1

Bees and Pesticides

Student Name: Tireign Lindsay

Course Information: BSC3842

Instructor: Prof. Mike Lentz

Submission Date: 11/20/2022

 2

Abstract

Bees are essential elements in ecosystems worldwide for their diverse roles in enhancing the

continuity of the systems. Not only their honey production abilities have researchers credited

bees to the majority of the pollination activities witnessed worldwide. Therefore, assisting in

crop and animal production encourages human beings' living. Pesticides such as neonicotinoids

are common chemicals farmers use in crop and tree production. Environmentalists and scientists

have recently raised concerns about the declining number of bees. Though numerous themes

exist regarding reducing bees in their colonies, the increased use of pesticides is the most

significant contributor to the extinction. Scholars augment that going; by the current adoption

and spraying of pesticides on farms globally, the world is staring at the possible end of bees.

Studies reveal that some of the adverse effects of using the chemicals in the bees and their

colonies entail disrupting learning and memory in honey bees. The excessive use of pesticide

chemicals harms sperm's viability, impairing reproduction hence fewer offspring. The exposure

to pesticides negatively impairs the queen's development and causes potential death affecting the

colony's fitness. The following paper is a literature review analyzing different elements of the

increased pesticide application in agriculture that affect bee foragers' colony performance of bee

and the queens’ life duration.

Keywords: Colony, Honey Bee, Neonicotinoid, Pesticides, and Foragers.

 3

Literature Review on Bees and Pesticides

Introduction

Bees are among the most critical elements in different ecosystems and are typical for

their roles in enhancing pollination and honey production. They benefit many members of

ecosystems (Milone et al., 2021). Reported bee decline has prompted the analysis of the effects

of plant production chemicals used by farmers for production purposes for their adverse impact

on the colony population (Meikle et al., 2022). Studies reveal that stressful environmental

conditions during early development have numerous negative consequences on organisms

resulting in significant suffering and deaths in specific scenarios: a situation currently

experienced by honey bees in different contexts (Alburaki et al., 2017). In recent times there has

been increased exposure to pesticides due to widened adoption across farms globally which

impairs the queen's development and the colony's fitness.

Forager bees have higher in-field exposure to harmful toxins due to their foraging duties,

which may result in their deaths from excessive exposure. It may also lower their performance,

lowering efficiency and could lead to the starvation of the colony. Queen's exposure to chemicals

impairs their reproductive anatomy and physiology, resulting in minimal success and lifespan

from the toxins. Different scholars have dedicated themselves to understanding the various

elements influencing the bees aiming to enhance the establishment of strategies to control them

(Meikle et al., 2022). The purpose of this paper is to review different primary publications to

understand the effects of pesticides on forager bees and colony queens' performance.

A Description of Literature

Williams et al., 2015 undertook a field study using live specimens from farms in

Switzerland to understand the consequences of neonicotinoids exposures to queens manning

 4

different economically and socially viable bees. Additionally, the scholars proposed to heighten

the importance of prior risk assessment to promote biodiversity by containing pesticides that

have negatively affected bees. Their purpose in conducting the study emanated from the recent

concerns about the decline of bees that could negatively affect world food security and

biodiversity. The researchers exposed developing honey queen bees to neonicotinoid pesticides

to test their hypothesis. Their control experiment aimed to gather accurate information to back

their study that chemical exposure changes the queen's behavior, reproductive anatomy, and

physiology, negatively affecting their performance.

They used different statistical analysis software to classify their findings. The scholars

identified remarkable differences after the lapse of the control experiment period. Notably, the

mating success of the nucleus colony among the bees depicted adverse effects of the exposure

since 38% fewer queens exposed to the pesticides produced workers compared to the

non-exposed (Williams et al., 2015). Exposure to neonicotinoid chemicals reduces the queens'

spermatozoa and impairs their reproduction abilities. The study established that queens who

breathed the pesticide had 20% fewer stored spermatozoa and could potentially die at higher

rates than those without the exposure. However, despite the presence of the chemical, they did

not identify any substantial differences in rearing success.

Neonicotinoid Pesticide Reduces Bumble Bee Colony Growth and Queen Production

A decline in bee population has created a concern to study the contributing features, with

scientists focusing on the possible effects of pesticide exposure to slowing colony growth by

impairing the queen's production capacity and minimizing offspring. Whitehorn et al. 2012,

conducted a control experiment by exposing samples to chemicals in a laboratory. The scholars

exposed bumble colony bees to a substantial amount of neonicotinoid and left them to develop
 5

under usual environmental factors. Their control study established that pesticide exposure

significantly reduced bee growth rate. Additionally, they gathered that the neonicotinoid

pesticides slowed reproduction capacity since the exposed bees suffered an 85% decline in new

queens compared to control bees that reproduced at a higher standard rate.

The scholars assessed literature from various sources to examine the possible effects of

pesticides on forager bees. Though few studies exist on the element, the researchers identify

sufficient data to concur that any amount of neonicotinoids reduces foraging ability in the natural

environment compared to control-caged experiments. In addition, the deprived efficiency of

forgers to gather sufficient materials negatively affects the performance of the queen and colony

since they lack feeding components. Workers foraging across heavily sprayed fields have lower

efficiency and more adverse health conditions.

Combined Pesticide Exposure Severely Affects Individual and Colony-Level Traits in Bees

Gill et al., 2012 conducted a control experiment using live specimens mimicking a

previous study by exposing bumblebees to substantial levels of neonicotinoid and pyrethroid

bearing significant concentrations to affect a bee potentially. The scholars housed an equal

number of colonies in separate chambers and channeled the toxins into identifying changes in

their behaviors, growth, and practices. The control study established significant inhibition of

worker bee natural foraging practices due to mortality from adverse exposure. The scholars

identified minimal and no colony development in some chambers exposed to the chemicals.

Bees' reduced productivity and foraging inefficiency could cause reduced brood development

and deaths. Additionally, the insufficiency of the foraging bees impaired recruitment to the duties

lowering productivity at significantly higher levels since hives have no forthcoming foragers.
 6

The scholars established that higher exposure to combined exposure to harmful toxins

elevates the propensity for mortality and forager death due to increased exposure to the toxins

(Gill et al., 2012). The chemicals also directly affect physiological development and indirectly

alter the colony's foraging behaviors leading to food limitations affecting the entire hive. The

researchers conclude by suggesting pesticide labeling to enlighten farmers on the potential

hazards they cause to various living organisms such as bees. According to their recommendation,

the labeling should entail descriptions of the chemical components of the pesticides.

A Common Pesticide Decreases Foraging Success and Survival in Honey Bee

Henry et al., 2012 conducted simulated control experiments to test the hypothesis that

sub-lethal neonicotinoid exposures impair the homing ability to forage honey bees, thus

indirectly increasing colony deaths in a cereal farm in France. They used radio-frequency

identification technology to monitor free-ranging honey bees' inability to return to their hives.

They differentiated different elements contributing to the homing failure by releasing control

foragers exposed to the chemicals to enhance their accuracy. They established multiple

mortalities from the exposure affecting homing abilities, where exposed foragers had higher

chances of not returning to their hives. The study confirms that thiamethoxam exposure affects

foragers' survival since it can lead to suffocation and collapse. Additionally, the forager's

exposure extent determines the bees' effects and reactions. They raise a concern that scholars

undertake more studies to establish different effects on all bees.

Conclusion

Bees are integral elements in ecosystems and potentially affect many factors, such as

pollination and honey production. The recent decline in the bee population has unearthed

arguments that the fall could be due to the rising use of different plant production chemicals such
 7

as pesticides. Pesticides negatively affect bees in many ways. They impair and alter the forager

bee’s behavior which deters their efficiency, reducing the availability of supplements for the

queen. In addition, the chemicals cause suffocation and death to the foragers extensively exposed

to the chemicals. Pesticides affect the queen's declining lifespan since they alter reproductive

anatomy and spermatozoa quality and amount, reducing reproductive capacity and lowering a

colony's population. Pesticides affect bees in numerous ways; questions linger on the

commitment of farmers to promote diversity by reducing chemicals in production activities.

Future studies should focus on establishing the effects of individual chemical types on the bees

to enhance the development of appropriate strategies for dealing with the issue.
 8

References

Alburaki, M., Steckel, S. J., Chen, D., McDermott, E., Weiss, M., Skinner, J. A., ... & Stewart, S.

D. (2017). Landscape and pesticide effects on honey bees: forager survival and

expression of acetylcholinesterase and brain oxidative genes. Apidologie, 48(4), 556-571.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13592-017-0497-3

Gill, R. J., Ramos-Rodriguez, O., & Raine, N. E. (2012). Combined pesticide exposure severely

affects individual-and colony-level traits in bees. Nature, 491(7422), 105-108.

Henry, M., Beguin, M., Requier, F., Rollin, O., Odoux, J. F., Aupinel, P., ... & Decourtye, A.

(2012). A common pesticide decreases foraging success and survival in honey

bees. Science, 336(6079), 348-350.

Meikle, W. G., Colin, T., Adamczyk, J. J., Weiss, M., & Barron, A. B. (2022). Traces of a

neonicotinoid pesticide stimulate different honey bee colony activities but do not increase

colony size or longevity. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 231, 113202.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.113202

Milone, J. P., Chakrabarti, P., Sagili, R. R., & Tarpy, D. R. (2021). Colony-level pesticide

exposure affects honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) royal jelly production and nutritional

composition. Chemosphere, 263, 128183.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128183

Whitehorn, P. R., O'Connor, S., Wackers, F. L., & Goulson, D. (2012). Neonicotinoid pesticide

reduces bumble bee colony growth and queen production. Science, 336(6079), 351-352.

Williams, G. R., Troxler, A., Retschnig, G., Roth, K., Yañez, O., Shutler, D., ... & Gauthier, L.

(2015). Neonicotinoid pesticides severely affect honey bee queens. Scientific reports,

5(1), 1-8.