HDi g hD e h n i t i o n

Breathing and Exchange of Gases

Human Respiratory System

dcnea: Long air conducting tube or windpipe bearing rin9

OT hyaline cartilage that prevent its collapse during breatning

Left pulmonary artery

Pulmonary veins

Bronchiole: Branches of tertiary bronchi which open into

alveolar ducts. These do not possess cartilaginous rings.

Left main bronchus: At lower end, trachea bífurcates into

a

left lung
pair of primary bronchus with left bronchus entering
and right bronchus entering right lung

Terminal bronchiole

Smooth muscle
Lungs : Main respiratory organs present in pair
n the thorax. Sot, spongy and elastic structure
edosed in double membranes called pleurae.

Deoxygenated blood from

pulmonary artery

Oxygenated blood to pulmonary vein -

Respiratory bronchiole -

AVeolus: Tiny air sac having very thin

Walls
consisting of squamous epitheljurm
dnd supplied with extensive network of
D0Od capillaries. It serves as actual sile
of
gaseous exchange in lungs.

CapillariesS

Alveolar pores
(Permit flow of air
between adjacent alveoli)
 Left common carotid artery
Brachiocephalic trunk
Leftsubclavian artery
Aortic arch
Superior vena cava
Descending aorta
Ligamentum arteriosum
Right pulmonary arteryy
-

Left pulmonary artery

Ascending aorta
Left pulmonary veinsS
Pulmonary trunk

Right pulmonary veins

Left atrium

Circumtlex artery
Right atrium
-

Left coronary artery

Right coronary artery

Left ventricle
Anterior cardiac vein

Great cardiac vein

Rightventricle

Anterior interventricular artery

Small cardiac vein

Interior vena cava

Apex
 HD
High Dehnition
Excretory Products and Their Eliminati.

Human Excretory System

Renal cortex

Renal medulla

Minor calyces Renal artery

Renal column Renal vein
Kidney of Bertin

Major calyx
Ureter Renal pelvis

Urinary
bladder
- Urethra Renal
capsule
Ureter
Medullary
Pyramid C.Orientation of a
A. Complete urinary system B. The kidney nephron within the kidney

Sympathetic Peritubular capillaries

Podocytes Efferent arei
nerve fibre Distal convoluted tubule- Afferent ane
Mesangal Juxtaglomerular
cells
cells
Artery
ETerent Atferent
arteriole arteriole
Dista Smooth Vein
tubulel muscie cells
Macula densa
Proximal
E.The juxtaglomerular apparatus convoluted
tubule
Bowman's capsule-
Glomerulus Cortical
Macula densa- collecting duct

Vein
Artery
Descending limb
Corticomedullary junction
Thick segment of ascending limb

Thin
segment of ascending limb
Medullary collecting duct

Vasa recta Urine

Juxtamedullary
D.
nephron
Magnified view to show detailed:structure
Cortical nephron
of a nephron
uman Skeletal System
Cranium
-Skull
Facial bones

Cervical vertebrae-
(C C)
Clavicle
Manubrium
Scapula
Sternum
Thoracic vertebrae
Rib
TT

Humerus

Lumbar vertebrae-
(L-1 Ulna
Ilium- Radius
Sacrum Pelvic girdle
Coccyx-
- Pubis

Ischium

Carpals (8)
Tarsals (7)

Metacarpals (5)
Femur

Patella
Proximal-
Tibia
Metatarsals
Middle-

Distal- Fibula Phalanges

Base -Proximal

-Shaft
Phalanges (14) Head
-Middle
Distal

1. Trapezium 4. Harnate
2. Trapezoid 7. Lunate
3. Capitate 5.Pisiform 8. Scaphoid neiom
1. Calcaneus
6.Triquetrum 5. Intermediate cu
2.Talus 6. Lateral cuneitor
3. Navicular
4. Medial cuneiform 7. Cuboid
 Onuol and Coordination
of a
trastructure
Neuron
Showing Transmission of
OntdinsTypical Nervee lmpulse
Impulse atat
t
diso nas
cell
organelles,
and Nissl'sneurofibrils (play role prominent
a
Cell body (Soma) Synapse
Synap>
spherical nucleus and
granules (synthesise transmission of impulses), oytoplasm called neuropiasm.
in

Cell membrane proteins). neurotubules (maintaln sia

It is a
single Axon
Dendrites Conducts nervelong process of uniform thickness which
These are highily
branched ex impulses away from the cell body.
tensions that receive incoming
impulses and conduct
nenve
them towards cell body.
Node of Ranvier It 15 a
sheath around
Myelin sheath
These are gaps laid down by Schwann cells and
axon
Axon hillock
tis the area of origin of axon
occurring at
regular intervals in myelin
plays a role in protection and
increases
insultation of nerve tibre. It
sheath the rate of transmission of impulses.
and is considered as the most which alloW nerve
impulses to
move along the neuron
sensitive part of the neuron.
a of
through synapse
process depolarisation and
repolarisation of membrane.
Terminal arborisations
They form junctions with other neurons.
Fig.: Ultrastructure of a neuron

Myelin sheath

An action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal.

Neurotransmitter is synthesised
and then stored in vesicles.
Depolarisation of presynaptic terminal causes opening
of voltage-gated Ca* channels. Influx of Ca occurs
through channels.

Synaptic-
Cat causes vesicles to fuse with
vesicle
presynaptic membrane.
Retrieval of vesicular Neurotrans
membrane trom mitter Neurotransmitter is released
plasma membrane. molecules into synaptic cleft via exocytosis.

Glialcell Across
dendrite
Neuro
transmitter - Post-synaptic
:molecules
current flow
Neurotransmitter binds
ons Transmitter to receptor molecules in
receptor
postsynaptic membrane.
or
exCItatory of
moval of current
causes
esOpening orclosing
Cell uptake orneurotra
Postsynaptic that cnanges postsynaptic channels.
transmitter by glial postsynaptic
potential
inhibitory cel
post-synaptic
Oegradation.
of the at a
chemical synapse
the excitability impulse
Transmission
of nerve
Fig.:
 HD
High Definition
NeuralContro

Parts of Human Brain

Corpus callosum

Cerebrum -

- Lateral ventricle

Third ventricdle
Thalamus

Hypothalamus-
Fourth ventricle
Pituitary gland

Mid brain Pons

Brain stem
LHind brain Medulla
Cerebellum
Lateral view of brain
Cranial Nerves

Filaments of Frontal lobe

olfactory nerve ()

Olfactory bulb

Olfactory tract
Optic nerve (11)
Optic chiasma

Optic tract

Oculomotor
nerve (1)
Infundibulum
Trochlear
nerve (1V) Facial nerve (VI)
Trigeminal Vestibulocochlear
nerve (V)
nerve (VIl)
Temporal lobe
Abducens
nerve (VI)

Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX)

Cerebellum

Medulla oblongata Vagus nerve (X)

Accessory nerve (XI)
Hypoglossal nerve (XIl)

Ventral view of brain

 HD Chemical
Coordination
andlntegra
tegratio
High Defñnition

Pituitary gland secretes multiple

that regulate the endocrine

activitin
adrenal cortex, thyroid gland and
that
neurohormones
Hypothalamus secretes
act on the cells of the pituitary gland.
Hypothalamus
ACTH, TSH, FSH, LH, eretc.
reproduti
organs, e.g,
hormones: GHRH, ARH,
TRH, GnRH,
Keleasing
PRH
MSHIH
GHIH, PIH, Pineal gland secretes melatonin, a
Inhibitory hormones: Anterior
Infundibulum
gland acts as biological
Seen
pituitary hormone. Pineal
which helps to establish circadianrhythm cloc
-Posterior

secretes hormones
that aftect pituitary
Thyroid gland Hypothalamus and pituitary Thymus gland secretes thymosin invoe
levels in body fluids, e.g.,
metabolic rate and calcium in the stimulation and coordination of the
thyroxine, calcitonin, tri-iodothyronine.
immune response.

Right lobe Left lobe

Larynx
(VoIce box
7Septae
Thyroid gland
-Lobule
Parathyroid glands

Trachea (windpipe)
Thymus
Thyroid and parathyroid

Organs with secondary

endocrine functions
Parathyroid glands secrete parathormone
which maintains proper levels of calcium and Heart: Secretes hormones ANF from cells of atia,
phosphorus by regulating renal action. called cardiocytes.
Digestive Tract: Secretes numerous homones
involved in the coordination of system functions
Cortex glucose metabolism and appetite, e.g, gastrin
Medulla secretin, etc.
Kidneys: Secrete hormones that regulate red
blood cell production and the rate of calcum du

Transverse section of phosphate absorption by the intestinal tract, e

Adrenal gland
renin, erythropoietin, calcitriol.

Adrenal glands
Pancreatic duct
secrete hormones Duodenum Islet of Langerhans
involved in
mineral balance,
metabolic Control Ovary
and resistance to
stress, the adrenal Ovary: In Females
medulla releases Tail
epinephrine and Acinar cells
nor-epinephrine Gonads: Secrete Head
and adrenal cortex
Testis- hormones affecting
secretes cortisol, Pancreas
gamete formation and
aldosterone, etc sexual characteristics,
oe.g., estrogen (in Pancreas secretes rmones that regulate
Testis: In Males females), testosterone the rate of glucose uptake and u tilsation D
(in males), etc.
body tissues, e.g, insulin,
glucag
 HD H i g h D e t i i t i o n

Digestion and Absorption

Human Digestive System
Human digestive system comprises of alimentary canal (long tube, 8-10 m) and its associated digestiv glands (salivary, gastric,
pancreatic and intestinal).

Parotid salivary gland

Parotid duct

Teeth
Mouth (Oral cavity)-
Masseter muscle-
Tongue-
longue
Pharynx
Sublingual ducts
Submandibular
Oesophagus- I duct
Liver | Submandibular
salivary qland
Stomach -

Sublingual
Gall bladder Pancreas salivary qland
Duodenum- Positions of different salivary glands
- Transverse colon

Descending colon
Jejunum -Ascending colon
Falciform ligament Left hepatic duct
lleum Caecum
Vermiformappendix Liver Oesophagus
Anal canal Sigmoid Right hepatic
Rectum duct
Anus colon
-Funduss

Serosa Longitudinal musdleMuscularis

Circular muscle externa
Submucosa
Common Body -Stomach
Mucosa
hepatic duct
ystic ductz Common bile duct
Pancreas
Main
Segment of cells Gall bladder pancreatic duct
ejunum magnified Epithelial
Villus
Duodenum-

Microvilli Capillaries Hepatopancreatic ampulla or

Arteriole -Neuron
Ampulla of vater (opening
guarded by sphincter of Oddi)
Microvilli -Venule Liver and its associated structures
Lacteal

Epithelial
cell
wo cells of the villus Lymphatic Artery
Vein Muscularis

epithelium
order or
showing brush vessel
mucosa

mucosal villi
absorptive cells Structure of