ORIENTALIA LOVANIENSIA

ANALECTA
————— 273 —————

PUBLICATIONS DE LA MISSION ARCHÉOLOGIQUE SUISSE À KERMA 1

NUBIAN ARCHAEOLOGY
IN THE XXIST CENTURY

Proceedings of the Thirteenth International Conference

for Nubian Studies, Neuchâtel, 1st-6th September 2014

edited by

MATTHIEU HONEGGER

PEETERS
LEUVEN – PARIS – BRISTOL, CT
2018
 CONTENTS

preface � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �XIII

acknowledgments � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � XV

maIn papers

prehIstory In central sudan �������������������������������������������������������������������3

Donatella Usai

new data on the orIgIns of kerma � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 19

Matthieu Honegger

kerma ancIen cemeterIes:

from the batn el-hajar to the fourth cataract � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 35
Derek A. Welsby

the nubIan ceremonIal cIty of dokkI gel-kerma and the menenu of thutmose I� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 65
Charles Bonnet

colonIal entanglements� ImmIgratIon, acculturatIon and hybrIdIty In new kIngdom nubIa (tombos) � � � � � 71
Stuart Tyson Smith

InsIght Into the perceptIon of royal and dIVIne powers among kushItes and egyptIans � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 91
Luc Gabolde

about the autonomy of the arts of ancIent sudan � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 105

Dietrich Wildung

the perIods of kushIte hIstory � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 113

László Török

long dIstance trade: the eVIdence from sanam � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 127

Irene Vincentelli

back to the sources: egyptIan-nubIan relatIons under baybars (1260-1277) accordIng to

the earlIest arabIc accounts � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 135
Robin Seignobos

nubIan fortIfIcatIons In the mIddle ages � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 149

Bogdan Żurawski, Mariusz Drzewiecki, Marcin Wiewióra and Aneta Cedro

the makurIan church and Its church archItecture � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 161

Włodzimierz Godlewski

note on the qatar-sudan archaeologIcal project (qsap) InternatIonal cooperatIon for

the promotIon of the antIquItIes of the mIddle nIle regIon � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 173
Salah Eldin Mohammed Ahmed
VI

prehIstory

acheulean stone tools from jebel elgrIan sIte east of the lower atbara rIVer, sudan:
techno-typologIcal study � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 179
Ahmed Hamid Nassr

the productIon and consumptIon of ostrIch eggshell beads at the mesolIthIc sIte of
sphInX (sbk�w-60), jebel sabaloka: VIew from trench 2 (2012) � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 195
Zdeňka Sůvová, Lenka Varadzinová, Václav Cílek, Martin Odler, Petr Pokorný, Ladislav Varadzin

the fIrIng IndeX of the prehIstorIc pottery In sudan � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 203

Abdelrahim Mohammed Khabir

stratIgraphy of the kadero neolIthIc cemetery � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 215

Marek Chłodnicki

jebel uweInat: more than rock art � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 223

Maria Emilia Peroschi, Flavio Cambieri and Maria L. De Santis

protohIstory

the ‘end’ of an era: a reVIew of the phasIng system for the late c-group and pan-graVe cultures � � � � � � 233
Aaron de Souza

nubIan pottery assemblage from the c-group cemetery hk27c at hIerakonpolIs � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 243
Marie-Kristin Schröder

decolonIzIng reIsner: a case study of a classIc kerma female burIal for reInterpretIng early
nubIan archaeologIcal collectIons through dIgItal archIVal resources � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 251
Elizabeth Minor

the chronology of the transItIon between the gash group and the jebel mokram group
of eastern sudan (2nd mIllennIum bc)� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 263
Andrea Manzo

egypt

eXploItIng the southern lands: ancIent egyptIan quarryIng, mInIng, and trade mIssIons to nubIa
and punt durIng the old kIngdom � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 277
Maksim Lebedev

the fortIfIed pharaonIc town on saI Island: new results from current fIeldwork (2013-2014) � � � � � � � � � 293
Julia Budka

the three faces of IsIs �

� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 301
William Yewdale Adams and Nettie K. Adams
 VII

napata

lIfe and death In upper nubIa durIng the transItIon to nubIan rule: thIrd IntermedIate
and napatan perIod tombos � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 309
Michele R. Buzon

the boston museum of fIne arts pottery from the

twenty-fIfth dynasty tombs at el-kurru and nurI� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 317
Lisa A. Heidorn

recent work In the 25th dynasty tombs of queen qalhata and kIng tanwetamanI at el kurru � � � � � � � � � � 333
Rachael Jane Dann

sedeInga: a regIonal capItal In the kIngdom of kush � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 339

Vincent Francigny

legItImacy and erasures: aspelta as kIng of kush � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 345

Roberto Bruno Gozzoli

the book of the dead In the napatan perIod� the fIrst eVIdence of chapter lIX on a royal
offerIng table datIng from the 5th century bce � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 353
Simone Petacchi

functIon and sIgnIfIcance of the napatan cylIndrIcal sheaths � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 365

Amarillis Pompei

meroe

defInIng the meroItIc palace � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 377

Sarah M. Schellinger

new lIght on three statues from the barkal cemetery � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 389

Nashat Alzohary

ItalIan eXcaVatIons In the palace of natakamanI at napata (b 1500)� notes from the seasons 2011-2013 � � 397
Emanuele M. Ciampini

recent dIscoVerIes at dangeIl, nIle state: eXplorIng the amun temple compleX � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 407
Julie Renee Anderson, Mahmoud Suliman Bashir and Salah Mohamed Ahmed

the typhonIum of wad ben naga � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 415

Pavel Onderka and Vlastimil Vrtal

the remnants of a temple compleX at abu erteIla I � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 423

Eleonora Kormysheva

archItectural eVIdences from abu erteIla � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 439

Eugenio Fantusati

a new meroItIc compleX – abasseya project (karIma, sudan) � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 449

Montserrat Díaz-De-Cerio
VIII

nos premIères sources sur le bélIer de soba rem 0001: le bourguIgnon pIerre trémauX,
johannes dümIchen et le VénItIen gIoVannI mIanI � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 457
Vincent Rondot and Daniel Claustre

the amIr abdallah cemetery (abrI, sudan) and the emergence of meroItIc socIal compleXIty � � � � � � � � � � 473
Víctor M. Fernández

funerary ceramIcs and meroItIc economy: a fIrst InsIght� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 481

Romain David

meroItIc pottery from temple b 560 at jebel barkal � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 489

Dobiesława Bagińska

meroItIc pottery from natakamanI’s palace In jebel barkal: prelImInary report on

2011-2013 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 505
the results of seasons
Grażyna Bąkowska-Czerner

the pottery to the south of the royal cIty of meroe: the case of abu erteIla as a
potentIal productIon center � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 513
Svetlana Malykh

archaeometry and new technologIes In kushIte nubIa � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 519

Marco Baldi, Fabio Bellatreccia, Armida Sodo, Annalaura Casanova Municchia and Mario Gaeta

the quarry landscape at meroe, sudan � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 529

Brigitte Cech, Frank Stremke, Alexandra Steiner, Thilo Rehren and Ali Mohamed Abdelrahman

reflectIons on hafIrs In the butana regIon � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 543

Negood Hassan Bashier

beauty and the beast – a tale of small fInds

from the muweIs eXcaVatIons � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 547
Elisabeth David

Venerated elders: age as potentIal socIal construct In meroItIc kush � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 553

Debora Heard

an unusual object from the palace at wad ben naga: the fragment of ‘tIle’, khartoum snm 62/10/87�
an essay of InterpretatIon� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 565
Aminata Sackho-Autissier

mIddle ages

meroItIc cemetery 100 of gammaI and Its hIstorIcal background � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 571

Tsubasa Sakamoto

the dIscoVery of ezana’s capItal In the heartland of ancIent meroe � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 581

Ali Osman Mohammed Salih

short and long dIstance contacts of late antIque nubIa: a VIew through the bead hole � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 587
Joanna Then-Obłuska
 IX

from cottonfIelds to pastures: the transItIon from cotton to wool clothIng In nubIa� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 597
Nettie K. Adams

Iron technology In the fortIfIed cIty of mao (central darfur) In the fIrst mIllennIum ad � � � � � � � � � � � � � 605
Ibrahim Musa

seVenth century pottery from old dongola In the lIght of recent fInds from palatIal buIldIng b�I� � � � � � 609
Katarzyna A. Danys

the kIng and the cross, the Iconography of a paIntIng In the throne-hall of dongola � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 615
Karel Innemée and Dobrochna Zielińska

costume and IdentIty: the mInIature of ms� or� quart� 1020 (berlIn, staatsbIblIothek)� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 625
Magdalena M. Wozniak

progress of work on the corpus of old nubIan teXts from sr022�a � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 631
Alexandros Tsakos

archaeology, trade and pIlgrImage at suakIn � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 635

Laurence Smith, Jacke Phillips, Shadia Taha, Michael D. S. Mallinson, Katherine S. Ashley and
Abdelrahman Ali Mohamed

towards a hIstorIcal archaeology of ottoman nubIa � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 645

David Edwards

epIgraphy and lInguIstIcs

the contrIbutIon of epIgraphIc data to the hIstory of the sIte of dukkI gel/pnubs after
twenty years of eXcaVatIon � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 663
Dominique Valbelle

the afrIcan topographIcal lIsts of the new kIngdom and the hIstorIcal geography of nubIa
In the second mIllennIum bce � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 669
Julien Cooper

the kIng of meluhha Is not a kIng of kush, but probably a medjay chIeftaIn,
once agaIn and more about It � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 681
Danièle Michaux-Colombot

a study of the meroItIc InscrIptIon rem1141 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 701

Gilda Ferrandino

a short hIstory of bIble translatIon Into nIle nubIan In the 19th and 20th centurIes � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 717
Gerald Lauche

ezana of aXum InVasIon of the land of the meroItes� ‘a local commIssIon’? � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 723
Omer Hag Elzaki

eXplorIng nubIan toponymy In Its tradItIonal enVIronment � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 731

Herman Bell
X

fortIfIcatIons

recent work at hIsn al-bab � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 741

Pamela Rose

the castle of ez-zuma: an uneXplored eXample of medIeVal presence near karIma � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 749
Mohammed El Toum

gala abu ahmed - beads In a fortress � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 753

Miriam Lahitte and Małgorzata Daszkiewicz

the role of marrIage In spatIal patternIng: jawgul VIllage case study � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 759
Mariusz Drzewiecki

cultural herItage

the spheres and challenges of herItage conserVatIon In the sudan � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 769

Marc Bundi

early photography and the ancIent monuments of sudan� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 773

Michael H. Zach

photographs of spanIsh eXcaVatIons In sudanese nubIa�

an unpublIshed album� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 785
Salomé Zurinaga Fernández-Toribio

nubIa and nubIans: ‘dIggIng’ In museums � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 799

Costanza De Simone

bIoanthropology

bIologIcal affInIty of the mesolIthIc and neolIthIc populatIons from el-barga, sudan:
the dental remaIns � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 805
Anne-Sophie Benoiston, Priscilla Bayle and Isabelle Crevecoeur

populatIon from the kerma eastern cemetery : bIologIcal IdentIty and funerary practIces � � � � � � � � � � � � 817
Camille Fallet

archery In the meroItIc perIod: new bIoarchaeologIcal eVIdence from wtc cemetery,
dangeIl, sudan �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 823
Anna Pieri and Mahmoud Suliman Bashir

human and anImal remaIns at abu erteIla: lIfe and death at a meroItIc and medIeVal ‘chrIstIan’ sIte � � � 831
Richard Lobban and Angel Desmarais

all that remaIns ? a VIrtual collectIon for the archaeologIcal surVey of nubIa � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 835
Jenefer Cockitt, Norman MacLeod and Rosalie David
 XI

man and anImal

the deformatIon of cattle horn In past and present socIetIes: a persIstent pastoral tradItIon In afrIca 845
Jérôme Dubosson

honey huntIng and managed beekeepIng In ancIent and contemporary sudan � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 855
Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban

anImal eXploItatIon at mouweIs (sudan) durIng the meroItIc: prelImInary results � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 861
Caroline Lachiche and Louis Chaix

the role of mollusca In ancIent nubIa and the sudan: archaeologIcal and
ethnoarchaeologIcal approaches � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 865
Hamad Mohamed Hamdeen and Ali Osman Mohamed Salih

surVey and fIeldwork

archaeologIcal satellIte Imagery-based remote sensIng In the bayuda and

the western desert (northern sudan) � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 873
Jana Eger

wadI abu dom ItInerary,

general oVerVIew oVer the fIrst fIVe seasons� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 879
Angelika Lohwasser

some ruIns on the west bank of the rIVer nIle In kalI VIllage close to the bajrawIya pyramIds � � � � � � � � � 887
Nada Babiker Mohammed Ibrahim

the recent archaeologIcal dIscoVerIes along the eastern bank of the whIte nIle – the 9th season � � � � � 893
Khider Adam Eisa

wad shanaIna sIte from the realIty of the archaeologIcal eVIdences � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 899
Mohammed Alfatih Hayati

the pottery of the late phases of the eastern sudan cultural sequence (ca� mId-1st mIll� bc-mId�
2nd mIll� ad): a prelImInary agenda � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 905
Valentina Perna

new sItes for the study of ancIent eastern sudan: recent deVelopments In the study of
settlement pattern In kassala regIon � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 913
Vincenzo Zoppi

a case-study on the InterpretatIon of socIo-cultural practIce of kenuz-nubIans � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 919

Lilli Zabrana

contrIbutors � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 927
 ARCHERY IN THE MEROITIC PERIOD: NEW BIOARCHAEOLOGICAL
EVIDENCE FROM WTC CEMETERY, DANGEIL, SUDAN
Anna PIERI and Mahmoud Suliman BASHIR
Introduction
Archery in Ancient Sudan
The people living south of Aswan were known as
skilled archers. They were an important feature in
Kushite armies and they played a prominent role in the
battle fought by the Egyptian Pharaohs (Welsby 1996,
40). Remains of bows found in funerary contexts are
UDUH DQG JHQHUDOO\ LW LV PRUH FRPPRQ WR ¿QG DUURZ-
KHDGVRUDUFKHU¶VULQJV7KH¿UVWDUFKHU¶VULQJVGLVFRY-
ered in Nubia were found in the early twentieth century
by J. Garstang, however it was not until W. Emery’s
discoveries of these rings in situ, in the X-Group cem-
HWHULHVLQ%DOODQDWKDWWKHVHREMHFWVZHUHLGHQWL¿HGDV
archery equipment. Archer’s looses have since been
found in context, for example in Qustul, Ballana and
Meroe, in tombs dated from the middle Meroitic period
(330 BC-400 AD) to the subsequent X-Group/Post
Meroitic culture (AD 370-500) (Török 1997, 263-280).
They were used as protection for the thumb while
drawing the bow. It is traditionally associated with the
Asiatic style of archery and it appears to be a response
to the introduction of the composite bow, a shorter yet
more powerful weapon which requires a different
method for drawing the bowstring wherein the thumb
KROGVWKHERZVWULQJUDWKHUWKDQWZRRUPRUH¿QJHUVDV
is found in the Mediterranean release. It has been sug-
gested that the Mongolian composite bow was intro-
duced into the Roman world from central Asia by the
Huns in the latter 4th century AD; however, they were
present in middle Nile region much earlier. This
mechanical innovation converted archery into a poten-
tially decisive weapon of great range and power
(Welsby 1996, 42; Cook 2012, 165-166).
Clear representations of composite bows appear in
Mesopotamia from the middle of the third millennium
BC and can be recognised by the recurved ends stand-
ing above the bowstring when the bow is braced. Com-
posite bows combine more than one material, such as
wood or horn and required time and skill to manufac-
ture. While costly, they had revolutionary implications
in the history of warfare. The design takes full advan-
tage of the mechanical properties of the materials used
in the bow’s construction. Sinew has great tensile
strength while horn has compressive strength. These
materials are glued on opposite faces of a wooden core,
which, while it does not add to the power of the bow,
is essential to keep the other materials aligned. One of
the main characteristics of the composite bow is that it
can be kept strung for long periods of time without los-
ing power, making it well suited for warfare. These
types of bow could be kept braced for the duration of
the campaign and would be always ready for use. The
archer using this type of bow could choose between
two different tactics: to deliver a lightweight projectile
over a distance twice that which a wooden bow could
shoot or to deliver a projectile of greater weight and
force at short range with the capacity to pierce armour.
Moreover, the recurved ends added to the force of the
shot, making the bow easier to hold at full draw and
allowing for more careful aim at stationary or moving
targets (Miller et al. 1986, 180-181).
,WLVSRVVLEOHWKDWWKH¿UVWORRVHVZHUHPDGHRISHU-
ishable materials such as leather or wood. It appears
that there were two separate technological traditions:
Conical looses, described as type I (Cook 2012) appear
to be an established technological tradition in the
Meroitic period. They have an average height of 31mm,
D VXLWDEOH LQWHUQDO GLDPHWHU WR ¿W WKH WKXPE DQG DUH
ORQJHQRXJKWRDOORZWKH¿QJHUWREHQGDQGVHFXUHWKH
string during the draw, therefore they are referred to as
the ‘functional type’. All of these elements would allow
the ring to be worn while not shooting indicating that
it may have been adopted as an integral symbol under-
lining the martial identity of some individuals. In
depictions this type of loose is worn with the wider end
at the base of the thumb (Cook 2012, 170). Some might
also present a wear pattern on the edge where the ring
caught the string (Hayes 1973, 113).
Concave shaped looses (type II) become the domi-
nant type found during the X-Group period (Cook
2012, 173). They are much taller than type I, with an
average height of 46mm, and they have a wider base.
The dimensions do not allow an average thumb to bend
824 $ 3,(5,  0 6 %$6+,5
DQGIRUWKLVUHDVRQWKH\KDYHEHHQGH¿QHGDVµFHUHPR-
QLDO¶7KH\PD\EHREMHFWVRIKLJKFXOWXUDOVLJQL¿FDQFH
XVHGRVWHQWDWLRXVO\WRSODFHHPSKDVLVRQDUFKHU\SUR¿-
ciency and martial identity. This type continued to be
used beyond the end of the Kushite kingdom and some-
times were decorated with elaborate inlays, such as the
ones found on the royal cemetery of Ballana (Welsby
1996, 40-41; Cook 2012, 171). Some rings of this type
have chipped rims which might suggest they had been
worn during ceremonies or dances and clicked together,
as still the custom of the Longarim, a tribe of South
Sudan where the men decorate the top of one or both
thumbs with objects called naphodya (Kronenberg
1962, 336-337; Hayes 1973, 118).
The emergence of a divergent tradition, with a cer-
emonial and a functional type existing simultaneously
might represent the desire of the elite to be associated
with a martial identity. Archer’s looses became a cru-
cial part of the royal and divine regalia and several
reliefs show both kings, queens and gods wearing these
objects and various other items of archery equipment
(Cook 2012, 173).
Bioarchaeology of Archery
Archery is a static activity, which requires strength
and endurance in the trunk and upper extremities, how-
ever it places asymmetrical loads on the body. This
activity mainly involves the rotator cuff, in particular
the supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscles of the
shoulder, as well as the deltoideus and biceps brachii
of the opposing upper arm - the one that holds the
VWULQJ7KH¿QJHUÀH[RUVRIWKHKDQGDUHDOVRLQYROYHG
It is likely that long term archery activity would cause
an asymmetry in the muscles of the shoulder and the
arms resulting in more marked muscle attachments on
the bones of one side and possibly some changes in the
general appearance of the bone itself. It would be likely
that the general asymmetric movement could be observ-
able in the skeleton as well and particularly visible in
a skeletal population where archery is a known prac-
tice. For this reason, some scholars assume that an
archer would present an asymmetric pattern of mus-
culo-skeletal stress markers, as different muscles would
be involved for the bow arm and for the string arm
(Dutour 1986, 222-223; Molnar 2006, 15-17; Thomas
2014, 281).
However, several biomechanical studies of present-
day archers demonstrate similarities, in muscular activ-
ity and joint position, between the two arms, and med-
ical studies of archery related injuries demonstrate that
QRVSHFL¿FDV\PPHWULFSDWWHUQRIOHVLRQVRFFXUVLQWKH
skeleton. Archers generally show only one lesion,
ZKLFK ZKHQ LVRODWHG LV QRW VSHFL¿F WR DUFKHU\ DQG
when lesions are not symmetric, either the bow arm or
the string arm may show the same type of injury. More-
over in most cases the shooting posture, the type of
equipment used, the draw technique and level of train-
ing have a direct impact on the severity, location and
degree of symmetry or asymmetry of the injuries to the
skeleton (Dutour 1986, 224; Thomas 2014, 287; Kirk-
patrick Smith 2014, 107-108).
Materials and Methods
The Kushite cemetery at Dangeil is situated less than
a kilometre to the northwest of the 1st century AD tem-
ple of Amun.1 The cemetery site was discovered in
2003 during the excavation of a modern drainage canal
(Anderson and Mohamed Ahmed 2011, 80). Outlines
RIWKHJUDYHVKDIWVFDQEHHDVLO\GH¿QHGDQGLWDSSHDUV
that they seldom cut into each other. Many of the graves
show evidence of reuse, a common practice in the late
Kushite period (Edwards 1998; Lefebvre 2006-2007;
Rilly and Francigny 2011). The incidence of multiple
burials is similar to the the Meroitic practice known
from other cemeteries, such as Gabati or Aksha. This
has interesting implications for the chronology of the
cemetery, since graves might have been reused for an
extended period (Edwards 1998, 201; Lefebvre 2006-
2007).
Generally, only one articulated individual is found
inside a tomb, with the remnants of other individuals
piled on one or both sides of the burial chamber or
VFDWWHUHGDQGIUDJPHQWHGLQWKHVRLO¿OOLQJWKHGHVFHQG-
ary and burial chamber. Analysis on the human remains
of the WTC cemetery began in 2012. In total 83 graves,
containing the skeletal remains of 170 individuals, have
been analysed. The cemetery includes male and female
adult burials, as well as subadults. Almost all the cat-
egories of age, from foetus to old adult, are represented
but, unfortunately, the skeletal material is not well pre-
served. Most of the specimens analysed present post
mortem damage caused by the subsequent phases of
1
The Berber-Abidiya Archaeological Project is grateful for the
support from National Corporation for Antiquities and Muse-
ums, the Nubia Archaeological Development Project (The Qatar
Museums Authority), the British Museum and the Institute for
Bioarchaeology.
 ARCHERY IN THE MEROITIC PERIOD 825

reuse of the cemetery and by the activities of plunder-

ers. In some cases damage was caused by taphonomic
factors, such as water table changes, heat, salt, termite
and rodent activity. For these reasons, in many cases
the bones appear fragile, cracked and splintered.

Age and sex estimation

Because of the post mortem damages that occurred

to the skeletal remains, most of the skeletons are frag-
mentary and incomplete, however it was possible to
determine the age at death of almost 50% (46 of 99
individuals) of the adult individual and 99% (76 of 77)
of the subadults.
All individual ages were estimated macroscopically;
in the case of adult individuals the estimation of age
was based on the observation of the pubic symphysis
(Todd 1920; Brooks and Suchey 1990) and the auricu-
lar surface of the pelvis (Lovejoy et al. 1985). The age
Plate 1. WTC X, Tomb 59, individual 4. Photo by Anna
of all subadult individuals was estimated using differ-
Pieri, courtesy Berber-Abidiya Archaeological Project.
ent methods: dental development for deciduous and
permanent dentition (Scheuer and Black 2004, 148-
163; Uberlaker 1978; Bruiska and Uberlacker’s Stand-
ards 1994), bone development, epiphyseal fusion and
long bones length (Scheuer and Black 2004; Bruiska
and Uberlacker’s Standards 1994).
To determine the sex of the adult individuals the
most dimorphic elements of the skeleton: the skull
(Walkers 1994, 19-21; White and Folkens 2005, 385-
387), the pelvis (White and Folkens 2005, 362-
369,Walkers 1994, 16-21) and some features of the
long bones were observed (Brothwell 1981, 63; Bass
1995, 229-232). However, when observing the skull, it
is important to take into account that the estimation of
Table 1. Distribution of age and sex amongst adult
VH[EDVHGRQO\RQWKHFUDQLDOIHDWXUHVFDQEHGLI¿FXOW individuals in WTC cemetery.
because the features normally observed are sometimes
not reliable and this appears particularly the case when
studying Nile Valley populations (Masali and Chiarelli
1972, 163).
Owing to the poor state of preservation of some
skeletons, it was not possible to determine the age and
sex of one-third of the adult individuals (Plate 1).
Nonetheless, of the sexed individuals, there appear to
be an equal number of males and females in the ceme-
tery (Table 1). Moreover a large part of the individuals
buried in the cemetery are subadults; almost 50% of the
entire skeletal assemblage is represented by individuals
younger than 20 years, and all of the age phases are
present in this cemetery. Analyses revealed that there is
DSHDNLQGHDWKVDPRQJVWFKLOGUHQEHWZHHQWZRDQG¿YH Table 2. Distribution of age in WTC cemetery.
826 $ 3,(5,  0 6 %$6+,5
Plate 2. WTC X, Tomb 53, Individual 1, Carious lesion on
the upper right second molar. Photo by Anna Pieri,
courtesy Berber-Abidiya
Archaeological Project.
Plate 3. WTC X, Tomb 53, individual 1. Female individual
with Osteoporosis. Photo by Anna Pieri, courtesy
Berber-Abidiya Archaeological Project.
years, and in the age span between 20 and 35 years for
adults, while very few individuals could be aged
between 35 and 50 years (Table 2).
Pathologies
Pathological variations were also observed and
scored. It should be noted that the fragmentary preser-
vation of the assemblage might generate an underesti-
mation of the real frequencies of the different diseases.
Nonetheless, some pathologies could be observed, in
some cases even on fragmentary and damaged bones.
Dental pathologies appear to be the most common
and in particular Linear Enamel Hypoplasia (LEH), a
GHQWDOGHIHFWWKDWFDQEHGH¿QHGDVJURZWKGLVUXSWLRQ
that can be observed macroscopically on the external
surface of the tooth crown (Lukacs 1989, 267; Ribot
and Roberts 1996, 68). The causes producing Hypo-
SODVLDFDQEHQXWULWLRQDOGH¿FLHQF\SRRUKHDOWKWK\URLG
disfunctions and lack of vitamin D. It can be easily
LGHQWL¿HG IRU WKH SUHVHQFH RI LUUHJXODU GHIHFWV RQ WKH
surface of the enamel or of the roots. The number and
frequency of these lines suggests the repetition of peri-
ods of stress as a recurring seasonal scarcity of food.
LEH was recorded according to category, severity and
location in crown level (Hillson 2005, 166-167; Reid
and Dean 2000, 135-136). This pathology could be
scored on 22 individuals, most of which were subadults
(52% of the subadults, or 19 individual of 36 with pre-
served dentition, while only 16% of the adults, or 7 of
the 44 individuals with preserved dentition).
Few other dental pathologies could be observed:
carious lesions appear infrequently and could be
Plate 4. WTC X, Tomb 56, Individual 1 in situ, with
Archer’s Loose. Photo by Anna Pieri, courtesy Berber-
Abidiya Archaeological Project.
REVHUYHGRQO\RQ¿YHLQGLYLGXDOV3ODWH7KHUHVXOWV
indicate that, in this cemetery, it was mainly females
who suffered from caries. This trend might indicate that
there were some differences in the diet among the pop-
ulation. In particular it might imply the higher carbo-
hydrates component of women’s diet, possibly linked
to the higher cariogenic properties of some cereals
compared to others (Lukaks 1989; Hemphill 2008;
Hillson 2001).
A few non-dental pathologies could also be observed.
One interesting example is Individual 1 from T53, an
DGXOW IHPDOH ZKR VXIIHUHG VLJQL¿FDQW ORVV RI ERQH
mass resulting in thin and fragile bones, suggesting she
might have suffered from osteoporosis (Plate 3). If the
rate of bone loss becomes too great there is a consider-
able risk of fracture, especially on the femoral neck or
vertebrae (Waldron 2009, 26-34).
 ARCHERY IN THE MEROITIC PERIOD 827

This individual presented a compressed fracture

involving the bodies of the 4th and 5th thoracic verte-
brae. The trauma shows evidence of healing and the
two vertebral bodies were fused together. Apart from
this example, traumatic lesions were not very common
in the skeletal assemblage and appear to be related to
minor injuries, such as impacted foot phalanges. Other
VLJQL¿FDQW SDWKRORJLHV LQFOXGH RQH FDVH RI DQHXU\VP
an enlargement of a vertebral artery in its passage
through the vertebral foramina of the cervical verte-
brae, and one osteoma, an overgrowth of normal bone
found most frequently in the frontal bone of the skull.

Case study
Plate 5. WTC IX, Tomb 9, Individual 1 in situ. Photo by
Among the adult individuals analysed, two are of Mahmoud Suliman Bashir, courtesy Berber-Abidiya
particular interest. They come from WTC X Tomb 56 Archaeological Project.
and WTC IX Tomb 9. Tomb 56 was excavated in 2013
and contained the skeletons of eight individuals (Plate
4). Individual 1 was probably the last one buried inside
the grave and was the only one found articulated. The
skeletal remains were in good condition and it was pos-
sible to make detailed analyses.
Only a few elements were missing. Even though this
individual was a young male, aged 20-35, he suffered
severe ante mortem tooth loss, possibly caused by den-
tal abscesses, mainly concentrated on the right maxilla.
Furthermore the cervical vertebrae presented osteoar-
thritis on the right articular facets, with a heavier degree
on the atlas and axis. Lumbar vertebrae presented
intervertebral disc disease with lipping on the central
part of the body. Slight changes were also visible on the
glenoid cavity of the right scapula with a lesion on the
glenoid itself and new bone formation around its edges.
The ventral edge appears to be very sharp. Finally oste-
oarthritis could be scored on the left patella and femur.
Tomb 9 contained two individuals of which only one
was found in partial articulation (Plate 5). The partially
articulated body was not as well preserved as Individ-
ual 1 in tomb 56.
The pelvis was fragmentary and for this reason the
length of the clavicle, of the glenoid cavity and the
diameter of the head of the femur were used to sex the
individual and to determine that she was possibly
female. A fragment of preserved auricular surface indi-
cated that she also was a young adult. This individual
does not present any dental pathologies with the excep-
Plate 6a, WTC X, Tomb 56, Individual 1 and WTC IX,
tion of moderate calculus. As with the male individual Tomb 9, Individual 1, right Glenoid Cavity. Photo by Anna
(Individual 1) from Tomb 56, the skeleton showed Pieri, courtesy Berber-Abidiya
intervertebral disc disease on the lower thoracic Archaeological Project.
828 $ 3,(5,  0 6 %$6+,5
Plate 6b. WTC X, Tomb 56, Individual 1 and WTC IX,
Tomb 9, Individual 1, right Glenoid Cavity. Photo by Anna
Pieri, courtesy Berber-Abidiya Archaeological Project.
vertebrae with mild lipping and similar changes on the
glenoid cavity of the left scapula. No osteoarthritis
could be observed on the knee joint (Plate 6a, b).
Apart from the anthropological analyses, these two
individuals were of particular interest because they
both wore an archer’s ring on the right thumb, suggest-
ing they might have been archers.
Both the examples found in Dangeil appear to be of
the ‘functional type’. They are conical in shape with
gently sloping sides. The length of this object is short
enough to allow the thumb to bend and secure the
string during its draw. Both present a concave upper
HGJHWRDFFRPPRGDWHDEHQW¿QJHUDQGDFRQYH[ORZHU
edge to allow the string to release smoothly. Moreover
the size and shape of these objects would allow the ring
to be worn when not shooting, without any impediment
to the use of the hand. This is important because it is
clear that this object might have been an element inte-
gral to individual identity.
Discussion
The presence of these objects in the funerary context
of Dangeil may suggest a martial identity for some of
the individuals buried in this cemetery but it is also
important to consider that bows were certainly used for
hunting.
,W LV GLI¿FXOW WR FRPSDUH DQFLHQW KXQWHUV RU DUFKHUV
with modern elite athletes. Even if ancient archers prac-
ticed in order to become skilled and successful, it is
questionable whether their amount of practice can be
weighted equally against that of professional athletes
who train several hours per day; an activity which
potentially leads to higher muscle mass. Technique
must also be taken into account as modern athletes use
UH¿QHG WHFKQLTXHV DQG PRGHUQ WHFKQRORJLHV WKDW PD\
not be comparable to those used in ancient times (Mol-
nar 2006, 22).
During the anthropological analyses, no evidence of
traumatic injuries, that might be result of military activ-
ities, could be observed on the two individuals. How-
ever, the changes noted in the skeletons, such as the
remodelling of the scapula, might be described as
‘stress factors’, a term used by some scholars to
describe a variety of skeletal changes that can be attrib-
uted to activity-related features. These traits, known as
skeletal markers of occupational stress (SMS) include
those changes in the skeleton or teeth said to be caused
by physical activities. Several studies have been made
on different skeletal assemblages from various geo-
graphical areas concerning this topic (Molnar 2010,
2006; Thomas 2014). In particular, in a study on the
Neolithic population of Cerny, France (Western
Europe), it would appear that the individuals buried
with arrowheads, had a stronger robusticity of the dom-
inant ulna, radius and clavicle, whereas the lower limbs
appeared to be of similar robusticity for the two groups.
The lesion that can occur in the radial tuberosity is
caused by the rupture of the distal biceps during a
VWURQJ ÀH[LRQ ZKHQ WKH PXVFOH LV DOUHDG\ LQ WHQVLRQ
ZLWKHOERZÀH[HGKRZHYHUVXFKWUDXPDWLFLQMXULHVFDQ
be observed among manual workers carrying heavy
ORDGVZLWKDVHPLÀH[HGHOERZ7KLVZRXOGLPSO\WKDW
the pattern of new bone formation and robusticity of
the upper bones in not unique to the practice of archery,
it is however fully compatible with data regarding
known archers. Regarding archaeological contexts, it
can be postulated that the stress incurred by the mus-
cles of the upper limbs might correspond to several
activities including archery (Thomas 2014).
Conversely, another study based on the observation
of the musculoskeletal markers of the rotator cuff of the
shoulder in the population of Ajvide, Sweden, appears
to demonstrate that, even if the practice of archery was
common in this population, the frequency of asymme-
try in the muscle attachments of the shoulder is absent
or modest when it could be observed in a few male
individuals (Molnar 2010, 7-9).
 ARCHERY IN THE MEROITIC PERIOD
The two skeletons from Dangeil did not appear to
show any asymmetric changes in the muscle attach-
ment of the upper part of the body; however, the
changes noted in the scapula appear to be asymmetrical
in both individuals. They could be observed only on the
right shoulder of both the individuals.
Furthermore, the male individual (Individual 1, tomb
56) had osteoarthritis on the left patella and femur.
Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common condition seen
in the skeleton, apart from dental disease. It involves
the articular cartilage that breaks down as the disease
progresses. With regards to osteoarthritis on the knee,
scholars are also of different opinions: some studies
seem to demonstrate that there might be an higher cas-
ualty of OA in the knees in those subjects whose main
job entails more than 30 minutes per day of activities
such as squatting, kneeling or climbing, but there is no
VLJQL¿FDQWDVVRFLDWLRQZLWKZHLJKWOLIWLQJRUSURORQJHG
walking (Cooper et al. 1994, 92-93).
It is necessary to keep in mind that the cause of OA
is not known with certainty but there are several factors
that can cause osteoarthritis including age, genetics,
sex, trauma and movement. The last one in particular
is fundamental in contributing towards the develop-
ment of this condition. Age also is important since inci-
dences appear to increase with increasing age. A genetic
predisposition is also relevant to the development of
this pathology and obesity is also highly correlated.
One or more of these factors, together with others
unknown, may initiate the joint failure; however, in
JHQHUDOLWLVYHU\GLI¿FXOWWRGHWHUPLQHVLPSO\IURPWKH
observation of bone and joint, which was the original
cause for the development of this pathology. For this
reason it is not possible to attribute the aforementioned
occupation to a skeleton on the basis of the presence
and distribution of OA.
Conclusion
In conclusion the presence of the archer’s rings
allows for the suggestion that both of these individuals
were involved in the practice of archery and that they
ZDQWHG WR EH LGHQWL¿HG DV VXFK HYHQ LQ WKH DIWHUOLIH
However, since scholarly opinion regarding the identi-
¿FDWLRQRIWKLVW\SHRIDFWLYLW\vis-à-vis skeletal remains
is quite discordant, it is necessary to be cautious in
identifying changes that occurred in the skeletal system
as related to or caused by archery activities.
829
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