Communications/Human Relations Essay Running head: COMMUNICATIONS/HUMAN RELATIONS ESSAY

Communications/Human Relations Team Yellow: Odessa Mann, Connie Todachinnie, and Paola Vargas Grand Canyon University: EDA-575 March 15, 2011

Communications/Human Relations Essay Communications/Human Relations Essay

Communication in any aspect, reading, writing, speaking, and listening, is critical to success. In the home, at school, in church, in an organization, etc. effective communication can ensure success and longevity. In the school environment, this is important because there are a variety of stakeholders involved. The varieties of communication theories and human relations theories make this stakeholder interaction efficient within the school. The following theories are explored: Attribution Theory, Cognitive Consistency Theory, Communication Accommodation Theory, Inoculation theory, Social Exchange Theory, Social Judgment Theory, and Uncertainty Reduction Attribution Theory According to Littlejohn & Foss (2008), Attribution theory starts with the notion that individuals try to understand their own behavior and that of others by observing how individuals actually behave (p 70). As a communicator, it is typical for a person to try to find out why the act in the manner they do as well as why others act in their manner. The founder of this theory, Fritz Heider, notes casual attributions made by situational causes, personal effects, effort, ability, desire, belonging, obligation, and permission. When people question why they did something and conclude that it was a natural obligation this is an example of the attribution theory. In the school, this theory can be applied to help us gain a greater understanding of how to best teach curriculum. If there is a master teacher who successfully engages learners in curriculum and have high test scores in the end of the year, application of this theory may assist other teachers in accomplishing the same. Another example of this can be seen when there are natural obligations to be kept. If a person is constantly noting that they ought to be studying for a hard test coming up, they are making an impersonal objective demand. Although this does not directly correspond with a persons values, this can have a tremendous sense of validity because most people may agree with it (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008, p 71). Cognitive Consistency Theory The cognitive consistency theory by Festinger (1957), is more of a psychological form of communication. It is founded in homeostatic equilibrium. When this is broken, different internal thoughts and conflicts stir tensions. That same tension begins behaviors the ease this stress causing equilibrium again. This is the foundation for cognitive dissonance theory where inconsistencies in the environment motivate stress reduction. From here a rational choice is made between two options based on the one that alleviates the most stress. Non-school examples include things like such as weighing the options of price versus features in a car and choosing the best cellular phone provider. Schools apply the cognitive consistency theory all throughout its structure, such as when deciding what program to cut in tight budgets, determining targeted groups for remediation, and when having on the spot decisions. Communication Accommodation Theory The Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT) developed by Howard Giles in 1971, explains reasons for changes in speech and non-verbal behaviors as individuals seek approval or greater rapport from listeners or to assert ones identity (Giles, H. and Wiemann, J. M. (1987).

Communications/Human Relations Essay

Groups may use CAT in a divergent way in order to emphasize group distinction. When an individual is seeking approval from an ethnic or social group a convergent approach is taken. This theory, applied in a divergent or convergent manner, may be used in a negative or a positive way. Examples of CAT at Bluff Elementary School would include native students codeswitching in order to give emphasis to their tribal affiliation or to exclude non-native speakers from the parts of the conversation. This occurs among some of the adults in the community as well. Students seek the approval of native speakers by inserting commonly known and used words into their conversations with peers. An example in this case would be students are showing agreement, disagreement, sharing greetings, asking questions, and using parting words. Non-verbal behaviors change when communicating with their peers also. Non-native students and staff may point with their lips or thumbs instead of using their pointer finger. Native students and staff tend not to make eye contact, so non-natives avoid this behavior when speaking with others. In many ways code switching helps bind the school community together by showing respect and admiration of culture and tradition. Inoculation theory The Inoculation Theory (Pfau & Parrott, 1993) is a theory that seeks to prevent the persuasion of a persons attitudes, belief, or opinions. This is typically seen when there is a threat or attack on a persons traditional beliefs. This is followed by reputational preemption where defense against the persuasion is created and a counterargument can be established. This argument grows stronger as a need for defense of attitudes, beliefs, and opinions increase. Although this is negative, this does exist in some schools. A specific example of how this theory is applied in the school context can be seen when teachers hold low expectations of students and the students eventually believe they are not capable. These students in turn began to believe that they are unable of accomplishing normal goals and achievements. This then becomes a selfvictimizing aspect of their educational beliefs when they determine that they are unable to graduate and go to college or be successful. When teaching in a low income, low social economic status area, it is easy and typical of some teachers to develop expectations of student that accept low standards. For example, a school that annually scores low on end of grade scores has a large amount of minorities, and a high dropout rate can brainwash students into thinking that this is the only lifestyle available for them. Social Exchange Theory The Social Exchange Theory fits within the Uncertainty Reduction Theory (Berger & Gudykunst, 1991). The Communication Theory of Social Exchange theory is based on a rewards and costs exchange in order to measure the outcomes of different situations for an individual. People strive to minimize costs and maximize rewards and then base the likeliness of developing a relationship with someone on the perceived possible outcomes. When these outcomes are perceived to be greater, we disclose more and develop a closer relationship with that person (Thibault, & Kelley, 1952). After individuals break down the barriers of the uncertain, they start to look at the give and take in a relationship. Who has the most to offer when support is needed? Who is the best person to seek out in certain situations? What is going to be expected of me? What am I willing to give in

Communications/Human Relations Essay

order to get what I need? These questions are asked by individuals when considering which members of the staff to go to in times of need. In order for schools to function smoothly, individuals must act for the best good of all involved. This means giving and taking when needed and appropriate. During the school year, the staff the school knew where to go to have their needs meet. When content issues arose, teachers and other staff members knew who the experts were and sought them out for additional help. Everyone was willing to share their knowledge and no individual felt too overwhelmed by others needing additional support. Social Judgment Theory The social judgment theory, founded by Sherif & Hovland (1961), focuses on how judgments are made based on statements a person hears. These judgments can be good or bad, but are primarily based on past experiences a person has had with the topic discussed. These experiences create a reference point from which you can create new ideas. Based on Muzafer Sherifs work, this theory also eventually reveals and affects your belief system. This theory can be seen in the school when administrators and staff members share information. A good example of this can be seen in the review of information presented at an informational meeting such as school staff/leadership meetings. When the information presented is positive such as the staff will get raises, the judgment may be that somewhere the county has encountered some additional funding, some position has been cut to apply bonuses, the staff must be doing well, the state is trying to satisfy underpaid teachers with a bonus, etc. All of these are judgments made based on the information presented and based on the persons prior experiences. If last year, these bonuses were distributed at this same time, it may be inferred that this will be an annual occurrence, but this is not necessarily true. All of these conclusions, without seeking clarity on the purpose of the bonus, are judgments. It is critical of all people passing judgments to be open to the many factors that may influence a persons perspective. Uncertainty Reduction Theory Most individuals feel uncertain about meeting new people. When people interact, they want to reduce this uncertainty by predicting their behavior and thinking. Seven concepts related to uncertainty are: verbal output, nonverbal warmth, information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity of disclosure, similarity, and liking (Berger & Gudykunst, 1991). New staff coming together for the first time needs to reduce the uncertainty of the situation. This may be accomplished by beginning with small talk. Asking each other questions about themselves, family, educational background, interests, etc. can help them get to know one another on an informal basis. At Bluff Elementary School, the majority of the staff was new, including the principal. Time was taken during a summer get together for introductions and brief background of each member of the faculty. Time was then opened up for additional questions. This enabled the staff to greatly reduce the stress of getting to know the strangers that were now to work together as a professional learning community. It was also an opportunity to find similarities and differences that would help build on the strengths and weakness of each individual and as a whole. This type of activity is one way to ease the burden of individuals to do this independently in order to find those within their school whom they could bond with and feel comfortable in going to for help and support.

Communications/Human Relations Essay Human Relation Theories Human relation is defined as the study of group behavior for the purpose of improving interpersonal relationships, as among employees (Dictionary.com) Human relations involve social relationships at the heart of organizational behavior. Workers communicate opinions, complaints, suggestions, and feelings to increase satisfaction and production. There is a two-way conceptualization of communication.

According to Modaff, et al there are three human relations theories based on the following studies and theories: The Hawthorne Studies, Chestar Barnard, and McGregors Theory X and Theory Y. The Hawthorne Studies The Hawthorne Studies focused on research between the relation of quality and quantity of illumination to efficiency in industry (Modaff, 2008). The study was based on four individual studies: Illumination, relay Assembly Test Room, Interviewing Program, and Bank Wiring Room Observation. These studies helped document the powerful nature of social relations in the workplace and moved managers toward a more interpersonal aspect of organizing.

Chester Barnard Chester Barnard, on the other hand, considered a bridge between classical and human relations theories. Barnard argued for strict lines of communication, the potential of every worker, and the establishment of central communication to the organized process. He stated six issues relevant to organizational communication: formal vs. informal organization, cooperation, communication, incentives, authority, and zone of indifference. Theory X and Theory Y The third, and final, theory as discussed by both Modaff and Razik, is McGregors Theory X and Theory Y. Theory X is a classical theory which states that the average person finds themselves disliking working and avoiding it while and prefers to be directed rather than having responsibility to delegate (Razik 2010). Theory Y, on the other hand, has a more positive perspective of human nature. The average person learns to accept responsibility, as well as, seek responsibility. At Frank Intermediate School, human relations and strong, communication-based relationships among all stakeholders is what make it a strong, effective, and efficient educational environment. There is a positive morale throughout the entire organization. There is an acceptance of leadership and all members are cooperative whenever the need arises. As a staff, there is a common goal for all of our students to be successful and have the best possible education. Support throughout teams and individuals make it apparent that there is positive energy and established relationships. Some specific examples taking place at Frank Intermediate are teachers

Communications/Human Relations Essay

sharing lesson ideas to support academic achievement, helping each other run and analyze data to help guide instruction, administrators offering assistance with classroom support, providing leadership experience opportunities, daily communication among all staff, students, and the community by using a marquee in front of the school, daily bulletin announcements, school website, and automated messages to serve as reminders. One final example is allowing the opportunity for some teachers to take on the role of administrators for a day to provide them with the experience and knowledge of administrative duty requirements. In conclusion, communication theories and human relations are a fundamental aspect of all organizations. Effective organizations, such as schools, which use a variety of communication strategies, are more successful at reaching and meeting the needs of their stakeholders. Human relations can provide an effective organization when there is a sense of equality and the organization is run with a positive demeanor towards all stakeholders.

Communications/Human Relations Essay References

Berger, C. R., & Gudykunst, W. B. (1991). Uncertainty and communication. In B. Dervin & M. Voight (Eds.), Progress in communication sciences. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Giles, H. and Wiemann, J. M. (1987). Language, social comparison and power. In C. R. Berger and S. H. Chaffee (eds.), The handbook of communication science (pp. 350-384). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Hershey, J. C., Niederdeppe, J., Evans, W., Nonnemaker, J., Blahut, S., Holden, D., & ... Haviland, M. (2005). The Theory of "truth": How Counterindustry Campaigns Affect Smoking Behavior Among Teens. Health Psychology, 24(1), 22-31. doi:10.1037/0278Littlejohn, S. & Foss, K. (2008). Theories of Human Communication (9th Edition). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. Modaff, D.P., Butler, J.A., & DeWine, S. (2008). Organizational communication foundations, challenges, and misunderstandings. (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury Allyn & Bacon Pfau, M., & Parrott, R. (1993). Persuasive communication campaigns. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Razik, T.A., & Swanson, A.D. (2009). Fundamental concepts of educational leadership (3rd ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice Hall Sherif, M. & Hovland, C. (1961). Social judgment: Assimilation and contrast effects in communication and attitude change. New Haven: Yale University Press. Thibault, J. W., & Kelley, H. H. (1952)., The Social Psychology of Groups. New York: John Wiley & Sons Attribution Theory, Cognitive Consistency Theory, Communication Accommodation Theory, Inoculation theory, Social Exchange Theory, Social Judgment Theory, Uncertainty Reduction