Ch 12. Energy and Respiration by A.

Sawalha

ATP: Adenosine triphosphate, is the universal energy currency for all living cells.

Catabolic reaction: Breaking down (hydrolysis) of a large molecule into its smaller
subunits, this releases energy. Example: Glycogenolysis.

Anabolic reaction: Building of a large molecule from its smaller subunits, this requires
energy. Example: Glycogenesis.

Why ATP is a good energy currency:

When ATP is hydrolyzed, it releases a lot of energy, it gets hydrolyzed and a phosphate
group is broken off to form ADP and then this can be done again to form AMP. ATP is
regenerated by adding phosphate groups back to ADP and AMP.

ATP + H2O ==➔ ADP + H3PO4 ±30.5 kJ

ATP is a good energy currency because it:

1- can be hydrolyzes quickly and easily.

2- releases a lot of energy when hydrolyzed, but not too much that its wasted

3- Stable in the range of pH that occurs in cells.

How ATP is generated:

As you might already know, ATP is produced during the combustion of glucose.

C6H1206 + 6O2 ➔ 6CO2 + 6H2O + ~32ATP

The breakdown of glucose to produce ATP is done via 4 cellular respiration stages.
Glycolysis, link reaction, Krebs cycle, oxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport
chain.
Substrate linked reaction: synthesis of ATP by transfer of phosphate from one molecule to
ADP, using energy from another chemical reaction.

Chemiosmosis: synthesis of ATP using energy from the movement of hydrogen ions
through cell surface membrane of mitochondria or chloroplasts.

Glycolysis: the splitting (lysis) of one 6 carbon glucose to form two 3 carbon pyruvates.

Glycolysis happens over 10 steps, each controlled by an enzyme, so 10 enzymes total.

However we don’t need to know the details of glycolysis and there is no need to memorize
any enzymes, we just need to know what happens in general.

It is vital to know that glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell, not the mitochondria.
Also, glycolysis does not use oxygen, it is an anaerobic type of respiration.
How does glycolysis occur?
Firstly, the glucose molecule is phosphorylated twice. This is done by 2 ATP; 2 ATP gets
hydrolysed into 2ADP + 2Pi and the 2Pi are added to the glucose.

First phosphorylation, 1 ATP used and converted to ADP and glucose becomes fructose
phosphate.
Second phosphorylation, fructose 1,6 bisphosphate is formed. Then it splits into 2 trios
phosphates.

So till now 2 ATP are used up and 1 glucose molecule is split into two trios phosphate.

The trios phosphate will undergo a series of steps, each trios phosphate will lose its
phosphates to form 2 ATP each (Pi added to ADP) – substrate linked rxn- and 1 NADH. So
a total of 4 ATP and 2 NADH produced, leaving behind 2 molecules of 3C pyruvate.

NADH is produced by the dehydrogenation of the glucose molecule (oxidized) and added to
NAD+, reducing NAD+ into NADH.

NAD: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

NET PRODUCTION of 2 ATP molecules, 2 NADH, 2 pyruvate.

Understanding ATP, NADH and FADH2 acting as an energy currency:

All ATP and NAD and FAD are energy currencies; however ATP is the universal energy
currency, meaning NAD and FAD need to be converted in some way to ATP (see oxidative
phosphorylation). NAD and FAD are hydrogen carrying molecules.
For example, in Saudi Arabia, the Saudi riyal is used as a currency to buy goods and
services only, the dollar and euro can’t be used. Here the riyal acts as ATP, the dollar and
euro as NAD and FAD. To use dollar and euro (NAD and FAD) it needs to be converted to
riyal (ATP).
Rxn NAD: NAD+ + 2H ==➔ NADH + H+
Notice how we added 2H and not 1H, because 1H results in NAD+ + H ==➔ NADH, this
reaction is incorrect as it is not electrically balanced, there is +VE at L.H.S and neutral on
R.H.S.

Rxn FAD: FAD + 2H ==➔ FADH2

FAD is a neutral molecule, its not charged.

Link Reaction: by its name, the link rxn *links* glycolysis to the krebs cycle. How?

In the link reaction, 3C pyruvate is decarboxylated and dehydrogenated and added to CoA
(co-enzyme A) to produce 2C Acetyl CoA.

Decarboxylation produces CO2

Hydrogen produced from dehydrogenation are added to NAD+ to produce NADH.

Equation: Pyruvate + CoA + NAD+ ➔ Acetyl CoA + CO2 + NADH

Note that link reaction is for 1 pyruvate, and as 1 glucose produces 2 pyruvates, for each
glucose molecule the link reaction produces 2 NADH.

So, so far 2 NADH produced from glycolysis and 2 NADH produced from link reaction for
a total of 4.
Krebs Cycle (Citric acid cycle): Just as an introduction, 2C Acetyl CoA combines with 4C
oxaloacetate to form 6C citrate, this 6C citrate undergoes many reactions to again produce
4C oxaloacetate which reacts with 2C acetyl CoA and the cycle is repeated.
Steps of Krebs cycle:
1- 2C Acetyl CoA combines with 4C oxaloacetate to form 6C citrate
2- 6C citrate is decarboxylated and dehydrogenated to form 5C compound + CO2, H
released added to NAD+ to produce NADH.
3- 5C compound decarboxylated and dehydrogenated to produced 4C compound + CO2, H
released added to NAD+ to produced NADH.
4- 4C compound undergoes several reactions, due to these reactions, 1 NADH is produced,
1 FADH2 is produced and 1 ATP is produced (by adding Pi to ADP -substrate linked rxn)
5- 4C oxaloacetate formed which again combines with 2C acetyl CoA to form 6C citrate
and cycle repeated.

So for 1 glucose molecule, 2 cycles of Krebs cycle will be made. Producing 6 NADH and 2
FADH and 2 ATP in the Krebs cycle.

Total NADH produced from 1 glucose:

Glycolysis – 2
Link rxn – 2
Krebs cycle – 6

So a total of 10 NADH produces, now lets see how NADH and FADH2 are used to generate
large amounts of ATP.
Oxidative phosphorylation and electron transport chain:

ATP is generated by chemiosmosis in oxidative phosphorylation, meaning that H+ diffusing

through ATP synthase generates energy to add Pi to ADP to form ATP.

Oxidative phosphorylation takes place in the inner membrane of the mitochondria, there is
an H+ concentration gradient present between the intermembrane space and the matrix, so
H+ diffuses by facilitated diffusion from intermembrane space to the matrix.

Electron transport chain (ETC): A chain of membrane proteins present in the inner
membrane of the mitochondria where electrons pass and energy is generated for pumping
of H+, the electrons eventually get added to H+ and O to form H2O.
Mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation:
1- NADH and FADH2 diffuse to the matrix
2- NADH and FADH2 get oxidized at the inner membrane, losing their H
3- The H gets split into H+ and e-
4- The electrons pass from one channel protein to another (ETC), this generates energy, the
energy is used to pump H+ (from the matrix and from the NAD and FAD) to the
intermembrane space. This causes a more steep gradient between the intermembrane space
and the matrix, the intermembrane space having more concentration of H+.
5- H+ concentration gradient present between intermembrane space and matrix, H+ move
from intermembrane space to the matrix by facilitated diffusion. The H+ pass through ATP
synthase when it moves from the intermembrane space to the matrix. This produces energy
that is used to add Pi to ADP to form ATP, in a process called chemiosmosis.
6- Finally, the electrons combine with H+ and O to form H2O. 1/2O2 + 2H+ + 2e- ---> H2O

State how cyanide would affect aerobic respiration, cyanide binds to Fe in the haem group
of haemoglobin and less oxygen is present?
We know that link reaction, Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation all depend on
oxygen as they are aerobic respiration. Lack of oxygen means it doesn’t bind with H+ and e-
to form H2O, so there is nothing to accept the electron and the electron transfer chain stops
working and no more ATP is formed. If the ETC stops working, NADH and FADH2 will
remain reduced and won’t be oxidized, so there will be lack of NAD+ and FAD in the
mitochondria, lack of NAD+ and FAD means the Krebs cycle cant proceed and the link
reactions stops as well. That’s why oxygen is important for aerobic respiration.
Structure of mitochondria:
1- Has a double membrane
2- Inner membrane is folded, forming cristae (singular: crista). The cristae increases the
surface area, allowing more channel proteins to be held and to increase the rate for the
production of ATP.
3- Outer membrane more permeable than inner membrane
4- Has its own circular DNA and 70s ribosomes.

Anaerobic respiration:
Anaerobic respiration can be more than one type. We will be talking about ethanol
fermentation and lactate fermentation.

Ethanol fermentation:
This happens in yeast and some microorganisms and plant tissues:

1- 3C pyruvate gets decarboxylated to form 2C ethanal (aldehyde)

2- 2C ethanal gets reduced from 2 NADH to form 2C ethanol and 2NAD+, done by ethanol
dehydrogenase.
3- NAD+ produced and will be ready to get reduced from glycolysis to produce NADH so
ATP can be synthesized over and over, there won’t be a lack of NAD+
As you can see, the ATP is produced from the glycolysis step. 3C pyruvate turns to 2C
ethanal which then gets reduced to ethanol, oxidizing NADH to NAD+, producing NAD+
that is free to carry H from glycolysis so glycolysis can happen again. If pyruvate didn’t
turn to ethanol then no NAD+ will be free and NADH accumulates and glycolysis wont be
able to happen.

Lactate fermentation (lactic acid fermentation):

In lactate fermentation, pyruvate is directly reduced by NADH to lactate. Reducing
pyruvate to lactate is done by lactate dehydrogenase. NADH reduces pyruvate and NAD+
is freed up, which will go and accept hydrogen in glycolysis to form NADH and ATP can be
produced from glycolysis.

In ethanol fermentation, ethanol is a toxic waste by product, however in lactate

fermentation lactic acid is a by product that can be reused, for instance, it can be oxidized
again to pyruvate and pyruvate can enter the link rxn and Krebs cycle. Or it can be
converted to glycogen. However reusing lactate requires more oxygen than aerobic
respiration that’s why we call it oxygen debt, interest is paid. That’s why even after intense
exercise we still keep on heavily breathing. Oxygen debt is also EPOC – excess post-
exercise oxygen consumption.
Adaptation in rice to live in water:
1- They grow taller so the top part of the plant is not submerged, this allows gases to be
exchanged compared to when its fully submerged where its hard for gas exchange to take
place as much less O2 and CO2 are present (only small amount dissolves in water)
2- Have specialized tissue called aerenchyma – it is plant tissue containing air spaces that
allows gases such as oxygen to reach the roots so the roots can respire aerobically
3- Ethanol fermentation takes place often due to lack of oxygen, ethanol is toxic. So the rice
plant has adaptations to be able to resist the build up of ethanol. Such as being able to
tolerate ethanol and having large amounts of ethanol dehydrogenase to oxidize ethanol
back into ethanal.

Respiratory substrates and respiratory quotients:

As you can see, lipids have the highest energy density. Because lipids contain many
hydrogen bonds, so when oxidized many H released that reduce NAD+ to NADH and FAD
to FADH2.
The more the NADH and FADH2 means more NADH and FADH2 get oxidized in oxidative
phosphorylation and release their electrons to the ETC, so more ATP generations. Also
more H2O molecules produced (2H+ + 2e- + O → H2O)
So the more the H present in a molecule, the more ATP is produced.
RQ = VOLUME-MOLES-MOLECULES of CO2 produced / VOLUME-MOLES-
MOLECULE of O2 consumed

Ratio of CO2 released to O2 consumed.

Glucose has a ratio of 1:1 so RQ of 1.0

However other respiratory substrates have different RQ values.

Predict the nature of the respiratory substrate – C18H34O2

C18H34O2 + 25.5O2 → 18CO2 + 17H2O

RQ = 18/25.5 = 0.7
So it is a lipid.

RQ for ethanol fermentation:

When RQ is very high, ethanol fermentation is taking place.
C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH+2CO2
RQ = 2/0 = ∞

RQ for lactate fermentation:

Glucose C6H12O6 → Lactic Acid 2C3H6O3
There is no RQ for lactate fermentation as no CO2 is released.