Bosch Electro-Hydraulic Closed Loop Control Systems Theory and Applications

E I e ctro-Hyd ra u li c
Closed Loop Control Systems

Theory and Applications
@ BOSCH
Bosch Hydraulics Electro-Hydraulic Closed Loop Systems 5
Contents Page
1. Introduction 6
1.1 Electro-hydraulic systems 6
1.2 Open-loop and closed-loop systems 7
1.3 Structure of an electro-hydraulic
control loop 9
1.4 Variants of electro-hydraulic control
loops 10
1.5 Typical applications 11
2. Principles of calculation 13
2.1 Natural frequency of a hydromechanical
d rive 13
2.2 Loop gain Kv 19
2.3 Realizable acceleration/retardation 21
2.4 Hydraulic gain KHy 23
2.5 Gain of the measuring device KME 26
2.6 Electrical gain KEL 26
2.7 Transfer response of individual elements
(Representation via step-forced
response) 27
2.8 Frequency response 29
2.9 Accuracy 37
3. Components of the electro-hydraulic
control loop 40
3.1 The closed-loop proportional valve 40
3.2 Cylinders 51
3.3 The hydraulic motor 52
3.4 Measuring devices 53
3.5 Closed-loop amplifier, setpoint
processing 56
3.6 Hydraulic power supply 58
3.7 Electrohydraulic servo-actuators 59
4. Calculation examples 61
5. Applications 68
© 1987 Robert Bosch GmbH

Division Hydraulics and Pneumatics
Postfach 30 02 40, D-7000 Stuttgart 30
Federal Republic of Germany
Technical Publications Department
HP/VKD2
Author: Werner GStz

Producer: Uwe Lackmann
Reproduction, duplication and trans-

lation of this publication, even in part, is
only to ensue with our previous
written consent and with particulars
of source.
6 Bosch Hydraulics Electro-Hydraulic Closed Loop Systems
1. Introduction
11 Electro-hydraulic
systems
Electro-hydraulic systems can

be divided into the following
subsections:
- Digital open-loop control engi-
neering using mechanically
adjustable pressure and flow-
control valves, electro-hydrau-
lic on-off valves, pressure
I
switches, limit switches etc.
Electrical signals are process-
ed using relays or by means
of programmable control
systems. f
- Analogue open-loop control

engineering using proportio-
nal valves and the accom-
panying electronic amplifiers.
The setpoints for pressure,
volume flow and direction are
predetermined via analog I' I I 'i
electrical signals (voltages) I-_ j t
and transient functions are
produced via ramp-function
generators. Prepared set-
[ÿI spEZÿ-s-ÿ Iÿÿ'
points are called up via the
machine control system which
can be implemented with
f
relays or as a programmable
control system.
- Closed-loop control engineer-

ing, using closed-loop propor-
tional valves (servo valves),
continuously operating sere
sors for determining the feed-
back signals and electronic
closed-loop amplifiers. An
i
electrical machine control
system is responsible for pro-
gram flow (setpoint designa-
tion).
Consistent further development of the proportional valves, which
have been used successfully for many years, has led to a new
generation of continuously operating valves which we refer to as
"closed loop proportional valves". These devices have static
and dynamic characteristics such as are required of actuators in
electro-hydraulic control loops. With them, there is now, for the first
time, an alternative to the high quality, but also costly and sensitive
servo valves. However, a prerequiste for the planning of closed
control loops is an understanding of several basic concepts of
control engineering, which will be explained by means of this book-
let. The hydraulics engineer should thus be able to assess the
feasibility of an approach to a problem and define the decisive
factors of a control system. As the manufacturer of the closed loop
proportional valve which lies at the centre of the system, we are
involved with problems concerning the entire installation, even if
overall responsibility for the project rests on the machine manu-
facturerf
It was decided to deliberately leave out a full explanation of mathe-

matical relationships in order to maintain the general comprehen-
sibility. Examples of calculations can be found in the appendix.
Similarly, details regarding the electronic servo amplifier cannot be
dealt with in the context of this booklet.
At this point I would like to thank all those colleagues who contri-
buted their information, suggestions and ideas for discussion to
th is booklet.
- A special type of controlled

positioning drive is represent-
ed by motorized actuators
using stepper motors and
spindle feedback as well as
mechanical/hydraulic follow-
up systems for duplicating
devices.
_R_I'UI_E_
1.2 Open-loop and output signal is affected by any

closed-loop systems errors occuring here. Such
1.2.1 The open-loop system errors arise as a result of leak-
age current, compressiblility of
The principal characteristic of the medium, friction, zero shift,
an open-loop system is the open linearity errors, wear. The most
operating program, that is to say, significant distrubance factor,
no feedback takes place bet- variations in the load on the
ween the individual steps and motor/cylinder, is partly compen-
elements. The connection bet- sated by control of the pressure
ween the output signal and the drop at throttling points using
input signal results from the pressure balances (hydrostats).
transfer response of the indivi-
dual elements of the system. The
Setpoint Amplifier Actuator Drive Load
III "I
EL power HY power
1.2.2 The closed-loop Excessive gain poses the pro-

system blem of instability. Once instabi-
lity occurs, there is no longer a
In the closed-loop system, the steady-state condition in the clo-
output signal is continuously sed-loop system, and the entire
monitored by the measuring system oscillates. The control
device and is compared with the engineer must strive to calculate
reference value (setpoint). The the correct gain and time
error signal resulting from this response for the closed-loop
setpoint/feedback comparison system in order to achieve an
is processed into a correcting optimum solution to the problem.
variable in the controller and is
sent ot the actuator so that
errors are continuously correc-
ted.
The closed-loop system is all the

more effective, the more the
error is amplified, because even
the smallest deviation between
the setpoint and feedback then
produces large signals which
then work to eliminate the error.
Error signal Correcting variable
/
Setpoint Amplifier ÿ Actuator Drive Load
IIi :I
Setpoint signal If I?
1
EL power HY power
I': ....... l easurin°device

Feedback gnal
I
1.3 Structure of an electro- The feedback signal is picked This transfer response of the
hydraulic control loop up by the measuring device and controller is dependent upon the
(Example: Position control) is converted into a d. c. signal system and the demands made
which is also analog. Depending on it.
The hydraulic power train con- on the control variable (position,
sists of a power supply, the clo- speed, power etc.) different devi- The closed-loop proportional
sed-loop proportional valve as ces may be considered for use valve amplifier is also located
an actuator and the hydraulic as measuring transducers, e. g. between controller and valve.
motor or cylinder as a drive ele- potentiometers, incremental This interface changes the cor-
ment for the load. rods, tachogenerator, pressure recting variable voltage into a
pickups etc. For details see magnetic flux and also contains
The setpoint signal is generally page 53. the valve position control
input as an analog d. c. electrical system.
signal and may originate from The setpoint/feedback signal
different sources. These are fre- comparison is performed in the
quently potentiometers, function electronic closed-loop amplifier,
generators, numerical control that is to say, the error signal is
systems or signals which come generated. This is amplified, pro-
from other drive systems of the vided with a given transfer
machine. response (P, I, D - response)
and is fed to the closed-loop
proportional valve as a correc-
ting variable.
[ ÿ I Measu device
i r,n0
Cylinder
(Drive)
Load
Feedback signal x
Correcting variable y Setpoint signal w

Closed-loop
proportional valve
(actuator)
[ jL4 ,l
Valve Closed-loop Machine control Setpoint
amplifier amplifier system processing
HY-power supply
1
1 0 Bosch Hydraulics Electro-Hydraulic Closed Loop Systems
1.4 Variants of electro- Position 1 [m]

hydraulic control loops Speed
Force
v [m/s]
F [N] I
Using drive elements, cylinders
and hydraulic motors, the follow-
ing variables can be controlled
by means of electro-hydraulic
Acceleration
Deceleration
Power
a [m/s2]
P = v. F[W]
I
closed-loop control systems: Angular
displacement qÿ [°] or[rad]
Angular velocity co [rad/s]
Torque M [Nm]
Angular
acceleration cz [rad/s2]
or retardation
Power P =co.M[W]
Corresponding measuring de-

vices are available for the diffe-
rent control variables. Values to
be derived from fundamental
quantities can also be deter-
mined indirectly by means of dif-
ferentiation, e.g. speed as travel
per time unit.
Combinations of different clo-

sed-loop control systems are
also possible, e.g. travel and
speed in the case of contou-
ring systems.
Another kind of two Sequential

superimposed control loops is
also very typical:
a) Position- or speed-control as
long as the pressure is below
i Imp]
a certain level v [.,ÿ]
b) Pressure control from a
preset level on
1
"Lowest wins" principle
Synchronization controllers are

very common. In these, two or
i
more independent drives are
subjected to the same sequence
!
of motions. Either the controlled
drives are actuated using the
same setpoint, or the feedback
signal of the first drive is fed as
a setpoint to the second drive. In
this case, there is open-loop
control of the first drive and
closed-loop control of the
'UE
second drive. (Follow-up control) IUE
1.5 Typical applications 1. It is possible to realize 2.The high power density of

sequences of motions which hydraulics, the favourable ratio
The typical applications for elec- correspond with a high of power developed to inert
tro-hydraulic closed-loop control degree of accuracy to a pre- mass, facilitates the creation
systems result from the special determined electronic signal. of drives which are well able
characteristics of these The ability to perform actua- to follow even fast setpoint
systems: tion with electronic signals changes.
opens up the numerous possi-
bilities of electronic signal and , Electro-hydraulicallycontrol-
data processing for mechani- led drives are distinguished
cal engineering. by the insensitivity to changes
in load - they are very rigid.
They are applied in the following

sectors:
Machine tools
- Control of feed drives

Fast motion, slow feed motion,
positioning,
- Contouring systems
- Spindle drives (cutting speed)
- Saw drives (power)
Plastic machines
- Injection process with pres-

sure and speed control
- Blow molding machines
Presses
- Pressing force, dynamic cha-

racteristics, Synchronization
Heavy industry
- Acceleration/retardation, syn-
chronization, driving power,
belt tension, material thick-
ness
f
Robots, manipulation systems
..%ÿ\\1111////ÿ ,\\1111
- Positioning, contouring
systems, L__ÿ -- Q - [1
- Control of acceleration and
retardation
Textiles, paper
- Edge control
- Belt tension control
Test stands, simulators
- Realization of motion sequen-

ces by means of stored
signals
Vehicles
- Distribution of scattered mate-

rial
- Contouring systems, level
controls
- Hitch-control on agricultural
tractors
Aerospace, shipbuilding
- Control-flap operation
OC) 0
2, Principles of
calculation
2.1 Natural frequency of the

hydromechanical drive
The hydromechanical drive, con-

sisting of, e.g. hydraulic cylinder
and load, represents a spring/
mass system. The spring effect
arises as a result of the elasticity
of the compressed volume of oil.
If such a system is excited, by a
blow from a hammer, for
example, it oscillates at its natu-
ral frequency fo (Hz).
In place of Hz value for fo,

the physically more correct
value "angular frequency" ÿ in
[rad/sec] or [sec-1] is used in the
further calculations.
o = 2 ÿ: " fo
The natural frequency of a

hydraulic drive is an important
characteristic variable for its
dynamic characteristics and the
starting point for the calculation
of the control loop. As the fol-
lowing shows, the natural fre-
quency of a hydraulic drive, is, to
a great extent, dependent upon
the dimensions of the motor/ fo =3...10 [Hz] Heavy fo= 100 [Hz] Testing
cylinder and the driven mass. machines, machines,
The relevant values for this lie in robots, extrusion-
the range between 10 and handling forming
100 Hz. devices, (injection unit)
extrusion-
forming
machine
(mould-
closing)
fo =50...80 [Hz] Positioning
drives,
machine tools
f
The basic formula for the calcu-
lation of the natural frequency of
spring/mass systems is:
/
c-
/
where:
0% = Natural frequency Is-1] /
/
m = Mass [kg] or
1
C = Spring Constant
o OoO o o o oooo o o o ooo o oo ooo o

o°o oo°o oOOO o o o oo o o o Oo
L o oO ........ °ooo° ........ f} o°oi
The spring constant or "hydrau- I o oO o o Oo'OoOOOO 00°0o00000000

OooOooOo oo ooOoO Oo°oOOo oo oo oo o
lic rigidity" C is largely determi- I°o OoO ÿoooo oooO °o o oO oOooOooO
ned by the trapped oil volume / /

and is established using the V,E A
formula:
A2
C=E•--
V
where:
E = Modulus of elasticity of
hydraulic oil 1 ...1.4" 107
A2 = Square of the piston

area [cm4]
V = Oil volume [cm3]
Other elements of the system, The following individual formu-

too, e. g. the closed-loop propor- lae for the calculation of the
tional valve, have their natural natural frequency result from the
frequency. As the element with design of the drive.
the lowest dynamic characteri- The rigidity of the mechanical
stics determines the angular fre- transfer elements (mounting) is
quency of the entire control loop, not considered in these formu-
the limiting frequency of the clo- lae. Corresponding deductions
sed-loop proportional valve must are to be made, depending on
also be observed. Relevant the application.
values lie in the range between
50 and 150 Hz.
2.1.1 Synchronous cylinder f

(Example (ÿ) page 61)
Vl A1 A2 V2
The symmetrical areas of this
type of cylinder produce easily
understandable conditions. With
the piston in the centre position,
the following applies:
2 2
C=E• ÿ+ÿ
Aÿ .ÿ- A2.2
as A1 = A2 = AR
C=E• It can be seen clearly that the This view disregards line volu-
AR "2 relationship between piston area mes. It is evident that the smal-
and stroke has a considerable lest possible dead volume, that
influence on the natural fre- is to say short rigid lines bet-
4 AR
C=E.- quency. The factor A: h is also ween valve and cylinder, is of
h described as ÿ. = Coefficient of advantage in order to produce a
fineness. In this regard, large high natural frequency.
substituted in coo = areas and short strokes are
favourable. The dimensioning of
the areas is, however, also deter-
=-,/4 • E • AR
COo
V rn. ;
mined by other factors such as
size, pressure and volumetric
flow.
I¢ cm
_kg• •s2cm2
• kgg- cm] = [sll
coo = Natural frequency [s1]

AR = Annulus area [cm2]
h* = Piston stroke [cm ]
m = Mass [kg]
E = Modulus of cox
elastility1 [cmkgs2] co min.
.... 4 . 107 3
/
E.cm_w-l_ ,o E_ l ,oaE ar
• S2J-
* For the dead volumes, provi-

\\
sion should be made for a sup-
hx
plement of 10...20% on the
hmax.
stroke h.
The above determination of the

natural frequency was based on
a centre position of the piston.
This produces a minimum value
which must be accepted as the
most unfavourable case that will
occur in practice. The graph
shows the dependency of the
natural frequency of the piston
position.
2.1.2 Differential cylinder

(Example (ÿ) page 62) AK AR
This design of cylinder will be

/
encountered more frequently in
practice. In this case, the ratio of
piston area to a annulus area, as
well as the piston position, is
also to be considered for the
h[ j I-q
calculation of the natural fre-
quency.
The minimum and thus critical

natural frequency is calculated
as for the synchronous cylinder,
however, the result must be cor-
Oo = Natural frequency [s1] * For the dead volumes, provi-
rected with a factor. This is as
AR = Piston-annulus sion should be made for a sup-
follows:
area [cm2] plement of 10...20% on the
h* = Piston stroke [cm ] stroke h.
m = Mass [kg]
E = Modulus of
elastility1 Icmkgs21
.... 4 . 107
where (z= AR (Annulus area)
AK (Piston area)
kg
Large annulus areas, that is to
say small rod diameters, are
favourable in this respect. Thus,
the complete formula for the
minimum natural frequency is:
Oo= ¢4hE'AK 1+1/-ÿ

rain " m 2
. = 1,0 0.5 Q3 0,2 0.1
/
1 hx
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0.6 0.? 0,6 0,9 1,0 hmax.
AK AR
However, this only applies to a

hx
particular position hx of the
piston. The graph shows the
dependency of the natural fre-
quency upon the area ratio and
the position hx. No correspon-
ding formulae have been derived
here.
f
2.1.3 Hydraulic motor
(Example Q page 63)
Using the basic formula
COO ÿ ÿ--'-ÿ
the mass m [kg] is replaced by

the mass moment of inertia
/[kg • m2] for rotary motion. The
spring constant or "torsional
I /[kg • cm2]
rigidity" C results from the

symmetrical conditions as
follows:
(v)2 Vo [cm3] Vo [cm3]

C=2.E-
Vo
substituted in O)o = V?
o.I
e0o = Natural While, in the case of the cylin- Due to this fact the hydraulic
freq ue ncy [sl ] ders, the dead volume is very motor is an advantageous
V = Capacity of the low in relation to the cylinder hydraulic drive. It's disadvantage
hydraulic motor [cm3/U] working volume and can be dis- is the leakage and as a result,
Vo = Dead volume of regared, it must certainly be con- varying speeds in the lower
one side [cm3] sidered in the case of the range.
I = Mass moment of hydraulic motor. The dead
inertia [kg. cm2] volume in the motor itself is
E = Modulus of elasticity Vo = V/2 per side and is thus
relatively low.
1"'1'4"107 1cmkg ]. s2
Note: The capacity V [cm3/U] is

applied in the mathematically
correct form [cm3/2 ÿ rad]
1 U = 360°=2=rad). The mass
moment of inertia is applied in
[kg. cm2], as all other linear mea-
sures are also given in cm.
The natural frequency is always
the same, independent of the
position of the motor.
2.1,4 Reduction of masses the design of the drive, the cor-

and mass moments of responding transmission ratios
inertia are to be considered and the
actual masses on the cylinder/
It is a prerequisite of the basic hydraulic motor reduced.
formulae for the calculation of
natural frequencies that the mas- In practice, the rigidity of the
ses be applied direct to the transmission must also be con-
piston rod and mass moments of sidered, as this often represents
inertia directly to the shaft of the an additional spring/mass
hydraulic motor. Depending on system.
[kg]
a m b
mred ---- i=m
I a
b
m2]
mred --
!
r2
[kg]
/'red ---- m • r2
/[kg • m2]
/ i- Z2
red h
i2 Z1
h2
Ired = m • --
4 11:2
2.2 Overall gain Kv Where

(Appendix, KEL: Electrical gain of the
Example (ÿ) page 62) electronic closed-loop IvV_I
amplifier
As has already been mentioned
in 1.2.2, the gain in a control Non-dimensional
loop is of decisive importance
for its effectiveness. In order to KHy: Hydraulic gain of
produce an exact result, the the closed-loop [ m3 1
overall gain - referred to as Kv - proportional valve
should be as large as possible.
On the other hand, with exces- AZYL: Effective piston area [m2]
sive gain, there is a tendency for
the system to oscillate. The ent- KMe: Gain of the EVl
ire overall gain Kv of the electro- measuring device
hydraulic control loop can be
divided into individual gain fac- The individual gain factors are
tors, corresponding to the com- explained in greater depth in the
ponents, by means of the following sections.
formula:
Kv=KEL'KHy" 1 "KMEAzyL Is-ll
KEL KHy
II IIi,
1' " l L i
r
I
[
llll,,,jl,,I,|
KME
In order to render the abstract

term "overall gain" more compre- O
hensible and to explain the crite-
ria for optimum dimensioning,
the example of a position control [S-1]
system is used to introduce the
term "velocity error constant" -(3
(VEC). This is identical to the
"overall gain". If, for example, a O_
O9 Objective
position-controlled cylinder
moves towards its objective, its
speed is reduced in proportion
to the distance from the objec-
tive. The smaller the control Stopping distance Displacement
deviation (in this case, the
distance from the objective) the
smaller the correcting variable
(valve position, volumetric flow, ®
speed). This sequence of
motions can be represented
I --5 h
o.
graphically as speed over dis- 09
Objective kS
placement or as displacement
over time. 66%
I [s]
The velocity error constant or
overall gain Kv is defined as
/ 1T 2T
I
3T
• Time t
Kv= vÿ
I Kv<2 • coo" D For cylinder drives, experience
enables the following simplifica-
D is thus the damping coeffi- tion to be made
It can be seen from graph (2)
cient which is composed of fric-
that the displacement/time curve
represents an exponential func-
tion and leakages. It is almost Kv Z I
0,1...0,3 COo I
impossible to establish this level as co = 2 ÿ • f, the extremely
tion. Its time constant T, likewise
by calculation and it is usually sweeping statement can also be
a frequently used term, is:
determined by means of experi- made:
ment. It is only possible to exer-
[T: vl EsI cise limited influence on this.
Extreme damping, by making a
[ Kv'ÿfo ]
corresponding adjustment to the

The greater the overall gain, the slide guide, for example, is
faster the objective position is undesirable because of the
reached and the fewer the fol- resulting loss in power. This
low-up errors, remaining control also has a negative effect on the
deviations or residual errors. hysteresis and the positioning
accuracy. In practice, D values
of 0.05... 0.2 are encountered.
Thus, the highest possible over-

all gain should be striven for, in
order to produce good control
results. However, this value can-
not just be set at any level, but
depends upon the natural fre-
quency of the hydraulic drive
and its load. There is a stability
criterion (according to Routh)
which says:
The observation of the transition Depending on the application, a Note: These statements about
into one of the end positions certain over-oscillation is accep- the dimensioning of the overall
gives a plausible explanation for table, the degree of over-oscilla- gain are highly simplified and
the relationship of Kv, COo and D. tion being kept as small as pos- all-embracing. However, in prac-
Depending upon the value of Kv sible. Even in slightly critical tice, they produce usable
the transient effect is subcritical applications, the transient effect results. A precise method is
or supercritical. has settled down after 3... 5 T. described in section 2.8 "Fre-
However, if too great a Kv value quency response" page 29.
is selected, there is a tendency
for the control loop to go into
oscillation, that is to say, it beco-
mes unstable.
> 0,5 COo ]

0,3 COo f supercritical
O
i-
cO
"(3
100%
Kv = 0,2 COo ÿ. subcritical
Kv 0,1 COo J
66%
I
I
I
I I I I I II
T 2T 3T 4T 5T Time t
Kv<2 "COo" D
2.3 Realizable acceleration by the available power or pres-

and retardation sure, and on the other hand by
(Appendix, the natural frequency of the
Example Q page 64) drive.
The acceleration and retardation

of masses by hydraulic drives is
governed by certain limits, whe-
ther in an open-loop or closed-
loop control system. These limits
are determined on the one hand
a) Limitation through power F Acceleration or

or pressure a = "ÿ retardation force [N]
t m Mass [kg]
The forces caused by uniform a Acceleration or
acceleration or retardation are retardation [m/s2]
calculated according to the 1
I= --v.t v Final or starting
Newton's fundamental law 2 speed [m/s]
t Acceleration or
=m.a] retardation time [s]
/=-- v2 I Acceleration or
The pressures necessary for 2a braking distance [m]
this are calculated using
f
The relationships between the
Braking procedure
braking distances or accelera-
tion distances, speed, time, etc.
are characterised by the follow-
ing formulae:
1
l=ÿvt
b) Restrictions through the 1. Natural frequency coo

natural frequency 2. Overall gain
Kv = 0.1... 0.3 COo
If an acceleration or retardation
3. Time constant T -
1
process is determined exclusi- Kv
vely by power criteria, oscilla- 4. Retardation or acceleration
tions may occur because of the time t = 3...5 T
natural frequency of the system. 5. Acceleration/
In order to avoid these, the crite- v
retardation a -
ria of the closed-loop control t
system are also to be observed 6. Acceleration or v2
for drives using the open-loop braking distance I-
control principle. 2a
It was found in Section 2.2, that
for a slightly critical design, a
retardation process should
come to an end after 3...5 T;
accordingly, this period is used
as a basis for the minimum retar-
dation or acceleration time.
Thus, the realizable accelera-
tion/retardation is calculated as
follows:
7 =- t
T 2T 3T 4T 5T
2.4 Hydraulic gain KHy As the pressure differential Ap

(Example (ÿ) page 65) at the valve changes as a func-
tion of feed pressure and load
This value expresses the rela- pressure, this must be conside-
tionship of the hydraulic output red when determining the
signal to the electrical input hydraulic amplification KHy.
signal at the closed-loop propor-
tional valve. The graph shows the relation-
ship
Q_ 1/-ÿ or Q2 N&p
Q
KHy = UEE
6 • 104
The input signal UE relates to the

valve amplifier, a preliminary
stage of the closed-loop propor-
tional valve. The signal level at
= I_jl
its input is
t T
UE = O...-I-10 [V]
zÿp2
The volumetric flow Q is a func- I
zÿpÿ
tion of
- the input signal UE
- the valve size
- the pressure differential
1 ,,,...,.,....,.,
-.-..., -.....,.,
::::1::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::-:
I
Ap (Q N -ÿp) J
c
E
o
Z
Cÿ 2OO
"5
175
Cÿ
150
125
/
A,Q
--7
QNominal 100 )( zÿp
I ,I,
,J,
75
/ I
I
I
/
50 I
I
I
25 I
I
0 I
0 2O 40 60 { 80 100 120 140 160 1B0 200
/
& p = 70 bar A p [bar]
The nominal flow through an This specification is often

open closed-loop proportional wrongly taken to mean that clo-
valve must therefore be related sed-loop proportional valves
to a given pressure drop Ap. The (servo-valves) are only to be ope-
standard for this is Ap = 70 bar rated at Ap = 70 bar, which is, of
or, for 2 throttle cross-sections, course, incorrect. The flow with
2x35 bar. different pressure drops is cal-
culated using the formula
The reason for this is as follows:
OX = ONenn " 1ÿ
In aviation, where servo-valve V ApNom
engineering has its origins, opti-
mization was performed accor-
ding to the weight coefficient.
In order to achieve the maximum
useful power from a given size
of valve, the operating point is
set in such a way that one third
of the system pressure drops at
the throttle cross-sections and
2/3 of the system pressure is
available to the load. The opera-
ting pressure of the elements
was set at 3000 psi ÿ 210 bar;
1/3 of this is 1000 psi----* 70 bar.
200
o
d- 175
/
o
0 150
Puseful /
125
100 / ÿI "
::::::::/ ÿ- ....... o°°'°°°" ,,,°°°,,,,,.°°o,,.* °,,o o,,,°°,,,,,.,, ,'°','°'.',°,'o oÿ ",°,',',°°',°°°°'," ° °,o.°,° ,.°°,°,°° o, o°,,°o,o°,°,, • ....
............... • ,%,.,,,,,o., ..........
o, ÿ ......... 1 ......... ÿ ........ ÿ l .......... ÿ ........ ...t...ÿ ,','° i
75 i:i:i:i:i:il:.:.:.:. I ÿ, %, :.:.:-:ÿ
iii! / / ii i!i:i:i:i -,, :i:i:i:
5O ;ÿiÿii!i!ÿ/ , ÿ ;ÿiÿiÿiÿI::::::: ÿ,, :-:.:.:i
iii!i!i!i! / D iii!iiii;ÿ.:.:.:. _ " ,, 2::::I
::::::":":: f Flosses ::::::::::ÿ""" [Juseful ''"ÿ
:!:i:i:'7 / :!:i:i:i:i-:':':': ":':':'ÿ
25
::::ii:;i ::::::::::::::::::::::: :2:::I
::::.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.I.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:. :.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:;:::::::::ÿ:::::::::::::: f,':'ÿ'['.' :..ÿ.ÿ'.ÿ.ÿ'ÿ1'...'ÿ.ÿ.'ÿ'...'ÿ.'ÿJ..ÿ'...ÿ.ÿ...ÿ'..'.Lÿ...'ÿ..'.'...t..ÿ.ÿ°..'.ÿ.ÿ.ÿ.ÿ1"ÿ.'...ÿ....ÿ'.''..ÿ[ÿ[ÿ['[1
-,,mAp across valve _- _- Ap Load ,ÿ
1/3 Pmax. 2/3 Pmax. Pmax.

The relationships become parti- Note: All observations are

cularly clear in a set of characte- based on slow feed motion. It is
ristic curves with differing ope- usual for rapid motion to 5-6
ning cross-sections or input used with only a slight load, that
signals. The required opening is to say the pressure drop at the
cross-section or the input signal valve can increase up to pump
at the valve can also be read off. pressure. The volumetric flow
This graph is generally valid, will be correspondingly large, as
provided that the volumetric flow will the power losses. Depen-
signal function of the valve is ding on the application, the
linear. (Constant distances bet- rapid motion speed can be deci-
Ween the individual curves). sive for the dimensioning of the
closed-loop proportional valve.
If, at a given load pressure, the
pump pressure is increased,
and with it the pressure drop at
the valve, the opening cross-sec-
tion can be correspondingly
reduced, that is to say, the
hydraulic gain and thus the ent-
ire loop gain increases. Howe-
ver, this results in a deterioration
in the efficiency factor.
%o 200
z
O
6 175 Throttle opening --
or input sigÿÿÿ
Cÿ 15o /
125 ÿ- /ÿ
100 ÿÿ// 6Qÿ°'/ÿ"
75 40%-
20%
25 7ÿ--ÿ--ÿ
0
0 20 &O 60 80 100 120 140 160 1BO 200
A p [bar]
2.5 Gain of the measuring

device KME
This value expresses the rela-

tionship between measured
variable and feedback signal. In
illllllllÿ UME
the case of a position measuring
system, it is:
In the case of digitally operating

position measuring systems \
(incremental measuring rod)or
inductive systems, an analog
d. c. voltage signal UME is obtai-
ned via a measuring amplifier.
Digitally operating closed-loop
proportional amplifiers can also
be supplied with a digital feed-
back signal.
2.6 Electrical gain KEL

(Example (Z) page 66)
This value is an important cha-

racteristic quantity of the electro-
nic closed-loop amplifier and is
usually adjustable for purposes
UA
of optimization. It expresses the
output to input signal ratio.
UA
KEL = NEE
The quantity is non-dimensional.
Once Kv, KHy and KME are

known, KEL can finally be deter-
mined, using the formula
1
Kv = KEL" KHy°- • KME
AZyL
producing
KEL -- AZyL" Kv
KHy " KME
2.7 Transfer response A distinction is made between influence the characteristics of

the three basic functions the electronic closed-loop ampli-
The control loop is composed of fier, that is to say to impress a
elements, each one of which has Proportional P particular transfer response on
its typical transfer response. Integral I it. Particular forms are selected,
Thus, the whole system, too, has Differential D depending on the controlled
a characteristic transfer system. The amplifier of an elec-
response. This term describes These can be provided with dif- tro-hydraulic closed-loop posi-
the course of the output signal in ferent time-delays or can be tion controller usually has only P
time against the input signal. A combined with each other. The response.
graphic representation is the following table provides an over-
"step-forced response", that is to view of the most important trans-
say, the output signal for a step- fer functions. While most ele-
like input signal. ments of a control loop have a
fixed, unchangeable transfer
response it is possible to
Transfer Realization Observations Step-forced response

function (e. g. hydraulic)
P-element Plotted against

Proportional time, the output VA
signal corresponds ,b
VA to the input signal

QE
I-element Gradient corres-

Integral ponds to the size SA
of the input signal.
SA Correcting variable
QE
increases as long
as error signal
I'-'q I is present.
Prevents lasting
control deviation. -t
D-element The output

Differential responds with a aA
aA short signal peak.
QE roD, "Shock reaction" |
to fast error
,--, , rt-- compensation.
' =-t
Transfer Realization Observations Step-forced response

function (e. g. hydraulic)
P-T1 -element Time-delayed

PA
Proportional response by output
with time-delay in form of a-type dÿ
1. order function
C2-)PE
': "T"
P-T2-element The output displays VA

Proportional over-oscillations if
with time-delay damping is low.
2. order VA Typical behavior
QE of a hydraulic
cylinder with mass.
I
PI-element Results from Fast response and

A
Integral element parallel structure no lasting control
with P-component deviation
PD-element Results from Jump response A

Differentiating parallel structure. for fast correction,
element with
P-component
D component usually
in electronic amplifier.
followed by
Behavoir.
1' mitT
Danger of over- Especially for %,,.._
oscillation slowly reacting
controlled systems
(e. g. room
temperature). t
PID-element Used for difficult controlled systems. A

Precise dimensioning required for optimum mitT
control result
)
t
2.8 Frequency response, 2.8.1 Measuring method

Bode-diagram and graphical
representation
The transfer response of indivi-
dual elements, but also that of A sinusoidal input signal is fed
entire open-loop and complete to a transfer element, e. g. a clo-
closed-loop control systems can sed-loop proportional valve. The
be analyzed and evaluated even output signal, likewise sinusoi-
more precisely using the fre- dal, displays, with increasing fre-
quency response shown in the quency
Bode plot. This form of repre-
sentation has the special advan- - a phase shift qÿ
tage that the dynamic behaviour - amplitude damping A: E
of a system can be determined
by means of the additon of cha-
racteristic curves for individual
transfer elements on the graph.
Furthermore, it is possible to
draw conclusions from the Bode
plot of a complete closed-loop
control system, for the dimensio-
ning of individual components.
This form of representation is
explained here.
\ A
- H,xl! !l;
II '
In the "Bode-diagram", the

phase shift is given in degrees
of a 360° period, the amplitude
damping in a logarithmic scale
dB = 20 "log UA
UE
The frequency at which a phase

shift of -90° occurs is designa-
ted the limiting frequency. A fur-
ther definition relates to the
amplitude damping of -3 dB.
Both approaches produce
approximately the same limiting
frequency, that is to say 90°
phase shift and -3 dB amplitude
damping occur at approximately
the same frequency.
A
[d B] qÿ [o]
_
Amplitude
\
0
-2
bei - 3 dB ÿ-
-4
-6 -180
/
-8 -160
-10 - -140
-120
-100
-- bei - 90°
/ - 80
/
/ - 60
- L0
J -20
I
0
10 20 40 60 80100 200 300 f[Hz]
Limiting frequency
2.8.2 Frequency response of some typical transfer elements
Transfer Step-forced response Amplitude Phase

element
P-element A +dB ÷ho

il ii
m
log f log f
'r ,!
t -dB
I-element
A +dB
ii
fo
log f
_9o°
w r ÿg f lr
! -dB
D-element
A +dB
ii il
o
,,90
log f
t -dB
P-T1 -element
A +dB +ÿ
il
fo
log f
-z,ÿ
_90! .
r
P-T2-element
A +dB
il ii
fo
fo
-got.l°g f
Ir -180°..
t -dB Ir
2.8.3 Frequency response For the evaluation of a closed

of a closed-loop loop system we analyse the
control system frequency response of the entire
circuit.
The complete closed-loop con-
trol system is composed of seve-
ral transfer elements.
They are linked together as
shown on the block diagram.
The negative sign of the feed-
back-signal in the junction point
illustrates teh proper sense of
it's operation, meaning the
inverse feedback.
Closed-loop
I .............. I.-- Amplifier proportional valve Cylinder
Po Po P - T2 I
Measuring device
r_
T )
+
Po
First of all we analyse the

frequency response of the
interrupted control loop. For
this reason, the feedback-path is
interrupted and the input is
supplied by a sinusodial signal.
At output A appears a sinusodial
signal as well, however with a
different amplitude and a phase
shift qÿ. The amplitude ration A: E
and the phase-shift are depend-
ing on the frequency of the
input-signal. For details see the
bode-diagram.
Closed-loop
Amplifier proportional valve Cylinder
I Measuring device
Po
J
The amplitude curve starts at

low frequencies with a strong
peak. This is explained by the
fact that the cylinder now func-
tions as an integrator which per-
forms theoretically infinite fluc-
tuations provided sufficient time
is available. With an increasing °1
setpoint frequency, the curve

approaches that of the closed
control loop. The phase curve
is offset by a further -90° with
respect to that of the closed .90°
loop, corresponding to the inte-
grator effect of the cylinder.
flHzl
_90°
_160°
_270°
f
The amplitude ratio can be
influenced by changing the gain
in the electronic controller, the
phase shift remaining unaffec-
ted by this. In graphic terms, a
change in Kv means a parallel -&--[dB] y,[o]
shift of the amplitude curve. O,I
:0-
'ÿ,4 ,/ ChalngeingainKv
15-
10
O
2 3 4
hase "ÿ.L IX \lAmplitud6
5- .......... _ÿ-ÿ.ÿ, / \\ ÿ mar(lin {-900
10
15
....
This form of frequency response

can be employed for the evalua-
tion of stability criteria and for
the dimensioning of the overall
gain. The "Nyquist" Stability
f\
Criterion is based on the follo- -----A:E>I
wing consideration: A:E=I
If a sinusoidal signal is introdu-
----A:E<I
ced at E, output A also oscilla-
tes. However, because of the
integrating effect of the cylinder,
the output is phase-shifted by
90° and has a different ampli-
tude depending on the fre-
quency. At a given frequency fo
the phase shift is eventually
-180° which, as a result of the
With A: E>I the system oscilla- In order that the closed control
tes, that is to say, it is unstable loop again attempts to return to
spring/mass effect of the load,
can increase up to -270°. Theo-
(positive feedback). its steady-state condition once it
retically, at this frequency the has been excited, A: E must
With A: E<I the oscillation sub- clearly <1. The stability criterion
loop (switch) could be closed,
sides, that is to say, it is stable. can be defined as follows as a
as signals A and E are synchro-
nous. Depending on the gain Kv, guide value for electro-hydraulic
the amplitude ratio is A: E= 1 or
With A: E= 1 the system is at position control systems:
>1 or<l.
the stability limit (limit stable).
a) In the frequency response of
the open circuit, the amplitude
ratio must be -3...-6dB at a
phase shift of -180°. ("Ampli-
tude margin") or
b) The phase shift must be-

135° with a OdB amplitude
ratio. (Phase margin).
Through evaluation of the fre-

quency response it is possible
to determine the ideal overall
gain Kv experimentally.
2.8.5 Determination of the

frequency response
through graphic
addition
If the frequency responses of

the individual elements are
known, the frequency response
of the interrupted control loop
can be determined by means of
graphic addition.
A
[d B] [o]
15¸
,,,ÿntegr!tor (valve cylinder)
10 \ ,
,,ÿ[,... ÿ. Cylinder
5
,ÿ ÿ/ ÿ, CIIosed-loop
"ÿ ÿ ÿ, proportional valve
0' .ÿ , : ÿ \ ÿ'--ÿ ! f [Hz]
2 3 4 5 "ÿ1()ÿ. 20 30 40 50 Iÿ100 \200 3OO
10
-15
Finally we analyse the frequency The course of the amplitude ger follow the input signal. At fo,
response of the closed control curve corresponds to a system the phase curve displays a
loop. with P-T2 behavior (proportional phase shift of 90° which climbs
element with delay, 2nd order). It further to 180°. This means that
displays an increase to at fo, the an error is no longer corrected
natural frequency of the hydrau- but is amplified - the control
lic drive. This is followed by loop oscillates.
extreme amplitude damping, that
is to say the system can no Ion-
Closed-loop
Amplifier proportional valve Cylinder
A
Po Po P - T2 I
Measuring device
,11
Po
A
[dB] o [o]
fo
+90°
f [Hz]
4 5 10 2O .oo
_90°
_180°
-270°
\---
\
2.9 Accuracy The position accuracy, for Furthermore, the overall gain Kv
example, is limited or impaired and the time response of the
The object of a rough calculation by: closed-loop amplifier naturally
for closed control loops compri- also have a considerable
ses not only dimensioning, but - the resolution power of the influence on the control result.
also evaluation of the accuracy measuring system
anticipated. - the hysteresis, responsive-
ness or reversal error of the
The term accuracy must be defi- actuator (valve)
ned more precisely depending - temperature drifts (affecting
on the individual control varia- electronics and hydraulics)
bles. In the case of a position - linearity errors of the indivi-
controller, they are variables dual elements
such as follow-up errors, posi- - pressure gain (quality of zero-
tion accuracy, load rigidity etc. coverage) at valve
2.9.1 Follow-up error IN

(Appendix,
Example (ÿ) page 66)
This value is of particular signifi-

cance in the case of contouring
systems, synchronization con-
trollers, and also for the determi-
nation of braking distances in
I
positioning processes.
IN
In accordance with the state-
ment
V
Kv - it follows
/
V
/N = Kv
This value corresponds to the

braking distance when nearing
an objective and is also identical
to the follow-up error in position
controllers.
2.9.2 Position errors caused With an assumed disturbing The error signal AU can, using
by external load forces force corresponding to 80 % of the displacement measuring
(Example @ page 67) the system pressure and with system or its gain KME, be con-
the given characteristic curve for verted into a displacement
If an external force acts on a the pressure gain of the valve, a deviation, in accordance with the
cylinder, a corresponding signal of A Uvalve = 0.2 V is relationship
hydraulic operating force must necessary in order to compen-
be applied. Depending on the sate the load with a correspon-
• 1 as KME -- UME
application, such load forces ding operating force. This cor- I
are, for example, recting variable A Uvalve comes
from the electronic controller
Frictional forces with the gain KEL. The input
AI- AU
Weight forces signal at the controller, the
KME
Feed-positioning forces. necessary error signal AU is
thus
These must be significantly
smaller than the cylinder force
AU- A Uvent
which is limited by the pump KEL
pressure.
In order that a position deviation Thus it can be seen that in order

caused by an external load may to keep the errors small, a large
be compensated, a certain error electrical gain KEL iS advanta-
signal which can still be utilized geous.
by the actuator (valve) is neces-
sary. Thus, the size of the error
depends on the sensitivity of the
actuator - this is the "pressure
gain" of the valve - as well as
the electrical gain KEL of the
controller.
UME
L
"4-- PPu
KE .L/1 ÿ : ÿ
PPu@
0,2V J \ A UVENT
A UVENT A U --
KEL
Pressure gain of the valve

Bosch Hydraulics Electro-Hydraulic Closed Loop Systems • 39
2.9.3 Position errors caused 2.9.4 Positioning errors

by friction caused by hysteresis
Static friction must be conside- Values for the hysteresis, rever-

red for every drive. The force to sal error etc. of closed-loop pro-
be overcome can be given in % portional valves are in the area
of pump pressure. Values of this of 0.1 ... 0.3 %. If all other distur-
type are in the area of 10 %. Sta- bance factors, such as forces,
tic friction is to be regarded as a temperature drifts etc. are disre-
disturbing force, from which a garded, a position error determi-
position error results. The latter ned by the hysteresis is calcula-
is determined, as shown in the ted in a similar manner to that
preceding Section, using the described in the preceding Sec-
pressure gain of the valve and tion.
the gain of the measuring
system KME. Example:
Friction in the drive has the A hysteresis of 0.2 % corres-
same effect as valve hysteresis. ponds to a signal Uvalve = O.02V
and an error signal
/ÿ U - Uvent
KEL
This error signal AU can, using

the displacement measuring
system, be converted into a dis-
placement deviation in accor-
dance with
AU
A I = " Imax
UME (max)
This error is relatively low com-

pared with the error caused by
external load forces.
1 Components of
the electro-
hydraulic control
loop
3.1 The closed-loop Different terms are used for

proportional valve continuously operating valves,
± J. ) depending on design and type:
3.1.1 Definition of terms Of particular interest for our pur-
poses, is a valve which, from an
The actuator in an electro- equipment engineering point of
hydraulic closed-loop system is view, is developed from the pro-
a continuously operating valve, portional valve. Through consis-
that is to say, a valve with step- tent development, static and
less transition which changes dynamic characteristic quanti-
an electrical input signal into a ties have been achieved which
proportional output signal. It is are hardly inferior to those of
usually a device with 4 ports and servo valves. We call this a
3 overlapping working positions. closed-loop proportional
valve. With this, there is now,
Also possible are 3/2 valves, for the first time, an alternative to
which are used for so-called the high quality but also sensi-
dual-margin control systems. tive and costly servo _valves
which have dominated electro-
hydraulic control systems for
decades.
Continuously operating valves

Directional Proportional Closed-loop Servo valves
control valves for valves proportional
electric remote valves
control
Application Open loop Closed loop
Hysteresis 5% 0.5.. 1% 0.1 ... 0.2% 0.1%
Overlap 4- 20% 4- 2... 20% Zero overlap
Limiting frequency 5...10 Hz 10...70 Hz 50...150 Hz 100...200 Hz
Design Directly or pilot- NG 1 0 directly NG6 directly Pilot-operated

operated prop.- controlled controlled 1st stage fluid
solenoid without NG 1 6 pilot- NG 10 pilot- convertor
position control controlled operated (or jet pipe)
Prop. solenoid Prop. solenoid
with and without with position
position control control
3.1.2 Static and dynamic Linearity curve in the range of the smaller
characteristics of The linearity between the electri- signals is often striven for, in
closed-loop cal input signal and the hydrau- order to produce better resolu-
proportional valves lic output signal is shown in the tion in this range. The charac-
graphically represented "trans- teristic curves are related to a
In a closed-loop control system, fer function" (flow characteris- particular pressure drop/k p as
certain demands are made on tic). It is determined by the geo- is the nominal flow. For servo
actuators which are explained metry of the control edges, but and closed-loop proportional
individually in the following: also by the amount of pressure valves, ik p = 35 bar metering
differential/k p here compared edge is normal. (For larger
with the other resistances in the valves/k p = 5 bar).
valve. A flatter characteristic
J
+Q ÷Q
/
/
-U ÷U L+N
-Q -Q
Proportional valve Servo valve
Hysteresis, sensitivity, Hysteresis Sensitivity

reversal error This is the greatest difference in The change in the input signal
These three characteristic quan- the input signal for the same out- necessary in order to produce a
tities are closely connected with put signal when running through measurable change in the output
each other. They are dependent a complete signal range. signal when, starting from one
upon the electromagnetic signal stop point, a change is perform-
transformer (magnetic hystere- Reversal error ed in the same direction.
sis), the mechanical friction, the The change in the input signal
play in the transfer elements, necessary in order to produce a
and, above all, upon whether the measurable change in the output
position of the valve actuator is signal when, starting from one
fed back and controlled in a stop point, the original direction
closed-loop. Relevant values are is reversed.
in the range 0.1 ...0.3%.
Hysteresis Reversal error Sensitivity

Overlap in central position Servo and proportional valves This results in corresponding
Zero overlap of a continuously differ significantly in this point. costs. In order to maintain the
operating valve in the area of the The overlap of the control edges zero overlap during a long ope-
central position is a principal in the central position can also rating period, care must be
requirement for use in a closed- be found from the transfer func- taken to ensure the cleanliness
loop position control system. A tion. of the medium (erosion).
positive or negative overlap has
a noticeably disturbing effect as Zero overlap requires extreme
a dead zone in the operation of precision in the manufacture of
the actuator. A negative overlap, the valve actuator and housing
on the other hand, leads to a or actuator casing, as well as the
pronounced increase in the use of wear-resistant materials.
volume of leakage oil.
QL QL eL
A, B blocked
--- +UE
L
+UE -UE ÿ -UE = +UE
/
+Q
/
+Q +Q,
-UE = +UE = +UE +UE
-Q
negative overlap
P #
zero overlap
P
positive overlap
Pressure gain This term can be more easily

The quality of the zero overlap or understood if the 4 control
the impermeability of the valve in edges are represented as
the starting position is represen- 4 adjustable throttles which,
ted by means of the so-called mechanically coupled, are
pressure gain. This states how changed simultaneously.
many % of the setpoint signal
are required in order to produce
a pressure difference of 80% of
the system pressure at the
closed load ports. Relevant
values are in the range 1 .,.3%.
6,p [% yon pPu) Ap[% yon pPU]
80-- f
-UE[%]
60-
40
20 /
20
I 2
*UE[%]
40
60
80
-UE 1°*/o1 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 +UE [%]
Ap Ap
PB
Ppo(
f
Dynamic characteristic The response time is a simple
quantities statement. This is defined as the Normal measuring method
The dynamic characteristic answer to a signal jump at the
quantities supply information input. Relevant values are in the
about the ability of a valve to range 5... 50 [ms]. Transition at
react to fast signal changes. The the beginning and end of the 10%
limiting frequency, that is to say, movement (over-oscillations) are
the frequency at which the valve usually excluded from the time
is still able to follow a sinusoidal measurement.
input signal, should be higher
than the natural frequency of the
hydraulic drive. Otherwise, the
closed-loop proportional valve
determines the dynamics of the
entire system.
Frequency response
(Bode diagram)
The frequency response, which
is represented in a Bode plot,
gives more information about the
frequency response of a valve. J
The measuring method and
mode of presentation have
already been described in
Section 2.8, page 27.
The Bode diagram for a typical
UA
closed-loop proportional valve -- in dB
UE
usually has P-T1 or P-T2 char-
acteristics. However, for posi- 2"
Ps = 100 bor
tion-controlled valves, this I 0
applies only for particular ampli- I
I -2
tudes, as they have a pro- I _L 200
nounced non-linear response. o
• .ÿ - 6 180
The signal frequency at which a @

-8 160
phase shift of -90° or an ampli- -10 1/.0
..-ÿ_
tude damping of -3dB occurs at o._ 120
the output is defined as the limit- E
100 ._
ing frequency. For closed-loop
80
proportional valves it is approx.
50...100 Hz.
60
/.0
.
As a result of the non-linearity of 2O
the closed-loop control circuit, 0
the frequency response is 10 20 40 60 80100 200 300 f[Hz]
dependent upon the signal
amplitude which must be speci-
fied as a parameter. The dyna-
mic response of a valve is prima-
rily of interest in the range of
smaller signals and is generally
determined for U = 5 % Ureax, J
f
3.1.3 Summary of the Bosch
range of closed-loop
proportional valves
The Bosch range of closed-loop

proportional valves comprises
units for nominal volumetric
flows from 5 to 6000 I/min and
pressures up to 350 bar. Details
can be found in the specialized
catalogue AKY 013/2.
The following is a brief

summary:
Closed-loop
proportional valves NG 6 Symbol QNom (I/min)
4/4 directional control valve,
direct-operated 5
A B
The Bosch range is built around "O
, 12
the size NG 6 control valve 24
which is offered as a self-con- P T \
Lo.ÿ_ 40
tained unit but can also be used coo
as a pilot valve for all types of II'ÿ 12
pilot-operated control valves
(also cartridge-type valves). P
IXI iI
T \
O-E
<1ÿ- 24
40
Outstanding features are:
- valve body with hardwearing
steel sleeve for precise zero
lap - fail-safe position with solenoid
- control solenoid of high de-energized (enabling off).
actuating force
- position transducer, pressure-
tight DC/DC type with _+IOV
output signal over the control
range, integral electronics
f=
Closed-loop
proportional valve NG 10
4/4 directional control valve
direct operated
This valve is based on the same
design as the NG6 size and
continues the product range. It
has also:
- valve body with hardwearing
steel sleeve for precise zero
lap
- control solenoid of high
actuating force
- position transducer, pressure-
tight DC/DC type with _+10V
output signal over the control
range, integral electronics Symbol Ap QNom (I/min)
A 8
- fail-safe position with solenoid 35 bar per 5O
de-energized (enabling off).
P T \ metering edge 100
T A P B
Closed loop
(p/Q valve)
The size NG 10 closed loop pro-
portional valve with a 5/3 direc-
tional control function is particu-
larly suitable for use as a com-
bined p/Q valve. Q is open-loop
controlled and p closed-loop
controlled. The flow rate Q is
determined by the throttling
areas P1 ÿ-A and P2 ÿB. Either
single or double flow can be
selected. In conjunction with a
variable-delivery pump and its
regulator it is possible to pro-
duce a load-compensated, low- Symbol QNom (I/min)
loss, open-loop control system
P1 --*A + P2ÿ'B _a oÿ 125
for the flow rate Q.
A B
The pressure p is acquired by I-
,v-- 03
an external pressure controller PÿA II 62.5
P, P: T o_E¢
as the actual value. As the pres- <3 ÿ- O3
sure falls, the connection AÿT AÿT ,ÿ ÿ-o 37.5
o.. 0)
opens, the pump inlet is closed
and the variable-delivery pump
throttles down.
The pressure sensor is available
as an accessory; the electronic P Eÿ
F .....
pressure control is incorporated i
in the p.c.b, of the valve ampli-

lI
fier. An adaption to the whole I
I
system is necessary.
I
]
/ 0 [t/.ÿ]
\\
i1"
L__ ji
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
T A P1 B P2
Closed loop proportional

valves, NG10, 16, 25
413 directional control
valves, pilot-operated
The pilot-operated 4/3 closed
loop proportional valves, sizes
NG 10, 16 and 25, have position
transducers for position control
on both the main valve spool and
the pilot valve. This ensures high " IF
switching capacities, low hys-
teresis and excellent dynamic
performance.
All sizes of valve share the
following features:
Pilot valve Symbol ONom (l/min)

Size NG 6 control valve with 50
position control, body with in- NG 10
_o 75
serted steel sleeve for the spool. LO
, 120
NG 16 ..
Main valve 200
Body of spheroidal graphite cast NG 25 37O
iron for precise, hardwearing
control lands and pressures of
p = 350 bar (P, A, B); pressure-
tight position transducers DC/
DC type.
T A P B X Y
f
3/2-way closed loop
proportional valves
cartridge-type NG25, 32, 50
The "3/2" valve is particularly suit-
able for: force and position con-
trol of motion in one direction
only, always acting against a
load.
i
For example:
injection cylinders of injection
moulding machines
injection speed and mould pres-
sure control
press cylinders
thrust modulation.
The main stage, a cartridge-type

valve is controlled by a remote
pilot valve NG6 as shown on
page 43.
Symbol
, uÿ ÿ__ÿ ,47ÿ,ÿ
PT
QNom (I/min)
65
NG25 -Q
uo 150
NG 32 rl 300
NG 50 "ÿ <1 600
,50 Bosch Hydraulics Electro-Hydraulic Closed Loop Systems
Electronic amplifiers supply voltage is 24V d.c. The Note: These standard ampli-
The electronic amplifiers contain signal level for all inputs and fiers serve only to actuate the
all components for the actuation outputs is in the range 0...10V valve and are not the control
of the closed-loop proportional or 0..._ 10 V. "Differential ampli- amplifiers of the entire closed-
valves, including position con- fier" technology permits un- loop system. These are
trol of the valve slide. They take restricted signal exchange with designed and built individually,
the form of Euroformat circuit external electronic systems. in accordance with the particular
cards with DIN connectors. The application.
Connector DIN 41 612/F32

rows b and z "ÿlq p.c.b. 100 x 160 LI
+UB , • m , Iÿ ! z-2ÿ)--ÿ-° +Ua24V=(Jma. 2.SA)

F .... ternal 10V ÿ .ÿ(ÿz.z3._2 , 10V=/IOmA , 15Vÿ + ÿ | ÿ Z4 +UK
-lOV = ÿ 4''ÿ-b3-2 -10V=/tOmA I /nr" I / Ib4 --
LED(green) -fSVÿ .L I ] ÿ--.ÿ--- For>,0%rlpp,eUB
Enable R, ÿ ÿ" ] i,ÿ -- ÿ}ÿ.ÿ p ........ o (OVDC)
-10V= ÿ__ÿ"ÿ CÿZ'16_ÿ . ÿ Control .... (OVDC)I Z28 ÿ j" Externa[hnk
..... ÿ I /T I I /-ÿJ'-ÿ-I • when > 1 mm to centre zero
(max 40 V ÿ----->----ÿ .L / • when ÿ 1 m: b2 to z28 (on connector
• Alarm: I open-circuit i
AI .... ÿl_ÿ.Cÿz 2_2 Ra ÿ 1ÿ_ÿ. I
• Fault:- 12V (max 15VDC)
O No fault: + 12 V (max. + 14 V DC) ..... ---.e-ÿ ÿ--ÿ
__.__.ÿ b 1_2_ ntrol zero
--ÿ-ÿ..Co LED (yellow) I I I l i
Setpoml
z2O ÿDfff. amphfler Z ..... d;
I
II J
I I
. I_b_2ÿ) Sign. /" ÿ., -ÿ%
OVDC...±IOVDCUeÿ--- ÿ I ÿ - J I T ÿ iLz30 .ÿ+15v=/ I /,
--°vD° I 3k ÿ i I-bÿ--2Cÿ ref-°- ( ] ]/!
oControl .... *-5% ÿ
,,r--Solenoid--,; . ÿ :lllll
<ÿ. "ÿJ-2 !1 I I II
'" Sensor ÿ Pl I I I;
• NG6 T Pilot ÿ-1-lSÿ-JJ I I li
I I!
J
3.2 Hydraulic cylinders
Cylinders are popular for the

realization of hydraulic drives as
the cost of construction is far
less than that of rotational
motors and ball-bearing spin-
dles.
The synchronous cylinder has

the advantage that its dynamic
characteristics are not affected
by the direction. However, good
results are also obtained from
the differential cylinder, which is
more commonly used in prac-
tice, provided the two surfaces
do not differ too greatly.
Smooth-running seals are used

in order to achieve the lowest
possible coefficients of friction.
Lateral forces are absorbed by
suitable piston and rod guides.
Cylinders with hydrostatic bear-

ings are used to satisfy the most
exacting requirements.
3.3 Hydraulic motor Volumetric efficiency Speed range

Good servo motors have little Depending on the type (slow
Hydraulic motors are used for internal leakage oil, partic- speed/high speed) and the
rotary motions. With their longer ularly at the lowest speeds. application, a reducing gear
strokes, hydraulic motors and may be necessary. High speed
threaded spindles are also an Mechanical efficiency motors and reducing gears
advantage for linear motions. At the lowest speeds and in produce the better results.
They produce more rigid drives transition from standstill, The volumetric and mechani-
as the enclosed volume of oil is increased moments of friction cal efficiency factors deterio-
smaller. occur, which, in combination rate at low speeds, with nega-
with the leakage looses, lead tive effects on the control
The choice of an hydraulic motor to the stick-slip effect. result.
is based on the particular appli- Designs with pressure-reliev-
cation. For example, care must ed elements are of advantage Dead oil volume
be taken to ensure that, in the in this respect. Like the line volume, this
case of a motor controlled by a should be as low as possible.
closed-loop proportional valve, Uniformity of rotary motion
half the system pressure always This is achieved through large Structural shapes
acts upon both ports, so that the numbers of pistons or through The demands imposed are
total of the two absolute pres- roller vane motors. satisfied only by axial piston,
sures measured at the ports is radial piston and roller-cell
approximately equal to the Mass moment of inertia motors.
system pressure. This has a This should be as small as
negative effect on the frictional possible. However, this requir-
losses of the motor, particularly ement depends upon the en-
at the lowest speeds in the tire moment of inertia reduced
mixed friction range. The follow- onto the motor shaft. It is not
ing criteria can be considered practical to make exaggerated
for the selection of the motor: demands with larger loads.
3.4 Measuring devices - Measured variable (displace- In the following, several trans-
ment, speed, pressure etc.), ducers with an electrical output
Measurement of the control - Accuracy of measurement signal are explained:
variable in a closed control loop (resolution, linearity, repro-
is of the greatest importance. ducibility),
Errors which lie between the - Measuring point (direct mea-
measuring point and the compa- surement or indirect, e.g.
rison point in the feedback are force or pressure),
reflected fully in the control - Dynamic characteristics
variable. A control variable can (transmissible measuring fre-
therefore never be more accu- quency).
rate than its measuring device.
The measuring process and
transducer are selected with
regard to the following aspects:
3.4.1 Position meters. The accuracy of the

transducers signal voltage picked up is
directly proportional to the
- Potentiometer constancy of the supply volt-
Potentiometers are in wide- age. Disadvantages of poten-
spread use for angle and dis- tiometers are the wear of the
placement measurement. They
are reasonably priced, have
sliding contact and the un-
reliability of the contact in an
u ox II
good linearity and a very wide agressive environment and at
range of different versions is high slider speeds.
available. Resolution depends
upon the wire size of wire-
wound potentiometers and the
slider play of film potentio-
- Inductive voltage divider

With contactless and thus
non-wearing operation, this is
used for strokes <100 mm.
Essentially, it consists of a coil
with a centre tap and a ferrite
core which is moved in the
coil. It requires an a.c. supply.
The measuring signal must be
rectified. The linearity is parti-
cularly limited at the ends of
the strokes.
Ferrite core
- Differential transformer
The principle of operation is
similar to that of the inductive
voltage divider, but a ferrite
core is moved between pri-
mary and secondary coil.
Ferrite core
- Photoelectric digital These incremental scales

sensor require a reference point for
Light-dark markings are orientation at switch-on. This
applied to a rule or a disc, are is not the case with digital
read photoelectrically and the absolute systems which how-
impulses - also known as dis- ever entail increased costs in
placement increments - are the electronic evaluation. Line
stored and evaluated in an grids on glass rules are today
electronic up-down counter. produced with divisions of
40 Iÿm.
Miniature lamp DIADUR rule

-Condenÿ-er
Scale grid
III
g plate Photo elements
Reference mark
Scanning grid
3.4.2 Speed measurement
The speed is often measured

indirectly by an electronic com-
parison of displacement with
time. Tachogenerators for the
direct determination of the
speed are used predominatly for
rotary motions. These are perma-
nent-field d.c. generators. For
the direct measurent of linear
speeds, sensors are employed
in which a permanent bar
magnet produces voltages pro-
portional to the speed in two
coils. Coils "UA
Protective tube--
3.4.3 Pressure measure-

ment, force measure- Pressure sensor
ment
Pressure is usually determined

using sensors on the basis of
strain gauges. Forces can also
be determined directly via the
deformation of an elongation or
bending element. Direct force
measurement by means of a
force sensor used in tractor
units (EHR), is also of interest.
3.4.4 Other measuring Force sensor

devices, measuring
.... 4
electronics
Measuring variables such as

speed, acceleration, output etc.
are usually determined indirectly
via the measurement of funda-
mental variables such as dis-
placement, time etc. This fre-
quently entails the large-scale
application of electronics, a par-
ticular problem being the mini-
mization of the temperature drift.
3.5 Closed-loop amplifiers 3.5.1 Analog closed-loop

amplifier
The setpoint/feedback signal
comparison takes place in the These functions can be perform-
electronic closed-loop amplifier, ed by analog d. c. amplifiers
that is to say, the error signal is (operational amplifiers). These
generated. This is amplified, are multi-stage transistor ampli-
given a particular transfer fiers of integrated construction,
response (P. I. D behaviour) and whose specialized function
is sent as a correcting variable results from external wiring with
to the closed-loop proportional resistors and capacitors. Such
valve. amplifiers are designed and
built individually and are adjust-
ed during commissioning. As
well as the actual control elec-
tronics, this assembly also in-
cludes a mains unit for the inter-
nal power supply (_15 V) and
the power supply and evaluation
electronics for the measuring
devices.
The setpoint processing, that is
to say, the machine program is
performed by a higher-level con-
trol system.
Setpoint speed
Vl ..... vk
,UR
_.ÿ._ Ramp generator (voltage controlled)
Controller I Controller 2
Setpoint position Rv
S1 ..... Sn
Cv
Rr CT R
Rp
Re R
1" R
Position feedback R0
signal cylinder
Demodulator Position feedback
signal valve
3.5.2 Digital also possible to program posi-

closed-loop amplifier tion and speed setpoints. It is
likely that the possibilities provi-
Signals can not only be gener- ded by the microprocessor will
ated and processed in analog have a lasting influence on elec-
form (as a d. c. voltage), but also tro-hydraulic control technology
digitally, a signal being repre- and also on proportional techno-
sented by a series of binary logy.
numbers. With the availability of
reasonably priced microproces-
sors, this method has made dra-
matic progress. As all steps in
the computational process are
executed consecutively, the
cycle time of the microprocessor
is of great importance. The out-
put signal which is not rigidly
constant, but stepped, corre-
sponding to the bit resolution,
can however be regarded as
constant in practice. The advan-
tage of this method lies in the
higher degree of accuracy and
the facility for freely program-
ming all control parameters via
the software. Thus, universally
applicable basic modules can
be designed. The example illus-
trated shows on such system for
positioning drives in which it is
ill-
i |IIIilHIIhlII|IIII|IIHIIIII|IiII|ITII|'-ÿFLÿFÿÿ
CNC
< BUS
3.6 Hydraulic power supply Filtration Cooler

3.6.1 System pressure, Traditional servo valves with Closed-loop control systems
volumetric flow fluid converters as pilot stages operate with considerable
are extremely sensitive to dirt. energy losses because of the
The maximum pressure is deter- The control edges of modern high pressure drops at the clos-
mined by the load, the friction closed-loop proportional valves, ed-loop proportional valve. In
and the pressure drop at the however, also require above- addition, the energy expended in
closed-loop proportional valve. average filtration. In order to accelerating the drive is not
The maximum volumetric flow is ensure general operating relia- recovered on braking. Installa-
usually calculated from the rapid bility, but more importantly, in tion of a cooler ÿs usually essen-
motion speed. A regulated pres- order to protect the control tial. Depending on the type of
sure system is necessary to edges from premature erosion operation, the heat developed is
supply a closed-loop proportion- and to maintain the quality of the between 30% and 100% of the
al valve. Regardless of the volu- zero overlap, contamination of input power.
metric flow required, the feed the oil is to be limited in accor-
pressure should remain roughly dance with class 7...8 as speci-
constant, even in the absence of fied in NAS 1638. This is achiev-
load pressure. On the basis of a ed using full-flow filters of class
pressure drop at the valve 131o = 75, which should be
located in the pressure line,
immediately before the closed-
A p = ! PPu
3 loop proportional valve. The cri-
and in accordance with the flow- tical phase is commissioning,
rate law when "built-in" dirt often leads to
failures. It is therefore recom-
O = QNom "
lfApx
A PNom
mended that the system be
flushed clean before the closed-
loop proportional valves are
a delivery rate
installed.
Oma× -- -Iÿ ONom
is to be maintained.
This value often occurs only
briefly and can be taken from an
accumulator.
3.6.2 Fixed or variable

displacement pump
For smaller systems with drive

outputs <3 kW, supply is by
means of a fixed displacement
pump. The excess flow escapes
via the pressure relief valve.
In order to minimize losses,
variable displacement pumps
with pressure controllers are
used for larger drives. As the
response time of such control-
lers is usually considerably
longer than that of the closed-
loop proportional valve, accumu-
>
lators are also used here.
I
!
I
I I
3.7 Electro-hydraulic
servo actuator
II,
Integrated servo actuators are a u
special type of controlled posi-
tioning drive. They take the form
of assemblies in which
cylinder
closed-loop proportional valve
mechanical feedback
stepper motor
are integrated.
The electrically actuated stepper

motor (b turns a threaded
spindle @ and thus deflects the
At the same time, the tracer nut Depending upon the type, tracer
slide ® of a continuously opera-
®, which is rigidly attached to screws with different pitches are
ting valve. Depending upon the
the piston, causes a tracer used.
direction of drive, pressure is
screw @to turn and thus trans-
admitted into one of the two
mits the movement of the piston High speeds, but limited accu-
cylinder spaces and the piston
back to the valve actuator. If the racy are obtained with a large
® retracts or extends.
specified setpoint corresponds pitch.
to the feedback signal, the valve
actuator returns to its basic With tracer screws with fine-
position. This is, therefore, a fol- pitch threads, the speed is limit-
lower system with mechanical ed, but there is a very high
feedback. degree of positioning accuracy.
Electric control Thanks to its internal power

supply unit, the unit can be con-
The servo actuator is controlled nected direct to 220 V.
by a compact, universally usable
control unit. The unit is used for the control
of individual axes, but can be
Up to 99 different "sequences" linked to higher-level systems.
can be realized with it. Each Further variants of this device
"sequence" corresponds to a are suitable for the control of
particular set of movements with several axes.
different strokes, speeds, inter-
mediate stops, return etc.
The control unit contains a com-
puter system which processes
all parameters, as well as an
input and display for all stages
of a work cycle.
4. Calculation
Examples
For a better understanding of
the fundamental theory. Always
related to the appropriate
section.
R. J
Example @
Natural frequency
Vl A1 A2 V2
of synchronous cylinder
Section 2.1.1 \ \/ /
Given:
" II " EB
D = 50 [mm]
d = 32 [mm]
m = 50 [kg]
h =50[cm] ÿ kg1
E = 1.4 • 107
cm • sec2
Sought: COo [s-I] Solution:

fo ---- 60o
fo [Hz]
=1/4 " E • AR 2=
COo
!/ ;.ÿ
fo = 79.6 Hz
[ -ÿcfn kÿl • cin2 ^
from
D=50mm+A =19.5[cm2]1)
d =32mm+a = 8.0[cm2]1)
AR = 11.5 [cm2]
=-1/4" 1.4" 11.5 • 107

600
I/ 50 . 50
_]/64.4 • 10v
coo-v ÿ.ÿ-- ÿ-@
COo =V25.76 • 104
0ÿo = 500 [s"1]
1) Determined by the Bosch

HY-slide rule
f
Example Q
Natural frequency AK AR
of differential cylinder
Section 2.1.2
/
Given:
D = 50 [mm]
d = 32 [mm]
hr!i
m = 50 [kg]
h =50[cm] [ kg ]
E = 1.4 • 107 cm • sec2
J
Sought: coo [s1]
fo [Hz]
Solution:
COO = - " --
• m 2
Minimum natural
from frequency with
D=50mmÿA = 19.5[cm2]1)
d =32mmÿa = 8.0[cm2]1) hx = h • 0.56
AR = 11.5 [cm2]
0.56 from graph J
hx = 50 . 0.56 = 28 [cm]
_AR_ 11.5_0.6
AK 19.5
=-1/4" 1.4" 107 . 19.5 1 +

600
I/ 50 . 50 2
109.2"107 1.77 COX

COO = i
2.5 • 103 2 CO min.
. = 1,0 0,5 0,30,2 0,1
3
coo =¢43.68 • 104 . 0.885 //I/IIII

eo = 660 . 0.885 = 584 [S"1]
fo - COo _ 92.9 [Hz] hx

2ÿ 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,/* 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0 hmax
AK AR
1) Determined by the Bosch

HY-slide rule
Example G
Natural frequency
of hydraulic motor G
Section 2,1.3 I , I I I kg-omÿ1
Given:
Load: h = 50 [cm]
r = 10 [cm] VO [cm3]- Vo [cm3 ]
p = 8 . 10"3 [kg/cm3]
Hydr. motor: V = 80 [cm3/U]
Lines: 25 x 3 [mm]
- 1000 [mm] long
E = 1.4" 107
/
I kg 1
cm .s - Natural frequency
Sought:
Natural frequency COo, fo
(at)O
1/ (v)2
2 . E" zÿ
Solution: Vo • I
- Load mass
m=p.=.r2.h
2.8"107" (8-°12
zÿ t
= -628:103
m = 8 . 10-3 • 11; • 102 . 5 . 10
c/ÿ3 0L)O /4.52 • 1 09

20.28 • 105
m = 1 25.6 kg
-I/0.223 • 104
- Moment of inertia of load
:L
_ 125.6.100
teo = 0.47 • 102 ---- 47 [s"1]
2
Ikg • cm21 fo- C0o_ 47_ 7.48[Hz]

2= 2=
I= 62.80 [kg • cm2]
- Dead volume of one side

In hydr. motor:
Voa ---- 0.5 " V ---- 40 [cm3]
In line:
¢i = 1.9 cm
d2
Ai - • Tc _ 2.83 [cm2]
4
I = 100 [cm]
VOL = 283 [cm3]
Total dead volume:
Vo =40+283 =
323 [cm3]
Example @ Solution: Transient effect time

Overall gain Kv t=3...5T
Section 2.2 [ Kv=<2COo- D ] t = 0.03... 0.05 [s]
Given: Kv =< 2 . 500 . 0,1

Cylinder data and load from Kv ----< 1 O0 [s-1 ]
Example O
Damping D = 0.1; COo = 500 [s-1] Time constant:
Sought: T- 1 _ 1 [s]
Overall gain Kv Kv 1 O0
Time constant T T = 0.01 [s]
Transient effect time t
Example @ Sought b) Realizable retardation and

Realizable acceleration, a) Realizable retardation a braking distance !deter-
retardation and braking distance ! mined by the natural
Section 2.3 determined by cylinder frequency
pressure
Given: Solution:
Cylinder data and load from Solution: natural frequency from
Example 0 - available braking force Example 0
. Kv = 1 O0 [s-1 ] and = 500 [s-1]
T = 0.01 [s] from Example (ÿ) F=p'A overall gain from Example (ÿ)
Cylinder speed Kv = 100 [sq]
v = 2 [m/s] p = 100 [bar] time constant from Example (ÿ)
Permissible cylinder pressure A = 11.5 [cm2] T = 0.01 [s]
p = 100 [bar] F = 11.5 • 10a [N]1) braking timet = 3...5 T
t = 0.05 Is]
- possible retardation
The realizable retardation
F
aÿm F = 11 . 103 [N] follows from:
m m = 50 [kg]
where v = 2 [m/s]
11. lO3 I-1 * I-kg
a - ÿLkg/ = Lkg" s2_]
a - 0.05
a = 220 Isÿl
a = 40 [m/s2]
- braking distance
V2 The braking distance follows

l=ÿa from:
4 fm2 • s2_l l=2a

v21
;=4 5 s
4
I= 0.009 [m]----* 9 [mm]
1-
2 "40 ot
¢ = 50 [mm]
Example® Solution: - Hydraulic gain KHy in accor-

Hydraulic gain KHy dance with the definition
A
Section 2.4 - Load pressure A PLa =
AR
Q
Given: F = 7.5 [kN] KHy = ÿ-E
Cylinder data and load from AR = 11.5 [cm2]

Example O Q = 16.4 [I/rain] 16.4
= .--. 10.3 =
Operating speed Vl A PLast = 66 [bar]1) 60
= 0.1 [m/s]
Feed force F - Pressure drop at valve A Pve in 0.273"103 I--ÿl
= 7.5 kN order to produce maximum
efficiency
UE = 10 [V]
Sought: 1
Valve size, hydraulic gain KHy, A Pve = ÿ of pump pressure PPu
pump pressure, realizable fast KHy = 0.27:3. 1 0.3
motoin speed v2 2 10
A PLa = ÿ of pump pressure PPu
then A Pve = 33 [bar] KHy = 2.73 • 1 0"5
PPu = 100 [bar]

- Realizable rapid
Volumetric flow for operating motion speed v2
speed vl
Given that at rapid motion speed
Q1 = Vl " AR ] the load is zero, than 100% of
pump pressure accounts for the
vl = 0.1 [m/s] = 6 [m/mini valve's pressure drop, that
AR= 11.5[cm2] means A Pve = 100 [bar]
Q1 = 7 [I/min]1) /An,,
Q2 = Qaom • 1/-ÿve
If APaom
Valve size aNom ÿ 2... 6 Q1

Q2=24 ¢O0
Valve selected:
Closed-loop
Q2 = 28.6 [I/mini
Qaom = 24 [I/min] V2 --Q2
atAp = 2x35 = 70 [bar] AR
Q2 = 28.6 [I/min]
Max. flow Qmax
AR = 11.5 [cm2]
at Ap = 33 [bar]
V2 = 24 [m/min]
Q = QNom •
] A/--A-'-Pÿe
v v2 ÿ 0.4 [m/s]
Q = 24 . 3Vÿ0
Q = 16.4 I/min
Example 0 Sought:
Electrical gain KEL Electrical gain KEL
Section 2.6
Solution:
Given: From the formula
Cylinder data from Example Q
Kv = 1 O0 [s1] Example (ÿ, KEL = Azyl" Kv
KHy " KME
KHy =2.73 "105 I msÿ
from Example (ÿ) 11.5 • 10.4 • 100

KEL =
2.73 • 10.3 • 20
Gain of the measuring device
KME=20 EV]
(Stroke = 0.5 m, UMe = 1 0 V) KEL = 210 [/]
Example ® Solution:
Follow-up error
Section 2,9,1 IN = V
Kv
Given:
Cylinder data form Example (ÿ) /N--
0.1
Kv = 100 [s-1] from Example(ÿ 100
Operating speed
vl = 0.1 [m/s] from ExampleQ /N = 0.001 [m]
IN=lmm
Sought:
Follow-up error/N
Example ® Solution: - necessary error signal AU

Positioning errors - Pressure caused by (upstream of closed-loop
through external load disturbing force amplifier)
(disturbing force)
Section 2.9.2 EL FL = 9 [kN]
PL=ÿ-R
/ÿ U = A UVALVE
AR = 1 1.5 [cm2] KEL
Given:
Cylinder data form Example O PL = 80 [bar] 1) AU- 0.2 =9.52.10_4V
Closed-loop proportional valve 210
NG 6, pump pressure PPu = 100 - /ÿ UVALVE signal required in
bar as in Example (ÿ) - Displacement deviation'
order to produce PL = 80 [bar]
Pressure gain of valve, see at Pu = 100 [bar]
graph From graph "Pressure gain" a/= a u
External load (disturbing force) A UVALVE = 0.2 V KME
at standstill
FL = 9 kN 100 bar
KEL ---- 210 [/] from Example (Z) 80 bar
KME = 20 I V I 0.2 V = A Uve

LmJ
1) determined by the Bosch A 1 = 47.6 • 10.6 [m]
Sought: HY slide-rule
Deviation from controlled zl ! = 47.6 [pm]
position
A p [% von PPu]
100 bar
80 bar 8O
6O
4O
20-
-- UE [%] -- i I I j I "ÿ "{" UE [°/o]
. 3
40 0,2V
-60
80
5. Practical
applications
5.1 Injection moulding Mould pressure control

machine When the requirement for accu-
racy with regard to the work-
The diagram shows the drive of piece is particularly high, the
the injection unit, the most pressure of the plastic material
important assembly of an injec- is controlled within the interior
tion molding machine. This is of the mold. For this purpose,
where the injection speed and appropriate pressure sensors
the position of the injection cylin- must be positioned in the tool.
der, together with the various
pressures during the injection
procedure are controlled. The
actuator for the various control
functions is in this case a
3/2 closed-loop proportional
valve for block installation, con-
sisting of the main stage (ÿ and
the pilot valve @.
With regard to control of the

injection speed, the feedback
signal is supplied by a travel
system @. The volumetric flow is
controlled via the edge PÿA at
the cartridge insert valve Q.
With regard to the control of

"injection pressure", "dynamic
pressure" and "after-pressure",
feedback signals are processed
by the pressure sensor @. The
pressures are limited via the
control edge AÿT of the car-
tridge insert valve Q.
The pump O delivers the

variable volumetric flows and
pressure across an operating
cycle, these flows and pressures
being controlled via the propor-
tional valves (ÿ and (ÿ.
I
I
iI
I
I
)
__I
© rÿ
,@L_, ©
rÿl----- --1 t_.
I I Ldy
I. ....
E
L 1
0 T
I
0
--I
0
m vLP
U A
u
m
mm
Eÿ
7 -7
-r I
|
>I<
0
U
I
I
I
-!
W J
u @
m
mm
f
Em
U
0
Injection-moulding process F
control
An electronic system which
comprises all control amplifiers
and a setpoint management
facility provides complete
sequential process control. The
assembly is suitable also for the
retrofitting of machines without
programmable controller.
Position
measurement,
Pfessurgauge
Hydraulics
Open-loop Hydraulics
Measuring control and
Control logic
electronics electronics A
Setpoint Machine control
-- Starl
Injection, end
After-pressure, end
Metering stroke reached
Oecompressmn stroke reached
Metering error
C Dynamm pressure
5.2 Fine-sheet straightening In each case, the cylinders trans-

plant mit their forces via a wedge.
Their position is scanned by dis-
Continuously running through placement transducers and
the straightening plant is a these feedback signals are fed
sheet-metal strip. The task of the to a process computer. The set-
plant is to straighten the strip points are entered via a display
across a width of 3 m to a speci- screen terminal. The screen ter-
fied thickness to an accuracy of minal may be used for visual
___0.005 mm. indication of the individual set-
points, as well.
For this purpose, 3 groups of
straightening rollers above
6 cylinders in each case are
pressed against the material, i.e.
a total of 18 controlled actuators
are used.
t t
[ I
5.3 Folding press Pressure build-up

The system pressure is built up,
Under closed-loop control are controlled via the proportional
the synchronization, the drop pressure valve Q. Synchroniza-
speed and the end position of tion and positioning continues to
the two molding cylinders. Both be checked via the closed-loop
cylinders are scanned by posi- proportional valves Q. The
tion transducers and these elec- differential connection is main-
trical feedback signals are com- tained.
pared with the setpoint. The cor-
recting variables are fed to the 2 Decompression
closed-loop proportional valves, The pump pressure at valve (Z) is
Item Q. reduced via a ramp. The closed-
With a clearance between the loop proportional valves Q move
two moulding cylinders of up to slowly to position b, so that the
4 m and strokes of<l m, a pressure in the upper piston
synchronization and a position- spaces is reduced in a control-
ing accuracy of <0.01 mm is led manner.
obtained.
The hydraulic open-loop control Return stroke
system comprises all the safety The pump pressure is built
elements as required by the up again via valve Qand the
accident prevention regulations. closed-loop proportional
The unintentional pressure drop valves (ÿ) move to the end posi-
at the underside of the molding tion b. The movement of the
cylinders, as well as the uninten- cylinders is controlled via the
tional pressure build-up at the control edges PÿA. Pressure is
upper side is caused by the reduced at the upper side of the
electrical monitoring of the pistons via the feed valves. For
valves Q and (ÿ). this purpose, valve Q moves to
position b.
The functions in detail:
Dropping in rapid mode:
Valve Switch position

Item 0 b
Item 0 b
Item Q a
Item Q a
Dropping is effected using the

weight of the molding cylinders.
The upper cylinder spaces are
filled by feed valves. The drop-
ping movement is controlled in
the closed-loop proportional
valves Q via the control edge
PÿB. The oil displaced at the
underside of the piston is fed to
the upper side via a differential
arrangement.
Dropping in operating mode:

Valve Q is closed in the direc-
tion of switch position 0 via a
ramp. The pressing tool slowly
sets down on the workpiece.
The feed valves close. The
differential connection is main-
tained.
O
€')
M3 M3
1 1 - F ? 2:
r-'l
I )I(
i-
Tÿp :
i r-?,l ! ra
m|
m
1 -B i©
,p
m
PI IT P! IT i O
):(I );(! i i
I L__ m
! I
I A r ÿ L
Aÿ I m
I !.2
!
M21 I P T
m|
] I m
I A B O
.... ---OMI
t ) ÿ ,t.° z b) (ÿ
# I
Pl I"
0
I
J l
'
t '
L
I
0
(3)
,,<
uÿ
I I
I
I
3
I
l
t
I
f
I
'_ IB I
r !
I
,I
[tY
!L
I
CD
5.4 Machine tools Not just the position but also the
speed is controlled. Accelera-
Advance drives tion and deceleration are
The linear movements of the influenced by ramps.
advance drives are ideally ef-
fected electro-hydraulically. The With two diagonally opposed
weight per unit of power and the advance drives, continuous-path
dimensions are one argument control can be realized.
for the use of hydraulics as an
alternative to electromotive
drives, particularly for machines
with several machining shafts.
Typical arrangement of advance

units in a multi-spindle machine.
f
Arrangement of cylinder, super-
sonic measuring system and
closed-loop proportional valve.
t
J
Typical diagram section.
A B
---- a.-_
5.5 Hydrostatic blower drive

A hydrostatic drive for the
blower is an ideal means for
cooling large combustion engi-
nes in commercial vehicles, con-
struction machinery, and ships
etc. Essentially, the drive com-
prises a pump and a hydraulic
motor with a constant displace-
ment volume. The speed of the
hydraulic motor is altered by
"bypass" throttling via a propor-
tional pressure-limiting valve.
This arrangement guarantees a
minimum loss of power with a
low outlay for equipment.
=(
+ P
I
N
q, L ....
5.6 Hitch control for tractors Operation The system may be enlarged by
The movement of the lifting gear The hydraulic pump Q delivers a adding on a radar sensor 0
to which the various working flow of oil to the closed-loop pro- which detects the actual vehicle
implements (plough, fertilizer portional valve Q, which con- speed and compares it with the
spreader etc.) are attached is trols the lifting cylinder Q. These wheel speed (sensor Q).
controlled. In detail: act on the lower suspension If the amount of slip exceeds an
arms which can be used to economical figure, the lifting
Position control raise, hold, and lower attached gear may be raised.
In this case, the control variable implements.
is the position of the lifting gear The setpoints from the operating
and thus the working height of console (ÿ and the feedback-
the implements attached. signals from the draft sensors Q
and the position sensor (ÿ are
Draft control fed to the control amplifier Q.
In this case, the control variable The deviation resulting from
is the force at the lower steering the setpoint/feedback-signal
arms. If this force is kept con- comparison is processed and
stant, optimum loading of the passed on to the actuator of the
tractor output is given, for system, the closed-loop pro-
example, when ploughing in portional valve Q.
uneven terrain or where soils The draft-control sensor (ÿ)
vary. should be mentioned as a spe-
cial feature. It has the shape of a
Intermix bolt and converts changes in
This is where the feedback shear forces which act upon it
signals regarding position and into an electrical signal.
draft are intermixed at the
operating console into an adjust-
able ration and processed as a
control variable.
(2) ©
© ® ® @
o
c-4
E.=
u_
u__e
e3 ¢4
E
@
Robert Bosch GmbH
Geschÿftsbereich Hydraulik, Pneumatik
Postfach 30 02 40
7000 Stuttgart 30
BOSCH

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E I e ctro-Hyd ra u li c

Closed Loop Control Systems

© 1987 Robert Bosch GmbH

Author: Werner GStz

Reproduction, duplication and trans-

Electro-hydraulic systems can

- Analogue open-loop control

- Closed-loop control engineer-

It was decided to deliberately leave out a full explanation of mathe-

- A special type of controlled

1.2 Open-loop and output signal is affected by any

Setpoint Amplifier Actuator Drive Load

1.2.2 The closed-loop Excessive gain poses the pro-

The closed-loop system is all the

Error signal Correcting variable

I': ....... l easurin°device

Correcting variable y Setpoint signal w

1.4 Variants of electro- Position 1 [m]

Corresponding measuring de-

Combinations of different clo-

Another kind of two Sequential

Synchronization controllers are

1.5 Typical applications 1. It is possible to realize 2.The high power density of

They are applied in the following

- Control of feed drives

- Injection process with pres-

- Pressing force, dynamic cha-

Test stands, simulators

- Realization of motion sequen-

- Distribution of scattered mate-

2.1 Natural frequency of the

The hydromechanical drive, con-

In place of Hz value for fo,

The natural frequency of a

o OoO o o o oooo o o o ooo o oo ooo o

The spring constant or "hydrau- I o oO o o Oo'OoOOOO 00°0o00000000

ned by the trapped oil volume / /

A2 = Square of the piston

Other elements of the system, The following individual formu-

2.1.1 Synchronous cylinder f

coo = Natural frequency [s1]

* For the dead volumes, provi-

The above determination of the

2.1.2 Differential cylinder

This design of cylinder will be

The minimum and thus critical

Oo= ¢4hE'AK 1+1/-ÿ

. = 1,0 0.5 Q3 0,2 0.1

However, this only applies to a

Using the basic formula

the mass m [kg] is replaced by

rigidity" C results from the

(v)2 Vo [cm3] Vo [cm3]

Note: The capacity V [cm3/U] is

2.1,4 Reduction of masses the design of the drive, the cor-

2.2 Overall gain Kv Where

Kv=KEL'KHy" 1 "KMEAzyL Is-ll

In order to render the abstract