ENGLISH GRAMMAR NOTES FOR JKSSB EXAMS- BY TANIYA ABROL

1. TENSE Present Continuous Tenses

Tense (noun): a verb-based method used to indicate the
time, and sometimes the continuation or completeness,
of an action or state in relation to the time of speaking.
ORIGIN Latin tempus "time"
On the basis of time of an action performed, we can divide
sentences into the following three tenses:
When you use present continuous, you are referring to
what is happening right now. Also, it can be an action that
is not yet complete.
No.-1. Positive:- She is listening the music now.
No.-2. Negative:- She is not listening the music now.

(i) Present Tense No.-3. Question:- Is she listening the music now?
(ii) Past Tense
(iii) Future Tense Present Perfect Tenses

Again on the basis of state of an action performed, we can Although it’s easy to confuse this verb tense with present
further classify each tense into the following four parts: simple, the main difference is that the action is complete
for present perfect. In other words, you are looking at the
(i) Simple Indefinite Tense result right now without any words referring to time.
(ii) Progressive/ Continuous Tense
(iii) Perfect Tense No.-1. Positive:- It has rained a lot lately.
(iv) Perfect Continuous Tense
No.-2. Negative:- It has not rained a lot lately.

No.-3. Question:- Has it rained a lot lately?

Present Perfect Continuous Tenses

In this verb tense, an action starts in the past but it’s still
continuing now. You have been performing the action and
still are performing the action in the present.

No.-1. Positive:- She has been singing a song.

No.-2. Negative:- She has not been singinga song.

No.-3. Question:- Has she been singing a song?

Past Simple Tenses

For past simple, it includes a finished action and time.

Present Simple Tenses
No.-1. Positive:- We watched the news last night.
When you use present simple, you are using a routine. It’s
something that you always do every day, month or year.
No.-2. Negative:- We did not watch the news last night.
Or it’s something that you never do.
No.-3. Question:- Did we watch the news last night?
No.-1. Positive:- I prefer my coffee black.

No.-2. Negative:- I don’t prefer my coffee black.

Past Continuous Tenses
No.-3. Question:- Do I prefer my coffee black?

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When you use past continuous, you are often using two
actions. However, one action is not finished in the past,
and another is complete interrupting the other action.
No.-1. Positive:- I was learning German last year.
No.-2. Negative:- I was not learning German last year.
No.-3. Question:- Was I learning German last year?
Past perfect Tenses
This verb tense uses two actions at two different times.
Before the second action occurs, the first action is
complete.
No.-1. Positive:- He had left when I went to the club.
No.-2. Negative:- He had not left when I went to the club.
No.-3. Question:- Had he left when I went to the club?
Past Perfect Continuous Tenses
For colloquial English, we don’t use past perfect
continuous very often. But in text books, it’s a bit more
common. This very tense has a complete action that
happened before a second action. But in this case, you can
describe how long.
No.-1. Positive:- They had been being friend since
childhood.
No.-2. Negative:- They had not been being friend since
childhood.
No.-3. Question:- Had they been being friend since
childhood?
Future Simple Tenses
This verb tense is about planning things to do in the
future. For example, what will you do tomorrow or next
week?
No.-1. Positive:- They will study math.
No.-2. Negative:- They will not study math.
No.-3. Question:- Will they study math?
Future Continuous Tenses
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The action is not complete, when another action happens
in the future. This is similar to past continuous, but it
refers to the future.
No.-1. Positive:- They will be loving you.
No.-2. Negative:- They will not be lovingyou.
No.-3. Question:- Will they be loving you?
Future Perfect Tenses
An action will be completed in the future before another is
completed.
No.-1. Positive:- By next week, they will have earned lots
of money.
No.-2. Negative:- By next week, they will not have earned
lots of money.
No.-3. Question:- Will they have earned lots of Money, by
next week?
Future Perfect Continuous Tenses
An action will be continuing in the future when it is
interrupted by another action. In this future verb tense, it
often includes an indication of how long the action has
been happening.
No.-1. Positive:- I will have been shopping on Tuesday.
No.-2. Negative:- I will not have been shopping on
Tuesday.
No.-3. Question:- Will I have been shopping on Tuesday?
Fill in the blanks with the right option:
1. Sanjeev ______ karate class everyday.
(a) attends (b) has attended (c) attended
(d) is attending (e) None of these
2. The market ______ usually noisy in the morning.
(a) is (b) has (c) was (d) were (e) will be
3. The post man ______ the letter already.
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(a) will be posting (b) has posted (c) delivered
(d) posts (e) has delivered
4. The athlete ______ for America tomorrow.
(a) is leaving (b) has left (c) will leaving
(d) will have left (e) shall leave
5. Sanjay ______ his room for the past three hours.
(a) will be painting (b) will paint (c) has been painting (d)
has painted (e) will have painted
6. The milkman ______ to our housing estate every
morning.
(a) come (b) has come (c) coming
(d) comes (e) came
7. Udit ______ Cricket since primary school when he got
selected in Indian Cricket team.
(a) has played (b) had been playing (c) will play
(d) will have played (e) has played
8. The conference ______ due to lack of quorum.
(a) has been postponed (b) is postponing
(c) will postpone (d) postponed (e) None of these
9. You are late. The train ______ already.
(a) left (b) has left (c) will leave (d) had left (e) leave
10. Everyone ______ about West Indies’ achievement in
the Twenty twenty world cup, now a days.
(a) talked (b) was talking (c) will talk (d) is talking
(e) has talked
Solutions of Fill in the Blanks
1. (a); The sentence expresses the daily habit of Sanjeev.
Therefore, simple present tense should be used here.
Hence, (a) is the correct option.
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2. (a); In this sentence the daily ambience of market has
been described. Therefore, (simple) present tense should
be used. Hence, (a) is the correct option.
3. (e); The usage of the word ‘already’ shows that the
action has been completed. Hence perfect tense should be
used. Now see the meaning of the following options:Post:
Send (a letter or parcel) via the postal system. Deliver:
bring and hand over (a letter, parcel, or goods) to the
proper recipient or address Hence, (e) is the correct
option.
4. (a); For future plans which are expected to be executed
in near future,
we use present progressive tense. Hence, (a) is the correct
option.
5. (c); In this sentence, the action had started in past and
was in action for a period of time hence perfect
continuous tense should be used here. Therefore, (c) is the
correct option.
6. (d); In this sentence, the daily routine of milkman has
been described. Hence, simple present tense should be
used. Hence, (d) is the correct option.
7. (b); Here an action described, had started in the past
and was in action till the point in the past. Hence, past
perfect continuous tense should be used here. Hence, (b)
is the correct option.
8. (a); The given statement is in passive voice hence, the
structure ‘has + been + V3’ should be used. Hence, (a) is
the correct option.
9. (b); The usage of the word ‘already’ shows that the
action in the given sentence has been completed hence
perfect tense should be used. Now, the usage of are in the
first part of the question shows that the sentence is in
present tense. Therefore, (b) is the correct option.
10. (d); The usage of the word ‘now a days’ shows that the
sentence is in present continuous tense. Hence, (d) is the
correct option.
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2. VOICE- ACTIVE PASSIVE Rules for Active – Passive Voice Conversions

What is Voice of a verb? Rule 1. Identify the (S+V+O) Subject, Verb and object in
the active sentence to convert to passive voice
The voice of a verb expresses whether the subject in the
sentence has performed or received the action. Example:

Example: He drives car. (Subject – He, verb – Drives, object – Car)

 The watchman opens the door. Rule 2. Interchange the object and subject with each
 The door is opened by the watchman other, i.e. object of the active sentence become the
subject of the passive sentence.
Types of Voices of Verb
Example :
Verbs have two voices
Active voice : She knits sweater. (Subject – She, Verb –
(i) Active Voice Knits, Object – Sweater)
(ii) Passive Voice
Passive Voice : The sweater is knitted by her. (Object
Active Voice – When an action performed by the subject sweater is interchanged with the subject She).
is expressed by the verb, it is an active voice. Active voice
is used when more straightforward relation and clarity is Rule 3. In passive voice sometimes the subject is not used,
required between the subject and the verb. i.e. the subject in passive voice can be omitted if the
sentence without it gives enough meaning.
Active Voice example:
Example :
Hens lay eggs.
Milk is sold in litres
Birds build nests.
Rule 4. Change the base verb in the active sentence into
Passive Voice – When the action expressed by the verb is the past participle ie. third form verb in a passive sentence
received by the subject, it is passive voice. Passive voice i.e. preceded by (By, With, to, etc). Base verbs are never
is used when the doer of the action is not known and the used in passive voice sentences.
focus of the sentence is on the action and not the
subject. Example:

Passive Voice Examples: Active voice: She prepares dinner.

Eggs are laid by hens. Passive voice: The dinner is prepared by her.

Nests are built by birds. Active voice: She knows him.

Conversion of Active and Passive voice examples Passive voice: He is known to her.

Active voice: Juice fills the jar.

 Rita wrote a letter. (Subject + Verb + Object) Passive voice: The jar is filled with juice.
 A letter was written by Rita. (Object) +
(auxiliary verb) + (past participle) + (by subject). Rule 5. While conversion of Active voice sentence to
Passive voice sentence, the pronoun used in the sentence
 She cooks food. (Subject + Verb + Object)
also changes in the following manner.
 The food is cooked by her. (Object) + (auxiliary
verb) + (past participle) + (by subject)

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Rule 6. Use the suitable helping or auxiliary verb

(is/am/are/was, etc.). The rules for using auxiliary verbs in
passive voice sentences are different for each tense.

Example:

 The letter is written by her

 A book was not bought by her
 Chocolates are being eaten by them.

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Sentences with Infinitive verbs take the following form in

Passive voice.

Active : "To + V1"

Passive : "To + be + V3"

For Ex – (a) We are to buy a new car. (Active)

(b) A new car is to be bought by us. (Passive)

(c) I have to find my lost pen. (active)

(d) My lost pen has to be found by me. (passive)

To make passive from of modal verbs, following structure

is followed.

(For indefinite)

Sub + Modal + V1 + Obj (active)

Obj + Modal + be + V3 + by + sub (Passive)

Imperative Sentences:
For Ex – You should work hard. (active)
An Imperative sentence is the one which expresses an
Hard work should be done by you (passive)
order, request,command etc.
For Perfect.
An imperative sentence takes the following forms in
passive voice.
Subject + Modal + have + V3+ Obj (active)
(i) Let + Noun + be + V3
Obj + Modal + have + been + V3+ by + sub (passive)
For Ex – Shut the door. (active)
For Ex – I should have passed the exam. (active)
Let the door be shut (passive)
The exam should have been passed by me.
(ii) You are requested/ordered/advised etc to + V1 + Obj.

For Ex – Please bring a glass of water (active)

You are requested to bring a glass of water (Passive)

(iii) Sub + should + be + V3 + obj.

For Ex – Respect your elders (Active)

Your elders should be respected (passive)

Infinitive Verbs (To + V1)

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3. NARRATION
Direct Narration
It is the method in which the actual words of the speaker
are reported within Inverted commas. For Example
(i) Mohan says, “he is my friend”.
(ii) Ram said, “he is going”.
Indirect Narration
It is the method in which the substance or idea of the
speaker’s words is reported without using his actual
works.
The sentence given above is converted into Indirect
Narration. For Example
(i) Mohan says that he is my friend.
(ii) Ram said that he is going.
Reporting verb
The part of the whole sentence outside the Inverted
Commas in Direct Narration is called Reporting Verb.
Reported Speech
The part of the whole sentence in which the actual words
of the speaker are written within the Inverted Commas is
called the Reported Speech, and the verb used in this part
is called Reported Verb.
Rules for Changing Direct Narration into Indirect Narration
The rules for changing the Direct Narration into Indirect
Narration is divided into four parts.
1. Rules for Connectives
2. Rules for change in Sentence
3. Rules for change of Persons
4. Other rules for Miscellaneous Changes
Rules for Connectives
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When the entire sentence is required to be change from
Direct Narration into Indirect Narration. the two parts of
the sentence is likely to be joined by some connectives.
The following are these rules.
(A) Interrogative Sentence: If the Reported speech is in the
form of an Interrogative sentence, it can be connected in
two ways according to the structure of the Interrogative
sentence.
(i) If the interrogative sentence begins with an
Interrogative Adverb( What, Why, Where, How, When etc
) or with an Interrogative Adjective / Pronoun ( Who,
Whose, Whom, What, Which etc. ) no connectives is
required to join it. It is a mistake to use that to connect
such a sentence. For Example
Direct: He said, “where are you going” ?
Indirect: He asked me where i was going ?
(ii) If the Interrogative sentence begins with the Auxiliary
Verb / Helping Verb, the connective Whether or if is used
to join it. For Example
Direct: Ha said, “Is he doctor ?
Indirect: He said whether he was doctor.
Direct: I said, ” Do you smoke”?
Indirect: I asked whether you smoke.
(iii) If the reported speech begins with the Do or Does,
then Do and Does is removed from the reported
speech,and in their place the Past Indefinite Tense of the
main verb is used. For Example
Direct: He said to Ram,”Do you know his name”.
Indirect: He asked Ram whether he knew his name.
Direct: Ram said to him,”Does Suresh Go to School”.
Indirect: Ram asked him whether Suresh goes to School.
(iv) If the Reported Speech begins with the Auxiliary Verb
Did then the did is removed and the Past Perfect form of
the main verb is used. For Example
Direct: I said to him,”Did you go to School yesterday”.
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Indirect: I asked him whether he had gone to school the
previous day.
(B) Assertive Sentence: If the reported speech is in the
form of assertive sentence, then the connective that is
used to join two sentence. For Example
Direct: He said, “He is going to home”.
Indirect: He said that he was going to home.
(C) Imperative Sentence: If the reported speech is in the
form of Imperative sentence, then the no connective is
used to join two sentence but the main verb of the
Imperative sentence is converted into an Infinite Verb. For
Example
Direct: He said to the servant,”Close the door.”
Indirect: He asked the servant to close the door.
Direct: He said,”Please give me a glass of water.”
Indirect: He requested to give him a glass of water.
(D) Exclamatory Sentence: If the Reported Speech is in the
form of Exclamatory Sentence ( indicating surprise, fear,
wish or contempt etc. ), it is changed into an assertive
sentence in the Indirect Narration form and connective
that is used to join it with the Reporting speech. For
Example
Direct: He said,” What a horrible scene ?
Indirect: He said that it was a horrible scene.
(E) Exclamatory sentence: The sentences which carry the
sense of sudden joy, sorrow, Wonder, disappointment are
called exclamatory sentence. These sentences generally
begins with word Alas, Oh, Hurrah, Bravo, How, What a,
etc.
(i) In place of the Reporting Verb ‘Said’ some other
verbs as Exclaimed, Wished and Prayed are used
according to the sentence.
(ii) Connective ‘that’ is used.
(iii) After the Reporting Verb, we use such
expressions as Joyfully, Sorrowfully, With Sorrow,
With Joy, In astonishment, according to the
sense.
(iv) Exclamatory sentence is changed into assertive
sentence.
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(v) The rules for change for Tense and Pronoun are
the same as used in assertive sentence.
Direct: He said,”Alas, I am ruined”.
Indirect: He exclaimed that he was ruined.
Direct: He said, “O, what a chance !.
Indirect: He exclaimed that it was a fine chance.
Rules for Change in Tense
Rule 1- It should first be remembered that no change is
ever made in the Tense of the Reporting Verb. but of
course, without changing the tense, the verb can be
changed according to the sense of the Reported Speech.
For Example, In place of say or said , we can use tell or told
, or we can use replied, remarked, asked, observed,
declared etc. according to the sense. But in no case there
should be a change in the tense of the Reporting Speech.
Rule 2 - If the Reporting Verb is in the Present or Future
Tense, no change is made in the tense of the Reported
Verb, But of course, the form of the auxiliary verb will
change according to the change in the person of the
Subject in the Indirect Narration Form. For Example am
can be changed into is or are; or do and have can be
changed into does or has, but no change can be made in
the tense in the process of this change. For Example
Direct: He says, ” I am not feeling well today”.
Indirect: He says that he is not feeling well today.
Direct: He will say to me, “you are not kind to me.”
Indirect: He will tell me that I am not kind to him.
Rule 3-If the reported speech is in the Past Tense, the
tense of the reported speech is changed according to the
following rules.(I) (A) Present Indefinite is changed into
Past Indefinite tense. For Example
Direct: He said,”I am unwell”.
Indirect: He said that he was unwell.
(B) Present Continuous is converted into Past Continuous
Tense. For Example
Direct: He said,”my father is reading a books”.
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Indirect: He said that his father was reading a book.
(C) Present Perfect is changed into Past Perfect
Continuous Tense. For Example
Direct: He said,”I have passed the examination”.
Indirect: He said that he had passe the examination.
(D) Present Perfect Continuous Tense is converted into
Past Perfect Continuous Tense. For Example
Direct: Mohan said,”I have been working hard since July”.
Indirect: Mohan said that he had been working hard since
July.
(II) (A) Ordinarily no change is made in the Past Indefinite
Tense, but sometimes it is changed into Past Perfect
Tense. For Example
Direct: Rams said,”He visited Delhi last year”.
Indirect: Ram said that he visited Delhi last year.
Direct: He said,”the horse died last night”.
Indirect: He said that the horse had died last night.
(B) Past Continuous Tense is converted into Past Perfect
Continuous Tense. For Example
Direct: He said,”my brother was working in this factory”.
Indirect: He said that his brother had been working
(C) No change is made in the Past Perfect and Past Perfect
Continuous Tense. For Example
Direct: He said,”I had finished my work long ago”.
Indirect: He said that he had finished his work long ago.
Direct: Ram said,”I had been doing that work for several
years”.
Indirect: Ram said that he had been doing these work for
several years.
Rule 4- Will and Shall of the future tense are changed into
Would and Should. For Example
Direct: He said,”Ram will go to the market”.
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Indirect: He said that Ram would go to the market.
Direct: He said,”I shall definitely do this work”.
Indirect: He said that he should definitely do this work.
Rule 5 - May is changed into Might and Can is changed
into Could. For Example
Direct: He said,”I can do this work”.
Indirect: He said that he could do this work.
Direct: The teacher said,”he may be allowed to go”.
Indirect: The teacher said that he might be allowed to go.
Rule 6- No change is made in the Must. For Example
Direct: He said,”I must go at once”.
Indirect: He said that he must go at once.
Rule 7- If the reported speech refers to some universal
truth or habitual action, no change is made in the tense of
the reported verb, even if the reporting verb in the past
tense. For Example
Direct: The teacher said in the class,”the sun rises in the
east”.
Indirect: The teacher said in the class that the sun rises in
the east.
Direct: He said,”Man lives by beard”.
Indirect: He said that man lives by beard.
Rule 8- When words like sir, your Honour, Your majesty,
Please, Kindly etc. are used in the reported speech, their
sense is expressed by using the following expressions with
the reporting Verb, and these are dropped. For Example
Direct: The student said to the teacher,”Sir, mark me
present”.
Indirect: The student respectfully requested the teacher to
mark present.
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Rules for change in Person
All pronouns (I, We, You, He, she, they) used in the
reported speech are changed according to the following
rules.
Rule 1- Every First Person Pronoun used in the reported
speech is changed according to the person of the Subject
of the Reporting Speech. For Example
Sentences beginning with ‘Let’ express the sense of
Order, Wish, Proposal, Imagining, Condition etc. They are
converted into Indirect Narration according to the sense.
The Reporting Verb is changed into Ordered, Requested,
Proposed,Wished, support etc. according to the sense.In
all such sentences, ‘Let’ is removed and connective ‘That’
is used. In Place of ‘Let’ we use should. For Example
Direct: The Principal said,”Let no student stand here”.

Direct: He said,”I am doing my work”. Indirect: The Principal ordered that no student should
stand there.
Indirect: He said that he was doing his work.
Direct: The boy said,” Let me go out to play”.
Rule 2- Every second person in the reported speech is
changed according to the person of the Object of the Indirect: The boy wished that he should go out to play.
reporting speech. For Example

Direct: Mohan said to you,“you are not doing your work

seriously”.
4. ARTICLES
Indirect: Mohan told you that you were not doing your
work seriously. An article is a word that combines with a noun/s and helps
to determine whether a noun in any sentence or phrase is
Direct: Ramesh said to me, “You are not doing your work specific or general.
seriously”.
Example: After the long tiring day, the cup of tea refreshed
Indirect: Ramesh told me that i was not doing my work the mind and body.
seriously.
In this sentence, the use of the article ‘the’ specifies the
Rule 3- No change is made in the third person pronoun. day that was tiring and that one particular cup of tea that
refreshed the body and mind.
Miscellaneous Changes
There are two types of articles in English, Definite article
Some words used in the reported speech are changed as (The) and Indefinite article (A, An).
listed given below
Definite Article examples:
Words Changed From
 He threw the ball in the well.
 Now – Then  I saw the thieves stealing jewels.
 This or These – That or Those  Where are the notes I shared with you
 Hither – Thither yesterday?
 Here – There
 Hence – Thence Indefinite Article Example:
 Thus – So
 Come – Go  She wore a pretty pink dress.
 Tomorrow – Next day  I saw tigers in a zoo.
 Today – That Day  He is not as good as an actor.
 Yesterday – The Previous Day  An apple a day builds immunity.
 Last Night – The Previous Night
Rules of Articles With Examples
 Ago – Before

Sentence Beginning With ‘Let’

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The rules of articles (a, an, the) given below are divided
based on the types of articles.
Article Rules for the definite article ‘The
Rule 1 – The very basic rule of the article says that the
article ‘the’ is used before a singular or plural noun, which
is specific. It indicates a particular thing/s or person/s in
case of a common noun.
Example:
The teacher she spoke to at the exhibition was very rude.
He lost all the money borrowed from the lender.
Rule 2 – Article ‘The’ is used when the listener knows what
the speaker is talking about.
Example:
The mangoes you kept in the refrigerator last night do not
taste good.
Did you complete all the homework?
Rule3 – ‘The’ is used to generalize the whole class or
group.
Example:
The honest are respected.
The beggars are not always needy.
Rule 4 – ‘The’ is used for geographical points on the globe.
Example: The north pole and the south pole can never
meet.
Rule 5 – ‘The’ is used for the nouns that cannot be
counted.
Example:
The water in the Pacific ocean is freezing.
Two robbers stole all the money from the bank.
Rule 6 – ‘The’ is used with geographical nouns, depending
on the size and plurality of the noun. ‘The’ must precede
the names of oceans, rivers, group of islands, lakes,
mountains, countries with united states or islands, etc.
11
Example:
The Ganga is a holy river.
The English Channel is the longest river channel.
However, ‘the’ must not precede the following–
 Names of continents, like Asia, South America,
etc
 Names of countries, states or streets like
Alaska, Bolivia, New town street, etc.
 Names of Single lakes, mountains, islands or
bays, like Chilika Lake, Hudson Bay, etc.
 Names of languages like Spanish, French, etc.
 Names of Sports such as basketball, cricket,
football, etc.
 Names of subjects like Economics,
Mathematics, History, etc.
Rule 7 – ‘The’ is mandatorily used for things that are only
one of a kind in the universe.
Example:
The Sun and the Moon shine bright in the sky.
The planet earth looks beautiful from space.
Rule 8 – ‘The’ does not mean all.
Example:
The books are my favourite (not all the books, just the
books talked about)
Books are my favourite (all the books, in general, are
favourites)
Article Rule for Indefinite Article ‘A’ and ‘An’
Rule 1 – The article ‘a’ is used before a consonant word or
any vowel with a consonant sound.
Indefinite article examples:
A man is sitting on the chair.
She goes to a university in Delhi.
Similarly, the article ‘an’ is used before the words
beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or the letter of a
consonant word with a vowel sound.
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Indefinite article examples:
She is an innocent girl.
He is an honest man.
Rule 2 – A singular common noun always requires an
article ‘a’ or ‘an’, but a plural common noun does not
require any article or can have ‘the’ to particularise that
noun.
Examples:
I saw an elephant. (Refers to a random elephant)
I saw elephants in a zoo. (No article is required)
I have seen the elephant again. (Refers to the elephant
already seen)
I have seen the elephants again before leaving the zoo.
(Refers particularly to the elephants of the zoo which were
seen earlier.)
Rule 3 – A/An is used to make a Proper noun a common
noun. Proper nouns do not take articles but to make them
common nouns, a/an is used.
Example.
He thinks he is an Abraham Lincon. (not referring to the
actual person but someone like him)
She is an Indian. (India is a proper noun but ‘Indian’ is a
common noun)
Rule 4 – Indefinite article ‘a’ or ‘an’ is used to refer to
numbers sometimes.
Examples:
The baby is playing with a doll (one doll)
I owe him a thousand bucks. (one thousand dollars)
He drove 120 kilometres in an hour (one hour)
Rule 5 – The indefinite article (a/an) precedes the
descriptive adjective
Examples:
She is an amazing dancer.
12
What a nice Villa!
Rule 6 – The indefinite article is used with the determiners
(few, lot, most)
Examples:
There is a little drink in the glass
I have a few guests coming over
When Not to Use an Article
We do not use any article at all in some cases. The articles
‘a’ and ‘the’ are not used in the following cases
1. When Plural Noun is talked about:
Correct – Girls like pink (the sentence is talking about girls
in general)
Correct – The girls in my hostel like to play kabaddi.
(sentence is specifically talking about girls of the hostel)
2. When Uncountable nouns are talked about
Correct – Water Scarcity is a problem. (it is uncountable)
Correct – The Water scarcity in my locality is a problem.
(talking about specific locality)
Incorrect – There is a water scarcity in my locality. (here
again, scarcity is uncountable)
3. When Real Nouns are talked about, i.e. names of people
or places
Incorrect – I want to visit the Australia.
Incorrect – She talks to the Sam for articles.
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5. PRONOUN
By definition, a Pronoun is a word which is used in place of
a noun. To avoid repetition of nouns in a sentence or
paragraph, a pronoun is used.
Types of Pronouns
Discussed below are the different types of pronouns:
Personal Pronouns
The pronouns which are placed as a substitute for people
or things are called personal pronouns. These are of two
types: subjective and objective. This means, that the
pronoun can act either as the subject or for the object of
the sentence.
Example 1:
Statement: Riya, Tanya, Ritu and Ananya were going to
play Badminton.
Replacing the nouns with Pronouns: They were going to
play Badminton.
Example 2:
Statement: Can you please go to the market with Arpit?
Replacing the noun with Pronoun: Can you please go to
the market with him?
Possessive Pronouns
The personal pronouns which indicate the possession of
something are called possessive nouns. They can be used
both in singular and plural form.
Example 1: This dress is mine.
Example 2: The books are theirs.
Reflexive Pronouns
Pronouns like himself, myself, themselves, etc. where the
action is being performed on oneself are called reflexive
pronouns
Example 1: I decorated the room all by myself.
Example 2: She drove 500 kilometres by herself.
13
Indefinite Pronouns
When the noun which is to be replaced does not have a
fixed name or number, then such nouns are replaced by
indefinite pronouns. These include few, everyone, all, etc.
Example 1: Everyone has reached the concert.
Example 2: You bring me some apples.
Interrogative pronouns
Pronouns like Who, Where, Which, Whom, etc. which
tend to ask a question are called interrogative pronouns.
Example 1: Which plant is this?
Example 2: Who went to the airport?
Relative Pronouns
The pronouns which are used to connect a clause or a
statement are called relative pronouns.
Example 1: I watch which I bought was defective.
Example 2: The man who came yesterday was a fraud.
Demonstrative Pronouns
The pronouns which describe or modify a thing or a
person are called demonstrative pronoun. They can be
both singular and plural.
Example 1: These flowers are beautiful.
Example 2: This girl is very helpful.
Classification of Cases – Pronouns
There are three cases in which pronouns can be classified.
These include:
 Subjective Case
 Objective Case
 Possessive Case
To understand the three cases even better, refer to the
table given below:
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Q 3. Smriti completed the packing _______

(herself/themself).

Answer: Smriti completed the packing herself.

Q 4. The dress ______ (that/who) I bought yesterday

needs to be altered.

Answer: The dress that I bought yesterday needs to be

altered.

Q 5. The boxers punch _______ (each other/ one another).

Answer: The boxers punched each other.

Q 6. (These/There) ______ stairs are extremely steep.

Answer: These stairs are extremely steep.

Rules of Pronouns

Since the questions asked in competitive exams not very

direct but may be asked in the form of fill in the blanks or
incorrect statements. Thus, it is important for candidates 6. MODALS
to know the rules of pronouns to ensure that they make
no mistake in questions based on the same. A modal (like can, must, should, etc.) is a verb which is
used with another verb in order to express an idea such as
Pronouns Rule 1: Pronouns which are compared must be possibility, responsibility, compulsion, etc.
in the same case.
For Ex – (a) You must come on Wednesday.
Example: Our mother supports me more than her.
(b) You should bring this book tomorrow.
Pronouns Rule 2: Object form in a sentence.
Note: A modal is always followed by the first form of verb.
Example 1: I helped him
For Ex – One must obey one's elders.
Example 2: He helped me
USE OF MODALS:
Pronouns Rule 3: If the pronoun is an object of the verb, it
should be in the objective case. 1. Can: 'Can' is used to denote 'ability'.

Given below are questions where two pronouns have For Ex – I can run as fast as you.
been given for each statement. Choose the correct
pronoun from the given options. 'Can' is also used to denote request.

Q 1. My sister loves to read books. (She/Her) is a thorough For Ex – Can I use your pen?
reader.
Can is also used for giving 'Permission'.
Answer: My sister loves to read books. She is a thorough
reader. For Ex – You can use my pen.

Q 2. (They/He) ______ visited their Aunt’s place yesterday. 2. Could: 'Could' is used as past participle of can.

Answer: They visited their Aunt’s place yesterday.

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For Ex – When she was younger, she could run 10 km and 'Would' is also used to express an 'Opinion'
not get
For Ex – I think he would pass the test.
without tired.
7. Should: 'Should' is used to denote duty.
'Could' can also be used to show possibility.
For Ex – You should respect your teachers.
For Ex – A lot of money could be saved.
'Should' is also used to express an advice
3. May: 'May' is used to denote possibility.
For Ex – You should work hard to pass the exam.
For Ex – I may come tomorrow.
Note: Conjuction 'Lest' is generally followed by 'Should'.
May is used to denote 'permission'.
For Ex – Work hard lest you should fail.
For Ex – You may come in.
8. Ought to: 'Ought to is used to denote 'moral duty'
'May' can also be used for taking permission.
For Ex – You ought to help poors
For Ex – May I come in?
We ought not to disrespect our elders.
4. Might: 'Might' Can be used to denote possibility.
9. Used to: 'Used to' is used to denote Something that is
For Ex – He might have reached there by now. done or

'Might' also denotes 'suggestion'. experienced in the past but is no longer done or
experienced.
For Ex – You might try a little more salt in the curry next
time. For Ex – I used to play cricket but now I don't like it.

5. Must: 'Must' denotes 'Necessity' I did not use to eat egg.

For Ex – One must sleep for 8 – 10 hours. 10. Dare: Dare is used to denote challenge or courage :

'Must' is also used to denote strong possibility. For Ex – Nobody dares to oppose him.

For Ex – He looks quite sad, he must have failed. They dare not ask for any further loan.

6. Would: Would is used to refer to future time. 11. Need: Need denotes requirements.

For Ex – I would love to see you tomorrow. For Ex – I need to buy a new house.

'Would' is also used to denote choice. You need not take off your blazer.

For Ex – I would prefer tea to coffee. 12. Will: Will is used to talk about the future.

'Would' is also used to make a 'request' For Ex – Ravi will call you tomorrow.

For Ex – Would you please lend me 10 rupees. Will is used to make a request.

'Would' is also used to express a 'Wish' For Ex – Will you give me your phone?

For Ex – I wish, I would succeed in my life.

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13. Shall: Shall is used instead of 'will' when the subject is
first person('I' and 'we').
For Ex – I Shall go to school tomorrow.
Note: In modern English, 'Will' can be used with both 'I'
and 'Will' as well.
Fill in the blanks with the right option:
1. You ______ brush your teeth after every meal.
(a) may (b) should (c) might(d)shall (e) will
2. The boys ______ train hard if they want to win the
competition.
(a) ought to (b) can (c) shall(d) must (e) dare not
3. If it does not rain tomorrow, we ______ go for a picnic.
(a) could (b) need to (c) cannot(d) would have (e) will have
4. ______ you like to join me for a trip up Cameron
Highlands?
(a) could (b) should (c) Would(d) can (e) might
5. You ______ pay $5 if you want to take part in the
contest.
(a) cannot (b) may not (c) shall(d) should (e) must
6. ______ I go to toilet please?
(a) May (b) Might (c) Can(d) Will (e) Shall
7. Children ______ respect their elders.
(a) Should (b) ought not to (c) must(d) Ought to (e) will
8. Mrs. Tay _______ leave for Bangkok tomorrow for a
business meeting.
(a) would (b) shall (c) should(d) will (e) may
9. I ______ take a holiday after working tirelessly on this
project.
(a) need to (b) dare to (c) might(d) may (e) need
10.Although Daniel is an obedient child, he ______ be
rebellious at times.
16
(a) will (b) shall (c) should(d) would (e) can
SOLUTIONS
1. (b); should ; Since, 'should' is used to show what is the
correct or best thing to do
2. (d); must ; Since, 'must' is used to show compulsion .
3. (a); could ; Since, 'could' is used to show possibility.
4. (c); Would ; Since, 'would' is used to take permission or
ask preference.
5. (e) must ; Since 'must' is used to denote compulsion.
6. (a); May ; Since, 'may' is used to take permission.
7. (d); Ought to; Since, 'ought to' is used to denote moral
duty.
8. (d); will ; For some future course of action, 'will' is used.
9. (a); need to ; The main verb need is followed by 'to'
when used with another verb.
10. (e); can ; 'can' is used to show ability of a person.
7. PREPOSITION
A preposition is a word which generally precedes a noun
or pronoun and expresses a relation between the noun or
pronoun and other words or elements in the sentence.
For Ex – (a) There is a cat on the table
(b) All the boys are in the room.
Note: Sometimes, Prepositions are placed at the end of a
sentence and not before a noun/pronoun.
For Ex – Amit has much to be sad about who they taking
to?
There are four types of Prepositions:
(1) Prepositions of Time : in , on, since, for, at,
from, between, during, after, within, till,
until, from etc.
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(2) Prepositions of position/place : between,
among, amongst, amid, amidst, in, at on,
beside, besides, etc.
(3) Prepositions of Directions : along, across,
against, up, down, to, towards, for, from, at,
on etc.
(4) Other Prepositions' with, without, by, off, of,
around, about, besides, except, etc.
USES OF SOME IMPORTANT PREPOSITIONS
1. UP – Above – On – Over
(i) UP: As a preposition, 'up' is used to talk about a higher
position or a movement to a higher position.
For Ex – He followed his teacher up the stairs.
(ii) Above: 'Above' is used to denote a higher position or
level.
For Ex – His marks are above eighty percent.
(iii) On: 'On' is used to denote the position of something
which is in a position above something else and is
touching it.
For Ex – The book is on the table
Note: On is also used before a 'Day' or 'Date'.
For Ex – I will visit him on Monday.
India became republic on 26th January 1950
If there is an article before a 'means of transport', 'On' is
used.
For Ex – On a bus/train/ship/cycle.
(iv) Over: 'Over' is used to denote the position of
something which is above something else and is covering
it.
For Ex – I put my hands over my eyes.
2. Down – Below – Beneath – Under.
(i) Down: Down is used to denote a lower position, from a
higher one.
For Ex – She bent down to look under the car.
17
(ii) Below: 'Below' means 'in a lower position (than)'.
For Ex – My marks are below average
(iii) Beneath: 'Beneath' means 'directly underneath
(something)'
For Ex – There is a pipeline beneath the road.
(iv) Under: 'Under' is used to denote a position of
something which is below something else and is often
covered by it.
For Ex – Doctor put the thermometer under my tongue.
3. Between – Among – Amongst.
(i) Between: 'Between' is used to denote the space
between two separate places, people, or objects.
For Ex – My car is parked between a bus and a truck.
(ii) Among: 'Among' means 'In the middle of a number of
(more than two) things.
For Ex – He could not find even a single familiar face
among the crowd.
(iii) Amongst: 'Among' and 'Amongst' mean the same.
Though they are bit different in usage.
For Ex – The sweets which udit had bought were
distributed among the poor children.
Amongst is used before a vowel sound, while among is
used before a consonant sound.
For Ex – Among them. Amongst US.
4. Beside – Besides – Except.
(i) Beside: Beside means 'next to'.
For Ex – Go and sit beside her.
(ii) Besides: Besides means 'in addition to'.
For Ex – They have a lots of things in common besides
their profession.
(iii) Except: Except is used before a noun about which the
statement is not true.
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Except means 'apart from'
For Ex – Everyone had attended the class except Rohit.
5. For and Since
(i) For: 'For' is used to denote period of time.
For Ex – I have been sleeping for four hours.
For is also used to denote 'purpose'.
For Ex – These seats are reserved for ladies only.
(ii) Since: 'Since' is used to denote a point of time.
For Ex – I have been sleeping since four P.M.
'Since' is also used to 'denote' 'reason'.
For Ex – Since I was injured, I did not play the match.
6. Across and Through.
(i) Across: 'Across' means 'from one side to the other of
something with clear boundaries'
For Ex – Across a road. Across a bridge.
(ii) Through: 'Through' is used to indicate the movement
from one end to the other.
7. On – Upon – Onto
(i) On: 'On' is used to denote the position of something
which is in a position above something and is touching it.
For Ex – My Pen is on the bed.
Note: 'On' denotes 'Position'
(ii) Upon: 'Upon' is used to denote 'On' in a more formal
term, especially in abstract senses.
For. Ex – It was based upon two principles
(iii) Onto: 'Onto' is used to indicae movement into or on a
particular place.
For Ex – She slipped as she stepped onto the floor.
Note: Upon and Onto are used to denote Motion.
18
For Ex – The cat jumped upon the platform.
They climbed onto the summit.
8. In – Into – within.
(i) In: 'In' is used to denote the position of something
which is surrounded or closed off by something.
For Ex – Neelam is in the room.
(ii) Into: 'Into' is used to denote movement inside or
middle of something.
For Ex – Get into the bed.
(iii) Within: 'Within' is used to denote time or position
which is inside the range or limits of a particular period of
time or distance.
For Ex – I will complete this work within two hours.
My house is within a mile of the station.
9. By and With.
(i) By: 'By' is used to indicate the person or thing which
does something.
For Ex – I was cheated by him.
Note: By is also used before mode of transportation when
it
comes with words like 'go', 'come', 'arrive', etc.
For Ex – I go to school by bus.
(ii) With: 'With' is used before something which has been
used as
means or equipment to do something.
For Ex – Rajesh shot the tiger with a rifle.
10. Before and In front of
(i) Before: is used for a period of time which is earlier than
the thing/ time mentioned.
For Ex – She came before me.
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(ii) In front of: 'In front of' means 'directly ahead of For Ex – I had been talking to him since December.
'(something)'.
She has been teaching in this school since January.
For Ex – Do not stand in front of me.
(ii) From: 'From' is used to denote a point of time/distance
11. At and in at which something starts and then continues.

(i) At: 'At' is used to denote an exact position or a For Ex – The price of milk will rise by Rs. 10 from Monday.
particular place (or time)
The school remains open from 8 : 30 a.m. to 2 : 30 p.m.
For Ex – I am at my home.
Note: The point of time denoted by 'from' can be in past
The school starts at 8 : 30 A.M. as well as in future.

(ii) In: 'In' is used when we want to describe a part or a For Ex – I will start going to school from next Monday.
period of time.
Note: From is also used to show 'separation'
For Ex – I am going to Mumbai in July.
For Ex – The boy fell from the terrace.
I was born in 1993.
15. Of and off
12. To and Towards
(i) Of: 'Of' is used to denote relation
(i) To: 'To' is used to denote 'destination'
For Ex – Sanya is a friend of mine.
For Ex – I am going to America.
The leg of this table is broken.
She is going to temple.
(ii) Off: 'Off' is used to denote separation
(ii) Towards: 'Towards' means 'In the direction of'.
For Ex – She fell off the bed.
For Ex – Isha is going towards the college
Ashish took his jacket off.
Rajeev is going towards the temple.
16. During and for
Note: In the above example, 'College' and 'Temple' need
not to be the destination of 'Isha' and 'Rajeev' (i) During: 'During' is used to express the period of time in
which something happens.
13. Inspite of and Despite.
For Ex – I was in Delhi during the winter
(i) Inspite of: 'In Spite of' means 'without being affected by
the particular factor mentioned' I went to Shimla during my vacation.

(ii) Despite: 'Despite' and 'In spite of' mean the same.
Never use the preposition 'of' with 'Despite'
For Ex – Despite being late, he was allowed to enter the
class.
(ii) For: 'For' expresses how long something lasts.
For Ex – They were on leave for two weeks.
I was in Delhi for three months.

14. Since and from.

(i) Since: 'Since' is used to denote a point of time in the H

past.

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8. CLAUSES  Michael now has a new computer although he

A clause is a group of words that has both a subject and a
predicate. Every complete sentence is made up of at
least one clause.
 Michael bought a new computer. (One
sentence, one clause)
 Michael bought a new computer, but he still
has the old one. (One sentence, two clauses)
 Although he still has his old one, Michael now
has a new computer. (One sentence, two
clauses)
Definition: An independent clause (or main clause) makes
sense by itself. It expresses a complete thought.
still has his old one. (Dependent clause after an
independent clause)
 Although he still has his old one, Michael now has
a new computer. (Dependent clause before the
independent clause)
 Michael, although he still has his old one, now has
a new computer. (Dependent clause inside the
independent clause)
Clauses can play a variety of roles in sentences. A clause
can act as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
(1) Noun Clauses
She cannot remember what she said last night.

 Michael bought a new computer. (One (The clause acts like a noun. It could be replaced with a
noun, e.g., "her rant.")
independent clause)
 Michael bought a new computer, but he still
Now I know why tigers eat their young. (Mobster Al
has the old one. [Two independent clauses
Capone)
(Coordinating conjunctions don't count as part
of the clause.)]
(This clause could be replaced with a noun, e.g., "the
 Although he still has his old one, Michael now
reason.")
has a new computer. (Only the second clause is
independent.)
(2) Adjective Clauses
Definition: A dependent clause (or subordinate clause)
My friend who lives in London looks like Homer Simpson.
does not make sense by itself. It does not express a
complete thought.
(The clause acts like an adjective. It could be replaced with
an adjective, e.g., "my London-based friend.")
 Although he still has his old one. (Without the
independent clause, a dependent clause is a
You should never make fun of something that a person
sentence fragment.)
can't change about themselves. (YouTuber Phil Lester)
 A dependent clause usually begins with a
(This clause could be replaced with an adjective, e.g.,
subordinating conjunction, a relative pronoun, or
"unchangeable.")
some other word that causes it to become
dependent. A dependent clause will make sense
(3) Adverbial Clauses
only when attached to an independent clause.
 Although he still has his old one. (Although is a
He lost his double chin after he gave up chocolate.
subordinating conjunction.)
 He still has his old one. (Without the conjunction,
(The clause acts like an adverb. It could be replaced with
the clause becomes independent.)
an adverb, e.g., "recently.")
 Michael now has a new computer although he
still has his old one. (Combined with an
I am not afraid of the pen, the scaffold or the sword. I will
independent clause, the dependent clause makes
tell the truth wherever I please. (Labour-rights campaigner
sense.)
Mary Harris Jones aka "Mother Jones")
Dependent clauses can come after, before, or in the
(This clause could be replaced with an adverb, e.g.,
middle of the independent clause.
"there.")

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