

6 Assembly, Integration, and Testing (AIT)

The key elements of small satellite power systems include solar arrays or solar
panels, electrical power systems with regulatory systems for power distribution
that include battery packs, electrical wiring, sun sensors for maximum illumina-
tion, and magnetorques that can assist with sun orientation. The final missing
ingredient is the process known as assembly, integration, and testing (AIT). It is
important that well-trained personnel operating in clean rooms (or in some
instances “clean enough rooms”) carry out this important process. A faulty or
somewhat loose wiring or USB plug connection can easily be shaken apart from a
vital connection during the dynamic loads encountered during launch. Microsats or
minisats for commercial systems are typically tested on shaker tables to simulate
the vibrations and so-called pogo effects that can occur during rocket launch
operations. After assembly is complete and the small satellite is completely
integrated, careful testing is highly recommended. In the case of deployable
antenna and power arrays, it is important to check out both of these deployments.
Thus there needs to be a careful assessment of whether the antenna deployment and
solar array deployments do not complicate or hinder either deployment process.
Training of personnel to carry out all of these steps precisely and with quality
checks along the way is important. In the case of large-scale small satellite
constellations, many of these steps are now completely automated, but the test
and assessment are still largely done by trained personnel.

7 Conclusion

The careful design and assembly, integration, and test of the electrical power system
(EPS) are a key part of being able to create, launch, and operate a small satellite
mission successfully. There are many elements of a satellite project, and it is easy to
lose sight of an important step where there are so many parts to the puzzle. This article
only addresses the design, assembly, integration, and test of the energy subsystem of a
small satellite bus and its payload. It should be remembered that a successful program
must also consider the ground stations and the mission control aspects of tracking,
telemetry, control, and monitoring (TTC&M) of a mission. If there is a power failure in
198 J. N. Pelton and S. Madry

the ground segment, the mission could be lost in this way as well. Again power failures
in the ground stations or the mission control are the most common types of problems
that can and do occur in operational satellite systems.
The good news is that there are now many suppliers of small satellites. There are
organizations such as Pumpkin and ISIS that can provide a complete cube satellite
for launch and also assist with a launch services integrator that can arrange for a
launch and launch registration and other administrative and regulatory arrangements
from soups to nuts. Many cubesat and even smaller picosat (i.e., pocketqube) pro-
jects are training and learning exercises, and thus such projects tend to involve the
design, assembly, and integration of all of the key subsystems in order to create an
in-depth educational experience. It is important to consider the balance between
gaining experience and education on one hand and assuring that “practical” quality
assurances and mission goals are fully met on the other. Is this an educational,
professional research, or business project? This is a fundamental question to be
answered.
It is important to learn and understand about each and every subsystem and
component that is essential to a small satellite programs’ success. To recap, these
elements include (i) antennas; (ii) attitude actuators; (iii) attitude sensors;
(iv) cameras and payloads; (v) command and data handling; (vi) communications
systems; (vii) cubesat kits and buses; (viii) cubesat structures; (ix) ground stations;
(x) ground support systems and mission control; (xi) attitude determination and
control systems (ADCS); (xii) launch adapters; (xiii) propulsion and pressuriza-
tion; (xiv) software services; (xv) solar panels and power systems; and (xvi)
training and simulators. Of all of these “parts” of a mission, a reliable, high-
efficiency, and well-managed power system is well up there in terms of being a
critical aspect of the mission with many single point-of-failure considerations and
vulnerabilities.

8 Cross-References

▶ Flight Software and Software-Driven Approaches to Small Satellite Networks

▶ High Altitude Platform Systems (HAPS) and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)
as an Alternative to Small Satellites
▶ Hosted Payload Packages as a Form of Small Satellite System
▶ Network Control Systems for Large-Scale Constellations
▶ Overview of Small Satellite Technology and Systems Design
▶ RF and Optical Communications for Small Satellites
▶ Small Satellite Antennas
▶ Small Satellite Constellations and End-of-Life Deorbit Considerations
▶ Small Satellite Radio Link Fundamentals
▶ Small Satellites and Structural Design
▶ Spectrum Frequency Allocation Issues and Concerns for Small Satellites
▶ Stability, Pointing, and Orientation
Power Systems for Small Satellites 199

Annex 1

Photovoltaic Cell and Solar Array Suppliers

There are a growing number of global suppliers of solar cells and complete solar arrays
that include the solar cells with the integrated struts for ready deployment in space.
Some manufactures such as Spectrolab can provide either individual solar cells or the
fully integrated solar array. Research projects around the world are seeking to drive
efficiency up about the current highest levels of around 45%. These research activities
are exploring new high valence substrate and absorber materials, spectrum matching
techniques, as well as lower-cost fabrication and new production techniques such as the
IMM cell that uses metamorphic multi-junction manufacturing techniques. The follow-
ing listing of multi-junction solar cell and solar array manufacturers is indicative of some
of the well-known and tested suppliers.

Representative Photovoltaic Cell Manufacturers

Azur Space
This is a supplier of multi-junction solar cells that are typically triple-junction in
design. These cells use a combination of gallium arsenide, germallium, and GaInP
materials, and they achieve an efficiency of solar radiation to electrical energy output
in the range of 28% to 30%.

Bharat Electronics Ltd. of India

Bharat Photovoltaics has developed its manufacturing capabilities in cooperation
with the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO). ISRO has licensed solar cell
and solar panel technology from other suppliers in the USA and other countries and
then partnered with Bharat Electronics Ltd. to create a lower-cost supply to the
Indian market. Bharat can supply both solar cells and solar panels. These products
include monocrystalline, polycrystalline, and thin-film solar cells. It also provides
inverters, mounting systems, solar cables, as well as complete photovoltaic systems,
terrestrial power systems, as well as satellite applications.

CESI/ENE
The CESI single-junction gallium arsenide solar cells that are deposited on a
germanium wafer by ENE are thicker than some three-junction solar cells, but this
lower-cost photovoltaic cell can provide a 20% efficiency under the AMO spectrum
rating system. This type of cell has been used by the Surrey Space Technology Ltd
for small satellite manufacture. Triple-junction solar cells with efficiencies around
27% are also available from these Italian and Belgium teams.

Emcore Corporation
Emcore also manufactures triple-junction solar cells in two different versions. The
efficiency of solar energy conversion for these solar cells is typically in the range of
200 J. N. Pelton and S. Madry

28.5% to 29.5%. Emcore cells are provided in standard sizes but can be provided to
custom order in different sizes as well. NASA has used these cells on their own missions.

SolAero Technologies
SolAero Technologies is unique in that it is a collaborative effort with the US Air
Force. SolAero Technologies and the USAF are currently developing a new type of
cell known as the “metamorphic multi-junction (IMM)” solar cell. This special
manufacturing technique has resulted in a lightweight and higher-efficiency cell
that is in developmental testing. Current SolAero cell have an efficiency level in the
28% to 30% range. They offer at least four optional solar cell products with ZTJ cell
having had extensive in-flight experience. The ATJ, ATJM, and BJT cells are
particularly offered to support small spacecraft missions.

Spectrolab
This company has been one of the oldest and most comprehensive providers of solar
cells as well as integrated solar arrays. There solar cells range in efficiency from 26%
to 30%. The most common products by Spectrolab are the XJT Prime, XTJ, and UTJ
solar cells. They are offered in standard and customized sizes. All of the Spectrolab’s
solar cells are also of the triple-junction design. The UTJ devices are rated at TRL 9
spacecraft applications.

Umicore
Umicore is another provider of triple-junction solar cells. It has been providing high-
quality solar cells since the 1990s. Its solar cells with triple N-P junctions or
bandgaps for its solar cells consist of indium gallium phosphide (InGaP), indium
gallium arsenide (InGaAs), and germanium (GE) layer. These cells are made using a
metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) process whereby the InGaP and
InGaAs are deposited on germanium wafers. These solar cells have been demon-
strated above 30% efficiencies under the AMO spectrum rating system.

Solar Panels and Array Manufacturers

Many of the companies that produce solar or photovoltaic cells also produce solar
panels and arrays. In some instances, these panels also include magnetorquers, sun
sensors, temperature sensors, and other features. Here are some of the typical pro-
viders of high-quality solar arrays from around the world. This is not an exhaustive
list, but it includes many of the leading suppliers.

AAC Microtec and Clyde Space

The AAC Clyde Space photon solar arrays and solar panels are optimized to provide
power to cubesat and multiple units of cubesats. These systems are designed to
provide a high level of power generating efficiency by providing panels that can
be position on the long sides of cubesats. If additional power is required, it is
possible to have deployed, extendable solar arrays. These panels and arrays are
Power Systems for Small Satellites 201

designed to provide convenience in achieving reliable platform integration.

Spectrolab XTJ Prime solar cells are typically included on AAC Clyde solar panels
and arrays (AAC Clyde Space 2019).

Bharat Electronics Ltd.

See as noted in above information.

DHV Technology
DHV is one of the leading providers of solar panels and arrays. Its website maintains that
it has participated in over 50 projects, that 35 satellites are currently utilizing its arrays
and panels, and that this adds to some 1700 days of successful operation in space.

Endurosat
Endurosat makes several versions of solar panels. These are of a triple-junction
indium gallium phosphide/gallium arsenide/germanium design and the solar cells
used in these panels rated to 29.8% efficiency. The panels are of the 1-unit and 3-unit
design, and their respective masses are 0.04 kg and 0.155 kg, and this includes a
magnetorquer in the configuration. Maximum cell voltages are 2.33 V per cell
(Endurosat, Solar Panels 2019).

EXA
The EXA DSA/1A (Titanium Deployable Solar Array for 1 U) is the entry-level
product of a family of deployable solar arrays based on artificial muscles for
cubesats in the range of 1 U to 6 U. The arrays are composed of five panels, 3 on
top and 2 on the bottom, that are attached to the cubesat structure. Available on
request are deploy and release contact sensors and also custom options such as sun
and temperature sensors. Seven panel configurations are available for very high
power missions.

GomSpace
GomSpace, which can undertake complete small satellites, is able to provide
two different power systems for cubesats. These both use 30% efficient
cells. These units are designed to include a magnetorquer, sun sensors, and
gyroscopes. The customizable panels have a maximum output of 6.2 W
and 7.1 W, respectively. Cubesat panels can be ordered with an integrated magnetor-
quer with only a slight mass addition. The 1-unit cubesat panel produces 2.3–2.4 W.

Innovative Solutions in Space (ISIS)

MMA Design, LLC

MMA’s latest solar panel design is known as the rHaWK. It seeks to provide for high
kW/m3 solar electrical power production plus longer life, a high level reliability,
202 J. N. Pelton and S. Madry

through new manufacturing techniques significantly lower mass and volume. At the
beginning of life, the MMA rectangular rHaWK solar panel can normally produce up
to 90 kW/m3 and at 28 � C over 150 W/kg. The efficiency rating for the solar cells used
in the array is currently based on a configuration of the array at 29.5%. The lower-cost
ZTJ cells produce 80 kW/m3 and 130 W/kg at the beginning of life. MMA arrays have
been used by both the US Air Force and NASA (MMA Design LLC 2019).

NanoAvionics
The solar panels provided by NanoAvionics are designed for 1-unit to 3-unit cube
satellites. This array uses an epitaxial structure. These cells use a combination of
gallium indium phosphide, gallium indium arsenide, and germanium for its struc-
tural makeup. Its solar panel efficiency is rated to be very close to 29%.

SolAero Technologies Corp

See as noted in above information.

Spectrolab
See as noted in above information.

Cross-References

▶ Small Satellite Radio Link Fundamentals

References
AAC Clyde Space, Photon Solar Panels. https://www.aac-clyde.space/assets/000/000/078/PHO
TON_original.pdf?1564954830. Last accessed 15 Dec 2019
Cubesat shop, Crystal Space, 2019 PI U “Vasik”. https://www.cubesatshop.com/product/
crystalspace-p1u-vasik/. Last accessed 14 Dec 2019
DHV Technology. http://dhvtechnology.com/. Last accessed 14 Dec 2019
Endurosat, Electrical Power System Data Sheet. https://www.endurosat.com/modules-datasheets/
EPS_Datasheet_Rev1.pdf. Last accessed 15 Dec 2019
Endurosat, Solar Panels. https://www.endurosat.com/modules-datasheets/Solar_Panel.pdf. Last
accessed 15 Dec 2019)
Global Commons Raffa Maiden By Raffamaiden – BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/
index.php?curid=21285768. Last accessed 20 Dec 2019
ISIS, Cubesat shop. https://www.cubesatshop.com/. Last accessed 13 Dec 2019
MMA Design LLC, rHawk Solar Panels. https://mmadesignllc.com/product/r-hawk-solar-array/.
Last accessed 15 Dec 2019
NASA, State of the Art of Small Spacecraft Technology, 03. Power. https://sst-soa.arc.nasa.gov/03-
power. Last accessed 14 Dec 2019
Small Satellite Antennas

Kiruthika Devaraj

Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
1.1 Antenna Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
1.2 Antenna Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
2 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
3 Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Abstract
Antennas are an integral part of the satellite radio communication and navigation
system that enables the transmission and reception of electromagnetic energy
through free space. The small satellite size, volume, thermal, and material
constraints pose a special challenge to the antenna system, and the antenna design
is as much a challenge for radio engineering as it is for mechanical/structural
engineering. Many new techniques including novel packaging solutions, deploy-
ment structures, 3D printing, and advances in the commercial printed circuit
board technology have helped to tremendously reduce the volume and mass of
antenna structures so they can be integrated on small satellites. Over the last
decade, many novel and compact antenna solutions have been developed for
small satellites that have enabled the small satellite radio communication systems
to compete with much larger class satellites. This chapter presents an overview of
the antennas that are most commonly used on small satellites and presents some
recent examples of commercial small satellite antennas.

K. Devaraj (*)
Planet Labs Inc., San Francisco, CA, USA
e-mail: Kiruthika.Devaraj@planet.com

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 203

J. N. Pelton (ed.), Handbook of Small Satellites,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-36308-6_10
204 K. Devaraj

Keywords
Gain · Beamwidth · Bandwidth · Cross polarization · Axial ratio ·
Omnidirectional · Isoflux · Tracking · Telemetry · Command (TTC) · Monopole ·
Dipole · Patch · Helical · Reflectarray

1 Introduction

Over the last 20 years, mission enabling technologies such as radio systems and
antennas have become mainstream, and there has been a surge of activity in various
types of small satellite missions – including Earth Observation satellites (such as
Planet Labs Inc., Spire, Iceye, Capella Space), communication satellites (such as
Starlink, Oneweb, Kepler communication, Lynk), and Internet of Things (IoT)
satellites (such as Myriota, Astrocast, Fleet Space, Eutelsat, Swarm Technologies).
The capabilities and performance of some of these small satellite communication
systems are on par with larger form factor satellites.
Recent advances in 3D printing/additive manufacturing, material science, and
commercial printed circuit technology have yielded a number of compact and highly
performing antenna solutions that enable these newer classes of missions from a very
small form factor platform. Some of these small satellite antennas have flown on
over 300 satellites and established contact reliability on Planet’s Dove satellites
(https://www.planet.com/pulse/planet-openlst-radio-solution-for-cubesats/). Some
other antennas have demonstrated impressively high gain, such as JPL’s ISARA
reflectarray with 33 dBi gain (Hodges et al. 2018). One of these antennas has even
made it to deep space orbiting Mars and relaying data back to Earth on the MarCO
satellite (Hodges et al. 2017).

1.1 Antenna Requirements

The requirements posed on the antenna subsystem can be split into internal perfor-
mance requirements and external system requirements.

1.1.1 Performance Requirements

Frequency of Operation
Frequency of operation is set domestically in the USA by Federal Trade Commission
(FCC) and internationally by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
regulations.
Bandwidth.
Antennas need to maintain their performance (gain, beamwidth, and axial ratio)
over a specific bandwidth. The actual use case will dictate whether a wideband or
narrowband antenna is used. For instance, Tracking, Telemetry, and Command
(TTC) radios traditionally are low data rate. Because of this, a narrowband antenna
Small Satellite Antennas 205

such as a dipole or patch antenna with ~1–3% fractional bandwidth is adequate. The
payload radio, however, typically needs a high data rate. Depending on the fractional
bandwidth requirements, which may be higher than 10%, broadband antennas such
as deployable reflectors, horn antennas, or helical antennas are used.

Polarization
Radio waves passing through the Earth’s ionosphere are subjected to Faraday
rotation effects where the left and right hand circularly polarized waves propagate
at slightly different speeds. Since a linear polarized wave is made up of two equal-
amplitude left and right circular polarized components, a relative phase shift is
introduced which ends up rotating the orientation of linear polarization. This effect
is proportional to the square of the wavelength. While this effect is pronounced with
very-high-frequency (VHF) and ultra-high-frequency (UHF) bands, it rapidly dimin-
ishes at higher frequencies such as X-band and above. Second, if a linear polarized
antenna were to be used on a satellite, the satellite antenna orientation would need to
constantly be maintained with respect to the ground antenna orientation during a
ground station pass. This would add additional complications to the pointing and
tracking requirements of the satellite.
To avoid the complications that linear polarized antennas pose, most satellites use
left or right hand circular polarized antennas. These circularly polarized antennas
need good cross polarization (cross-pol) discrimination between the two polariza-
tions. Cross-pol is nominally specified as the Axial Ratio (AR) – which is the ratio
between the semi-major and semi-minor axis of the polarization ellipse. A rule of
thumb is for a single transmit system to have cross-pol levels of about 15 dBc (AR
~3 dB). Some special dual polarization transmit/receive systems that need a high
signal to noise ratio for high order modulation (like 32APSK or higher) will need
very high cross-pol discrimination of 25 dBc (AR ~ 1 dB), which helps improve the
signal to noise ratio.

Efficiency
Satellite antennas require high efficiency so as to optimally utilize the radiation
aperture. This requires, depending on the type of the antenna, a combination of the
following:

• Low loss tangent materials

• Low surface roughness
• Low loss feed networks
• Optimal taper
• High cross polarization isolation
• Low spillover

Beamwidth and Gain

The mission system needs imposed on the antenna subsystem affect whether a broad
beamwidth antenna with low gain, or high gain antenna with narrow beamwidth, is
chosen. TTC antennas need wide coverage, so low/medium gain antennas such as
206 K. Devaraj

dipoles or monopoles, and sometimes patch antennas are used. Payload antennas
need high gain, so narrow beamwidth is acceptable since the satellite is either
mechanically or electronically steering and continuously pointing and tracking the
ground station during a pass.

1.1.2 External System Requirements

Some external requirements are imposed by the fact that these antennas are inte-
grated on a small satellite platform. They also need to survive launch, operate in a
space environment, and operate with other subsystems. These subsystems include:

High Reliability and Robustness

• The antennas need to survive the shock and vibrations of the launch environment.
• The antenna deployment mechanism, if any, should work with very high reliabil-
ity since deployment failure could mean the end of a mission.
• Space poses extreme thermal and vacuum challenges and the antenna perfor-
mance should not degrade under vacuum conditions or repeated extreme thermal
cycling.
• The antenna should withstand space environmental effects including surface
erosion from ultraviolet radiation and atomic oxygen, surface charging from
space plasma, and structural damage from micrometeoroids. Active antennas
should also withstand total ionizing dose and single event upsets from radiation.

Low SWaP (Size, Weight, and Power)

• Size: Small satellites have a very small volume available, so antennas are
typically small form factor or need to be packaged in a small volume and
deployed on orbit.
• Weight: Along with size, mass is also a limiting factor on small satellites because
launch costs are constrained by mass and volume. Using light weight material is
key to reducing total antenna mass.
• Power: For small satellite antennas, power is another constraint and certain steps
could be taken to reduce total power consumption. For instance, a high efficiency
power amplifier could be placed very close to the antenna or integrated into the
antenna feed structure so as to avoid long cables and associated losses. The RF
power could be reduced and a higher gain antenna could be used or vice-versa so
that the effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) stays constant.

Location Constraints
• Physical location: Antennas need to be physically located on the body of the
satellite such that they are optimally utilized. For instance, on a low-Earth orbit
(LEO) satellite, the GPS antenna should be mounted on the zenith facing side and
the payload antenna should be mounted on the nadir facing side.
• Radiation surface: Depending on the frequency of operation, the entire satellite
could become a radiator or ground plane, so antenna analysis and measurements
should be done on the integrated spacecraft structure.