DEBRE BIRHAN UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

IC –ENGINE AND RECIPROCATING (MENG 4202)

CHAPTER TWO
THERMODYNAMICS OF IC ENGINES

BY BETELHEM TEKEBA
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

CHAPTER TWO
THERMODYNAMICS OF IC ENGINES
 INTRODUCTION

The Three Thermodynamic Analysis of IC Engines are

I. Ideal Gas Cycle (Air Standard Cycle)
- Idealized processes
- Idealize working Fluid
II. Fuel-Air Cycle
- Idealized Processes
- Accurate Working Fluid Model
III. Actual Engine Cycle
- Accurate models of processes
- Accurate working fluid model the operating cycle of an IC engine can be broken down into a
sequence of separate processes
- Intake, compression, combustion, expansion and exhaust.
- Actual IC engine does not operate on ideal thermodynamic cycle that are operated on open cycle.
- The accurate analysis of IC engine processes is very complicated, to understand it well, it is
advantageous to analyze the performance of an idealized closed cycle
 …CONT’D
 The IC engine does not operate in the thermodynamic cycle as it involves in open system, however
it is often to analyze the open cycle as a closed one by imagination (ideally)
 The accurate analysis of IC engine processes is vary complicated. In order to understand them it is
advantages to analyze the performance of an idealized close cycle that approximate the real cycle.
 One of Approach is Air-standard cycle based on the following assumption;

- The working medium is assumed to be perfect gas and follow the relation
𝒑𝑽 = 𝒎𝑹𝑻 𝒐𝒓 𝒑 = 𝝆𝑹𝑻
- All the processes are internally reversible
- The combustion process is replaced by heat input from an external source
- There are no heat loss from the system to the surroundings
- heat rejection is used to restore fluid to initial state
-The working medium has constant specific heat throughout the cycle
THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES

Air-standard analysis is used to perform elementary analyses of IC engine cycles.

 Simplifications to the real cycle include:

1) Fixed amount of air (ideal gas) for working fluid

2) Combustion process not considered

3) Intake and exhaust processes not considered

4) Engine friction and heat losses not considered

5) Specific heats independent of temperature

SI ENGINE CYCLE Vs THERMODYNAMICS OTTO CYCLE
AIR STANDARD CYCLES

1. Carnot - maximum cycle efficiency

2. Otto - spark-ignition (SI) engine
3. Diesel - compression-ignition (CI) engine
4. Brayton - gas turbine
AIR-STANDARD OTTO CYCLE

 Process 1 - 2 : isentropic compression

 Process 2 - 3 : isochoric (constant volume heat addition)
 Process 3 - 4 : isentropic expansion
 Process 4 - 1 : isochoric (constant volume heat rejection)

 Compression ratio:
𝑽 𝑽
𝒓 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟒
𝟐 𝟑
 …CONT’D

 In Otto cycle, the combustion is so rapid that the

piston does not move during the process,

and therefore, combustion is assumed to
take place at constant volume.

 Otto cycle efficiency

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑇4 −𝑇1 𝑇1 (𝑇4 𝑇1 −1)

𝜂= =1− =1− =1−
𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑇3 −𝑇2 𝑇2 (𝑇3 𝑇2 −1)
 …CONT’D
 Process 1-2: isentropic process:  Process 2 - 3 : isochoric (constant volume heat
- 𝑷𝑽𝒌 = constant with 𝑲 = 𝐶𝑃 𝐶𝑉 addition)
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝑲 𝑲
𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐 - Considering constant volume processes 2 -3 the heat
supplied can be written as
𝑹𝑻𝟐
𝑽𝑲
𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝑻 𝟐 𝑽𝟏  𝑸𝑺 = 𝒎𝑪𝑽 (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐 )
 = = =
𝑽𝑲
𝟐 𝑷𝟏 𝑹𝑻𝟏 𝑻 𝟏 𝑽𝟐
𝑽𝟏

𝑽𝑲
𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝑻 𝟐
 =
𝑽𝑲
𝟐 𝑽𝟏 𝑻𝟏

𝑻𝟐 𝑽𝑲−𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑲−𝟏
 = 𝟏𝑲−𝟏=
𝑻 𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐

Since m= constant
𝑻𝟐 𝑽𝟏 𝑲−𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑲−𝟏 𝑽𝑩𝑫𝑪 𝑲−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏
⋆ = = = = 𝒓
𝑻𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝑻𝑫𝑪
 …CONT’D

 Process 3 - 4 : isentropic expansion  Process 4 - 1 : isochoric (constant volume

heat rejection )
- using the same analysis
- Considering constant volume processes 4 -1,the
𝑻𝟑 𝑽𝟒 𝑲−𝟏 𝑽𝑩𝑫𝑪 𝑲−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏 heat rejected of air can be written as
 = = = 𝒓
𝑻𝟒 𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝑻𝑫𝑪
 𝑸𝑹 = 𝒎𝑪𝑽 (𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏 )
𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟑 𝑻𝟑 𝑻𝟒
 = Or =
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟒 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟏

𝟏
𝜼=𝟏− 𝑲−𝟏
𝒓
 …CONT’D

 Increasing compression ratio increases the efficiency.

Higher compression ratio leads ;

 Auto-ignitions (without spark)

 Causes knock

 Engine damage

 Thus, there is an upper limit of high compression ratio

CI ENGINE CYCLE VS THE THERMODYNAMIC DIESEL CYCLE
AIR-STANDARD DIESEL CYCLE
Process 1 - 2 : Isentropic compression

Process 2 - 3 : isobaric (constant pressure heat addition)

Process 3 - 4 : isentropic expansion

Process 4 - 1 : isochoric (constant volume heat rejection)

 Cut-off ratio:
𝑽𝟑
𝒓𝒄 =
𝑽𝟐
 …CONT’D

 Due to ignition delay and finite time required 𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝒒𝒐𝒖𝒕

 Cycle efficiency , 𝜼 = =𝟏−
for fuel injection, combustion process 𝒒𝒊𝒏 𝒒𝒊𝒏

𝑽𝟑
continues till the beginning of power stroke.  Cutoff ratio, 𝒓𝒄 =
𝑽𝟐
This keeps the cylinder pressure at peak 𝑽𝟏 𝑽
 Compression ratio, 𝒓 = = 𝑽𝟒
𝑽𝟐
levels for a longer period. 𝟑

𝑽𝟒
 Expansion ratio , 𝒓𝒆 =
 Therefore, the combustion process can be 𝑽𝟑

approximated as constant pressure heat addition.  Cutoff ratio × Expansion ratio = Compression
ratio
Remaining processes are similar to that of Otto
cycle.
 …CONT’D

Assuming constant specific heat:

𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝑪𝑽 (𝑻𝟒 −𝑻𝟏 ) (𝑻𝟒 −𝑻𝟏 ) 𝑻𝟏 (𝑻𝟒 𝑻𝟏 −𝟏)

𝜼= =𝟏− =𝟏− =𝟏−
𝒒𝒊𝒏 𝑪𝑷 (𝑻𝟑 −𝑻𝟐 ) 𝑲(𝑻𝟑 −𝑻𝟐 ) 𝑻𝟐 𝑲(𝑻𝟑 𝑻𝟐 −𝟏)

 For isentropic process 1 – 2:

𝑻𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝑲−𝟏
=
𝑻𝟐 𝑽𝟏

 For constant pressure process 2-3: p2 = p3 ideal gas law:

𝑹𝑻𝟐 𝑹𝑻𝟑 𝑻𝟑 𝑽 𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟑
 = = 𝟑 =𝒓𝒄 , 𝑻𝟑 = 𝑻𝟐 = 𝑻𝟐 𝒓𝒄 where rc is the cutoff ratio:𝒓𝒄 =
𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟑 𝑻𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐
 …CONT’D
 For isentropic process 3-4:

𝑻𝟑 𝑽𝟒 𝑲−𝟏 𝑽𝟒 𝑽𝟒 𝑽𝟐 𝟏 𝒓
 = , = = 𝒓× =
𝑻𝟒 𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟑 𝒓𝒄 𝒓𝒄

𝑻𝟑 𝑽𝟒 𝑲−𝟏 𝒓 𝑲−𝟏
 = =
𝑻𝟒 𝑽𝟑 𝒓𝒄

𝟏𝒓𝒌
𝒄 −𝟏
 Then , 𝜼 = 𝟏 − 𝑲−𝟏
𝒓 𝑲(𝒓𝒄 −𝟏)

𝒓𝒌
𝒄 −𝟏
 Since ≥ 𝟏, 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒓 𝟏 𝟏 𝒓𝒌𝒄 − 𝟏
𝑲(𝒓𝒄 −𝟏)
𝜼𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒍 = 𝟏 − .
𝒓𝑲−𝟏 𝑲 (𝒓𝒄 − 𝟏)
𝜼𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒍 ≤ 𝜼𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐  Recall,
𝟏
𝜼𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐 = 𝟏 −
 But diesel cycle has higher r ! 𝒓 𝑲−𝟏
 …CONT’D
Remark
 Note: that the term in the square bracket is
always larger than one so for the same  When, (𝒓𝒄 =
𝑽𝟑
) 1 ,the Diesel cycle efficiency
𝑽𝟐
compression ratio (r), the Diesel cycle has a
approaches the efficiency of the Otto cycle
lower thermal efficiency than the Otto - Compression ratio = 10-22 (Diesel)
cycle. - Compression ratio = 6-10 (Otto)

 CI needs higher r compared to SI to ignite  Thus, efficiency of Diesel Cycle is greater than

fuel Otto Cycle.

 Higher efficiency and low cost fuel makes diesel

engine suitable for larger power units such as
larger ships, heavy trucks, power generating
units, locomotives etc
MODERN CI ENGINE CYCLE Vs THE THERMODYNAMIC DUAL
 …CONT’D

 Otto cycle  Diesel cycle

 The only difference is processes 2-3

 …CONT’D

 Both Otto cycle (Constant volume heat addition) and Diesel cycle (Constant pressure heat
addition) are over-simplistic and unrealistic. In actual case, combustion takes place neither at
constant volume (time required for chemical reactions), nor at constant pressure (rapid
uncontrolled combustion).

 Dual cycle is used to model the combustion process. It is a compromise between Otto and
Diesel cycles, where heat addition takes place partly at constant volume and partly at constant
pressure.This cycle is also known as mixed cycle. In fact, Otto and Diesel cycles are special cases of
Dual cycle
DUAL CYCLE

Process 1 - 2 : isentropic compression

Process 2 - 2.5 : constant volume heat addition
Process 2.5 - 3 : constant pressure heat addition
Process 3 - 4 : isentropic expansion
Process 4 - 1 : constant volume heat rejection
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒎 𝒖𝟒 −𝒖𝟏
 𝜼 𝒅𝒖𝒂𝒍 = 𝟏 − =𝟏−
𝑸𝒊𝒏 𝒎 𝒖𝟐.𝟓 −𝒖𝟐 + 𝒉𝟑 −𝒉𝟐.𝟓
𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆

𝟏 𝜶𝒓𝒌
𝒄 −𝟏
 𝜼 𝒅𝒖𝒂𝒍 = 𝟏 −
𝒓𝑲−𝟏 𝜶−𝟏 +𝜶𝑲(𝒓𝒄 −𝟏)
𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆

𝑽 𝑷𝟐.𝟓
Where 𝒓𝒄 = 𝑽 𝟑 and 𝜶 =
𝟐.𝟓 𝑷𝟐
𝟏
 𝜼𝑶𝒕𝒕𝒐 = 𝟏 −
𝒓𝑲−𝟏

𝟏𝟏 𝒓𝒌𝒄 −𝟏
 𝜼𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒍 = 𝟏 − .
𝒓𝑲−𝟏 𝑲 (𝒓𝒄 −𝟏)

Note : The efficiency of Dual cycle lies between that of the Otto cycle and the Diesel cycle
having same compression ratio. With (𝒓𝒄 =1) it becomes an Otto cycle , and with (α =1) , it
becomes a Diesel cycle.
COMPARISON OF THE OTTO, DIESEL AND DUAL CYCLE
The use of the Dual cycle requires information about either:

 The fractions of constant volume and constant pressure heat addition (common assumption is to
equally split the heat addition), or

 Maximum pressure 𝑷𝟑 .

 For the same inlet conditions 𝑷𝟏 , 𝑽𝟏 and the same compression ratio: (However, this is not the best
way to compare these three cycles, because they do not operate on the same compression ratio.)

𝜼𝑶𝒕𝒕𝒐 > 𝜼𝒅𝒖𝒂𝒍 > 𝜼𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒍

 For the same inlet conditions 𝑷𝟏 , 𝑽𝟏 and the same peak pressure P3.( A more realistic way to
compare these three cycles would be to have the same peak pressure-an actual design limitation in
engines.)

𝜼𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒍 > 𝜼𝒅𝒖𝒂𝒍 > 𝜼𝑶𝒕𝒕𝒐

…CONT’D
…CONT’D
 SAME COMPRESSION RATIO AND HEAT ADDITION
 The otto cycle 1-2-3-4-1, diesel cycle 1-2-3’-4’-1 and dual cycle 1-2-2’’-3’’-4’’-1,are shown in p-v and T-s
diagrams respectively. For the same compression ratio and heat input. From the T-s diagram ,it can be seen the area
5236=area 523’6’=area 522’’3’’6’’ represents the heat input which is the same for all cycle.
 The heat rejection in Otto cycle (area5146) is minimum and heat rejection in Otto cycle (514’6’) is maximum
 Consequently, Otto cycle has highest work output
and efficiency. Diesel cycle has least efficiency and
Dual cycle having the efficiency between the two.
 one more observation i.e., otto cycle allows the
working medium to expand more whereas Diesel cycle
is least in this respect. The reason is heat is added before
expansion in the case of former (Otto cycle) and the last
portion of heat supplied to the fluid has a relatively
short expansion in case of the latter (Diesel cycle).
SAME COMPRESSION RATIO AND HEAT REJECTION

 From the T-s diagram it is clear that 𝑸𝑺 > 𝑸′𝑺 .

where 𝑸𝑺 is the heat supplied in the otto cycle

and 𝑸′𝑺 is heat supplied in the Diesel cycle.

 i.e. heat supplied in the Otto cycle is more than

that of the Diesel cycle. Hence, it is evident that,
the efficiency of the Otto cycle is greater than
the efficiency of the Diesel cycle for a given
compression ratio and heat rejection
 SAME PEAK PRESSURE, PEAK TEMPERATURE AND HEATREJECTION

 Figures show the Otto cycle 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 and

Diesel cycle 1 – 2’ – 3 – 4 on P - V and T - S
coordinates, where the peak pressure and
temperature and the amount of heat rejected
are the same.

 It is evident that Q's > Qs. Therefore, the Diesel

cycle efficiency is greater than the Otto cycle
efficiency when both engines are built to
withstand the same thermal and mechanical
stress.
SAME MAXIMUM PRESSURE AND HEAT INPUT

 For same maximum pressure and same heat input

the Otto cycle (12341) and Diesel cycle (12’3'4’1)
are shown on p-V and T-s diagram

 It is evident from the figure that the heat rejection

for otto cycle (area 1564 on T-s diagram ) is more
than the heat rejected in Diesel cycle (156’4’).

 Hence Diesel cycle is more efficient than otto cycle

for the condition of same maximum pressure and
heat input. one can make a note that with these
condition the Diesel cycle has higher compression
𝑽 𝑽
ratio 𝑽 𝟏 then that of Otto cycle compression ratio 𝑽𝟏
𝟐′ 𝟐
SAME MAXIMUM PRESSURE AND WORK OUTPUT

 From diagram For same work output the area

1234 (work output of otto cycle) and area l2’3’4’
(work output of Diesel cycle) are same.

 To achieve this, the entropy at 3 should be

greater than entropy at 3’. It is clear that the
heat rejection for otto cycle is more than that of
Diesel cycle.

 Hence, for these conditions the Diesel cycle is

more efficient than the otto cycle.The efficiency
of Dual cycle lies between the two cycles.
FUEL-AIR CYCLE

 Air standard cycles had simplified approximations, and therefore, performance estimate of the
engine is greater than the actual performance.

 With a compression ratio of 7:1, the actual indicated thermal efficiency of an SI engine is of
the order of 30 %, while the ideal (or air-standard) efficiency is about 55 %.

 This divergence is due to partly due to non-instantaneous burning, incomplete combustion,

valve operation etc. However, the main reason lies with the over-simplification of using values of
properties of the working fluid
 …CONT’D

 Ideal Case:

-Working fluid is air

- Air is a perfect gas

- Has constant specific heats

 Actual Case

- Working fluid is air + fuel + residual gas

- Specific heats increases with increase in temperature

-Combustion products are subjected to dissociation at high temperature

FUEL-AIR CYCLE ANALYSIS CONSIDERATIONS

 The actual composition of the cylinder gases : The cylinder gases contains fuel, air, water vapor and
residual gas.
 The variation in the specific heat with temperature : Specific heats increase with temperature
except for mono-atomic gases.Therefore, the value of Ƴ also changes with temperature.
 The effect of dissociation : The fuel and air do not completely combine chemically at high
temperatures (above 1600 K) and this leads to the presence of CO, H2, H and 02 at equilibrium
conditions.
 The variation in the number of molecules : The number of molecules present after combustion
depend upon fuel-air ratio and upon the pressure and temperature after the combustion.
FUEL-AIR CYCLES - ASSUMPTION

 There is no chemical change in either fuel or air prior to combustion.

 Subsequent to combustion, the charge is always in chemical equilibrium.

 There is no heat exchange (adiabatic) between the gases and the cylinder walls in any process. Also

the compression and expansion processes are frictionless.

 Velocities are negligibly small.

Remark

 The air-standard analysis allows how the efficiency is improved by raising the compression ratio of air.

 It does not give any idea on the effect of F/A ratio on thermal efficiency.

Fuel – Air Cycles

 Allows study of F/A ratio on thermal efficiency.

 Allows study of pmax and Tmax as F/A ratio is varied.This helps in structural design of the engine.

 Gives a good estimate of the power expected from an actual engine.

 …CONT’D

Noted

 As fuel-air already mentioned the air standard cycle analysis shows the general effect of only
compression ratio on engine efficiency whereas the fuel- air cycle analysis the effect of variation of
engine fuel analysis, inlet pressure and temperature on the engine performance.

 Noticed that the compression ratio and fuel – air ratio is vary important parameter of the engine
while inlet parameter is no so important.
VARIABLE SPECIFIC HEAT

 Except mono-atomic gases, all other gases show an

increase in specific heats at high temperature.
Note: this increase does not obey any law.
 Over the temperature range in general use for gases
in heat engines (300K – 1500K), the specific heat
curve is nearly a straight line, and can be expressed as

 Above 1500K, specific heats increase more Rapidly and

may be expressed in the form
PHYSICAL EXPLANATION

 Increase of specific heat is that as temperature is raised, larger and larger fractions

of heat input go to produce the motion of atoms within the molecules.

 Hence. more heat is required to raise the temperature of unit mass through one degree at higher

levels.This heat by definition is the specific heat. For air. the values are

Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK at 300 K Cv= 0.718 kJ/kgK at 300 K

Cp = 1.343 kJ/kgK at 2000 K C v = 1.055 kJ/kgK at 2000 K

 …CONT’D

 As temperature is an indication of motion of molecules as a whole, therefore, the energy that goes
into the motion of atoms does not contribute to temperature rise.

 This is a reason, why more heat is required to raise the temperature of unit mass by one degree
(this heat, by definition, is the specific heat).as Cp – Cv =constant, and k (= Cp/Cv) decreases with
increase of temperature.

 Therefore, variation of specific heats leads the FINAL temperature and pressure to lower values
(as compared to constant specific heats)
 …CONT’D

 2´ is lower than 2 : due to variable specific heats

 3´ is lower than 3 : temperature rise due to a given

heat release ↓ as Cp ↑, and also as 2´ is lower than 2.

 3´ to 4´´ : resulting adiabatic expansion.

 3´ to 4´ : correct expansion (Specific heat ↓ as

Temperature ↓ during expansion.)
DISSOCIATION LOSS
Dissociation: disintegration of combustion products at high temperature. During dissociation, heat is
absorbed, where as during combustion heat is liberated.

In IC engines, mainly dissociation of CO into CO and 02 occurs. whereas there is a very little
dissociation of H2O.

At 10000C, CO2 = CO + O2 + heat

At 13000C, H2O = H2 + O2 + heat

Presence of CO and O2 in the gases tends to prevent the dissociation of CO2:this is noticeable in a
rich fuel mixture , which, by producing more CO suppresses the dissociation of CO2.That means,
there is no dissociation in the burnt gases of a lean mixture, because the temperature produced is too
low for the phenomenon to occur.
 …CONT’D

Lean mixture : No dissociation takes place due to low temperature.

Maximum dissociation : chemically correct mixture when the

temperature is high.

Rich mixture : dissociation is prevented by the available CO and O2.

Further, heat transfer to cooling medium causes a reduction in

maximum temperature and pressure. As temperature falls (during
the expansion stroke) the separated constituents recombine and
heat absorbed (during dissociation) gets released. But, it becomes
too late to recover.

The curve shows the reduction in exhaust gas temperature

due to dissociation with respect to air-fuel ratio
 EFFECT OF DISSOCIATION ON POWER (SI ENGINE)

 Power Output is maximum at stoichiometric ratio where

there is no dissociation.

 shaded area represents loss of power due to dissociation

 For Lean mixture : No dissociation.

For Stoichiometric : Maximum dissociation.
For Rich mixture : Effect declines due to incomplete
combustion and also due to increased quantity of CO
EFFECT OF OPERATING VARIABLE

 Compression Ratio: For a given φ, efficiency (fuel air

cycle) increases with compression ratio (r) in a
similar manner as that of air standard cycle

 Pmax increases with increasing r and liberation of

chemical energy at high pressure gives more scope
for expansion work. Thus, there is higher efficiency
but to a certain value of compression ratio (r).
 At the same compression ratio, efficiency (fuel-
air) decreases with increasing φ

 φ < 1 implies a lean mixture.Tmax becomes

lower due to excess air.This results in lower
specific heats and higher values of k.

 Hence, efficiency increases with decreasing φ

(gases expand to a larger temperature before
exhaust)

 Then φ > 1, efficiency (fuel-air) decreases with

increasing φ, because insufficient air leads to Φ = 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐹 𝐴 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
incomplete oxidation of fuel. =
Stoichiometric 𝐹 𝐴 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
EFFECT OF EQUIVALENCE RATIO ON TEMPERATURE

 At a given r, maximum temperature is reached when the

mixture is slightly rich (about 6 - 8 %). This is because, at
φ=1, there is still some oxygen present at point 3
because of chemical equilibrium effects, and a rich
mixture will cause more fuel to combine with oxygen at
that point thereby raising the temperature T3.

 However, at rich mixtures increased formation of CO

counteracts this effect
EFFECT OF EQUIVALENCE RATIO ON PRESSURE

 The pressure of a gas in a given space depends

upon its temperature and the number of
molecules.

 The curve of p3,therefore follows T3, but

because of the increased no. of molecules, p3
starts decreasing when the mixture is about
18 to 20 % rich
ACTUAL CYCLE
ACTUAL CYCLE LOSSES

 Time loss

 Heat loss

 Blow-down loss

 Blow by loss

 Rubbing friction loss

 Pumping loss
 …CONT’D

1. Time loss: It is due to the time required for mixing of air-fuel mixture and combustion.

 Heat addition is not instantaneous, and spread over a period (30 to 40) degrees of crankshaft
revolution).Therefore, Pmax is not at TDC, but just after TDC.

 time loss depends upon flame velocity which, in turn, again depends on type of fuel used, A/F ratio,
and shape of combustion chamber.

 This is to have P max at TDC; if the spark is initiated at TDC, peak pressure would be low due to
expansion of gases.

Further, if the spark is initiated too early, additional work is required to gases which is a direct loss.
 …CONT’D

 Therefore, the optimum time to start the combustion is 15 ° to 30 b TDC.

- Spark at TDC ,advance 0 degree - Spark advance of 35 degree

 …CONT’D

 Optimum spark advanced  Cycle performance of various ignition timing

Remark: best compromise is to go for moderate spark advance so as

to have smaller losses in both compression and expansion strokes.

2. Heat loss:
This is due to the transfer of heat through water
jackets and cooling fins. Also, some heat is being
transferred during compression and expansion
processes.
Due to heat loss, temperature (Tmax) decreases,
and specific heat gets reduced.This decreases the
efficiency.
…CONT’D
3. Blow-down loss
Blow down loss is due to the early opening of
exhaust valve.This results in drop in pressure, and a
loss of work output during expansion stroke.Too
early opening results in loss of expansion work. Best
compromise is between 40° - 60° 𝒃 𝑩𝑫𝑪
 …CONT’D

 The effect of exhaust valve early opening  Time loss, heat loss and exhaust loss.
greatly exaggerated

4. Blow by losses:
The blow by losses is due to the leaking of gas
flow through crevices/gaps between the piston,
piston rings and cylinder walls.The gas usually
leaks/flows trough them to the crankcase
…CONT’D
5. Rubbing friction losses:
 Rubbing friction loss is due to friction between
the piston and chamber walls, friction in
various bearings and also includes the energy
spent in operating various auxiliary
equipment such as cooling fans, water pumps
etc.
 The piston ring friction increases rapidly with
engine speed. It also increases to a small
extent with increase in mean effective
pressure. The bearing friction and the
auxiliary friction also increase with engine
speed.
 …CONT’D
6. Pumping loss
Pumping work is the difference between the work done in expelling the gases (during
exhaust stroke) and the work done in including the fresh charge (during suction stroke).the
loss is due to the pumping gases from low inlet pressure to high exhaust pressure
 …CONT’D

Note

 The efficiency of an engine is maximum at full load and decreases at part load.This is because the
percent of direct heat loss, pumping loss, and rubbing friction loss increase at part loads.The
approximate losses for an SI engine using chemically correct mixture are shown as percent of fuel
energy input.