Lecture 04

CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS AND ROAD PATTERNS

Road classification
The roads can be classified in many ways. The classification based on speed and accessibility is
the most generic one. Note that as the accessibility of road increases, the speed reduces.
Accordingly, the roads can classified as follows in the order of increased accessibility and
reduced speeds.
Freeways:
Freeways are access controlled divided highways. Most freeways are four lanes, two lanes each
direction, but many freeways widen to incorporate more lanes as they enter urban areas. Access
is controlled through the use of interchanges, and the type of interchange depends upon the kind
of intersecting road way (rural roads, another freeway etc.)
Expressways:
They are superior type of highways and are designed for high speeds(120 km/hr is common),
high traffic volume and safety. They are generally provided with grade separations at
intersections. Parking, loading and unloading of goods and pedestrian traffic is not allowed on
expressways.
Highways:
They represent the superior type of roads in the country. Highways are of two types – rural
highways and urban highways. Rural highways are those passing through rural areas (villages)
and urban highways are those passing through large cities and towns, i.e. urban areas.
Arterials:
It is a general term denoting a street primarily meant for through traffic usually on a continuous
route. They are generally divided highways with fully or partially controlled access. Parking,
loading and unloading activities are usually restricted and regulated. Pedestrians are allowed to
cross only at intersections/designated pedestrian crossings.
Local streets:
A local street is the one which is primarily intended for access to residence, business or abutting
property. It does not normally carry large volume of traffic and also it allows unrestricted
parking and pedestrian movements.
Collectors streets:
These are streets intended for collecting and distributing traffic to and from local streets and also
for providing access to arterial streets. Normally full access is provided on these streets. There
are few parking restrictions except during peak hours.
A study to develop appropriate geometric design standards for use in developing countries has
been undertaken by the Overseas Unit of Transport Research Laboratory (TRL formerly TRRL).
The study revealed that most standards currently in use are considerably higher than can be
justified from an economic or safety point of view. Geometric design recommendations have
been published in Overseas Road Note 6. In the above-mentioned Overseas Road Note 6 rural
access roads are classified into three groups.
Access roads are the lowest level in the network hierarchy. Vehicular flows will be very light
and will be aggregated in the collector road network. Geometric standards may be low and need
only be sufficient to provide appropriate access to the rural agricultural, commercial, and
population centers served. Substantial proportions of the total movements are likely to be by
non-motorized traffic.
Collector roads have the function of linking traffic to and from rural areas, either direct to
adjacent urban centers, or to the arterial road network. Traffic flows and trip lengths will be of an
intermediate level and the need for high geometric standards is therefore less important.
Arterial roads are the main routes connecting national and international centers. Trip lengths are
likely to be relatively long and levels of traffic flow and speed relatively high. Geometric
standards need to be adequate to enable efficient traffic operation under these conditions, in
which vehicle to-vehicle interactions may be high
Roads can be classified based on some other criteria.
Based on usage
All-weather roads: Those roads which are negotiable during all weathers, except at major river
crossings where interruption of tra c is permissible up to a certain extent are called all weather
roads.
Fair-weather roads: Roads which are negotiable only during fair weather are called fair
weather roads.
Based on carriage way
This classification is based on the type of the carriage way or the road pavement.
Paved roads with hard surface: If they are provided with a hard pavement course such roads
are called paved roads.(eg: stones, Water bound macadam (WBM), Bituminous macadam (BM),
concrete roads)
Unpaved roads: Roads which are not provided with a hard course of atleast a WBM layer they
is called unpaved roads. Thus earth and gravel roads come under this category.
Based on pavement surface
Based on the type of pavement surfacing provided, they are classified as surfaced and unsurfaced
roads.
Surfaced roads (BM, concrete): Roads which are provided with a bituminous or cement
concreting surface are called surfaced roads.
Unsurfaced roads (soil/gravel): Roads which are not provided with a bituminous or cement
concreting surface are called unsurfaced roads.
Other criteria
Roads may also be classified based on the traffic volume in that road, load transported through
that road, or location and function of that road.
Traffic volume: Based on the traffic volume, they are classified as heavy, medium and light Tra
c roads. These terms are relative and so the limits under each class may be expressed as vehicles
per day.
Load transported: Based on the load carried by these roads, they can be classified as class I,
class II, etc. or class A, class B etc. and the limits may be expressed as tonnes per day.
Location and function: The classification based on location and function should be a more
acceptable classification since they may be defined clearly.

Lecture 05
DESIGN CRITERIA AND CONTROLS FOR HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY
The elements of design are influenced by a wide variety of design controls, engineering criteria,
and project specific objectives. Such factors include the following:
1. Functional classification of the roadway
2. Projected traffic volume and composition
3. Required design speed
4. Topography of the surrounding land
5. Capital costs for construction
6. Human sensory capacities of roadway users
7. Vehicle size and performance characteristics
8. Traffic safety considerations
9. Environmental considerations
10. Right-of-way impacts and costs
Of all the factors that are considered in the design of a highway, the principal design criteria are
traffic volume, design speed, sight distances, vehicle size, and vehicle mix.
Design Speed and Design Class
The assumed design speed for a highway may be considered as the maximum safe speed that can
be maintained over a specified section of a highway when conditions are so favorable that the
design features govern”. The choice of design speed will depend primarily on the surrounding
terrain and the functional class of the highway. Other factors determining the selection of design
speed include traffic volume, costs of right-of-way and construction, and aesthetic consideration
Table 3.1 shows the design classes and design speeds recommended in Overseas Road Note 6 in
relation to road function, volume of traffic and terrain. The table also contains recommended
standards for carriageway and shoulder width and maximum gradient.
The terrain classification as „level‟, „rolling‟ or „mountainous‟ may be defined as average
ground slope measured as the number of five-meter contour lines crossed per kilometer on a
straight line linking the two ends of the road section as follows:
Level terrain: 0 – 10 ground contours per kilometer
Rolling terrain: 11 – 25 ground contours per kilometer;
Mountainous terrain: > 25 ground contours per kilometer.
Sight Distance
The driver ability to see ahead contributes to safe and efficient operation of the road. Ideally,
geometric design should ensure that at all times any object on the pavement surface is visible to
the driver within normal eye-sight distance. However, this is not usually feasible because of
topographical and other constraints, so it is necessary to design roads on the basis of lower, but
safe, sight distance. There are three different sight distances that are of interest in geometric
design:
Stopping sight distance;
Meeting sight distance;
Passing sight distance.
Traffic Volume
Information on traffic volumes, traffic composition and traffic loading are important factors in
the determination of the appropriate standard of a road. The traffic has a major impact on the
selection of road class, and consequently on all geometric design elements. The traffic
information is furthermore necessary for the pavement design.
For low volume roads the design control is the Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) in the
„design year‟. For routes with large seasonal variations the design control is the Average Daily
Traffic (ADT) during the peak months of the „design year‟. The design year is usually selected
as year 10 after the year of opening to traffic.
Design Vehicle
The dimensions of the motor vehicles that will utilize the proposed facility also influence the
design of a roadway project. The width of the vehicle naturally affects the width of the traffic
lane; the vehicle length has a bearing on roadway capacity and affects the turning radius; the
vehicle height affects the clearance of the various structures. Vehicle weight affects the structural
design of the roadway.
Lecture 06
GEOMETRIC DESIGNS FOR HIGHWAYS AND RAILWAYS
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAY
The area of highway engineering known as geometric design of roads is focused on placing the
actual components of the route in accordance with standards and limitations. The fundamental
goals of geometric design are to maximize effectiveness and safety while limiting expenditures
and harm to the environment. The fifth objective, "liveability," which is emerging, is also
impacted by geometric design. According to this objective, roads should be constructed to
support broader community objectives, such as facilitating access to jobs, schools, businesses,
and residences, as well as minimizing fuel consumption, emissions, and environmental harm.
Alignment, profile, and cross-section are the three fundamental components of geometric
roadway design. Together, they provide a roadway with a three-dimensional layout.
The alignment is the route of the road, defined as a series of horizontal tangents and
curves.
The profile is the vertical aspect of the road, including crest and sag curves, and the
straight grade lines connecting them.
The cross section shows the position and number of vehicle and bicycle lanes and
sidewalks, along with their cross slope or banking. Cross sections also show drainage
features, pavement structure and other items outside the category of geometric design.
DESIGN CONSIDERATION
The following factors need to be properly taken into account during the design phase in order to
achieve the goal of adapting the highway to site topography while still meeting the requirements
for safety, service, and performance.
Design speed
Design traffic volume
Number of lanes
Level of service (LOS)
Sight distance
Alignment, super-elevation and grades
Cross section
Lane width
Horizontal and vertical clearance
DESIGN VEHICLES
A "design vehicle" is a selected motor vehicle whose weight, dimensions, and operating
characteristics are used to establish highway design controls to accommodate vehicles of a
designated type. For the purpose of geometric design, the design vehicle should be one with
dimensions and minimum turning radii larger than those of almost all vehicles in its class. The
decision as to which of the design vehicles (or other special vehicles) should be used as a control
is complex and requires careful study. Each situation Each situation must be evaluated
individually to arrive at a reasonable estimate of the type and volume of expected traffic. Design
criteria significantly affected by the type of vehicle include.
Horizontal and vertical clearances
Alignment
Lane widening on curves
Shoulder width requirements
Turning roadway and intersection radii
Intersection sight distance
Acceleration criteria

SIGHT DISTANCE
Sight distance is the roadway ahead that is visible to the driver. Various sight distance criteria
exist in highway geometric design to provide drivers with sufficient warning of potential
obstacles or conflict ahead. Future obstruction to sight distance that may develop or be
constructed should be taken into consideration in the initial design. Areas outside of the highway
right of way that are not under the highway agency's jurisdiction should be considered as points
of obstruction.
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
Stopping sight distance is the distance ahead that a motorist should be able to see so that the
vehicle can be brought safely to a stop short of an obstruction or foreign object on the road. This
distance will include the driver’s reaction or perception distance and the distance traveled while
the brakes are being applied. The total distance traveled varies with the initial speed, the brake
reaction time, and the coefficient of friction for wet pavements and average tires. Safe stopping
sight distances shall be provided continuously on all streets and highways. The factors, which
determine the minimum distance required to stop, include:
Vehicle speed
Driver's total reaction time
Characteristics and conditions of the vehicle
Friction capabilities between the tires and the roadway surface
Vertical and horizontal alignment of the roadway.
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RAILWAYS
Geometric Design of Railway Track should be such as to provide maximum efficiency in the
traffic operation with maximum safety at reasonable cost.
GRADIENT
Any departure of track from the level is known as grade or gradient. The purpose of providing
gradients is to provide a uniform rate of rise or fall, to reduce cost of earth work, to reach
different stations at different levels.
TYPES OF GRADIENT
1. Ruling gradient
The steepest gradient allowed on the track section. It determines the max load that the
locomotive can haul that section. The steep gradient needs more powerful locomotives, smaller
train loads, lower speed, resulting in costly hauling.
In plains: 1 in 150 to 1 in 200
In hilly regions: 1 in 100 to 1 in 150

2. Momentum Gradient
The gradients on a section which are steeper than the ruling gradient acquire sufficient
momentum to negotiate them are known as momentum gradients.
3. Pusher gradient
As stated above a ruling gradient limits the maximum weight of a train which can be hauled over
the section by a locomotive. If the ruling gradient is so severe on a section that it needs the help
of extra engine to pull the same load than this gradient is known as pusher of helper gradient. In
Darjeeling Railways 1 in 37 pusher gradient is used on Western Ghats BG Track.
4. Radient at stations
At stations gradient are provided sufficient low due to following reason:
 To prevent movement of standing vehicle
 To prevent additional resistance due to grade.
 On Indian railways, maximum gradient permitted is 1 in 400 in station yards.

5. Grade compensation on curves

If a curve is provided on a track with ruling gradient, the resistance of the track will be increased
this curve. In order to avoid resistance beyond the allowable limits, the gradients are reduced on
curves. The reduction in gradient is known as grade compensation for curves.
 BG track: 0.04% per degree of curve
 MG track: 0.03 % per degree of curve
 NG track: 0.02 % per degree of curve
Cross Sections
The AASHTO “Green Book” defines a roadway cross-section as “a vertical section of the
ground and roadway at right angles to the centreline of the roadway, including all elements of a
highway or street from right-of-way line”. Along with the vertical alignment (grades and vertical
curves) and horizontal alignment (tangents and curves), the roadway cross-section helps to
present a three-dimensional roadway model. The principal elements of a highway cross section
consist of the travel lanes, shoulders, and medians (for some multilane highways). Marginal
elements include median and roadside barriers, curbs, gutters, guard rails, sidewalks, cross slope
and side slopes. The primary consideration in the design of geometric cross sections for
highways, runways, and taxiways is drainage. Details vary depending on the type of facility and
agency.
Travel Lanes or Traffic Lanes
Travel lane is “the portion of the roadway for the movement of vehicles, exclusive of shoulders
and bicycle lanes' '. This area usually contains two or more lanes for roadway traffic. Travel
lanes have a great influence on driving comfort, operational characteristics, crash probability and
level of service. The predominant travel lane on freeways and land services highways is 12 feet.
Drivers typically increase their speeds with wider travel lanes. Therefore, it may be appropriate
to use narrower lane widths that are compatible with the alignment and intended speed at
locations with low design speeds and restricted alignments. Using a typical lane width of 12 feet
reduces maintenance costs and provides adequate clearance between heavy vehicles on two-lane,
two-way rural highways with high commercial vehicle traffic.
 Facility Type: Typical Lane Widths
 Range: 9 to 12 feet
 High-speed, high-volume highways: 12 feet (predominant)
 Urban areas with lane width controls: 11 feet
 Low-speed facilities: 10 feet (acceptable)
 Rural low-volume roads & residential areas: 9 feet (acceptable)
Shoulders
A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous with the traveled way for accommodation of
stopped vehicles, for emergency use, and for lateral support of sub base, base and surface
courses. Some of the more important advantages of providing shoulders are:
 Space for the motorist to pull completely off the roadway for emergencies.
 An escape zone to allow motorists to avoid potential accidents or reduce accident
severity.
 An aid to driver comforts by creating a sense of openness; improves highway capacity.
 An improvement in sight distance in cut sections.
 A provision to enhance lateral clearance for the placement of signs, guide rails, or other
roadside appurtenances.
 Space for pedestrians where there is no sidewalk and for bicycle usage.
Shoulder surfaces range in width from 2 ft. on minor roads to 12 ft. on major arterials. Shoulders
are also used to laterally support the pavement structure. The shoulder width is known as either
graded or usable, depending on the section of the shoulder being considered. The graded
shoulder width is the whole width of the shoulder measured from the edge of the travel lane to
the intersection of the shoulder slope and the plane of the side slope. The usable shoulder width
is that part of the graded shoulder that can be used to accommodate parked vehicles. The usable
width is the same as the graded width when the side slope is equal to or flatter than 4:1
(horizontal: vertical), as the shoulder break is usually rounded to a width between 4 ft. and 6 ft.,
thereby increasing the usable width.
Medians
A median is the section of a divided highway that separates the lanes in opposing directions. This
area is located between the edges of opposing travel lanes (including any left shoulders). Median
width and design characteristics are among the most important safety features of high-speed
highways in both urban and rural areas. The principal functions of a median are to:
 Provide the desired freedom from the interference of opposing traffic.
 Provide a refuge area for pedestrians and bicyclists.
 Provide a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles.
 Provide a stopping area in case of emergencies.
 Provide for speed changes and storage of left turning and U turning vehicles.
 Minimize headlight glare.
 Provide width for future lanes.
 Add open green space in an urban area.
 Serve as traffic calming devices on low-speed roadways.
Median widths are dependent on the roadway type and location. Any proposed median widths
should be evaluated for potential barrier needs. Ideally, median widths (typically 4 to 80 feet)
should be sufficient so that no barrier is needed, when practical. The wider medians are safer but
more costly, requiring more right-of-way, construction and maintenance. Medians can either be
raised, flush, or depressed. Raised medians are frequently used in urban arterial streets because
they facilitate the control of left-turn traffic at intersections by using part of the median width for
left-turn-only lanes. Flush medians are commonly used on urban arterials. They can also be used
on freeways, but with a median barrier. expressed medians are generally used on freeways and
are more effective in draining surface water.
Roadside and Median Barriers
A median barrier is defined as a longitudinal system used to prevent an errant vehicle from
crossing the portion of a divided highway separating the traveled ways for traffic in opposite
directions. Roadside barriers, on the other hand, protect vehicles from obstacles or slopes on the
roadside. They also may be used to shield pedestrians and property from the traffic stream. The
provision of median barriers must be considered when traffic volumes are high and when access
to multilane highways and other highways is only partially controlled. However, when the
median of a divided highway has physical characteristics that may create unsafe conditions, such
as a sudden lateral drop-off or obstacles, the provision of a median barrier should be considered
regardless of the traffic volume or the median width.

Curbs and Gutters

Curbs are raised structures made of either Portland cement concrete or bituminous concrete
(rolled asphalt curbs) that are used mainly on urban highways to delineate pavement edges and
pedestrian walkways. Curbs are also used to control drainage, improve aesthetics, and reduce
right of way. Curbs can be generally classified as either vertical or sloping. Vertical curbs, range
in height from 6 to 8 with steep sides, and are designed to prevent vehicles from leaving the
highway. Sloping curbs are designed so that vehicles can cross them if necessary. Both vertical
and sloping curbs may be designed separately or as integral parts of the pavement. In general,
vertical curbs should not be used in conjunction with traffic barriers, such as bridge railings or
median and roadside barriers, because they could contribute to vehicles rolling over the traffic
barriers. Vertical curbs should also be avoided on highways with design speeds greater than 40
mi/h, because at such speeds it is usually difficult for drivers to retain control of the vehicle after
an impact with the curb. Gutters or drainage ditches are usually located on the pavement side of a
curb to provide the principal drainage facility for the highway. They are sloped to prevent any
hazard to traffic, and they usually have cross slopes of 5 to 8 percent and are 1 to 6 ft. wide.
Gutters can be designed as V-type sections or as broad, flat, rounded sections.
Guard Rails
Guard rails are longitudinal barriers placed on the outside of sharp curves and at sections with
high fills. Their main function is to restrain and redirect errant vehicles and prevent them from
leaving the roadway. They are installed at embankments higher than 8 ft. and when shoulder
slopes are greater than 4:1. Shapes commonly used include the W beam and the box beam. The
weak post system provides for the post to collapse on impact, with the rail deflecting and
absorbing the energy due to impact.
Sidewalks
Sidewalks are usually provided on roads in urban areas, but are uncommon in rural areas.
Nevertheless, the provision of sidewalks in rural areas should be evaluated during the planning
process to determine sections of the road where they are required. Generally, sidewalks should
be provided when pedestrian traffic is high along main or high-speed roads in either rural or
urban areas. When shoulders are not provided on arterials, sidewalks are necessary even when
pedestrian traffic is low.
In urban areas, sidewalks should also be provided along both sides of collector streets that serve
as pedestrian access to schools, parks, shopping centers, and transit stops, and along collector
streets in commercial areas. Sidewalks should have a minimum clear width of 4 ft. in residential
areas and a range of 4 to 8 ft. in commercial areas. To encourage pedestrians to use sidewalks,
they should have all- weather surfaces since pedestrians will tend to use traffic lanes rather than
unpaved sidewalks.

Cross Slope
Pavements on straight sections of two-lane and multilane highways without medians are sloped
from the middle downward to both sides of the highway, resulting in a transverse or cross slope,
with a cross section shape that can be curved, plane or a combination of the two.
Plane: Slope break at crown line, Uniform slope on each side
Rounded: Parabolic cross-section, Rounded surface at crown line
Increasing slope toward edges
The rounded section is beneficial for roadway drainage due to its steepening cross slope toward
the edge of the traveled way. However, disadvantages include: difficult construction; excessive
outer lane cross slopes; and pavement transitions at intersection areas.
Side slopes
Side slopes adjoin the roadway shoulder and are located between the edge of the shoulder and
the right-of way boundary. Any side slope design needs to improve road stability and provide
adequate recovery space for errant vehicles. Side slopes are also provided on embankments and
fills to provide stability for earthworks. When being considered as a safety feature, the important
sections of the cross slope are the hinge point, the fore slope, and the toe of the slope. The hinge
point should be rounded since it is potentially hazardous and may cause vehicles to become
airborne while crossing it, resulting in loss of control of the vehicle.
The fore slope serves principally as a recovery area, where vehicle speeds can be reduced and
other recovery maneuvers taken to regain control of the vehicle. The Toe of Slope is the
intersection of fore slope with level ground or back slope and usually within clear zone and
impacted by vehicle.
Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
The horizontal alignment of a roadway should be designed to provide motorists with a facility
for riving in a safe and comfortable manner. Adequate stopping sight distance should be
furnished. Also, changes in direction should be accompanied by the use of curves and
superelevation when appropriate in accordance with established guidelines.Some changes in
alignment are slight and may not require curvature. The standard of alignment selected for a
particular section of highway should extend throughout the section with no sudden changes from
easy to sharp curvature. Where sharper curvature is unavoidable, a sequence of curves of
increasing degree should be utilized. Winding alignment consisting of sharp curves is hazardous,
reduces capacity, and should be avoided. The use of as flat a curve as possible is recommended.
Flatter curves are not only less hazardous, but also frequently less costly due to the shortened
roadway. Maximum curvature should not be used in the following locations:
 High fills or elevated structures. The lack of surrounding objects reduces the driver's
perception of the roadway alignment.
 At or near a crest in grade
 At or near a low point in a sag or grade
 At the end of long tangents
 At or near intersections, transit stops, or points of ingress or egress
 At or near other decision points
The "broken back" arrangement of curves (short tangent between two curves in the same
direction) should be avoided. This is acceptable only at design speeds of 30 mph or less. This
arrangement produces an unexpected and hazardous situation.
Horizontal Curve
A horizontal highway curve is a curve in plan to provide change in direction to the central line of
a road.The centrifugal frorce on a vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve has two factors:
1. Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outer wheels
2. Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outwards
Widening of Pavement on Horizontal Curves
On horizontal curves, especially when they are Less than 300m radii, it is common to widen the
pavement slightly more than the normal width. Widening is needed for the following reasons:
A. An automobile has a rigid wheelbase and only the front wheels can be turned, when this
vehicle takes turns to negotiate a horizontal curve, the rear wheel does not follow the
same path as that of the front wheels. This phenomenon is called off tracking.
B. While two vehicles cross or overtake at a horizontal curve there is a psychological
tendency to maintain a greater clearance between the vehicle for safety.
C. For greater visibility at curves, the driver has a tendency not to follow the central path of
the lane, but to use the outer side at the beginning of the curve.
D. At higher speed super elevation and lateral friction cannot counteract centrifugal force
and skidding may occur.
Vertical Alignment
The selection of vertical alignment should be predicated to a large extent upon the following
criteria: Obtaining maximum sight distances Limiting speed differences (particularly for trucks
and buses) by reducing magnitude and length of grades
A "hidden dip" which would not be apparent to the driver must be avoided. Steep grades and
sharp crest vertical curves should be avoided at or near intersections. Flat grades and long gentle
vertical curves should be used whenever possible.
The vertical alignment of a highway influences:
1. Vehicle speed
2. Acceleration and deceleration
3. Sight distance
4. 4.vehicle operation cost
5. Comfort while travelling at high speed
a) While two vehicles cross or overtake at horizontal curve there is psychological tendency
to maintain a greater clearance between the vehicle for safety.
b) For greater visibility at curve, the driver having tendency not to follow the central path of
the lane, but to use the outer side at the beginning of the curve.
c) At higher speed super elevation and lateral friction cannot counteract centrifugal force
and skidding may occur.
3.2 Vertical Alignment
The selection of vertical alignment should be predicated to a large extent upon the following
criteria: Obtaining maximum sight distances Limiting speed differences (particularly for trucks
and buses) by reducing magnitude and length of grades
A "hidden dip" which would not be apparent to the driver must be avoided. Steep grades and
sharp crest vertical curves should be avoided at or near intersections. Flat grades and long gentle
vertical curves should be used whenever possible.
The vertical alignment of a highway influences:
1. Vehicle speed
2. Acceleration and deceleration
3. Sight distance
4. vehicle operation cost
5. Comfort while travelling at high speed
Super Elevation
In the design of highway curves, it is necessary to establish a proper relationship between
curvature of the roadway and design speed. The use of super elevation (rotation of the roadway
about its axis) is employed to counteract centrifugal force and allow drivers to comfortably and
safely travel through curves at the design speed. Advantages of providing
Super elevation:
Super elevation is provided to achieve the higher speed of vehicles. It increases the stability of
fast-moving vehicles when they pass through a horizontal curve, and it also decreases the
stresses on the foundation. In the absence of super elevation on the road along curves, potholes
are likely to occur at the outer edge of the road. The Indian Road Congress (IRC) has prescribed
the max value of Super Elevation is 1 in g15.
Maximum Super-elevation:
  Indian Roads Congress (IRC) had fixed the maximum limit of Super elevation in plan
and rolling terrains and is snow bound areas as 7.0%
 On hill roads not bound by snow a maximum Super elevation up to 10% is
recommended.
 On urban road stretches with frequent intersections, it may be necessary to limit the
maximum super-elevation to 4.0%.
Minimum Super-elevation:
From drainage consideration it is necessary to have a minimum cross slope to drain off the
surface water. If the calculated super elevation is equal to or less than the camber of the road
surface, then the minimum super elevation to be provided on horizontal curve may be limited to
the camber of the surface.
Although super elevation is advantageous for traffic operations, various factors combine to make
its use impractical in many built-up areas. Such factors include:
 Wide pavement areas
 Need to meet grade of adjacent property
 Surface drainage considerations
 Frequency of cross streets, alleys, and driveway

Lecture 07
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING AND CHARACTERISTICS
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Definition - Traffic Engineering means measuring traffic and travel or the study of the basic
laws relating to traffic flow and generation and application of this knowledge to the professional
practice of planning, designing and operating traffic systems to achieve safe and efficient
movement of persons and goods.
Objectives includes:
I. Achieve efficient 'free and rapid flow of traffic,
II. Reduce the number of accidents
Various phases of traffic engineering:
 Engineering (constructive i.e. geometric design of road)
 Enforcement (traffic laws, regulation and control)
 Education (publicity and through school and television)
TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS
 Road user characteristics
  Physical
 Mental
 Psychological
 Environmental
 Vehicular characteristics
 Vehicle dimension
 Weight of loaded vehicle
 Power of vehicle
 Speed of vehicle
 Braking characteristics
TRAFFIC STUDIES
Traffic studies are carried out to analyze the traffic characteristics. These studies help in deciding
the geometric design features traffic control for save and efficient traffic movement.
The various traffic survey studies generally carried out are:
 Traffic volume
 Speed
 Speed and Delay
 Origin and Destination
 Traffic capacity
 Parking and Accident
SPEED
 Spot speed: it is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location.
 Average speed: it is the average of spot speed of all vehicles passing at given points on
the highway.
 Space mean speed: (harmonic mean) Average speed of vehicles in a certain road length at
a given instant.
 Time mean speed: (arithmetic mean) Mean speed of vehicle at a point in space over a
period of time or It is the average of instantaneous speeds of observed vehicles at the
spot.
 Running speed: it is the average speed maintained by a vehicle over a particular stretch of
road, while the vehicle is in motion; this is obtained by dividing the distance covered by
the time during which the vehicle is actually in motion.
 Travel speed: it is the effective speed with which a vehicle traverse a particulars route
between two terminals, it includes delay and stoppages.
TRAFFIC VOLUME
Definition - It is the number of vehicles crossing a section of road per unit time at any selected
period. It is used as a quantity measure of flow: the commonly units are vehicles/day or
vehicles/hour
The objects and the used of traffic volume study are:
 It is generally accepted as a true measure of the relative importance of roads and in
deciding the priority for improvement and expansion.
 It is used in planning, traffic operation and control of existing facilities and also for
planning the new facilities.
 It is used in the analysis of traffic patterns and trends.
 Useful in structural design of pavement.
 Used in planning one-way streets and other regulatory measure.
 Turning movement study used in the design of intersections, in planning signal timings,
channelization and control devices.
 Pedestrian traffic volume study is used for planning side walk, cross walks, subway and
pedestrian signals.
SPEED AND DELAY
 The speed and delay studies give the running speeds, overall speeds, fluctuations in
speeds and the delay between two stations of a road.
 It gives the information such as the amount, location, duration and cause of delay in the
traffic stream.
 The result of the spot and delay studies are useful in detecting the spot of congestion.
 The delay or time lost traffic during the travel period may be either due to fixed delays or
operational delays.
 Fixed delay occurs primarily at intersections due to traffic signals and at level crossings.
 Operational delays are caused by the interference of traffic movement, such as turning
vehicles, parking vehicles, pedestrians etc.
ORIGIN AND DESTINATION STUDIES
Objectives:
 Plan the road network and other facilities for vehicular traffic.
 Plan the schedule of different modes of transportation for the trip demand of commuters.
 It gives the information like the actual direction of travel, selection of routes and length
of trip.
 Used in planning new highway facilities and in improving some of the existing system.
 To plan the transportation system and mass transit facilities in cities including route and
 schedules of operation.
 To locate expressway or major routes along the desire lines.
 To locate terminals and to plan terminal facilities.
 To locate new bridge as per traffic demands.
  To locate intermediate stops of public transport.
Methods of 'O' and 'D' survey.
 Road-side interview method
 License plate method
 Return post card method
 Tag-on-car method
 Home interview method

PARKING AND ACCIDENT STUDIES

Parking -an important part of traffic Engineering:
Increase in number of vehicles specifically in urban area, commercial places and residential
areas.
Parking studies are done for:
 Evaluate existing parking demand (Number of vehicles to be parked)
 Average duration of parking
 Evaluation of the existing available parking facility
 Planning to improve the existing parking facility
 To estimate future parking demands
Parking survey methods:
1) Cordon Volume count
2) Space inventory
3) Observing parking practices
TYPES OF PARKING FACILITY
On street parking
 Parallel parking
 Angled parking
 90degree parking
Off street parking
 Porches
 Shades
 Basement parking
 Elevators
ACCIDENT STUDIES
Accidents occurs due to:
1) Road users (Drivers, Pedestrians)
 Driver’s speed
 Physical condition, Age
 Sense (drunk drivers are stopped/fined by traffic officers)
 Training/education
 Pedestrian’s responsibility

2) Vehicles
 There’s condition (maximum kms allowed by manuf.)
 Lights (head, tail, left/right turning indicators, wipers
 Seat belt, fire extinguisher, air bags
 Age of vehicle (a very important factor)
3) Roadway
 Geometric design
 Roadway surface condition (poor skid resistance etc., failed roadway)
 No maintenance (poor road condition), maintenance work without safety /traffic
diversions.
4) Environment
 Weather (rain, fog, snow fall)
 Dust storm
 Total internal reflection in hot summer Animals, railway crossing, pedestrians, failure in
function of signals, non-visible sign boards etc. may also cause accidents.
Accident study is necessary to:
 Evaluate causes of accidents from past reports of accidents
 Evaluate causes of accidents from existing road condition which can cause accidents
 Correction/ improvement
 Estimate/compensate losses due to accidents
 Keep accident records so that to identify high accident locations and to prepare the
condition/collision diagrams.
Capacity of Urban Roads and Highways
Road capacity in general refers to the maximum traffic flow obtainable on a given roadway using
all available lanes; usually expressed in vehicles per hour or vehicles per day. This depends upon
several factors, mainly, traffic conditions, road geometry characteristics, environmental factors
etc.
Highway capacity is associated with traffic volume and traffic density.
Traffic volume is the number of vehicles passing a given point on a roadway during a specified
time period. This is usually expressed as vehicles per hour.
Traffic density is defined as the number of vehicles occupying a unit length of a lane of a
roadway at a given instant of time. This is usually expressed in vehicles per kilometer.
It is easy to understand that traffic volume is the product of traffic density and speed.
Capacity is the maximum traffic flow that can be accommodated in a highway facility during a
given time period under prevailing roadway, traffic and control conditions. (While traffic volume
represents the actual rate of flow and responds to variations in traffic demand, capacity indicates
the maximum rate of flow when exposed to a certain level of service characteristics or a number
of prevailing roadway and traffic conditions).
Possible Capacity:
Possible capacity is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point on a lane or
roadway during one hour, under the prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.
Practical Capacity:
Practical capacity is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point in a lane or
roadway during one hour, when traffic density is not so great as to cause unreasonable delay,
hazard or restriction to the driver’s freedom to manoeuver under prevailing roadway and traffic
conditions. This is usually considered to be the ‘design capacity’.